THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS AND

BURNOUT IN SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

by
Brandon Morgan
DISSERTATION
submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MAGISTER ARTIUM
in
PSYCHOLOGY
in the
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SUPERVISOR: DR KARINA DE BRUIN
OCTOBER 2008

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Every man I meet is my superior in some way.
In that, I learn of him
Ralph Waldo Emerson

I am deeply indebted to the following people:

Dr. de Bruin, Prof. H.G. Pretorius, Dr. Arndt, Prof. Salanova, Prof. Bakker, Prof.
de Bruin, Ms. Taylor, and Statcon.
A special thank you to all the students for participating in this research. Without
your willingness to respond, this dissertation would not exist.

ABSTRACT
From the conceptualisation of burnout in the 1970s until present day, burnout
has been recognised as a significant problem for both individuals and
organisations. Although originally confined to the helping professions, the notion
that burnout can also occur in university students has recently emerged.
University students experience a myriad of stressors on a daily basis, and may
develop burnout and several of the symptoms of burnout. This in turn may have
deleterious consequences for both the student and the university. With the
recently developed Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey, the examination
of burnout in university students has received increasingly more research
attention. However, the psychometric properties of this instrument has received
limited research attention in South Africa. The relationship between burnout and
personality has also received limited attention, both internationally and in South
Africa. The role of personality in burnout is considered pertinent to a complete
conceptualisation of the antecedents to burnout. Recent research suggests that
Neuroticism and Extroversion tend to consistently demonstrate a relationship
with burnout.
The present study aimed to explore the notion of burnout in university students in
the South African context, relying on the three-factor structure definition of
burnout as forwarded by Maslach and Jackson (1981). These three factors,
namely

emotional

exhaustion,

depersonalisation

and

reduced

personal

accomplishment were complemented with a fourth structure, namely professional

inefficacy, as suggested by Bres, Salanova and Schaufeli (2007) and Schaufeli
and Salanova (2007).
The aim of this study was to explore the psychometric properties of the Maslach
Burnout Inventory - Student Survey, and to investigate the relationship between
the Big Five personality traits and burnout in South African university students (N
= 297). Participants completed the Basic Traits Inventory - Short Form (BTI-SF;

Taylor & de Bruin, 2006), the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey (MBISS; Schaufeli, Martnez, Pinto, Salanova & Bakker, 2002), and a biographical
questionnaire.
In order to examine the reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS, Cronbach
alpha coefficients were determined and confirmatory factor analysis were
performed. The results indicated coefficients of 0.87 for emotional exhaustion,
0.88 for personal accomplishment and 0.78 for professional efficacy. The
confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure of burnout. Only
one item was found to load on two factors.
The relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout was
investigated by means of Pearson product moment correlations, and multiple
regression analyses. The results indicated that Neuroticism demonstrated a
positive relationship with emotional exhaustion (r = 0.343; p <0.01) and
depersonalisation (r = 0.266; p < 0.01) and a negative relationship with
professional efficacy (r = -0.245; p < 0.01). Extroversion was negatively related to
emotional exhaustion (r = -0.129; p < 0.05) and cynicism (r = -0.139; p < 0.05),
and positively related to professional efficacy (r = 0.211; p < 0.01). Openness to
Experience demonstrated a positive relationship with professional efficacy (r =
0.25; p < 0.01). Conscientiousness showed a negative relationship with
emotional exhaustion (r = -0.167; p < 0.01) and cynicism (r = -0.229; p < 0.01)
and a positive relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.44; p < 0.01).
Agreeableness demonstrated a negative relationship with cynicism (r = -0.174; p
< 0.01) and a positive relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.226; p < 0.01).
The multiple regression analyses revealed that the personality traits were able to
predict approximately 13% of the variance in emotional exhaustion (R = 0.133,
F(5, 288) = 8.835, p < 0.001). The personality traits accounted for 12.8% of the
variance in cynicism (R = 0.128, F(5, 288) = 8.480, p < 0.001) and almost 25%
of the variance in professional efficacy (R = 0.248, F(5, 288) = 19.037, p <

0.001). In the presence of the other traits, only Neuroticism was statistically
significantly related to emotional exhaustion ( = 0.316, r = 0.308, t = 5.612, p <
0.001). In regards to cynicism, Neuroticism ( = 0.227, r = 0.221, t = 4.015, p <
0.001) and Conscientiousness ( = -0.180, r = -0.168, t = -3.058, p < 0.005) were
found to be statistically significantly related to the cynicism factor in the presence
of the other traits. Neuroticism ( = -0.157, r = -0.153, t = -3.000, p < 0.005) and
Conscientiousness ( = 0.368, r = 0.343, t = 6.722, p < 0.001) were also found to
be statistically significantly related to professional efficacy in the presence of the
other traits.
The investigation indicated the importance of taking student burnout into account.
Furthermore, the results demonstrated that personality traits are related to
burnout, and thus knowledge of personality traits may assist with preventative
counselling in burnout. The importance of a valid and reliable instrument to
measure burnout in university students was also demonstrated.
Key words: burnout, personality, Big Five, student, psychometric properties,
correlations.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND FRAMEWORK
OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Rationale, problem statement and aim of the study

1.3 Research questions

1.4 Definition of key terms

1.4.1 Stress

1.4.2 Burnout

1.4.3 Engagement

1.4.4 Personality

1.4.5 The five-factor model

1.4.6 Student
1.5 Preview of the contents of the following chapters

10
10

CHAPTER 2: BURNOUT
2.1 Introduction

12

2.2 The historical background of burnout

12

2.3 The three-factor structure of burnout

15

2.4 The development of the burnout dimensions over time

19

2.5 The Maslach Burnout Inventories

20

2.6 Theories and models of burnout

22

2.7 The structural model of burnout

2.7.1 The job demands-resources model

26
27

2.7.1.1 Job demands

29

2.7.1.2 Job resources

31

2.7.1.3 Research evidence of the job demands-resource model

33

2.7.2 Individual factors

36

2.7.2.1 Demographic factors

36

2.7.2.2 Personality factors

38

2.7.2.3 Coping styles

39

2.7.3 Summary of organisational and individual factors leading to burnout 40

2.7.4 The costs of burnout

41

2.7.4.1 The individual level

41

2.7.4.2 Organisational aspects

44

2.8 Stress and burnout in students

45

2.9 Conclusion

52

2.10 Preview of the contents of the following chapter

53

CHAPTER 3: THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY

3.1 Introduction

54

3.2 The trait approach to personality

54

3.3 Historical developments of the trait approach

56

3.3.1 Gordon Allport

58

3.3.2 Raymond Cattell

60

3.3.3 Hans Eysenck

62

3.4 The five-factor model of personality

63

3.5 Research findings and critiques of the five-factor model

65

3.5.1 Heritability and biological basis

66

3.5.2 Stability of traits

67

3.5.3 Cross-cultural studies

68

3.5.4 Factor disagreement

69

3.5.5 Critiques from Mischel

3.6 The five factors

70
71

3.6.1 Neuroticism

71

3.6.2 Extroversion

73

3.6.3 Openness to Experience

74

3.6.4 Agreeableness

76

3.6.5 Conscientiousness

77

3.7 Personality and burnout

79

3.8 Conclusion

86

3.9 Preview of the contents of the following chapter

86

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD

4.1 Introduction

87

4.2 Research design

87

4.2.1 The quantitative research paradigm

87

4.2.2 Descriptive and inferential statistics

88

4.2.3 Survey design and correlational research

88

4.3 Hypotheses

89

4.4 Research method

90

4.4.1 Participants

90

4.4.2 Instruments

94

4.4.2.1 The Basic Traits Inventory - Short Form

94

4.4.2.2 The Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey

96

4.4.2.3 Biographical questionnaire

98

4.4.3 Administration of the questionnaires and procedure

4.5 Data analyses

98
98

4.6 Ethical considerations

100

4.7 Preview of the contents of the following chapter

101

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS
5.1 Introduction

102

5.2 Psychometric properties of the MBI-SS

102

5.2.1 Descriptive statistics of the MBI-SS

102

5.2.2 The reliability coefficients of the MBI-SS

103

5.2.3 Confirmatory factor analysis of the MBI-SS

104

5.2.3.1 Factor rotation

106

5.2.3.2 Correlations of the factors

107

5.2.4 Hypotheses related to the reliability and validity of the MBI-SS

107

5.2.5 Summary of the statistical findings of the MBI-SS

108

5.3 The relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout

108

5.3.1 The correlations between the Big Five personality traits

and burnout
5.3.2 The combined effects of personality traits on burnout

108
111

5.3.3 Hypotheses of the relationship between personality traits

and burnout

115

5.3.4 Summary of the relationship between the Big Five personality traits
and burnout

116

5.4 Conclusion

117

5.5 Preview of the contents of the following chapter

117

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Introduction

118

6.2 Hypotheses

118

6.3 Discussion of the results of the study

119

6.3.1 Discussion of the reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS

119

6.3.2 Discussion of the relationship between the Big Five personality

traits and burnout
6.3.3 Discussion of the predictive effect of the Big Five personality

122

traits on burnout

128

6.4 Limitations and recommendations

131

6.5 Implications of the study

134

6.6 Conclusion

134

References

137

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1

The adapted process model of burnout

Figure 5.1

Cattells screeplot of the eigenvalues of the MBI-SS

27
105

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1

Summary of research findings on factors related to stress

51

and burnout in students

Table 3.1

Summary of research findings on the relationship between

83

burnout and personality traits

Table 4.1

Gender and racial group distribution of participants

91

Table 4.2

Home language distribution of participants

92

Table 4.3

Faculty distribution of participants

93

Table 4.4

Year of study distribution of participants

93

Table 4.5

Part-time work distribution of participants

94

Table 5.1

Mean scores and standard deviations of the MBI-SS

103

Table 5.2

Pattern matrix with oblimin rotation of three-factor solution

106

of MBI-SS items
Table 5.3

Factor correlation matrix

107

Table 5.4

Correlation matrix of the Big Five personality traits and

109

burnout
Table 5.5

Predictive
exhaustion

effect of

personality traits on emotional

111

Table 5.6

Regression weights, t-test and effect sizes in the prediction

112

of emotional exhaustion
Table 5.7

Predictive effect of personality traits on cynicism

113

Table 5.8

Regression weights, t-test and effect sizes in the prediction

113

of cynicism
Table 5.9

Predictive effect of personality traits on professional

114

efficacy
Table 5.10 Regression weights, t-test and effect sizes in the prediction
of professional efficacy

115

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND FRAMEWORK OF THE
STUDY
1.1 Introduction
The relationship that people have with their work and the difficulties that can
arise when that relationship goes awry, have been long recognised as a
significant phenomena of the modern age (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001, p.
398). This phenomenon is known as burnout, and has received much research
attention since the 1970s (Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
Historically, the concept of burnout was conceptualised as occurring in the
human-service fields (Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002;
Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach & Jackson, 1996), with the result that many studies
focused exclusively on these population groups (cf. Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993;
Michie & Williams, 2003). However, it has become clear that burnout also occurs
in contexts beyond the human-service occupations (Bakker, Demerouti &
Schaufeli, 2002; Schaufeli et al., 1996).
Subsumed under this finding is the idea that burnout can also occur in university
students - a notion previously believed to be fallacious (Neumann, FinlayNeumann & Reichel, 1990; Schaufeli, Martnez, Pinto, Salanova & Bakker,
2002). This notion has led to an upsurge of studies examining burnout in the
student population (Gauch, 2006; Mostert, Pienaar, Gauch & Jackson, 2007;
Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Although this field of study
has recently received attention in South Africa, there still appears to be a dearth
of research on burnout, especially in the context of students (Mostert et al., 2007;
Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005; Sieberhagen, 2004).

The foremost inventory to measure burnout is the Maslach Burnout Inventory

(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). However, due to the limited studies examining
burnout in students in South Africa, there is a need for further examinations into
the psychometric properties of the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey,
and the Maslach Burnout Inventory in general (Mostert et al., 2007; Pienaar &
Sieberhagen, 2005; Rothmann, 2003). Mental health professionals have both an
ethical and professional responsibility toward research of psychological tests
used in South Africa (Foxcroft, Roodt & Abrahams, 2005; Health Professions
Council of South Africa, 2002). This responsibility is clearly evidenced by the
Employment Equity Act (1998), which states that no psychometric assessment
measure may be used that is not valid and reliable or that is biased toward a
particular cultural group.
In addition to limited studies examining burnout in South Africa, it appears that
the relationship between personality and burnout has also received a paucity of
research in the South African context (cf. Rothmann, 2003; Storm & Rothmann,
2003). However, this is not unique to South Africa, as it appears that the
relationship between personality and burnout has generally been ignored
(Hochwlder, 2006; Maslach, 1993; Zellars, Perrew & Hochwarter, 2000).
Maslach (1993) contends that her predominant view of burnout from a socialpsychological framework has resulted in limited studies examining the role of
personality in burnout. It appears that little or no research has been conducted
examining the relationship between personality traits and burnout in South
African university students. In light of the aforementioned, the aim of this study is
to examine the psychometric properties of the Maslach Burnout Inventory Student Survey (MBI-SS), as well as to investigate the relationship between the
Big Five personality traits and burnout in a sample of South African university
students. This study will thus contribute to knowledge regarding the psychometric
properties of the MBI-SS, and provide greater insight into the role of personality
in burnout.

1.2 Rationale, problem statement and aim of the study

The archetype of burnout focused on the helping professions and human-service
fields (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980; Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Maslach &
Schaufeli, 1993). Due to this conceptualisation, research has had a proclivity for
exploring burnout in professions such as nursing, psychiatry, physiotherapy,
education and volunteer workers (cf. Lazuras, 2006; Santavirta, Solovieva &
Theorell, 2007; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Wu, Zhu, Wang, Wang & Lan,
2007). A similar trend has emerged in research conducted on burnout in
students; with this research mainly focusing on medical interns and nursing
students (cf. Moffat, McConnachie, Ross & Morrison, 2004; Ried, Motycka,
Mobley & Meldrum, 2006; Willcock, Daly, Tennant & Allard, 2004).
Although many students do not hold formal employment, their student based
activities can be viewed as their job. For example, students are engaged in
structured, coercive activities (e.g. attending classes, completing assignment(s))
that are directed towards a specific goal (i.e. passing exams)) (Bres, Salanova
& Schaufeli, 2007, p. 462; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007). Many students who seek
counselling services may be experiencing several symptoms of the burnout
complex (Jacobs & Dodd, 2003). Furthermore, burnout may also lead to reduced
academic

performance,

impaired

memory

ability,

reduced

self-esteem,

exhaustion, and intentions to drop out of ones studies (Gauch, 2006; Jacobs &
Dodd, 2003; Law, 2007; Meier & Schmeck, 1985; Schaufeli et al., 2002). As early
as in 1981, Pines, Aronson and Kafry (1981) argued that burnout can occur in
students. Several years later, Neumann et al. (1990, pp. 20-21) wrote:
Research on students burnout in colleges may emerge as one of
the promising areas of investigation in higher education for the
following reasons. First, students burnout may be the key for
understanding a wide range of students behaviors during their
college years (for example, attrition, course selection, academic

performance). Second, students burnout may also influence

students

future

relationships

to

their college

(for

example,

commitment to the college and potential contributions as alumni).

Third, the phenomenon of students burnout may affect the general
attractiveness of the college for new students with potential
ramifications for present and future enrolment. Therefore, students
burnout can be an important aspect of college effectiveness that may
have distinct policy implications for institutions of higher learning.
Thus, the study of burnout in students is of paramount importance. Despite the
above-mentioned statement by Neumann et al. (1990), the Maslach Burnout
Inventory - the foremost instrument used in the assessment of burnout (Schaufeli
& Enzmann, 1998) - was only adapted for the student population group in 2002
by Schaufeli et al. (2002). Prior to this adaptation many studies examining
burnout in students would utilise the original Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI),
where certain words such as recipients would be replaced with instructors
(Schaufeli et al., 2002). Schaufeli et al. (2002) argue that this practice is
problematic, as the meaning of an item is altered by these aforesaid
replacements. It appears that in South Africa, there are limited studies exploring
burnout in the student population, and that few studies have made use of the
MBI-SS in this population group (Gauch, 2006; Mostert et al., 2007; Pienaar &
Sieberhagen, 2005; Sieberhagen, 2004). Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005)
mention that their study is the second study globally to explore the psychometric
properties of the MBI-SS, with this statement attesting to the limited studies of
the MBI-SS in South Africa. These aforementioned studies have added much
value to knowledge regarding the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS, and an
understanding of burnout in the South African context. However, there are
several limitations to these studies. These limitations include homogenous
population groups (Afrikaans and Setswana speaking students) and a limited
sample size. As such, there is a clear need for additional cross-cultural research
(Mostert et al., 2007; Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005).

The deleterious ramifications of student burnout as stated by Neumann et al.

(1990) must also be taken into account, and studies are required to examine the
consequences of burnout for university students. This is especially pertinent
when the general individual and organisational consequences of burnout are
considered. For example, at the individual level, burnout is associated with
depression, psycho-somatic complaints, fatigue and poor health. At the
organisational level, burnout may lead to increased absenteeism and job
turnover, decreased productivity and negative attitudes toward the organisation
(Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli, 2003; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). As already
mentioned, Neumann et al. (1990) and Schaufeli et al. (2002) argue that burnout
in the student population may reduce academic performance, foster negative
attitudes toward the university, and result in feelings of general inefficiency with
studies at university. It is thus important to research burnout in this population
group; this however will require a reliable and valid instrument to measure
burnout in South African students, highlighting the importance of further studies
of the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS.
Another emerging area of research in burnout is a focus on the individual factors
in burnout. Subsumed under the individual factors is the relationship between
personality and burnout (Hochwlder, 2006; Kokkinos, 2007; Maslach, 1993;
Shirom, 1989). Burnout was originally conceptualised as a situationally
determined phenomenon (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980; Schaufeli &
Enzmann, 1998). However, there is evidence that burnout is related to
personality (cf. Piedmont, 1993). Personality has been demonstrated to influence
both health related and everyday behaviours, and is also related to an
individuals appraisal of a stressful experience (Booth-Kewley & Vickers, 1994;
Brody & Ehrlichman, 1998; Wu & Clark, 2003). Indeed personality traits are able
to account for approximately 10% of the variance in an individuals behaviour
(Burger, 2008). Hochwlder (2006) argues that personality may thus predispose
individuals to, or act as a buffer against the development of ill health and burnout.
Furthermore, personality constructs may predispose individuals to experience

stress, negative affect and influence coping behaviours (DeLongis & Holtzman,
2005; Lee-Baggley, Preece, & DeLongis, 2005; McCrae & Costa, 1986; Pervin &
John, 2001; Watson & Clark, 1992). As such, it is possible that personality is able
to predict later burnout (cf. Piedmont, 1993). Indeed Bakker, van der Zee, Lewig
and Dollard (2006, p. 32) mention that burnout may differ not only across
situations but also across individuals.
Research into burnout has had a proclivity of exploring organisational factors that
lead to burnout, at the expense of the examination of the role of personality in an
individuals experience of job-related distress (Piedmont, 1993). According to
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) approximately 100 studies have been conducted
on the relationship between personality characteristics and burnout. However,
the majority of these studies have examined factors such as hardiness, locus of
control and the type-A behaviour profile (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). This
statement is 10 years old, but the author was unable to find any studies
mentioning the current situation in regards to the aforementioned statement by
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998). Despite this, Kokkinos (2007) mentions that
studies into the relationship between personality and burnout are still limited.
The Big Five personality factors appear to represent the main underlying
dimensions of personality, and this model is frequently used in the research of
personality in the organisational context (McCrae & John, 1992; Schaufeli &
Enzmann, 1998; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). As already mentioned, personality
traits may influence various factors that predispose individuals to burnout,
including reactions to stressful experiences and coping behaviours (DeLongis &
Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al., 2005; McCrae & Costa, 1986; Piedmont,
1993). Several studies have been conducted on the relationship between the Big
Five personality factors and burnout (cf. Hills, Francis & Rutledge, 2004;
Piedmont, 1993; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). The most consistent findings
concerning the relationship between personality and burnout are demonstrated
by Neuroticism and Extroversion (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002). However, there is

evidence that all five factors are related to burnout. Although various studies
have been conducted on burnout in South Africa (Gauch, 2006; Jordaan,
Spangenberg, Watson & Fouch, 2007; Le Roux, 2004; Rothmann & Malan,
2003; Smith, 1998; Willemse, 2006), it appears that few studies have been
conducted on the role of personality traits and burnout in the South African
context (cf. Rothmann, 2003; Storm & Rothmann, 2003), highlighting the need for
further research into this area.
1.3 Research questions
In light of the above discussion, the following research questions were
formulated:
1.

Is the MBI-SS a valid and reliable instrument for the South African
population?

2.

What is the relationship between personality traits and burnout in South

African university students?

1.4 Definition of key terms

1.4.1 Stress
The concept of stress has multiple meanings (van Dyk, 2005). In literature, stress
has been defined in terms of three broad areas. These broad areas are stress as
a stimulus, response, or interaction (Brannon & Feist, 2004). Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) define stress in terms of an appraisal. According to Lazarus and
Folkman (1984), stress is the product of the relationship between the person and
the environment, and stress occurs when a person appraises a stressful event as
exceeding his or her coping abilities or threatening his or her well-being. This
aforementioned definition is favoured in this research study, as it highlights the

manner in which an individual experiences stress in terms of a relationship

between the self and the unique environment in which he or she exists.
1.4.2 Burnout
The most widely cited definition of burnout is burnout as a syndrome of
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment
that can occur among individuals who do people work of some kind (Maslach &
Jackson, 1981, p. 99). This definition, according to Schaufeli and Buunk (2002),
is a state definition of burnout, as it describes the end process of burnout.
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) conducted an overview of the various proposed
definitions of burnout, and provided a working definition of burnout.
According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, p. 36) burnout is a persistent,
negative, work-related state of mind in normal individuals that is primarily
characterised by exhaustion a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased
motivation, and the development of dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at
work. The definition of burnout in the student population is concomitant with the
definition offered by Maslach and Jackson (1981), in that the three factors of
burnout are included. As such, burnout in the student population is defined as a
three-factor structure in which exhaustion due to study demands, cynical
attitudes toward studies, and feelings of incompetence as a student, occur
(Schaufeli et al., 2002).
1.4.3 Engagement
Historically, psychology has been concerned with the study of negative states
(Duckworth, Steen & Seligman, 2005; Maslach et al., 2001; Seligman, 2003).
This approach has been subject to harsh criticism, particularly with the advent of
salutogenic and fortogenic principles (Antonovsky, 1987; Strmpfer, 2003). In
light of this paradigm shift, the antithesis of burnout, namely engagement, has

received increased research interest (Maslach et al., 2001; Sieberhagen, 2004).

Engagement consists of three factors, namely, vigor, dedication and absorption
(Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzlez-Rom & Bakker, 2002). Engaged individuals
tend to demonstrate a high amount of energy and are generally enthusiastic
about their job (Bakker, in press).
1.4.4 Personality
The field of personality research is interested in consistent patterns of behaviour,
affect and cognition displayed by individuals (Pervin & John, 2001). McAdams
(1995) argues that personality is a multi-faceted structure, and can best be
understood on three levels. These levels are dispositional traits, personal
concerns and the life narrative. According to this view, personality is the product
of stable and enduring traits, motivational and developmental constructs related
to a specific location and role, and individual identity (McAdams, 1995).
1.4.5 The five-factor model
The five-factor model of personality, also known as the Big Five, is based on the
trait approach to personality (McCrae & Costa, 2006). According to McCrae and
Costa (2006), personality can be described in terms of five broad traits which
constitute a complete description of an individuals personality. These five traits
are labelled Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness,
and Conscientiousness (McCrae & Costa, 1991; McCrae & Costa, 2006; McCrae
& John, 1992). These five personality factors tend to remain moderately stable
and enduring throughout adulthood (McCrae & Costa, 1994; McCrae & Costa,
2006).

1.4.6 Student
The term student refers to an individual who is participating in studies, often at a
higher education institution (Thompson, 1998). These studies cover the range of
academic programmes offered by an institution (Schaufeli et al., 2002). In this
research, the focus will be on undergraduate and postgraduate students.
Undergraduate students are those students who have yet to complete the full
course of a three- or four-year degree, whereas post-graduate students have
already completed an undergraduate degree, and are studying toward
specialisation in their respective degrees.
1.5 Preview of the contents of the following chapters
In Chapter 2, a literature review pertaining to burnout is provided. Accordingly,
the literature review focuses on research pertaining to burnout in the
organisational and helping professions contexts, as well as both past and present
research into burnout. An adapted process model of burnout is also presented.
Moreover, an examination of the Maslach Burnout Inventory is provided, as well
as an examination of stress and burnout in student populations.
In Chapter 3, the literature review extends to a discussion of the trait approach to
personality, with particular focus on the five-factor model of personality. In
addition to this, a discussion of the relationship between the personality traits and
burnout is provided.
Chapter 4 provides a description of the research design and method utilised in
the research. This description includes details of the participants, as well as the
statistical methods employed to analyse the obtained data.
In Chapter 5, the findings of the data analyses are reported. This is followed by a
discussion of the results in Chapter 6, as well as suggestions for future directions

10

and interventions in this area of investigation. The limitations of the study are
given, and these are followed by a conclusion.

11

CHAPTER 2
BURNOUT
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the concept of burnout is discussed. The historical context of
burnout is provided, and this is followed by a delineation of the three-factor
structure of burnout. The discussion subsequently explores theoretical models
applied to burnout, and provides an adapted version of a burnout structural
model. Within this model, the antecedents of burnout are discussed, as well as
an examination of the consequences of burnout for the individual and the
organisation provided. This is followed by a discussion of stress and burnout in
the student population. Due to the limited studies exploring burnout in students, a
general discussion of burnout is provided before discussing burnout in students
in specific. The literature review presented in this chapter is based on many
international studies, and thus caution must be used in generalising the results to
the South African population.
2.2 The historical background of burnout
The concept of burnout developed in the 1970s, and emerged as a social
problem rather than as an academic construct (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993;
Maslach et al., 2001). The notion of burnout originated in the professional
occupations; with the result that academia dismissed burnout as pop psychology
and pseudo-science (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993; Maslach et al., 2001). Despite
the relatively modern conceptualisation of the burnout phenomena, many writings
pre-dating the 1970s have alluded to the idea of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001;
Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). For example, in the poem The Passionate Pilgrim
written by William Shakespeare, the following two lines occur, which are

12

attributed to burnout (Enzmann & Kleiber, 1989, p. 18 cited in Schaufeli &

Enzmann, 1998; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
She burnt with love, as straw with fire flameth
She burnt out love, as soon as straw out burneth
In 1953, a case study publication described a psychiatric nurse as experiencing
depression, disappointment, negative attitudes toward others, exhaustion and
disdain toward her clients (Schwartz & Will, 1953 cited in Schaufeli & Enzmann,
1998). According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), this case study closely
resembles the modern conceptualisation of burnout. In addition to this, Greenes
novel, A Burn-Out Case, in 1961 portrays a narrative of a disillusioned and
spiritually anguished architect who leaves his job to travel to the jungles of Africa
(Maslach et al., 2001). In this novel, the protagonist is described as morose,
cynical and disillusioned, retreating to the African jungle due to his feelings of
disenchantment (Greene, 1961; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Thus, it appears
that burnout, as an experience, existed before the conceptualisation of burnout
as a nomenclature (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
The development of burnout occurred in two stages, namely, the pioneering
phase and the empirical phase (Maslach et al., 2001). The pioneering phase is
associated with the appearance of scholarly articles by Freudenberger (1974)
and Maslach (1976 cited in Maslach et al., 2001), in which the notion of burnout
was delineated, and demonstrated to be a common response to the working
environment (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993). Freudenberger,
a psychiatrist by profession, relates his experience of exhaustion and burnout,
after working consistently long hours for several months (Freudenberger &
Richelson, 1980, p. xix):
During the Christmas holiday my wife insisted that we take a
vacation with the children, and much as I hated to be away from the

13

clinic, I felt I should go to make up for all the time I had spent away
from home. My wife made the hotel and plane reservations. All I had
to do the night before we left was pack my own clothes, but when I
dragged myself through the door at 2 [a.m.], I was too exhausted to
do anything except fall into bed. I told my wife that I would pack in the
morning, but in the morning I couldnt get up. We never got to the
airport. I slept for two solid days and ruined the family vacation.
Reflecting on this experience, Freudenberger (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980)
realised that he was experiencing various emotions, including exhaustion, anger,
depression and guilt. This incident, and his observations of volunteers at his
clinic, led Freudenberger to delineate this experience as burnout (Freudenberger
& Richelson, 1980; Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993). During this period, another
researcher, Maslach, who was a social psychology researcher, was examining
the means by which individuals cope with the emotional arousal they experience
at work. These studies led Maslach to discover that this arousal and the
strategies employed to cope with these emotions, impacted on the individuals
identity and organisational behaviour. Describing these findings to an attorney,
the attorney mentioned that this phenomenon is described as burnout by poverty
lawyers (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993). In this way, Maslach is cited as the
protagonist of the social-psychological conceptualisation of burnout, focusing on
the interpersonal, social and organisational factors that result in burnout
(Schaufeli, 2003, p. 2). This is in contrast to Freudenberger, who conceptualised
burnout as a mental disorder, proffering individual charactersitcs such as
dysfunctional personality traits and ineffective coping strategies as causative
agents in the development of burnout (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980;
Schaufeli, 2003).
Following the first publications of articles discussing burnout, a plethora of writing
about burnout occurred, mainly amongst practioners from people-oriented
occupations. However, there were three concerns related to these initial writings.

14

Firstly, the definition of burnout varied widely from writer to writer. Secondly, the
concept of burnout was expanded beyond the original conceptualisation, with
almost every personal problem ascribed to burnout. Thirdly, most of these
writings were non-empirical, employing the use of qualitative research methods
such as interviews and observational studies in understanding the burnout
phenomenon (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993; Maslach & Jackson, 1984 cited in
Schaufeli, 2003; Schaufeli, 2003).
During the 1980s, the empirical phase developed, as pragmatic and constructive
studies on burnout began. This phase witnessed the formation of several
instruments used to measure burnout, the most notable of these being the
Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), which was developed by Maslach and Jackson
in 1981 (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). During this phase,
studies, which were originally confined to the human service occupations, began
to explore burnout in various occupational and non-occupational areas.
Furthermore, various statistical techniques and methodology became available,
allowing correlational and self-report studies. In addition to these developments,
researchers started to examine the relationship between burnout and individuals
thoughts and affect over time (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993).
During the pioneering and empirical phases, evidence of core underlying
dimensions in the burnout phenomena were discovered (Maslach et al., 2001;
Maslach & Jackson, 1981).
2.3 The three-factor structure of burnout
The term burnout has been defined as a three-factor structure, consisting of
emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced professional efficacy
(Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996a). Several versions of the MBI have replaced
depersonalisation with cynicism, referring to an indifferent and distant attitude
toward work. In addition, personal accomplishment has been changed to
professional efficacy, allowing a broader focus that encompasses both social and

15

non-social aspects of the work environment. These alterations are fundamentally

due to the broadening of the burnout construct beyond the human-service fields
(Maslach, 1993; Maslach et al., 1996a; Schaufeli et al., 1996). A complete
discussion of the various MBI inventories, as well as their subscales, is provided
in section 2.5. Due to the aforementioned factors, this literature review uses
depersonalisation and cynicism, and personal accomplishment and professional
efficacy interchangeably, each time the focus being on these terms as factors of
the burnout construct rather than implying their literal definition.
As previously mentioned, burnout consists of three factors, namely, emotional
exhaustion, cynicism and personal accomplishment (Maslach et al., 1996a).
Emotional exhaustion describes the individual stress level of burnout, and refers
to feelings of being emotionally overextended and having depleted resources.
Cynicism/depersonalisation is used to describe the interpersonal component of
burnout. Depersonalisation refers to a negative, callous and detached response
toward other people, whereas cynicism refers to an indifferent and distant
attitude toward work. Reduced personal accomplishment/professional efficacy
refers to feelings of incompetency and lack of success and productivity at work
(Maslach, 1993; Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Jackson, 1996; Schaufeli et al.,
1996).
Several researchers have argued against the three-factor structure of burnout,
suggesting that burnout should rather be conceptualised as a unidimensional
construct in which exhaustion is the central facet (Freudenberger & Richelson,
1980; Maslach, 1993; Shirom, 1989). For example, Shirom (1989) arguing on the
concurrent and discriminant validity of burnout, argues that emotional exhaustion
is the only unique experience to the burnout phenomenon, and that
depersonalisation and personal accomplishment are more likely related to
personality.

16

Despite these arguments, Maslach (1993) contends that the research evidence
supports the three-factor structure of burnout. For example, Byrne (1993) made
use of confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses, and found supporting
evidence for the three dimensions of the MBI. Evans and Fischer (1993) tested
the three-factor model in the human-service and non-human service fields, and
found support for a three-factor structure in the human service sample. However,
in the non-human service sample, only a two-factor model was established, in
which depersonalisation was not completely found, providing some support for
the unidimensional model of burnout. This finding is of interest, as the MBI was
developed for the helping professions, an argument also proposed by Garden
(1987) and as such, the question is raised as to the three-factor validity outside
of these professions (Garden, 1987; Maslach & Jackson, 1981).
However, Evans and Fischer (1993) argue that the finding of a two-factor
structure in the non-human service sample should be interpreted with caution,
as there are non-human service working environments in which interpersonal
contact is important, for example, in the sales occupation. However, Evans and
Fischer did not test this hypothesis in their study. Many studies have
subsequently demonstrated the three-factor model in a variety of non-human
service occupational groups (cf. Bakker et al., 2002; Le Roux, 2004; Leiter &
Schaufeli, 1996; Taris, Schreurs & Schaufeli, 1999). In the student population,
there is evidence that the three-factor structure exists (Lingard, Yip, Rowlinson &
Kvan, 2007). Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005) also found support for the threefactor structure in their sample of South African university students, albeit, their
sample consisted of student leaders, and thus, the argument by Garden (1987)
and Evans and Fischer (1993) can again be raised.
Maslach (1993) argues against the use of a unidimensional model of burnout.
According to Maslach (1993), removing depersonalisation and personal
accomplishment eliminates the aspects of the relationship with others, and
relationship with self, which are fundamental to the burnout experience. Maslach

17

(1993) further argues that the multidimensional view is not opposed to the unitary
view, but that it rather adds to this view. In addition, methodological flaws may
account for the dominance of emotional exhaustion in burnout research.
According to Maslach (1993), emotional exhaustion tends to be predominant in
the theorising around burnout, and therefore, studies tend to focus exclusively on
this factor, resulting in the demonstration of a significant relationship with
burnout. However, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment tend to be
only studied as an afterthought, resulting in the perceived unimportance of these
two factors in the definition of burnout. In addition, if emotional exhaustion is
solely used in the conceptualisation of burnout, and as such, becomes a
synonym for stress, burnout research has only replicated what is already known,
i.e. stress under the pretext of a new label of burnout. Thus, limiting burnout to a
unidimensional model of exhaustion will result in the reduction of burnout to
experienced stress (Maslach, 1993). Leiter (1993) concurs, stating that
conceptual clarity of the burnout construct will be lost if the unidimensional model
is used.
Recently Salanova et al. (2005) argued that burnout should be conceptualised as
a

four-dimensional

model.

According

to

Salanova

et

al.

(2005),

the

depersonalisation scale and cynicism scale should both be factors in burnout. In

their study, sampling teachers and blue collar workers, the authors found that
depersonalisation and cynicism are two separate concepts, and is this way,
cynicism and depersonalisation each contribute to burnout. Further studies are
required to verify or refute this notion (Salanova et al., 2005). In addition to this
argument, the reduced professional efficacy factor has also come under review
(Bres et al., 2007; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007).
According to Bres et al. (2007) and Salanova and Schaufeli (2007), the
positively framed efficacy scale of the MBI should rather be conceptualised as a
negatively formulated inefficacy scale. Schaufeli and Salanova (2007, p. 178)
contend that [t]he role of lack of efficacy in the burnout syndrome is rather

18

peculiar, both from a conceptual and empirical point of view. The authors argue
that exhaustion and depersonalisation are the core symptoms of burnout, and
that professional efficacy appears to be related to engagement (Bres et al.,
2007; Salanova & Schaufeli, 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2002). In this way, Bres et
al. (2007) and Salanova and Schaufeli (2007) contend that professional
inefficacy demonstrates a better fit with the burnout conceptualisation, and that
this scale is better able to capture the actual meaning of burnout.
2.4 The development of the burnout dimensions over time
Closely

associated to

the

argument

over

the

multidimensional

and

unidimensional model of burnout, is the development of burnout over time.

Several models have been suggested to explain the development of the three
core dimensions of burnout (Leiter, 1993; Shirom 1989). In this section, three
central arguments are presented.
Leiter and Maslach (1988) argue that emotional exhaustion is the first response
to emotional stressors arising from the work environment. The emotional
exhaustion subsequently leads to depersonalisation as the individual attempts to
cope with these feelings by emotionally distancing him- or herself from service
recipients. Due to depersonalisation, the individual may evaluate him- or herself
less positively, and begin to experience reduced success at work, resulting in
reduced professional efficacy. In this way, emotional exhaustion is argued only to
lead to reduced personal accomplishment if depersonalisation is also evident
(Leiter & Maslach, 1988).
In contrast to this view, is Golembiewski and Munzenriders (1988) phase model,
in which depersonalisation is argued to lead to diminished personal
accomplishment and subsequently emotional exhaustion. As such, the authors
argue that depersonalisation occurs first, resulting in limited ability to complete
work goals, leading to a reduced sense of personal efficacy at work. This results

19

in a sense of limited success at work, leading to emotional exhaustion

(Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1988). Leiter (1989) critiques this view of burnout,
arguing there is limited empirical evidence available to support the phase
approach, and that this approach reduces burnout to a unidimensional model of
emotional exhaustion.
Leiter (1993) proposes a developmental model to explain the relationship
between the MBI subscales. According to this model, demanding aspects of the
environment, such as workload and personal conflict, intensify experiences of
exhaustion. This, in turn, leads to increased depersonalisation. Personal
accomplishment, however, is the product of resources, such as social support. In
this way, the model postulates that emotional exhaustion and personal
accomplishment develop parallel to one another, as they are each a factor of
different aspects of the work environment (Leiter, 1993). This model is similar to
the job demands-resources model (JD-R; Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner &
Schaufeli, 2001), which is discussed in section 2.7.1.
2.5 The Maslach Burnout Inventories
The literature review has progressed from a definition of the three factors of
burnout, to providing three models of the development of burnout over time. In
this section, an exploration of the various MBI inventories is provided to enhance
the readers understanding of the MBI inventories for the remainder of the
literature review. Although other measures exist to measure burnout, such as the
Burnout Measure (Pines & Aronson, 1988) and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory
(Demerouti & Bakker, in press), this research is concerned with the MBI
(Maslach et al., 1996a). For this reason, only the MBI inventories are discussed.
Four versions of the MBI have been developed; the Maslach Burnout Inventory Human Service Survey (MBI-HSS; Maslach & Jackson, 1996), the Maslach
Burnout Inventory - Educators Survey (MBI-ES; Maslach, Jackson & Schwab,

20

1996b), the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS; Schaufeli et

al., 1996), and the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey (MBI-SS;
Schaufeli et al., 2002). The MBI-HSS was developed in response to burnout in
the human service fields and health care settings (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach
& Jackson, 1981). Maslach and Jackson (1996) contend that the human service
occupations are generally client-orientated, in which a great quantity of time is
allocated toward client contact.

This contact is often focused on problems

experienced by the client. The solution to these problems, if such a solution

exists, may not be apparent, resulting in frustration. The consequent stressors in
these environments may lead to burnout (Maslach & Jackson, 1996). The
subscale measures of the MBI-HSS are emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation
and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach &
Jackson, 1996).
The educational field is similarly fraught with augmented levels of client contact
(Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach et al., 1996b; Schaufeli, 2003). Maslach et al.
(1996b) contend that in recent years, the education profession has experienced
changing roles. Educators are required to become more than teachers, solving
social problems and facilitating ethical and moral development in their students.
These factors have resulted in increased work pressure, and consequently, many
educators have left the teaching profession or developed burnout (Maslach et al.,
1996b). In light of this, the MBI-ES was developed. Analogous to the MBI-HSS,
the MBI-ES subscale measures are emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach et al., 1996b;
Maslach & Jackson, 1996).
The MBI-GS was developed in response to two concerns with the available MBI
instruments. Firstly, research has demonstrated that burnout extends beyond the
human service fields (Demerouti et al., 2001; Maslach et al., 2001). Secondly,
the MBI-HSS and MBI-ES could only be administered to their target population
groups, with population groups outside of the human service and educational

21

context compromising the psychometric properties of these instruments (Evans &

Fischer, 1993; Schaufeli, 2003). The fundamental difference between the MBIGS and the two aforementioned versions of the MBI is that the MBI-GS does not
focus on the service relationship, but rather on performance in the work context
(Schaufeli, 2003; Schaufeli et al., 1996). The three subscales of the MBI-GS are
exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy (Schaufeli et al., 1996).
More recently, Schaufeli et al. (2002) developed the Maslach Burnout Inventory Student Survey, which is a modified version of the MBI-GS. In this version, items
that refer to the work context have been adjusted to correspond with the
academic context. For example, terms such as work were rephrased as study.
This instrument was developed in response to the notion that burnout extends to
the student population (cf. Neumann et al., 1990). The three subscales of the
MBI-SS are emotional exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy (Schaufeli
et al., 2002). Recently a professional inefficacy scale was added to the MBI-SS
(Bres et al., 2007; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007). A thorough discussion of the
MBI-SS, used as the research instrument in this study, is provided in Chapter 4.
2.6 Theories and models of burnout
A myriad of theories have been postulated as explanations of burnout. However,
a single global theory of burnout does not exist. Rather, burnout has been
hypothesised as resulting from four distinct levels, each of which comprises
several theoretical approaches (Schaufeli, 2003). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998)
provide an overview of the various models that apply to burnout. A concern with
the development of the models however is that [i]nitially, most theorising [about
burnout] was rather speculative and eclectic, borrowing concepts from various
psychological theories (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998, p. 101). Despite this
concern, modern researchers are attempting to understand the phenomenon of
burnout. However, a comprehensive theoretical framework for burnout is still
lacking (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998, p. 101).

22

Four approaches to burnout exist, namely, the individual approach, interpersonal

approach, organisational approach and societal approach (Schaufeli, 2003;
Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). In this section, an overview, as presented by
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002), is briefly expounded
upon to assist the reader in conceptualising the burnout construct.
The individual approach focuses on factors and processes found within the
person, and makes use of a variety of psychological theories such as the
psychodynamic theory and learning theory. However, these approaches are
generally not empirically supported (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). According to
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), models that are postulated under this approach
include burnout as a failure to retain ones idealised self-image (Freudenberger &
Richelson, 1980), burnout as progressive disillusionment (Edelwich & Brodsky,
1980), burnout as a pattern of wrong expectations (Meier, 1983), burnout as a
disturbed action pattern (Burisch, 1993; 1989 cited in Schaufeli & Enzmann,
1998), burnout as a loss of resources (Hobfall & Freedy, 1993; Hobfall & Shirom,
1993), burnout as a narcissistic disorder (Fischer, 1983), burnout as an
imbalance between conscious and unconscious functions (Garden, 1991 cited in
Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998) and burnout as an existential quest (Pines, 1993).
According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, p. 113):
Virtually all individual approaches emphasise that a strong
conscious or unconscious motivation (to help), including highly
valued goals, expectations, and aspirations, is a necessary condition
for the emergence of burnout. Furthermore, these approaches
assume that these individual psychological characteristics often do
not match the professionals experiences on the job. So a mismatch
between intentions and reality exists. As a result of this poor fit, job
stress occurs that may eventually lead to burnout when inadequate
coping strategies are adopted and/or when the appropriate individual
or organisational coping resources are lacking.

23

The interpersonal approach examines interactions in the workplace to ascertain

their relevance in the development of burnout. However, as with the individual
approach, empirical evidence does not completely support these models
(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) the
models postulated under the interpersonal approach include burnout as a lack of
social competence (Harrison, 1983), burnout as emotional overload (Maslach,
1993), burnout as a lack of reciprocity (Buunk & Schaufeli, 1993), burnout as an
emotional contagion (Rountree, 1984 cited in Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998) and
burnout as an emotional labour (Hochschild, 1983). According to Schaufeli and
Enzmann (1998, p. 127):
Some interpersonal approaches describe burnout as a result of
lacking social competence or as a sequential multifaceted reaction to
emotional overload. Other approaches try to explain the development
of burnout by pointing to underlying psychological processes such as
social exchange (i.e. lack of reciprocity), emotional contagion, or
emotional labour. In contrast to most individual approaches,
interpersonal approaches are, at least partly, supported by empirical
evidence.
The organisational approach consists of three models (Schaufeli & Enzmann,
1998). The three approaches, according to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) are
burnout as a reality shock (Cherniss, 1980a; 1980b), burnout as a virulent
process (Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1988) and burnout as a mismatch
between person and job (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). Schaufeli and Enzmann
(1998, p. 135) state:
Despite large differences the three approaches agree that similar
organisational factors (e.g. qualitative and quantitative job demands,
lack of autonomy or control, lack of rewards, incongruent institutional
goals or values, and lack of social support or community) are

24

important correlates of burnout. Moreover, they point to the fact that

burnout has not only negative effects for the individual but that it is
also detrimental for the organisation in terms of lowered productivity
and efficiency, and poor quality of service.
The societal approach conceptualises burnout as a broader societal concern that
extends beyond the individual and organisational factors. Thus, burnout is
viewed in relation to the societal and cultural level (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), the three models that make up this
approach include burnout as alienation (Karger, 1981), burnout as a discrepancy
between surface and latent functions of organisation (Handy, 1988), and burnout
as a cultural product (Meyerson, 1994). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, p. 139)
write:
Societal approaches to burnout highlight the role of objective
structural and cultural determinants that exist irrespective of the
individuals subjective interpretation of reality. Another common
feature is their transactional or dialectical nature; workers are not
considered to be passive victims but are active agents who,
individually and collectively, shape their own working and living
conditions that may or may not contribute to burnout.
Three recent models that have conceptualised burnout include the job demandsresources model (JD-R; Demerouti et al., 2001), the comprehensive burnout and
engagement model (COBE; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004), which is an extension of
the JD-R model and incorporates engagement, health impairment and
organisational withdrawal and the areas of work life model (Leiter & Maslach,
2004; Leiter & Schaughnessy, in press). The areas of worklife model derives
from a summary of research on the aetiology of burnout (Maslach & Leiter, 1997
cited in Leiter & Schaughnessy, in press). The six areas are workload, control,
reward, community, fairness and values. The model argues that burnout and

25

engagement exist at opposite poles to each other on a continuum of energy,

involvement and efficacy (Leiter & Maslach, 2004; Leiter & Schaughnessy, in
press). The author will not provide a full account of the areas of worklife model or
the COBE model as engagement is not an essential component of this research
dissertation. The subsequent section discusses an adapted form of the process
model of burnout, as conceptualised by Maslach et al. (1996a). The JD-R model
is discussed under the process model of burnout.
2.7 The structural model of burnout
The structural model presented by Maslach et al. (1996a) consists of three
aspects, being lack of resources and job demands as leading to burnout, with
subsequent costs for the individual. The model presented in this section is an
adapted version of this model. This adapted burnout model (see Figure 2.1),
referred to here forth as the adapted model, similarly consists of an integration of
three aspects, namely, the JD-R model, individual factors resulting in burnout,
and the subsequent individual and organisational costs of burnout. This adapted
model is considered pertinent to the study, as it provides an account of
organisational and individual factors related to burnout, as well as providing an
exploration of the consequences of burnout for the individual and organisation.
The structural model as forwarded by Maslach et al. (1996a) does not provide an
account of individual factors such as biographical and personality factors as
antecedents of burnout. However, research has unequivocally provided evidence
of the importance of individual factors in burnout (cf. Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998;
Maslach et al., 2001), and as such, the exclusion of this element by Maslach et
al. (1996a) may retract from a complete account of the burnout process. Many
individual factors may be subsumed under the JD-R model. However, for the
purpose of this dissertation, individual factors are removed from the JD-R model,
and placed into a separate concept, namely, the individual factors in burnout.
Thus, the model as presented in this dissertation provides an overview of the

26

organisational factors (incorporated into the JD-R model) and personal factors
(individual factors) that serve as antecedents to burnout, in order to enhance the
conceptual clarity of burnout for the reader.

Job DemandsResources

Individual
Characteristics

Emotional Exhaustion
Depersonalisation
Professional Efficacy

Costs

Individual

Organisational

Figure 2.1. The adapted process model of burnout. From The Maslach Burnout
Inventory Manual (p. 36), by C. Maslach, S.E. Jackson & M.P. Leiter (1996). Palo
Alto, CA. Consulting Psychologists Press.
2.7.1 The job demands-resources model
The JD-R model divides the working environment into two separate categories,
each of which is related to a specific outcome (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner &
Schaufeli, 2000; Demerouti et al., 2001). These two categories are job demands

27

and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). Job demands are defined as those
physical, social, or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained
physical or mental effort and are therefore associated with certain physiological
and psychological costs (Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 501). Job demands consist
of various facets, including physical workload, time pressure, contact with clients,
the physical environment and shift work, with various other demands existing
(Demerouti et al., 2001).
Job demands result in strain and stress, as postulated by Karaseks (1979) job
demand-control model (Demerouti et al., 2001). The theory underlying both the
JD-R model and the job demand-control model proposes that burnout is a
product of excessive job demands coupled with diminished job resources
(Rothmann & Joubert, 2007). However, unlike the job demand-control model,
which suggests that job demands and decision latitude (job control) are able to
predict mental strain, the JD-R model suggests that various characteristics
beyond workload demands and decision latitude cause stress and burnout. Thus,
the JD-R model is favoured in this literature review, as it provides new insights
into the working conditions that lead to burnout and because it can be applied to
various contexts (Demerouti et al., 2000; Karasek, 1979; Lewig, Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Dollard & Metzer, 2007; Llorens, Bakker, Schaufeli & Salanova, 2006).
Job resources are defined as those physical, psychological, social, or
organisational aspects of the job that may do any of the following: (a) be
functional in achieving work goals; (b) reduce job demands at the associated
physiological and psychological costs; (c) stimulate personal growth and
development (Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 501). According to Bakker and
Demerouti (2006) and Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti and Schaufeli (2007),
these job resources are similar to the conservation of resources model (COR;
Hobfall & Freedy, 1993). The COR model proposes that individuals are motivated
to obtain and maintain resources. Thus, when circumstances in the organisation
prevent the attainment of resources, stress ensues. In this way, work stress

28

occurs when an individuals resources are threatened, lost, or when an

investment of resources fails to produce an anticipated level of return in
resources (Hobfall & Freedy, 1993). Job resources are thus deemed important in
their own right, and as a means of achieving other valued resources (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2006). Job resources are located at various levels in the organisation,
including the way in which the work is organised, the level of interpersonal and
social relationships, and the task level (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006).
According to the JD-R model, burnout is a two-phase process (Demerouti et al.,
2001). Job demands function as a health impairment process, in which chronic
job demands result in the depletion of emotional and physical resources, and
consequently exhaustion (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Demerouti et al., 2000;
Demerouti et al., 2001; Leiter, 1993). Job resources are motivational in nature, as
it encourages employee growth, learning and development (Bakker & Demerouti,
2006; Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2003). According to this model, this first
phase occurs when excessive work demands overtax an individual, resulting in a
depletion of energy and subsequent exhaustion. The second phase arises when
limited job resources prevent the achievement of job demands, resulting in
withdrawal from work and subsequent disengagement (Demerouti et al., 2001).
Thus, the JD-R model proposes that job demands are positively related to
exhaustion, and job resources are negatively related to disengagement
(Demerouti et al., 2000; Demerouti et al., 2001).
In the subsequent section, various job demands and job resources will be
presented. Conceptual links between these demands and resources, and
students phenomenological experience are presented in section 2.8.
2.7.1.1 Job demands
Many studies have provided evidence that job demands are related to
augmented experiences of stress and burnout (cf. Agius, Blenkin, Deary, Zealley

29

& Wood, 1996; Karasek, 1979; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Karaseks (1979, p.
287) job demand-control model suggests that psychological strain results not
from a single aspect of the work environment, but from the joint effects of the
demands of a work situation and the range of decision-making freedom
(discretion) available to the worker facing those demands. Workload, a
quantitative component of job demands, has been the topic of many studies (cf.
Deary, Blenkin, Agius, Endler, Zealley & Wood, 1996; Schaufeli & Enzmann,
1998). Quantitative job demands refer to as having an excessive workload that
must be completed in a limited amount of time (Maslach et al., 2001). Research
has established that workload is associated with increased stress, mental strain
and burnout (Agius et al. 1996; Arsenault, Dolan & van Ameringen, 1991; Deary
et al., 1996; Embriaco, Azoulay et al., 2007; Lindholm, 2006).
Michie and Williams (2003), conducting a review of the literature of work related
psychological ill health, found that work demands, such as long hours of working,
augmented workload and job pressure, are associated with psychological ill
health. These findings are in accordance with the job demand-control model
(Karasek, 1979; Michie & Williams, 2003). Santavirta et al. (2007) made use of
the job-demand control model (Karasek, 1979) and found that augmented job
demands, coupled with reduced job control, was related to burnout in their
sample of educators in Finland. In addition to these findings, there is evidence
that heavy workload and time pressure is related to emotional exhaustion
(Maslach et al., 2001; Rothmann & Joubert, 2007). Studies conducted in South
Africa (Jackson, Rothmann & van de Vijver, 2006; Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005;
Rothmann & Essenko, 2007; Rothmann & Joubert, 2007) support these findings,
establishing that workload, including the amount of work that has to be
completed and the pace of the workload, is positively related to emotional
exhaustion. Qualitative job demands, including role conflict and role ambiguity,
demonstrate a relationship with burnout. Role conflict is the product of conflicting
demands at work. Role ambiguity refers to a lack of sufficient information to
perform a job competently (Maslach et al., 2001). It appears that role conflict may

30

lead to a conflict in goals and behaviours, whereas role ambiguity may prevent
the development of relevant goals (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Cherniss
(1980b) argues that occupations with high levels of role conflict and ambiguity,
and low levels of autonomy and variety, are likely to result in stress and burnout.
Shift-work has similarly been shown to have a relationship with burnout, in
addition to be related to health risks, reducing the quality of relationships in the
family, and increasing fatigue (Davis, Crouter & McHale, 2006; Demerouti,
Geurts, Bakker & Euwema, 2004; Ellingsen, Bener & Gehani, 2007; Jansen, van
Amelsvoort, Kristensen, van den Brandt & Kant, 2003). There is evidence that
shift work affects the individuals physiological, psychological and social wellbeing (Fenwick & Tausig, 2001). In addition, shift-work has been related to
reduced job commitment and satisfaction, increased work-home conflict, and
augmented exhaustion, cynicism and absenteeism (Demerouti et al., 2004;
Koustelios, 2001).
2.7.1.2 Job resources
Job resources, which have only recently started receiving research attention,
have been demonstrated to have an important relationship with well-being at
work (Maslach et al., 2001; Demerouti et al., 2001). The job resources that have
been subject to most studies are social support and supervisor support (Maslach
et al., 2001). Support from a supervisor, and the relationship an employee has
with a supervisor, appears to reduce the influence of strain resulting from job
demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006). For example, Mena (2000) found that the
relationship between a supervisor and employee is related to increased job
satisfaction. Moreover, the study demonstrated that there is a negative
relationship between perceived support from a supervisor and burnout (Mena,
2000). Leiter and Maslach (1988) found that disagreeable contact with
supervisors

is

positively

related

to

emotional

exhaustion.

In

addition,

organisational commitment, role conflict, job satisfaction, augmented stress, and

31

burnout may result from unpleasant supervisor contact (Behson, 2005; Leiter &
Maslach, 1988; Schirmer & Lopez, 2001).
Leiter and Maslach (1988) argue that social support received from a supervisor
can be differentiated from social support received from colleagues. Social
support from colleagues typically consists of friendship, assistance and comfort
(Maslach & Leiter, 1988). Several studies have demonstrated the importance of
social support in coping with stress and reducing burnout (cf. Maslach & Leiter,
1988). Social support has been variously defined (Brannon & Feist, 2004).
Brannon and Feist (2004) define social support as the material and emotional
support that an individual receives from others. Social support can be divided into
two broad categories, namely, structural and functional social support. Structural
social support is concerned with an individuals network of social relationships,
whereas functional social support is related to the quality of these relationships
with others (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Davison, Neale & Kring, 2004).
AbuAlRub (2004), sampling nurses, found that the perception of social support
received from colleagues reduced experiences of stress. Similarly, Viswesvaren,
Sanchez and Fisher (1999) demonstrated that social support reduced feelings of
job strain and the intensity of stressors. Allen, McManus and Russel (1999)
explored the role of peer mentoring in job strain. The study found that employees
who received peer mentoring reported improved work relationships with other
employees at the workplace, allowing these employees to experience enhanced
connectedness to others. In addition, individuals who received peer mentoring
claimed that the mentors assisted them in coping with work-induced stress (Allen
et al., 1999). Social support has also been found to reduce experiences of
burnout. For example, Boyle, Grap, Younger and Thornby (1991), making use of
the Staff Burnout Scale for Health Professionals (Jones, 1982b cited in Boyle et
al., 1991) and the House and Wells Social Support Scale (House, 1981) on a
sample of nurses, found that social support received from work and non-work
sources were significantly related to burnout. However, social support received

32

from work accounted for a better predictor of burnout than did non-work sources
of social support. Similarly, Halbesleben and Buckley (2006), making use of the
MBI with a sample of Roman Catholic priests and working adults, found that
social support from colleagues was able to predict later emotional exhaustion
and cynicism.
Other job resources, such as organisational support, opportunities for growth and
advancement, and job information and control, are related to burnout (Jackson et
al., 2006; Maslach et al., 2001). There is evidence that limited job feedback may
increase experiences of burnout, and that individuals who have limited decisionmaking opportunities may have an increased susceptibility to burnout. Reduced
job autonomy is similarly related to increased experiences of burnout (Maslach,
et al., 2001). Bakker, Demerouti and Euwema (2005) argue that feedback from
work may reduce work-home interference (the inter-role conflict in which
pressures from work conflict with family life), worry, and emotional exhaustion.
2.7.1.3 Research evidence for the job demands-resources model
Numerous studies have examined, and provided support for the JD-R model (cf.
Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Bakker et al. (2003),
sampling workers in call centres, found that job demands produce a depletion of
energy and leads to increased health problems and absenteeism. Moreover, the
study found evidence for a positive relationship between job resources and
improved health (Bakker et al., 2003). Lewig et al. (2007), sampling ambulance
officer volunteers in Australia, similarly demonstrated that job demands have a
deleterious consequence on health. In addition, Lewig et al. (2007) demonstrated
that job demands are related to burnout, and job resources are related to
connectedness. In this study, work-home interference was related to the JD-R
model, with volunteers experiencing interference in their home life from voluntary
duty been more likely to develop burnout. Conversely, support and a sense of

33

autonomy from the work environment increased the volunteers willingness to

remain at work (Lewig et al., 2007).
Jansen, Peeters, de Jonge, Houkes and Tummers (2004) also found a
relationship between job demands and resources, and work-home interference.
In this study, job demands were found to disrupt work-home balance. Thus,
individuals who experience increased job demands may have less time to
manage home affairs, and limited leisure time, resulting in exhaustion. Jansen et
al. (2004) further demonstrated that there is an association between job
demands and social support, and that social support is related to job satisfaction
and reduced emotional exhaustion. Demerouti et al. (2000) likewise found that
access to job resources, such as feedback, task variety and social support is
able to predict later disengagement in a sample of nurses.
Bakker, Demerouti and Verbeke (2004) found that job demands were able to
predict in-role job performance (those activities required to perform the job), and
that job resources were able to predict extra-role performance (those activities
that augment the collective nature of the organisation). Increased job demands
were found to have a negative relationship with in-role job performance, whereas
job resources were positively related to extra-role performance (Bakker et al.,
2004). Bakker et al. (2004) also demonstrated that job resources are negatively
related to exhaustion, therefore, reduced job resources may lead to exhaustion.
However, the authors found that job resources did not act as a buffer between
job demands and exhaustion (Bakker et al., 2004). This finding was in contrast to
Bakker et al. (2005) who found that job resources such as autonomy, social
support from colleagues and ones supervisor, and feedback, buffered the impact
of work overload on exhaustion. Thus, high demands were not necessarily found
to result in burnout if job resources were in place (Bakker et al., 2005).
Studies have provided evidence for the applicability of the JD-R model to the
South African population. Jackson et al. (2006), sampling educators in the NorthWest Province, found that both job demands and resources are related to

34

burnout. Rothmann and Essenko (2007) similarly established that the JD-R
model held up for staff members at a higher education institution in the NorthWest Province. Rothmann and Joubert (2007) also provide evidence for the JD-R
model in the South African population. In their sample of management-level
employees at a platinum mine in the North-West Province, Rothmann and
Joubert (2007) found that job demands and job resources are related to burnout.
Bakker and Demerouti (2006, p. 12), providing an overview of the JD-R model,
argue that empirical evidence supports the JD-R model and write:
When both job demands and resources are high, we expect
employees to develop strain and motivation while when both are low
we expect the absence of strain and motivation. Consequently, the
high demands-low resources condition should result in high strain and
low motivation while the low demands-high resources condition should
have as a consequence low strain and high motivation.
The structural model as postulated by Maslach et al. (1996a) conceptualises
burnout as a product of lack of resources and increased job demands. In this
model, job demands refer to work overload and personal conflict, whereas lack of
resources refers to diminished control coping, social support, autonomy, and
decision involvement (Maslach et al., 1996a). The JD-R model is thus able to
capture elements of both these aspects, and provide a clear model of job
demands and job resources that result in burnout. Although students are not in
the organisational environment, many experiences at university may be similar to
this environment; these include increased workload, time pressures, lack of
support from faculty staff, and negative social relationships (cf. Cushman & West,
2006; Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005). A full exposition of factors related to stress
in students is provided in section 2.8.

35

2.7.2 Individual factors

Individual factors have been postulated as important in the development of
burnout. Kokkinos (2007) argues that burnout is the product of organisationalenvironmental factors, and personal factors. Maslach et al. (2001) contend that
each person has unique factors that interact with the environment in the
development of burnout. These factors include personality characteristics, workattitudes, coping styles and demographic factors. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998)
classify individual charactersitcs, including personality factors and biographical
aspects, as important components of burnout. Cherniss (1980b, p. 127) aptly
writes, [a]n analysis of burnout would be incomplete if these individual factors
were not considered. For these reasons, individual characteristics are
considered important factors in the development of burnout. In this section,
various individual factors that are related to burnout are discussed. These factors
include demographic factors, personality and coping styles. Various other factors
can be considered under individual factors that are related to burnout. In order to
provide a succinct overview of individual factors related to burnout the literature
review desists from providing an in-depth exploration of every individual factor.
2.7.2.1 Demographic factors
Age appears to demonstrate an important role in the development of burnout.
Overall, the evidence suggests that younger employees may experience burnout
more often than older employees do (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). For example,
Bilge (2006), Tomic, Tomic and Evers (2004) and Kilfedder, Power and Wells
(2001) found that younger employees tend to experience greater levels of
burnout than do middle-aged employees. More specifically, it appears that
younger employees are more likely to experience depersonalisation than older
employees are (Kilfedder et al., 2001). Bakker et al. (2002), conducting an
internet based study, demonstrated that across several occupational groups
burnout tends to occur amongst younger staff members. These findings highlight

36

an area of concern for students, as students are generally young and

inexperienced, especially when entering the working world. However, Schaufeli
and Enzmann (1998) caution that survival bias must be taken into account.
According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), survival bias may result in
individuals who generally have reduced experiences of burnout remaining at
work, whereas those individuals who tend to experience augmented levels of
burnout leaving work at an early age. Thus, survival bias may distort the results
obtained from studies (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
Gender has demonstrated a consistent relationship with burnout. Most studies
suggest that women score higher on emotional exhaustion and men higher on
depersonalisation (Bakker et al., 2002; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). This finding
was demonstrated by Maslach and Jackson (1981) and Bilge (2006). Lindsfors et
al. (2006), in their sample of anaesthetists, also demonstrated that women
experience augmented levels of emotional exhaustion; however, this finding was
not statistically significant. Despite studies supporting these findings, there is
evidence that these findings may not necessarily hold true. For example, Bekker,
Croon and Bressers (2005), sampling nurses, found that men experience greater
levels of emotional exhaustion than women do. However, this result may have
been affected by the adjacent findings that the men in their sample also tended
to report significantly more work hours. Tomic et al. (2004), sampling ministers,
found that gender did not contribute to burnout.
The contradictory findings relating to gender may be explained by sex-role
differences (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). For example, Bilge (2006) argues that
women are more likely to make use of social support and vent their concerns
than are men. Greenglass and Burke (1988) concur, stating that seeking social
support is congruent with the traditional feminine gender role prescription. For
men, burnout may be confined to work, whereas for women, burnout may be
related to the dual role of work and family (Greenglass & Burke, 1988). In the
work context, women may also have to prove themselves more so than do men,

37

resulting in increased effort by women. This in turn may lead to the development
of burnout (Bakker et al., 2002). Thus, the evidence appears to suggest that
gender may be related to the experience of burnout; however, more studies are
needed to clarify the relationship.
2.7.2.2 Personality factors
Personality factors have been attributed to burnout. Personality factors that have
been researched include a hardy personality, locus of control, type-A behaviour,
and the Big Five model of personality (Boyle et al., 1991; Deary, Watson &
Hogston, 2003; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). This section discusses studies
exploring the aforementioned factors. However, the Big Five personality factors
are not discussed here, but rather presented in Chapter 3. This allows the reader
to first form a clear understanding of personality traits, thus allowing for a more
comprehensible understanding of the relationship between the Big Five factors
and burnout.
Hardiness as a personality trait, which is characterised by involvement in
activities, openness to change, and a feeling of control over events, has been
found to demonstrate a relationship with all three factors of the burnout construct
(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). For example, Boyle et al. (1991) found that
hardiness is negatively related to burnout. Hardiness was also found to
demonstrate a negative relationship to emotion-focused coping and be positively
related to social support. Locus of control, defined as an individuals expectancy
of events, is divided into an internal and external locus of control (Pervin & John,
2001). Individuals with an external locus of control attribute events to factors
outside of themselves, such as luck or chance, whereas those individuals with an
internal locus of control will ascribe events to their own ability and effort
(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). There is evidence that individuals who have an
external locus of control tend to experience greater levels of exhaustion and
depersonalisation and reduced experiences of personal accomplishment

38

(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Locus of control has also been associated with job
stressors (Spector & Oconnell, 1994). The Type-A personality, characterised by
competitiveness, control and a time-pressured life style, appears to demonstrate
a positive relationship with burnout (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) caution against results obtained from studies
exploring the relationship between personality and burnout, as a correlation does
not necessarily imply causality. For example, a certain personality trait or type
may influence which occupational situation an individual will find himself or
herself in, with this situational factor increasing the probability of experiencing
burnout (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). The aforementioned argument is taken
into account in the data collection procedure, and will be elaborated on in
Chapter 4.
2.7.2.3 Coping styles
Coping styles, as an antecedent of burnout, has also received attention in
various empirical studies (cf. Boyle et al., 1991). There are many forms of coping
used by an individual. Two broad coping strategies are problem-focused coping
and emotion-focused coping. In problem focused coping an individual attempts to
solve or alter the situation. Emotion-focused coping however involves emotional
distancing, escape avoidance coping, or making use of social support (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984; Pervin & John, 2001). There are many forms of emotion-focused
coping, and these include selective attention, distancing, minimisation, positive
comparisons and avoidance, amongst others. Emotion-focused coping is aimed
at reducing emotional stress. Problem-focused coping is akin to problem solving,
and is directed toward finding optimal solutions to a problem, and acting upon
those solutions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
The research suggests that control coping is able to reduce the negative
consequences of a stressful environment, whereas avoidance coping is related

39

to negative consequences from stress (Koeske, Kirk & Koeske, 1993). In relation
to burnout, Boyle et al. (1991) found that problem-focused coping is not related to
burnout, whereas emotion-focused coping has a positive relationship with
burnout. Of the coping styles used, wishful thinking and distancing were
positively related with burnout, and emphasising the positive was negatively
related to burnout (Boyle et al., 1991). Patton and Goddard (2006) demonstrated
that escape-avoidance coping was positively related to emotional exhaustion and
depersonalisation for both men and women, and that planful problem solving
coping was related to personal accomplishment for men. Tully (2004) explored
stress and coping in psychiatric nursing students. In this study, students with
higher levels of stress made use of coping strategies such as wishful thinking,
substance use, smoking and comfort eating. Students with lower levels of stress
were found to make use of problem-focused coping mechanisms, including
seeking assistance from others, seeking others advice, and altering the
environment to improve the situation (Tully, 2004). Deary et al. (2003) similarly
examined coping and burnout in nursing students, and found that emotionfocused coping is related to emotional exhaustion.
2.7.3 Summary of organisational and individual factors leading to burnout
An overview of the literature on burnout by Cordes and Dougherty (1993)
provides a succinct summary of the factors that are associated with burnout.
According to Cordes and Dougherty (1993), workload is related to emotional
exhaustion. Depersonalisation is a product of rigid, controlling and impersonal
working environments, in which there is limited participation in or involvement in
decision making. Reduced professional efficacy is related to environments in
which there is role ambiguity, unmet expectations, and lack of rewards for
performance. Schaufeli (2003) argues that burnout is related to perceived
workload, role problems and a lack of support. At the individual level, burnout is
related to younger people who have high levels of expectations from their job. In
addition, these individuals tend to be highly involved with the job, and consider

40

their job central in their life (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Coping styles and
personality factors are also pertinent to an understanding of burnout.
2.7.4. The costs of burnout
Burnout has been associated with various costs for the organisation and the
individual. Cordes and Dougherty (1993, p. 539) state that burnout has real
physical, emotional, interpersonal, attitudinal, and behavioral implications.
However, despite this statement, there are limited studies exploring the costs of
burnout for the individual and organisation (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). In this
section, the individual and organisational consequences of burnout are
discussed.
2.7.4.1 The individual level
At the individual level, burnout has been shown to demonstrate a relationship
with physiological infections, psychosomatic complaints, health problems,
depression, and substance abuse, amongst others (Schaufeli, 2003). Depression
appears to be closely related to burnout, and it is the most extensively studied
factor in relation to the individual level consequences of burnout (Schaufeli &
Enzmann, 1998). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) conducted a review of the
literature on the relationship between depression and burnout. In this review,
emotional exhaustion was found to be the strongest factor related to depression,
explaining approximately 12-38% variance in depression. Depersonalisation
explained approximately 2-29% variance, and personal accomplishment
approximately 3-20% variance. As such, there is evidence that depression
demonstrates a positive relationship with burnout (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
McKnight and Glass (1995) argue that burnout is not a work-related form of
depression; however, both burnout and depression may share a similar
aetiology. Thus, it appears that depression and burnout develop in tandem, and

41

that depression cannot be viewed as solely a cause or a consequence of burnout

(McKnight & Glass, 1995; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Freudenberger
(Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980) argues that depression may or may not be
linked to burnout. General depression is described as prolonged and pervading
all aspects of a persons existence, whereas in burnout, depression is specific
and localised. In addition, whereas a person with depression may experience
guilt, a person with burnout will experience anger (Freudenberger & Richelson,
1980). Thus, it appears that depression and burnout can be separated into two
distinct categories, and that burnout is not merely a form of depression.
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) provide several explanations for the significant
relationship between depression and burnout. Of particular importance to this
study is their argument around the personality trait of Neuroticism. According to
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, p. 87), [N]euroticism, being a fundamental
personality trait, may underlie depression as well as emotional exhaustion, as
Neuroticism is related to both emotional exhaustion and depression. As such, the
personality trait of Neuroticism may account for a common factor to both burnout
and depression (Bakker et al., 2006; McCrae & John, 1992; Schaufeli &
Enzmann, 1998).
According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), there is evidence that a positive
relationship exists between psychosomatic complaints and burnout. There is also
evidence that the emotional exhaustion component of burnout is related to an
increased probability of sickness (Firth & Britton, 1989). For example, Kilfedder et
al. (2001) found that higher scores on emotional exhaustion are related to
physical and psychological symptoms. Bakker et al. (2003) also found that job
demands are related to health problems.
Increased use of substances has been shown to have a relationship with
burnout. However, despite this relationship, few studies have examined this
relationship (Ahola et al., 2006; Cunradi, Greiner, Ragland & Fisher, 2003;

42

Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Individuals who experience greater levels of

burnout may be at an increased risk for alcohol related dependence (Cunradi et
al., 2003). Ahola et al. (2006) found that burnout and alcohol dependence are
related, with this relationship persisting even after socio-demographic factors
were removed. However, a statistically significant relationship between alcohol
and burnout was not established. In this study (Ahola et al., 2006), no gender
differences were found in relation to the association between alcohol and
burnout. Cunradi et al. (2003) however report that women may be at a reduced
risk for substance use, even when experiencing high levels of burnout. Cunradi
et al. (2003) also found that younger adults tend to have a greater level of risk for
alcohol dependence from burnout than older adults. Thus, it appears that
individuals experiencing high levels of burnout may resort to the use of
substances, such as drinking and smoking, to deal with their negative affect
(Maslach & Jackson, 1982).
Freudenberger (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980) argues that individuals who
experience burnout may be prone to the use of illegal substances. According to
Freudenberger, individuals who are high achievers may experience a triumph,
but this is followed by periods of deep melancholia. During this period, the
individual may experience sadness, separation and emptiness. Thus, there is a
constant elevation and depression of mood. In order to reproduce the elevated
mood brought on by triumph and success, an individual may make use of
stimulants, or, to forget the experience, make use of depressants (Freudenberger
& Richleson, 1980).
Burnout may also affect the individuals relationship with his or her family. For
example, Maslach and Jackson (1982) examined the role of job related stress on
families in police officers. According to Maslach and Jackson (1982), 27% of the
variance in the quality of family life was attributed to experienced burnout. The
authors found that police officers who report higher levels of stress and burnout
may tend to come home from work with negative emotions such as anger and

43

anxiety, and that these factors may reduce the amount of time that the police
officer spends with the family (Maslach & Jackson, 1982).
Burnout does however have further deleterious consequences for the individual.
For example, research has demonstrated that burnout is able to affect cognitive
performance and attention (cf. Sandstrm, Rhodin, Lundberg, Ollson & Nyberg,
2005; van der Linden, Keijsers, Eling & van Schaijk, 2005; ). In addition, burnout
may also impact on creativity (cf. Berg, Hansson & Hallberg, 2008; Eckert,
Stacey & Wiley, 1999).

Both cognitive performance and creativity can be

considered pertinent factors related to academic success, and thus burnout may
negatively affect academic performance at the tertiary education level.
2.7.4.2 Organisational aspects
At the organisational level, there is evidence that burnout impacts on an
individuals attitude toward the organisation, resulting in dissatisfaction with the
job, intentions to quit, and poor organisational commitment (Schaufeli, 2003).
Burnout has also been assumed to result in reduced job performance (Parker &
Kullik, 1995). For example, Parker and Kullik (1995) found that a lower level of
emotional exhaustion is related to improved job performance. Likewise, Wright
and Bonett (1997) demonstrated that emotional exhaustion is able to predict
work

performance,

with

no

significant

relationship

existing

between

depersonalisation and personal accomplishment, and job performance. However,

Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) argue that the evidence of burnout affecting
performance is not convincing, and that burnout does not necessarily reduce
performance. Another aspect related to burnout is increased absenteeism
(Bakker et al., 2003). Parker and Kullik (1995) found that high levels of burnout
were related to absenteeism. Similarly, Firth and Britton (1989) demonstrated
that emotional exhaustion is related to increased absenteeism. Thus, it appears
that burnout may result in mental or physical health problems, which lead to
absenteeism from the job (Parker & Kullik, 1995; van Dick & Wagner, 2001).

44

A meta-analysis conducted by Lee and Ashforth (1996) found that emotional

exhaustion and depersonalisation are related to organisational commitment and
intentions to leave ones job. Firth and Britton (1989) similarly found that
depersonalisation is related to job turnover. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998)
reanalysed the findings by Lee and Ashforth (1996) and found a negative
relationship between emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced
personal accomplishment, and job satisfaction. The three burnout factors were
also found to be negatively related to organisational commitment, and positively
related to intentions to quit. Organisational commitment has been consistently
shown to demonstrate a negative relationship with emotional exhaustion and
depersonalisation (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).
Lingard et al. (2007) found support for these aforementioned factors in the
student population. For example, the authors found that increased absenteeism
affects students feelings of professional efficacy. Furthermore, it was found that
students experiencing higher levels of burnout tended to be less satisfied with the
university (Lingard et al., 2007). Sced and Baur (2007), sampling student police
recruits, found that students who experience burnout are more likely not to be
satisfied with their work, or to leave the job later in their career. Thus, Neumann
et al. (1990) may be correct in their assertion that student burnout affects the
students relationship with the university.
2.8 Stress and burnout in students
The concept of burnout has expanded beyond the helping professions, with
studies establishing that the student population is also susceptible to burnout
(Mostert et al., 2007; Neumann et al., 1990; Schaufeli et al., 2002; Weckwerth &
Flynn, 2006). Burnout in student populations has been conceptualised as an
erosion of academic engagement, and is experienced as feelings of exhaustion
due to study demands, cynicism and detachment from ones studies, and

45

feelings of worthlessness or inefficacy in the academic realm (Schaufeli et al.,

2002).
The university years may be a period of stress for many students (Pines et al.,
1981). Studies conducted on students experiences of stress and burnout has
found that various factors are associated with these concepts in this population
group (cf. Ross, Cleland & Macleod, 2006; Dyrbye, Thomas & Schanafelt, 2005;
Negga, Applewhite & Livingstone, 2007; Sced & Baur, 2007). These factors
include the formation of new friendships, and loss of existing friendships;
increased academic workload; academic pressures; adjustment to a novel study
climate; financial concerns; competition with peers; boredom; romantic
relationships; administrative problems; and difficulties with time management
(Cushman & West, 2006; Dyrbye et al., 2005; Dyrbye et al., 2006; Moffat et al.,
2004; Pines et al., 1981; Weckwerth & Flynn, 2006). Cushman and West (2006,
p. 23), succinctly highlight the factors relating to students stress, stating:
[e]ach day, students are confronted with experiences that can be
physically, emotionally, and psychologically challenging. Whether
related to ones classroom performance, family, job, health, finances,
or other people, all aspects of students lives can be negatively
affected by events both within and outside their control.
Academic pressure and concerns has been established as a significant source of
stress for students (Moffat et al., 2004; Monk & Mahmood, 1999). For example,
Monk and Mahmood (1999) found that difficulties with course content, limited
study time and other commitments infringing upon studies were a major source
of concern for students. Similar findings were discovered by Abouserie (1994),
with students in this study citing augmented workload, excessive study demands
and pressure to excel in their studies causing stress. An example of these
academic demands is highlighted in Cushman and Wests (2006, p. 25) study,
with participants stating, I had so many assignments, projects, and

46

presentations all due at once and furthermore [i]t was the overwhelming
deadlines and number of important immediate decisions to be made.
Conversely, Jacobs and Dodd (2003) found that objective workload and the
amount of hours a student works are not consistently related to burnout. Lingard
et al. (2007), in their sample of undergraduate students in Australia, similarly
found no relationship between burnout and workload. Rather, burnout was
related to the conflict between paid work and university work, and as such there
was a role conflict. For example, reduced performance in university work due to a
commitment to paid work (or vice versa), leads to conflict and subsequent
experiences of burnout. Despite the view of objective workload in the formation of
burnout, it can be argued that subjective experiences of workload also lead to
burnout. Jacobs and Dodd (2003), for example, found that the subjective
experience of workload is related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation.
Thus, according to Jacobs and Dodd (2003), it appears that subjective
experiences of workload account for experiences of burnout rather than actual
workload. Increased amounts of objective workload may however lead to
augmented hours spent studying. Lingard et al. (2007) found evidence for this
notion, with greater hours spent studying demonstrating a positive relationship
with emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment. Jacobs and Dodd
(2003) also found some evidence for increased experiences of emotional
exhaustion with augmented hours of work, although this relationship was not
statistically significant.
Taken together, the aforementioned findings may be similar to the job demands
aspect of the JD-R model, with excessive demands resulting in burnout. More
specifically, students experiences at university may include excessive workload,
time pressures, long hours of work (especially during the examination periods),
role conflict and role ambiguity, with all of these factors been related to burnout.

47

Abouserie (1994) demonstrated that social-related stressors, such as financial

concerns and diminished time for social contact, influence students experience
of stress. Friedlander, Reid, Shupak and Cribbie (2007) also found that social
support accounted for some variance in students experience of stress. Lingard
et al. (2007) demonstrated that students in Hong Kong who had social support
from friends and family had reduced experiences of burnout. Jacobs and Dodd
(2003) similarly demonstrated that reduced levels of social support received from
friends is related to increased scores on depersonalisation and reduced scores
on personal accomplishment. Social support may also extend to romantic
relationships, with Willcock et al. (2004) demonstrating that medical students who
were not in a relationship were more likely to experience emotional exhaustion.
This provides further evidence for the important role of social support in
mediating burnout. These findings are similar to findings as discussed under job
resources, highlighting the beneficial effects of social support on burnout. As
such, it appears that students who experience limited social support or social
contact may be at an augmented risk for developing burnout.
Similar to findings highlighting the importance of convivial contact with
supervisors and reduced burnout, relationships with academic staff may also
lead to burnout. Academic staff attitude and behaviour has been related to
increased stress among students. Academic staff, such as lecturers, may be
viewed as inhuman, expectant and egotistical, augmenting students experience
of stress (Cushman & west, 2006). For example, Cushman and West (2006),
conducting a qualitative study on precursors to college student burnout, found
that at times, students feel overwhelmed due to instructors that are vague,
unavailable or condescending. These factors may cause students to develop a
negative attitude toward the academic setting (Cushman & West, 2006). This
negative attitude toward the academic setting may be similar to the reduced
experience of organisational commitment seen in the organisational context. In
addition, it would be important to examine as to whether job turnover in the

48

organisational context is similar to dropping out of university in the student

context.
Concerns about finances are also related to stress in student populations. In a
study conducted by Ross et al. (2006) on medical students, numerous
participants mentioned that stress concerning their financial status accounted for
up to a quarter of their total stress experienced. In addition, several participants
believed that financial stress negatively affected their studies. The study
supported these contentions, with students worrying about their finances
performing more poorly in examinations than their peers (Ross et al., 2006).
Despite the relative importance of finances and social contact, Abouserie (1994)
contends that academic concerns account for a greater degree of students
experience of stress. With the reality of student loans and the increasing price of
university education, financial concerns may be a pertinent factor in the South
African context (cf. SAPA, 2008).
Apart from academic difficulties, financial concerns, and academic staff
demeanour, various other factors are related to the experience of stress in
students (Cushman & West, 2006). These factors include family problems,
limited time to interact with the family, death of a family member, low grades,
missing of classes and procrastination, amongst others (Abouserie 1994;
Bernhard, 2007; Cushman & West, 2006; Negga et al., 2007). Another factor that
has received attention is demographic factors (Ried et al., 2006). For example,
Ried et al. (2006) established that students in their second year of study were
more prone to experiences of burnout. However, this finding may be related to
the nature of their sample that consisted of pharmacy students (Ried et al.,
2006).
Bernhard (2007), sampling music major students, established that postgraduate
students experience lower levels of emotional exhaustion and increased
experiences of personal accomplishment in comparison to undergraduate

49

students. It appears that limited research has been conducted on the relationship
between year of study and burnout in the student population, thus limiting the
discussion of this factor in the literature review. Gender differences have also
been found to be related to burnout in students. Weckwerth and Flynn (2006)
found

that

women

students

demonstrated

lower

scores

on

personal

accomplishment than men students, however, male students scored higher on

the depersonalisation scale than did female students. Similarly, Ried et al. (2006)
found that women students were more likely to report emotional exhaustion, and
men students were more likely to report depersonalisation. Kulik (2006),
researching burnout among volunteers in the social services, demonstrated that
during adolescence, the degree of burnout is greater for girls than for boys. A
gradual decline occurs hereafter, with burnout levels been equal among retired
women and men volunteers. Balogun, Pellegrini, Miller and Katz (1999)
measured the burnout of 21 physical therapist students during an academic year.
It appears from the study that the students emotional exhaustion and
depersonalisation increased throughout the semester, and the personal
accomplishment score decreased throughout the semester. These findings in
relation to demographic factors appear to be similar to the findings discussed in
section 2.7.2 under the individual factors. Thus, it appears that people who are
younger are more prone to burnout, and that women students are more likely to
experience emotional exhaustion, and men students are more likely to
experience depersonalisation.
Studies conducted in South Africa have provided support for the abovementioned findings (Mostert et al., 2007; Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005). Pienaar
and Sieberhagen (2005), sampling student leaders at the University of the NorthWest, found that factors such as stress, negative work relationships, time
pressure, work overload and conflicts are associated with burnout. The authors
established that emotional exhaustion was related to work overload and a dearth
of available time to complete this work, cynicism demonstrated a relationship to
workplace demands, and professional efficacy was associated with lack of

50

available resources (Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005). However, the sample

population in this study group (Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005) were student
leaders, and consequently, the question is raised as to whether the burnout
findings in this student population group is related to academic factors, or workrelated factors.
Mostert et al. (2007) found that Afrikaans speaking students experience greater
levels of burnout than Setswana speaking students. They ascribe this finding to
the current employment situation in South Africa (affirmative action), arguing that
Afrikaans speaking students may perceive themselves as less likely to find
employment, and as such, experience augmented levels of burnout. There
appears to be support for this notion. For example, Lingard et al. (2007) found
that there may be a relationship between fear of unemployment (which is similar
to job insecurity) and burnout in student populations. Thus, the perception of
possible unemployment after the completion of higher education studies could be
an antecedent of burnout in the student population. Table 2.1 provides an
overview of factors related to stress and burnout in students from several of the
aforementioned studies.
Table 2.1 Summary of Research Findings on Factors Related to Stress and
Burnout in Students
Author

Factors related to stress and burnout

Abouserie (1994)

Examinations and results

Workload
Study load

Balogun & Pellegrini

Academic semester

(1999)
Bernhard (2007)

Year of study

Cushman and West

Assignment overload

(2006)

Outside

influences

(including

financial

difficulties,

management concerns, personal relationships)

51

time

 Lack of personal motivation

Mental and physical health concerns
Instructor demeanour
Jacobs and Dodd

Subjective workload

(2003)

Temperament
Social support
Extracurricular activities

Lingard et al. (2007)

Amount of study time

Conflicting demands within studies
Satisfaction with the economic situation
Economic factors
Study time
Work to university conflict

Negga et al. (2007)

Academics
Low grades
Missed classes
Time management
Relationship difficulties

Ried et al. (2006)

Year of study
Gender

Ross et al. (2006)

Perception of debt
Coursework

Weckwerth and

Social support

Flynn (2006)

Gender

Willcock et al. (2004)

Relationship status

2.9 Conclusion
Research on burnout has progressively increased since its conceptualisation in
the 1970s by Freudenberger and Maslach. The most common conceptualisation
of burnout is burnout as a three-factor structure. However, there are arguments
against this conceptualisation, with a unidimensional and a four-dimensional

52

model being proposed. Various theories have attempted to account for the
experience of burnout, albeit, many have not received empirical support. A recent
model, the job demands-resources model, has received empirical support. This
model suggests that demands are related to exhaustion and resources are
related to engagement. Various factors are cited as antecedents to burnout,
including work overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, personality charactersitcs,
gender, age and coping behaviours, amongst others. Burnout has deleterious
consequences for both the individual and the organisation, including depression,
absenteeism, job turnover, and negative attitudes toward the work context. The
notion that burnout can also occur in students has recently been studied.
Research has demonstrated that various factors are related to stress in students,
including perceived workload, academic staff demeanour, financial concerns,
social support, family factors, role conflict, and time management, amongst
others. Similar to burnout in the organisational context, burnout in students may
have deleterious consequences for both the student and the university.
2.10 Preview of the contents of the following chapter
In the following chapter personality, and in particular the trait approach to
personality, is discussed.

53

CHAPTER 3
THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the trait approach to personality is discussed. This is explored
from both the historical and modern perspectives of trait approaches. The
discussion includes an examination of the progenitors to the trait approach, and
later theorists such as Allport, Eysenck, and Cattell. This is followed by a
description of the five-factor model of personality, and critiques of this model. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of personality traits and their relationship to
burnout. The literature review presented in this chapter is based on many
international studies, and thus caution must be used in generalising the results to
the South African population.
3.2 The trait approach to personality
Behaviour is a mirror in which everyone shows his image (Ajzen, 2005, p. 1).
This statement by the celebrated polymath Goethe captures an important
element of personality - the trait approach to personality (Ajzen, 2005). It is
common practice in personality discourse to describe people in terms of
observed behaviour. Labels such as outgoing, shy, nervous, friendly, and warm
are relatively easy to discern and understand (Maddi, 1996; Matthews, Deary &
Whiteman, 2003). Buss (1989) argues that traits are the defining characteristics
of personality. However, it is clear that personality is a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon, and one has only to examine a personality textbook to obtain a
glimpse of the many theories that account for personality (Maddi, 1996).
Amongst the first and most well known theories of personality was Freuds
conception of the sexual urges (Freud, 1912; Friedman & Shustack, 2003;

54

Mroczek & Little, 2006). Following Freuds death, a plethora of personality

theories emerged, including those of Sullivan, Horney, Jung, Bandura, Murray,
Allport and Cattell (Ehrenreich, 1997; Mroczek & Little, 2006). Various other
views of personality exist. By examining the diverse approaches to personality,
McAdams (1995) conceptualised personality as consisting of three levels. The
first level, and the level with which this research is concerned, is described as
dispositional traits (McAdams, 1995; Taylor, 2004). These traits, which are broad
and nonconditional constructs, describe personality in terms of dispositions. The
second level, personal concerns, is interested in life-tasks, coping strategies, and
motivational and developmental constructs related to a specific location and role.
The third level, the life narrative, consists of frameworks and constructs that give
an individual an identity (McAdams, 1995).
As explicated, the trait approach (and five-factor model in specific) is related to
McAdamss (1995) level of dispositional traits (Taylor, 2004). Traits refer to the
observable behaviours in an individual that are often used to describe a person
(Pervin & John, 2001). For example, Dickens (n.d., p. 28) describing Alfred the
Great writes, [h]e loved to talk with clever men, and with travellers from foreign
countries, and to write down what they told him, for his people to read. Dickens
goes on to state that Alfred the Great made just laws, that they might live more
happily and freely; he turned away all partial judges, that no wrong might be done
them.
These behavioural descriptions captured what was consistently observed in
Alfred the Great, and it is this consistency that is the first fundamental
assumption of the trait approach to personality. Indeed one would expect Alfred
the Great to be the same today as he was hundreds of years ago (Matthews et
al., 2003; Pervin & John, 2001). The second assumption is that traits are
established on comparisons of people, as there are no absolute quantitative
standards for concepts such as friendliness (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields,
2006, p. 344; Costa & McCrae, 1998). The third assumption is that traits must be

55

clearly conceptualised in order to avoid the misinterpretation of a specific trait

(Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2006; Costa & McCrae, 1998). McCrae (2005)
mentions four characteristics associated with traits. According to McCrae (2005)
traits must be seen as a dimension of individual differences, tendencies rather
than determinants, consistent over a period of time, and expressed in thoughts,
feelings and actions. In examining the three assumptions and four characteristics
as described by McCrae (2005), a trait can be defined as a disposition to
behave in a particular way, as expressed in a persons behaviour over a range of
situations (Pervin & John, 2001, p. 251).
3.3 Historical developments of the trait approach
The idea of personality traits is found in antiquity. Aristotle, Theophrastus and
Hippocrates are cited as progenitors to the trait approach of personality (Allport,
1937; Matthews et al., 2003). Aristotle, the renowned Greek philosopher and
student of Plato, is celebrated for his arguments on moral conduct. Aristotle
argued that moral behaviour is the product of dispositions. This argument is
thoroughly explored in his theory of the Golden Mean (Aristotle, n.d./n.d.;
Hergenhahn, 2005; Matthews et al., 2003). Following on the teaching of Aristotle,
Theophrastus created character sketches, describing how a person is expected
to act in most situations. The character descriptions were viewed as consistent
across both time and place (Allport, 1961).
Centuries later, Hippocrates, who was regarded as the father of medicine due to
his expertise in diagnoses and treatment of disease, described bodily humours
as causative agents in pathology (Hergenhahn, 2005; Hippocrates, n.d/1952;
Stelmack & Stalkis, 1991). Hippocrates argued that the human body contained
four humours: phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile (Allport, 1937; Friedman
& Schustack, 2003; Hergenhahn, 2005). Galen, expanding on Hippocratess
work, emphasised the relationship between the humours and character.
According to Galen, there were four temperaments, each of which contained

56

corresponding characteristics (Galen, n.d./1952; Hergenhahn, 2005; Matthews et

al., 2003). However, Stelmack and Stalkis (1991, pp. 259-260) caution that
Galens humours were not uniquely employed to describe character.
Phlegm

was

associated

with

phlegmatic

temperament.

The

typical

characteristic of this temperament was lethargic and unemotional behaviour.

Blood was related to a sanguine temperament, in which the individual tended to
be optimistic, positive and cheerful. Yellow bile was associated with a choleric
temperament, in which the individual was described as quick-tempered and fiery.
The last humour, black bile, was linked to a melancholic temperament, and
characterised by sadness and negative affect. According to Galen, the best
temperament was the product of balance in these humours, with imbalance
resulting in physical and mental illness (Hergenhan, 2005; Matthews et al., 2003;
Stelmack & Stalkis, 1991).
Burton (1837, p. 140 cited in Matthews et al., 2003, pp. 8 - 9), in the seventeenth
century, described the melancholic temperament as:
That which is a flea-biting to one causeth unsufferable torment to
another; and which one by his singular moderation and wellcomposed carriage can happily overcome, a second is no whit able
to sustain; but, upon every small occasion of misconceived abuse,
injury, grief, disgrace, loss, cross, rumour etc. (if solitary, or idle)
yields so far to passion, that his complexion is altered, his digestion
hindred, his sleep gone, his spirits obscured, and his heart heavy,
his hypocondries misaffected; wind, crudity, on a sudden overtake
him, and he himself overcomes with melancholy.
According to Matthews et al. (2003), this description bears resemblance with the
modern day personality trait of Neuroticism.

57

Kant, making use of the humoural theory, placed the four humour temperaments
on two dimensions, which he labelled feeling and activity (Hergenhan, 2005;
Matthews et al., 2003). Many years later, Wundt (1893, 1902/1904) depicted the
four temperaments as lying on two dimensions, which he named strong-weak
emotions

versus

changeable-unchangeable

activity

(Hergenhan,

2005;

Matthews et al., 2003, p. 9). The views of Kant and Wundt are cited as
resembling the present-day traits of Neuroticism and Extroversion (Eysenck,
1960; Guyer, 2006; Stelmack & Stalkis, 1991).
In the 19th century, Sir Francis Galton argued that differences in personality could
be described by means of language. By employing the use of the lexical
approach, Galton undertook a thorough examination of Rogets Thesaurus,
searching for terms describing an individuals character (Galton, 1884 cited in
Allport & Odbert, 1936; Matthews et al., 2003). The lexical approach assumes
that that language terms used to describe individual differences exist in all
languages (Goldberg, 1990). However, at this time, complex statitistical
techniques used to analyse data, such as factor analysis and correlation
methods, did not exist. With the advent of these methods, and the influence of
Allport, Eysenck and Cattell, the modern conceptualisations of the trait approach
flourished (Matthews et al., 2003).
3.3.1 Gordon Allport
Allport, with his interest in language and aversion to psychoanalysis, has
contributed greatly to the study of personality (Pervin & John, 2001). Two
particular anecdotes are linked to Allports career. In the first instance, as a child,
Allport was accused by his classmates of swallowing a dictionary (Allport, 1966,
p. 161). This penchant for language would later have a significant role in his
approach to personality (Allport, 1966; Friedman & Schustack, 2003). In the
second instance, as a young adult, Allport reports a meeting with Freud. In this
meeting, Allport narrated a story to Freud of a young boy who had a particular

58

phobia of dirt. Freud replied with a single question, and was that little boy you?
(Pervin & John, 2001, p. 227). This experience led Allport to believe that
examining the surface-level aspects of personality had more value and merit than
an in-depth probe into the unconscious (Friedman & Schustack, 2003;
Rosenzweig & Fisher, 1997).
Allport (1937, p. 48) defined personality as the dynamic organisation within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment. Underlying this definition was Allports belief in
internal structures (traits) and neuropsychic structures (personal dispositions),
which together produce human behaviour (Allport, 1937, 1966). This belief led
Allport to argue that traits are the core aspects of personality, and that they exist
in the nervous system (Allport, 1937).
Allport distinguished between three dispositions, namely, the cardinal, central
and secondary dispositions. Cardinal dispositions were argued to be pervasive
and all encompassing, influencing the entirety of the individuals existence.
However, people do not generally possess these cardinal dispositions. Central
dispositions express the situation specific aspects of personality. Secondary
dispositions referred to the individual, specific, and inconsistent aspects of
personality (Pervin & John, 2001). Allport thus argued for the plasticity of traits,
contending that both the biologically determined traits, and the situational
demands, influence behaviour (Allport, 1937).
As previously mentioned, Allports penchant for language was instrumental in the
development of his approach to personality (Allport, 1966; Friedman &
Schustack, 2003). Allport and his colleague, Odbert (Allport & Odbert, 1936)
compiled a list of adjectives commonly used to distinguish between individual
behaviour. This list was exhaustive, covering 17 953 terms used in describing
distinct behaviours (Allport & Odbert, 1936). Having collected these terms, Allport
proceeded to determine whether a basis can be found for a psychologically

59

significant classification of the terms (Allport, 1937 p. 306; Allport & Odbert,
1936). To achieve this, Allport and Odbert (1936) created four parallel columns,
each of which described a fundamental aspect of personality.
The first column consisted of the real traits of personality (Allport & Odbert,
1936, p. 26), describing stable and consistent aspects of behaviour. The second
column consisted of present activity, temporary states of mind, and mood
(Allport & Odbert, 1936, p. 26). The third column consisted of evaluations of
character. The fourth and final column consisted of terms that did not fit into the
previous columns, and was subdivided to include physical qualities, explanations
of behaviour, and explanations of capacities and talents (Allport & Odbert, 1936).
Many of these words were synonyms, leading Allport to argue that this list
required abridgment. This monumental task was accomplished by Cattell
(Friedman & Shustack, 2003).
3.3.2 Raymond Cattell
Cattell initially pursued science in college, changing to psychology later in his
studies. As part of his studies at the University of London, Cattell learned
Spearmans factor analytic technique. This technique was instrumental to his
research on personality (Cloninger, 2000). Cattells position on personality is
described as a structured learning, and systems based approach (Cattell, 1980;
Ryckman, 1993). This approach examined transactions occurring between
personality and the environment (Ryckman, 1993). Cattell attempted to account
for individual differences in personality by simplifying and objectifying the
composition of personality. In order to achieve this, he made use of mathematical
and statistical techniques, wading through a plethora of words and terms used to
describe personality (Cattell, 1980; Eysenck, 1994; Friedman & Schustack,
2003).

60

In a similar fashion to Allport, Cattell argued that language could account for
individual differences in personality (Eysenck, 1994). Based on this notion,
Cattell re-examined the list of terms formulated by Allport and Odbert (1936;
Eysenck, 1994). Cattell (1943 cited in Taylor, 2004) grouped together synonyms
and antonyms from Allport and Odberts (1936) list, creating 160 bipolar
categories, to which he added interests and abilities, resulting in 171 clusters.
Cattell (1943 cited in Taylor, 2004) proceeded to conduct cluster analysis on
these traits, which produced 67 trait variables. Subsequent research by Cattell
(1945; 1947 cited in Taylor, 2004) reduced the 67 clusters into 12 factors, which
later led to the development of the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16-PF;
Cattell, Eber & Tatsuoka, 1970).
Cattell made an important distinction between surface traits and source traits.
Surface traits refer to those behaviours that appear to be related, but fail to
function as a unitary whole. As such, no common underlying causes to these
traits are found. Source traits however, form a unitary dimension, and are the
fundamental aspects of personality. Cattell argued that source traits could only
be captured by means of statistical techniques (Pervin & John, 2001). To
determine the source traits, Cattell made use of three sources of data: Q-data, Tdata and L-data. Q-data was obtained from self-report measures. T-data was
ascertained by observations of individuals in controlled conditions. L-data was
attained from life-records (Friedman & Schustack, 2003; Pervin & John, 2001).
Cattell believed that the L, Q and T data would produce similar personality traits
(Eysenck, 1994).
Cattell is commended for his attempt at providing an exhaustive theory of
personality (Eysenck, 1994). However, his theory has been subject to criticism.
Cattells reliance on factor analytic studies, limited validity of the measurements
he employed, and overestimation of his findings have led researchers to question
the validity of his findings (Pervin & John, 2001). In addition to these critiques,
Eysenck (1994) contends that Cattells theory provides an erroneous explanation

61

of traits, and furthermore, Cattell failed to explain the features of personality

traits.
3.3.3 Hans Eysenck
Eysenck, a firm proponent of the scientific study of personality, and harsh critic of
psychoanalysis, proposed that biological foundations should be found that could
explain the existence of traits (Eysenck, 1960; Pervin & John, 2001). Eysenck
placed great value on scientific pursuits, and conceptual clarity (Pervin & John,
2001). Quoting Kant, Eysenck stated that [e]xperiment without theory is blind;
theory without experiment is lame (Eysenck, 1960, p. 1). This value of scientific
pursuits led Eysenck to search for the biological underpinnings of each trait,
hereby allowing a theory open to testing and disproof (Eysenck, 1960; Pervin &
John, 2001). Eysencks model of personality consisted of three basic dimensions:
introversion-extroversion,

neuroticism

(emotional

stability-instability),

and

psychoticism (normal-psychotic continuum) (Eysenck, 1960; Pervin & John,

2001). These three dimensions are considered super-factors, each of which
consists of unique traits, such as those identified by Cattell (Eysenck, 1960;
Eysenck, 1994).
Eysenck proposed biological underpinnings for the personality traits (Buss, 1990;
Eysenck, 1991; Larsen & Buss, 2002). Eysenck (1967 cited in Buss, 1990)
argued that introverts demonstrate augmented physiological reactivity to sensory
stimulation, thus accounting for the introverts avoidance of stimulation in social
behaviour. In addition, Eysenck argued that individuals who are more introverted
tended to have augmented cortical arousal. Neuroticism was argued to result
from the autonomic nervous system, and activity in the visceral brain (Eysenck,
1967 cited in Eysenck, 1994). Buss (1990) states that although Eysencks
explication encouraged research into the biological basis of traits, his theory of
general arousal is incorrect

62

Eysencks theory has come under critique (cf. Buss, 1990). Pervin and John
(2001) contend that Eysenck was inclined to disregard results that were contrary
to his own, while simultaneously over estimating findings in accord with his
nomenclature. In addition, Eysencks notion of three dimensions in personality is
considered to be unable to capture individual differences in personality (Pervin &
John, 2001). Eysencks three-factor structure is related to the five-factor model of
personality, with Extroversion and Neuroticism forming fundamental dimensions
of this model. However, the five-factor model, which is subsequently discussed,
has received various labels and conceptualisations. Moreover, despite the
pioneering work conducted by Allport, Cattell and Eysenck, the trait approach
became unpopular in later years (McAdams, 1992; Pervin, 1994). In the next
section the five-factor model of personality is discussed.
3.4 The five-factor model of personality
The five-factor model of personality is best understood as a lexical and factor
analytically derived personality approach (Haslam, 2007; Mischel, 1993; see
Wiggins & Trapnell, 1997 for an overview of the five-factor model). McCrae and
Costa (1991, p. 367) argue that the five-factor model provides a comprehensive
taxonomy of personality traits. However, as already mentioned, this model has
not always been viewed as noteworthy (McAdams, 1992; Pervin, 1994).
Historically, the trait approach to personality was in a state of disfavour among
personality researchers (McAdams, 1992; Pervin, 1994). Jackson and Paunonen
(1980, p. 523) compared trait-theorists to witches of antiquity, stating, [l]ike
witches of 300 years ago, there is confidence about their existence, and even
possibly their sinister properties, although one is hard pressed to find one in the
flesh or even meet someone who has. This disfavour was of such a nature that
to be regarded as a trait theorist was to be forever disgraced in the eyes of
history (McAdams, 1992, p. 330). Zuroff (1986) argues that the disillusionment
with the trait approach to psychology is attributed to Mischels publication of

63

Personality and Assessment in 1968. Mischels critiques of the trait approach are
presented in section 3.5.5.
Despite the unpopularity with the trait approach to personality, this theory has reemerged as a major force in personality research (McAdams, 1992; McCrea &
Costa, 1991). Contributors to the development of this model are Fiske (1971;
1946 cited in Digman, 1990), Tupes and Christal (1961/1992), Norman (1963
cited in McCrae & John, 1992), Digman (1989; 1990), Goldberg (1990), and
McCrea and Costa (1991; 2006).
Fiske is cited as the progenitor of the five-factor model of personality. Fiske
(1949 cited in Digman, 1990, p. 419) made use of 21 bipolar scales identified by
Cattell, and was unable to find evidence for anything more complex than a fivefactor solution. Tupes and Christal (1961/1992) argued that it is difficult to
compare the factors derived by Fiske and Cattell, as Fiskes variables are closely
matched to Cattells. Tupes and Christal (1961/1992) thus undertook a study to
isolate traits that are evident in various samples and that are not affected by
situation and rating conditions. Making use of Cattells trait variables [e]ight
intercorrelation matrices were factored and rotated to approximate [the] simple
structure found in personality traits (Tupes & Christal, 1961/1992, p. 227). Tupes
and Christal (1961/1992) established that the five factors are minimally affected
by rating and situational differences. These five factors were labelled as
Surgency, Agreeableness, Dependability, Emotional Stability and Culture (Tupes
& Christal, 1961/1992).
The study conducted by Tupes and Christal (1961/1992) was published in an Air
Force technical report. As a result, the findings remained relatively unknown to
researchers (Digman, 1990). Norman, however, was aware of this research
(Digman, 1990). Norman (1967 cited in Taylor, 2004) conducted a study on
university students, in which 2 800 trait terms were reduced to 1 431 terms,
which he further categorised into 75 groups. Norman (1963 cited in McCrae &

64

John,

1992)

named

the

five

factors

Extroversion,

Agreeableness,

Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Culture. Block (1995) argues that

Norman provided further empirical support for the five factors in personality.
Goldberg (1990) examined the 2 800 trait terms of Norman (1967 cited in
Goldberg, 1990) in three studies. Based on these studies, Goldberg (1990)
argued that analyses of adjective trait terms in the English language would
produce a five-factor structure.
McCrae and Costa have conducted a vast amount of research on the five-factor
model, including cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs (Cavanaugh
& Blanchard-Fields, 2006). McCrae and Costa (2006) contend that the five-factor
model includes the multitude of traits found in language and scientific theory.
Thus, this model allows for a systematic approach to personality. This approach
to personality began with factor analysis of the 16-PF (Liebert & Liebert, 1998;
McCrae & Costa, 2006; Taylor, 2004). McCrae and Costa (2006) proceeded to
examine the various factor solutions, and settled on a three-factor model, which
consisted of Neuroticism, Extroversion and Openness to Experience. However,
after creating the NEO Personality Inventory, McCrae and Costa (2006) noticed
that numerous traits were not accounted for in their taxonomy. Examining
existing research conducted on traits, two more dimensions were added to their
model, namely, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (Liebert & Liebert, 1998;
McCrae & Costa, 2006). McCrae and Costa (1987) argue that the five-factor
model is found in self-reports, among and between peer ratings and in
questionnaires, and this provides evidence for the usefulness of this taxonomy.
3.5 Research findings and critiques of the five-factor model
The five-factor model has become popular in recent years, due to this models
comprehensiveness and replicabilty across methods. However, various critiques
are levelled against this taxonomy (Saucier, 2002). In this section, some of these
critiques are discussed.

65

3.5.1 Heritability and biological basis

Eysenck argued for a heritable and biological basis to traits (Eysenck, 1967 cited
in Buss, 1990; Larsen & Buss, 2002). Evidence has been found for this genetic
basis in personality (cf. Loehlin, McCrae, Costa & John, 1998; Loehlin,
Neiderhiser & Reiss, 2003; Rowe, 1997). Loehlin et al. (1998) conducted a study
on monozygotic and dizygotic twins to establish the genetic basis of personality.
In the study, the correlations of traits between monozygotic twins were greater
than the correlations between dizygotic twins, suggesting that there is a heritable
basis to personality. Genetic influence was found to account for 51% to 58% of
the variance in personality. Less than half of the variance was related to
situational factors, and the interaction between genetics and environment. No
variance was attributed to shared environmental effects between twins (Loehlin
et al., 1998). Similarly, McCrae, Jang, Livesley, Riemann and Angleitner (2001)
demonstrated that the five factors are found in both phenotype and genotype,
and that shared environmental influences may have no effect on personality.
According to McCrae (2005), some researchers are uncomfortable with the large
role that the Big Five traits have assigned to genetics. For example, McCrae cites
a study (McCrae, 2002) where people in Japan tended to score higher on
Neuroticism than did people in Denmark. By implication, this finding can assume
that people in Japan are genetically inclined to experience more depression and
anxiety than are people in Denmark. This according to McCrae (2005) may
induce and justify racial discrimination, making this theory open to abuse.
However, McCrae (2005) cautions that the aforementioned findings can be
explained by a variety of other factors beyond genetics, including sampling error,
differences in construct equivalence with the measures used, response styles,
and cultural factors. Thus, caution must be exercised in ascribing trait behaviour
simply to genetic influences.

66

3.5.2 Stability of traits

The stability of the personality traits over time has been subject to many studies
(cf. Costa & McCrae, 1997; Costa & McCrae, 1998; Morizot & Le Blanc, 2003;
Roberts, Caspi & Moffitt, 2001; Srivastava, John, Gosling & Potter, 2003).
McCrae and Costa (1994), evaluating 20 years of longitudinal studies on trait
stability, argue that the evidence suggests that the five personality traits develop
until the age of 30, and thereafter remain stable. This stability extends beyond
gender and culture (McCrae & Costa, 1994). A longitudinal study conducted by
Costa and McCrae (1988) provided evidence for trait stability. In this study, the
five traits remained stable, with the authors concluding that traits appear to be
unaffected by life events and maturation.
Roberts et al. (2001) found similar results, demonstrating that despite the
multitude of unique events experienced by an individual, personality tends to
remain moderately consistent from adolescence into adulthood. Robins, Fraley,
Roberts and Trzesniewski (2001) found that there is an overall degree of
consistency in personality. Furthermore, Robins et al., (2001) established that
although normative changes in personality occurred, there were no dramatic
shifts in any of the five factors. Srivastava et al. (2003) found that the notion of
trait stability is incorrect. In their study, none of the traits were found to remain
stable after age 30. Conscientiousness and Agreeableness demonstrated
change, with Conscientiousness altering mainly in the 20s and Agreeableness
during the 30s. Extroversion and Neuroticism was also found to decline with age
for women. Helson, Kwan, John and Jones (2002), providing an overview of
studies exploring personality change with age, concluded that there is strong
evidence for personality change with age, with this change occurring across
gender and cultural boundaries.
Pervin (1994, p. 105) critiques the view of trait stability, arguing that studies
examining the stability of the traits beyond the age of 30 years have ignored

67

the potential for even small changes is some elements to result in dramatic
change in the overall organisation of personality functioning. Furthermore, this
view fails to capture the non-trait and environmental aspects that maintain
stability (Pervin, 1994). McCrae and Costa (1994) acknowledge that change may
occur in certain traits, due to various life events, such as divorce and mid-life
career changes. However, the authors argue that traits, which appear to have
changed, simply transfer from one area to another. For example, intellectual
curiosity may be demonstrated overtly by an interest in tennis, which could later
change to an interest in gardening (McCrae & Costa, 1994).
3.5.3 Cross-cultural studies
Various studies examining the cross-cultural applicability of the five-factor model
have been conducted (cf. Church, 2001; De Raad, 1992; Hofstee, Kiers, De
Raad, Goldberg & Ostendorf, 1997; McCrae, 2004). Pulver, Allik, Pulkkinen and
Hmlinen (1995) found that the five-factor model is evident in Estonian and
Finnish populations, and Hofstee et al., (1997) established that this model is
evident in the Dutch and German language, providing evidence for the five
factors in Indo-European languages. De Raad (1992) found that the five factors
hold up in Dutch, albeit the ordering of the five factors differs from the English
ordering. Accordingly, it appears that personality related concepts are similar
across languages (Pulver et al., 1995). McCrae (2001) states that personality
traits may be universal, as they demonstrate a similar structure to the five factor
model in various cultures. Digman (1990, p. 433) mentions that due to the
replicabilty of the five factors in various languages something quite fundamental
is involved here.
Conversely, De Raad and Peabody (2005, p. 452) contend that straight
unequivocal identification of all the five factors in all other languages has hardly
been possible. These differences have been attributed to cultural-linguistic
aspects (De Raad & Peabody, 2005). Yang and Bond (1990) caution against the

68

use of English personality descriptors in cross-cultural research, questioning

whether trait terms derived from America are sensitive to different language and
cultural groups. Block (1995) queries the lexical approach and single-word terms
employed in studies, inquiring as to whether this approach is able to capture the
fundamental aspects and dynamic nature of personality. Henss (1995) also
comments on the lexical approach. He argues that unless an exhaustive list of
terms is created, the possibility of bias occurs. In addition, lists that do not
contain an adequate amount of terms may influence results of a study, as the
outcome of a lexical approach is dependent on the traits in the list (Henss, 1995).
Despite the numerous studies done on the cross-cultural applicability, as
discussed above, there is limited research examining the applicability of the fivefactor model in South Africa (Heuchert, Parker, Stumpf & Myburgh, 2000).
Studies in this regard have been contradictory. For example, Heuchert et al.
(2000) established that the five-factor model exists in both white and black South
African students and Taylor (2004; Taylor & De Bruin, 2006) found that the Big
Five factors occur in Afrikaans, English, Nguni and Sotho speakers. Conversely,
Heaven and Pretorius (1998), and Zhang and Abedowale (2002) failed to
replicate this model in the student population. Heaven and Pretorius (1998)
suggest that the natural language approach in describing personality traits is
unsuitable for the South African population, and thus, a South African derived
personality measure is required. The Basic Traits Inventory (BTI; Taylor & De
Bruin, 2006) as used in this study may be able to fulfil this requirement.
3.5.4 Factor disagreement
Personality researchers are divided on how many trait factors adequately
describe personality (Pervin, 1994). Eysenck argued for a three-factor structure
to

personality,

consisting

of

extroversion-introversion,

neuroticism

and

psychotism (Eysenck, 1960; Pervin & John, 2001). Costa and McCrae (1995)
disagree with this notion, arguing that a five-factor model is preferable,

69

demonstrating that Agreeableness and Conscientiousness fuse into the

psychotism factor.
Peabody (1987) found that six factors exist, which demonstrate some
relationship with the five-factor model, albeit with differences. Tellegen (1993)
established evidence for seven factors, whereas Jernigan and Demaree (1971
cited in Guilford, 1975) found 20, 12 and 14 factors depending on the number of
factors extracted and rotated. More recently, De Raad and Barelds (2008) found
that eight factors exist. McCrae and Costa (1987) examined the factor structure
in 80 adjective pairs and compared four, five, six, seven and eight factor
solutions. The authors found that only the five-factor solution demonstrated a
reproduction of all the factors (McCrae & Costa, 1987). The evidence thus
supports the notion that [f]ive factors are just right (McCrae & John, 1992, p.
192).
3.5.5 Critiques from Mischel
Mischel (1968) in his book Personality and Assessment commented on the trait
approach to personality. According to Mischel (1968, p. 42):
To invoke

trait names as

explanatory

entities

confuses

constructions about behaviour with the causes of behaviour. Traits are

used first simply as adverbs describing behaviour (e.g., he behaves
anxiously), but this soon is generalised to describe the person (he is
anxious) and then abstracted to he has anxiety. These descriptions
are not problematic as long as their bases are recalled - namely, he is
construed as behaving anxiously, and no more. Nothing is explained,
however, if the state that we have attributed to the person from his
behaviour (he has a trait or state of anxiety) is now invoked as the
cause of the behavior from which it was inferred. We quickly emerge

70

with the tautology, he behaves anxiously because he has a trait of

anxiety. This is the danger of trait-theoretical explanations.
Thus, Mischel (1968) contends that traits serve as labels. Once a person is
labelled with a trait, new observations are constrained to this label, and the label
becomes increasingly difficult to disconfirm. This results in the label becoming
persistent over time, and promoting the belief that the label matches with the
behaviour it describes. In addition, Mischel argues that the trait approach to
personality fails to take cognisance of the situational factors that influence
personality. He argues that behaviour is determined by the demands of the
situation, and thus, the assertion that behaviour is consistent across situations is
fallacious (McAdams, 2006; Mischel, 1968).
3.6 The five factors
For the purpose of this study, the author will use the five factors as labelled by
McCrea and Costa (2006). These factors are labelled Neuroticism, Extroversion,
Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
3.6.1 Neuroticism
The term neuroses, as conceptualised by Freud, was a fundamental aspect of
his discourse on sexuality and psychopathology (Davison et al., 2004; Freud,
1912). The concept of neuroses was used to describe individuals who
experienced unrealistic anxiety (Davison et al., 2004). Neuroticism is related to
the tendency of an individual to experience distress (McCrae & John, 1992).
McCrae and Costa (1987) state that Neuroticism is commonly described by
adjective terms such as insecure and temperamental. However, Tellegn (1993)
cautions that there are limited adjectives in the English language that account for
emotional instability.

71

McCrae and Costa (1989) state that those individuals who score high on
Neuroticism are predisposed to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety
and depression. In addition, these individuals may be viewed as emotionally
unstable (McCrea & Costa, 1989). An important distinction to be made is that
people who score low on Neuroticism are not necessarily higher on positive
mental health, but rather more prone to reflect a calm and relaxed disposition
(McCrae & John, 1992).
McCrae and Costa (2006) assert that Neuroticism consists of six facets. These
six factors are anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, vulnerability and
impulsiveness. The first two of these facets, anxiety and hostility, represent two
basic emotions, namely, fear and anger. Traits associated with anxiety include
nervous, high strung and tense. These individuals have the tendency to worry,
and demonstrate a pre-occupation with what may go wrong. Hostility is
associated with anger, irritability and petulance, making it difficult to get along
with this person. Depression is related to experiences of sadness, hopelessness
and

guilt,

whereas

self-consciousness is

associated

with

shame and

embarrassment. Moreover, these individuals may experience a sense of

inferiority. Impulsiveness is demonstrated overtly as a proclivity for desires and
capitulation to temptations. Vulnerability is associated with a general inability to
manage stress.
Taylor and de Bruin (2006, p. 10) define Neuroticism as:
[t]he tendency to experience negative affects such as fear, sadness,
embarrassment, anger, and fretfulness. Along with these, individuals
high in Neuroticism tend to be prone to irrational ideas, are less able
to control their negative emotions, and cope poorly with stress.
Individuals who score low in Neuroticism are emotionally stable,
calm, even-tempered and composed.

72

3.6.2 Extroversion
The factor of Extroversion has less consensus that Neuroticism (McCrae & John,
1992). Adjectives used to describe the extrovert are sociable, friendly, dominant,
active and talkative. These descriptions of Extroversion correspond with
Eysencks views of lively sociability (McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & Costa,
1989). However, McCrae and Costa (1987) argue that this factor is not
Extroversion as described by Jung. Jung (1936) described the extravert as
externally focused, demonstrating the capacity to endure and enjoy noise and
activity, and having numerous friends and acquaintances.
Various descriptions of Extroversion have been postulated by researchers such
as Guilford, Eysenck, Cattell and Costa and McCrae (Watson & Clark, 1997).
Watson and Clark (1997) proposed a model to integrate these diverse views of
the construct. This hierarchical model consists of three levels. At the first level is
the construct of Extroversion. The second level consists of six dimensions, four
of which are central dimensions, and two lying on the periphery of the model. The
lowest level of the model divides each of the six dimensions into two sub-traits,
each of which are strongly correlated to each other (Watson & Clark, 1997).
The four central dimensions are affiliation, positive affectivity, energy and
ascendance. Affiliation represents the sociable component of Extroversion, and
consists of Warmth and Gregariousness. Positive affectivity is represented by
differences in the regularity and intensity of positive mood, and is divided into Joy
and Enthusiasm. Energy is concerned with differences in vigour, and consists of
Liveliness and Activity. The last of the central traits is ascendance, representing
differences in relation to assertiveness and social prominence. This dimension is
divided into Liveliness and Activity. The two peripheral dimensions are
venturesomeness and ambition. Venturesomeness is related to differences in
boldness and adventurousness, and consists of Change and Excitement-

73

Seeking. Ambition is related to mastery behaviours, and is divided into

Achievement and Endurance (Watson & Clark, 1997).
McCrae and Costa (2006) divide the six facets of Extroversion into interpersonal
and

temperamental

traits. The

three

interpersonal

traits

are Warmth,

Gregariousness and Assertiveness. Warmth refers to a forthcoming and affable

disposition toward others. Gregariousness is concerned with the desire to have
contact with others. Assertive individuals are easily able to make decisions, and
readily express their emotions. The three temperamental traits are Activity,
Excitement Seeking and Positive Emotions. Activity is evident in an energetic
and active disposition. Excitement Seeking refers to a proclivity for excitement in
the environment. Positive Emotionality is reflected in emotions such as delight
and enthusiasm.
Taylor and de Bruin (2006, p. 9) define the extroverted individual as:
[t]hose who enjoy being around people, especially large gatherings,
and tend to be assertive, active and talkative. They like stimulation and
excitement, and are generally cheerful and optimistic. Individuals
scoring low in Extroversion tend to prefer their own company, are
reserved and independent and do things at an even pace.
3.6.3 Openness to Experience
Openness to Experience is a contentious factor, and has been subject to differing
conceptualisations (Matthews et al., 2003; McCrae & John, 1992; see McCrae &
Costa, 1997 for an overview). Fiske (1949 cited in Trapnell, 1994) described this
factor as inquiring intellect, whereas Norman (1963 cited in McCrae & Costa,
1987) represented this factor as culture. McCrae (1994) argues against the
conceptualisation of intellect, stating that intellect assumes that individuals who
score high on this factor would be more intelligent, with studies been unable to

74

establish this relationship. Trapnell (1994) contends that adjective terms used to
describe Openness to Experience are more related to cognitive aspects,
whereas the emotional aspects of this factor are better accounted for in
sentences. McCrae (1990) concurs, stating the trait terms that are pertinent to
Openness to Experience tend to be found in phrases and sentences rather than
single words. The use of culture is also disputed, with Liebert and Liebert (1998)
mentioning that there are greater factor loadings on traits associated with
Openness to Experience rather than culture.
Creativity and intelligence have been found to demonstrate a relationship with
the Openness to Experience factor, with individuals who score higher on the
factor also tending to be more creative. Thus, these individuals tend to be novel
in their thinking, have broad interested domains, and an augmented imagination.
Individuals scoring lower on his factor tend not to attempt new experiences and
be more comfortable with familiar experiences (McCrae, 1987). This factor is
further evidence by sensitivity to aesthetic value, a proclivity for variety, and
emotional responsiveness to aesthetics (McCrae & Costa, 1989; Trapnell, 1994).
The six facets of Openness to Experience are aesthetics, feelings, ideas, values,
actions and fantasy. Fantasy is represented by a vivid imagination and elaborate
musings. Aesthetics in reflected by sensitivity toward artistic creations. Feelings
are evidenced by a strong experience of emotion from which existential meaning
is derived. Action is related to a willingness to experience novel situations.
Individuals scoring higher on openness to Ideas and Values are interested in
knowledge and the acquiring of knowledge, and demonstrate liberal and creative
cognitions (McCrae & Costa, 2006).
Taylor and de Bruin (2006, p. 12) describe individuals scoring high on Openness
as:

75

[c]urious about their world, lead experientially rich lives, and give
thought to new ideas and unconventional values. Open people
actively seek out novel experiences and tend to reflect on ideas.
They enjoy and are able to grasp new ideas and have a wide range
of interests. Individuals scoring low on Openness to Experience tend
to be conventional and conservative. They seem to have a narrower
scope and intensity of interests, and are generally unwilling to
question traditional values and ways of thinking.
3.6.4 Agreeableness
Digman (1990, p. 422) contends that Agreeableness seems tepid for a
dimension that appears to involve the more humane aspects of humanity. This
factor is concerned with an individuals interpersonal orientation (Pervin & John,
2001). At one end of this dimension are trait characteristics such as caring,
cooperativeness and altruism. At the other end are charactersitcs such as
indifference, callousness, hostility and spitefulness (Digman, 1990; Graziano &
Eisenberg, 1997; Haslam, 2007; McCrae & Costa, 1989). The antithesis of
Agreeableness can thus be conceptualised as antagonism (Cavanaugh &
Blanchard-Fields, 2006; Pervin & John, 2001).
The character of Mouse in Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland captures an
element of antagonism. In this particular scene, Alice is attempting to converse
with Mouse (Carroll, 1865/1984, p. 38):
I shall do nothing of the sort, said the Mouse, getting up and
walking away. You insult me by talking such nonsense!
I didnt mean it! pleaded poor Alice. But youre so easily offended,
you know!

76

The antagonistic description is comparable to Eysencks dimension of

psychotism, in that both describe hostile and displeasing traits (Liebert & Liebert,
1998). Although it may be idealistic to desire a high score on Agreeableness,
Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2006), and Liebert and Liebert (1998) mention
that exceedingly high scores on Agreeableness frequently manifests in overly
dependent and modest behaviour, which may be disagreeable to others.
The six facets of Agreeableness are straightforwardness, altruism, modesty,
trust, compliance and tender mindedness. Trust is evidenced in an attitude of
belief in others, and not expecting hidden motives from other people.
Straightforwardness is related to sincerity and trustworthy behaviour. Compliance
is demonstrated by deference toward others. Modesty is related to an attitude of
selflessness. Tender-mindedness is related to sentimentality and compassion
toward others. Altruism is concerned with a consideration toward others and a
desire to assist others (McCrae & Costa, 2006).
Taylor and de Bruin (2006, p. 13) describe individuals who are high in
Agreeableness as:
sympathetic towards others, straightforward, selfless, are eager to
help, and believe that others will be helpful in return. Individuals who
score low on Agreeableness tend to be sceptical, manipulative,
competitive, and self-centred. In other words, they look after their
own interests.
3.6.5 Conscientiousness
McCrae and John (1992) argue that Agreeableness and Conscientiousness have
moral connotations. These two dimensions describe good versus evil
[intentions] and strong-willed versus weak-willed individuals respectively
(McCrae & John, 1992, p. 197). While disagreement exists concerning the name

77

of this factor, researchers are generally in accord with the traits that characterise
Conscientiousness (Haslam, 2007). Individuals who score high on this factor are
described as thorough, organised, achievement-orientated, efficient, diligent and
goal striving (Digman & Inouye, 1986; Haslam, 2007; McCrea & Costa, 1987;
McCrae & John, 1992). Individuals scoring low on this factor tend to be
impulsive, careless toward responsibilities and disorganised (Haslam, 2007).
The six facets of Conscientiousness are competence, self-discipline, deliberation,
dutifulness, order and achievement striving. Competence describes a sense of
rationality and efficacy in tasks. Order is concerned with an individuals
organisation. Dutifulness is evidenced by an individuals adherence to moral
precepts and duty. Achievement striving is related to the pursuit of excellence in
every undertaking, with self-discipline reflecting the ability to accomplish goals.
Deliberation is related to purposeful planning and careful decision making prior to
acting (McCrae & Costa, 2006).
According to Taylor and de Bruin (2006, p. 11):
[c]onscientiousness has to do with the self-discipline required in
planning, organising, and carrying out of tasks. Individuals high in
Conscientiousness are focused, strong-willed, and determined. They
also tend to be dependable, hardworking, achievement oriented, and
persevering. Low scorers tend to be more relaxed in working towards
their goals, and may tend to be more hedonistic, distractible and
impulsive than high scorers. Individuals who score low on the order
facet of Conscientiousness prefer less organised environments and
dislike routine.

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3.7 Personality and burnout

Burnout is argued to result from environmental and situational factors (Kokkinos,
2007; Shirom, 1989). The role of personality as a causative agent in burnout has
recently received increased attention (cf. Kokkinos, 2007; Miner, 2007).
Piedmont (1993, p. 464) argues, personality plays an important role in the
experience of job-related distress. For example, Storm and Rothmann (2003)
found that the five-factors of personality demonstrate a relationship with burnout.
Several studies have been conducted on this association between personality
and burnout (cf. Bakker et al., 2006; Hills et al., 2004; Miner, 2007; Piedmont,
1993). This section presents an overview of various investigations conducted in
this area.
The most consistent findings regarding the relationship between personality and
burnout have been found for Neuroticism and Extroversion (Bhler & Land,
2003). Numerous studies have found that Neuroticism is related to all three
factors of burnout, namely, emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
personal accomplishment (Bakker et al., 2006; Bhler & Land, 2003; Kokkinos,
2007). In a study conducted by Bhler and Land (2003) on intensive care unit
staff, Neuroticism demonstrated a significant positive relationship with emotional
exhaustion and depersonalisation. Several studies have corroborated with this
finding. For example, Bakker et al. (2006) examining volunteer counsellors; Hills
et al. (2004) investigating ministers; and Kokkinos (2007) sampling primary
school educators, found that Neuroticism is positively related to emotional
exhaustion and depersonalisation. Miner (2007), examining burnout in religious
ministers, established that Neuroticism demonstrates a negative relationship with
personal accomplishment. Kokkinos (2007) also demonstrated this negative
relationship in her research. In contrast to these findings, Zellars et al. (2000)
demonstrated that in a sample of nurses, only emotional exhaustion was related
to Neuroticism.

79

Neuroticism is closely related to experiences of negative affectivity (Watson &

Clark, 1992). High scores on this factor are linked to emotions such as fear and
frustration, whereas low scores are related to a calm and relaxed disposition
(McCrae & Costa, 2006; McCrae & John, 1992). The negative emotions common
to Neuroticism frequently lead to ineffective coping strategies (DeLongis &
Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al., 2005; McCrae & Costa, 1986). For example,
there is evidence that individuals who score high on Neuroticism tend to make
use of emotion-focused coping, interpersonal withdrawal, escape avoidance,
self-blame, escapist fantasy, passivity and indecisiveness (Lee-Baggley et al.,
2005; Miner, 2007; McCrae & Costa, 1986).
These individuals may also have a sense of apprehension, expecting the worst
from a situation, while underestimating their own ability to cope with the demands
of the situation (Bakker et al., 2006; Zellars et al., 2000). Zellars et al. (2000)
argue that the anxiety and negative affect, combined with increased vulnerability
to situational events, could lead these individuals to ascribe blame to others for
their feelings of anxiety, hereby increasing the tendency to experience
depersonalisation. In addition, the tendency to anticipate the worst may result in
reduced professional efficacy. Miner (2007, p. 26) contends that [s]ince
Neuroticism represents a general tendency to negativity in thinking, mood and
coping, it is not surprising that such a style would be conducive to a sense of
emotional exhaustion, together with anxiety and depression. It thus appears that
Neuroticism is related to emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced
professional efficacy (Bakker et al., 2006; Bhler & Land, 2003; Kokkinos, 2007).
Extroversion has consistently been found to demonstrate a relationship with
burnout (Bakker et al., 2006; Piedmont, 1993; Zellars et al., 2000). Tomic et al.
(2004), examining church ministers, established that this factor has a negative
relation with emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, and a positive
association with personal accomplishment. Similar findings were demonstrated
by Bakker et al. (2006), Kokkinos (2007) and Miner (2007). Despite the relative

80

consistency of these findings, Bhler and Land (2003) discovered that

Extroversion had a positive relationship with both emotional exhaustion and
depersonalisation.
People who score high on Extroversion are generally people-orientated. In
addition, they frequently experience optimism and enthusiasm, and experience
augmented levels of energy (McCrea & Costa, 2006; Watson & Clark, 1997;
Zellars et al., 2000). Thus, it appears that Extroversion is related to the
experience of positive affect (Watson & Clark, 1997). Zellars et al. (2000) argue
that the optimism, positive affect and energy, and increased interpersonal
communication, experienced by individuals scoring high on this factor may result
in reduced experiences of emotional exhaustion, and depersonalisation. In
addition to these factors, there is evidence that Extroversion is related to
problem-focused coping, rational action, positive re-appraisal, and cognitivereframing (Bouchard, Guillemette & Landry-Lger, 2004; DeLongis & Holtzman,
2005; McCrea & Costa, 1986). Based on the aforementioned studies, it appears
as if

Extroversion is negatively related

to

emotional exhaustion and

depersonalisation and positively related to professional efficacy (Bakker et al.,

2006; Kokkinos, 2007; Piedmont, 1993).
The relationship between Openness to Experience and burnout is tentative
(Bakker et al., 2006). There is evidence that this factor is related to personal
accomplishment (Bakker et al., 2006; Deary et al., 1996). For example, Storm
and Rothmann (2003), sampling pharmaceutical corporate staff, found that this
factor demonstrates a positive relationship with personal accomplishment. Zellars
et al. (2000), examining burnout and personality in nursing staff, similarly
established this relationship. In addition, the authors found that Openness to
Experience is negatively related to depersonalisation (Zellars et al., 2000).
Kokkinos (2007) also found that this factor demonstrates a negative relationship
to depersonalisation, but that there was a negative relation between the factor
and personal accomplishment. Deary et al. (1996) state that there is evidence

81

that people scoring higher on Openness to Experience have a decreased

probability of experiencing emotional exhaustion.
Openness to Experience is related to adaptive and flexible coping, and reduced
levels of distancing from others (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al.,
2004). Individuals scoring high on this factor may use humour as a coping
mechanism, whereas those individuals scoring low on this factor tend to make
use of faith and distance-avoidance coping strategies (Bouchard et al., 2004;
McCrae & Costa, 1986). Due to their awareness of the surroundings, individuals
scoring high on this factor may be more attentive to stressors in their
environment. These individuals are also more likely to attempt new experiences
(McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae & Costa, 2006; Zellars et al., 2000) Stressful
environments may thus be viewed by these individuals as a challenge, and
hereby, they may experience an increased sense of personal accomplishment
and diminished emotional exhaustion (Zellars et al., 2000).
Agreeableness appears to demonstrate a positive relationship with personal
accomplishment (Bakker et al., 2006). Furthermore, Deary et al. (1996), sampling
medical

doctors,

found

that

Agreeableness

is

negatively

related

to

depersonalisation. Hochwlder (2006), examining burnout in nurses and

assistants in home based and service care for the elderly, similarly established
this aforesaid relationship. Piedmont (1993), exploring personality and burnout in
occupational therapists, found that Agreeableness is negatively related to
emotional exhaustion. Thus, Storm and Rothmann (2003) state that there is a
negative relationship between Agreeableness and burnout.
Agreeableness is related to the interpersonal aspects of personality (McCrae &
John, 1992; Zellars et al., 2000). Individuals scoring high on this factor tend to be
trusting, cooperative and pleasant, while individuals scoring low on this factor
tend to be quarrelsome (Digman, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1989, Zellars et al.,
2000). This factor, which is related to the caring of others, may allow an

82

individual to manage with clients and the accompanying frustration. This may
result in reduced feelings of depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion, and
augmented experiences of personal accomplishment (Digman, 1990; McCrae &
Costa, 1989; Zellars et al., 2000). Agreeableness has also been associated with
social support and self-blame coping mechanisms (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005;
Lee-Baggley et al., 2004).
Conscientiousness appears to be related to greater feelings of personal
accomplishment (Kokkinos, 2007). For example, Deary et al. (1996), Hochwlder
(2006) and Piedmont (1993) found that this factor is positively associated with
personal accomplishment. Kokkinos (2007) established that there is a negative
relationship between Conscientiousness and depersonalisation. Zellars et al.
(2000) argue that the goal-directed behaviour and focus on efficacy
demonstrated by individuals scoring high on this factor may lead these
individuals not to focus on clients, but more on achieving results, which leads to
increased depersonalisation. However, the goal-directed behaviour and striving
for accomplishment related to this factor may result in increased experiences of
professional accomplishment (McCrae & Costa, 2006; Zellars et al., 2000). High
scores on Conscientiousness have been related to reduced use of escapeavoidance, and self-blame strategies, and the use of problem-solving strategies
(Bouchard et al., 2004; DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al., 2004).
Thus,

there

appears

to

be

relationship

between

high

scores

on

Conscientiousness and reduced experiences of burnout (Zellars et al., 2000).

The results of the above-mentioned studies are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Summary of Research Findings on the Relationship between
Burnout and Personality Traits
Author
Bakker et al. (2006)

FFM Trait
Neuroticism

Relationship

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation; negative relationship

83

with personal accomplishment

Extroversion

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation; positive relationship
with personal accomplishment

Bhler

and

Land Neuroticism

(2003)

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation

Extroversion

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation

Deary et al. (1996)

Extroversion

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Agreeableness

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation

Conscientiousness

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Hills et al. (2004)

Neuroticism

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation

Hochwlder (2006)

Neuroticism

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion

Agreeableness

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation

Conscientiousness

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Kokkinos (2007)

Neuroticism

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation; negative relationship
with personal accomplishment

Extroversion

Negative relationship with emotional

exhaustion; negative relationship with
depersonalisation; positive relationship
with personal accomplishment

84

 Openness

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation; negative relationship
with personal accomplishment

Conscientiousness

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment; negative relationship
with depersonalisation

Miner (2007)

Neuroticism

Negative relationship with emotional

exhaustion

Extroversion

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Piedmont (1993)

Neuroticism

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
depersonalisation

Agreeableness

Negative relationship with emotional

exhaustion; positive relationship with
personal accomplishment

Conscientiousness

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Storm and

Extroversion

Rothmann (2003)

Negative relationship with emotional

exhaustion

Openness

Positive relationship with personal

accomplishment

Tomic et al. (2004)

Extroversion

Negative relationship with emotional

exhaustion; negative relationship with
depersonalisation; positive relationship
with personal accomplishment

Zellars et al. (2000)

Neuroticism

Positive relationship with emotional

exhaustion

Extroversion

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation; positive relationship
with personal accomplishment

Openness

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation; positive relationship

85

with personal accomplishment

Agreeableness

Negative relationship with

depersonalisation

3.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, the trait approach to personality has been explored. The fivefactor model was discussed, and the relationship between these five-factors and
burnout was provided. In light of this literature review, it appears that all of the
five-factors are related to burnout. The most consistent findings are that
Neuroticism is positively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation,
and negatively related to personal accomplishment. Extroversion appears to be
negatively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, and positively
related to personal accomplishment. Openness to Experience has been
demonstrated to be negatively related to depersonalisation, and positively related
to personal accomplishment. Agreeableness appears to be negatively related to
emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. The last factor, Conscientiousness
is most consistently found to be positively related to personal accomplishment.
3.9 Preview of the contents of the following chapter
In the following chapter the research method as it pertains to this study is
discussed.

86

CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD
4.1 Introduction
The research design and method is the most crucial aspect of a study, as a weak
design and method retracts from the value of research findings (Heppner &
Heppner, 2004). This chapter commences with an overview of the research
design, and includes a brief discussion of the quantitative paradigm, and
descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. This is followed by the research
hypotheses. Thereafter, the research method is presented and includes the
participants sampled in the study as well as a description of the questionnaires
completed by participants. The data analyses employed in this research is
subsequently discussed, and the chapter concludes with a description of the
ethical procedures that were followed in the completion of the study.
4.2 Research design
In this study, a quantitative research paradigm was employed. More specifically,
a cross-sectional survey design, in which correlational research was conducted,
was used (Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008; Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). In this
section the research design is discussed.
4.2.1 The quantitative research paradigm
Quantitative research is concerned with the numerical presentation of data, and
is considered an empirical means of scientific research (Dyer, 1995; Goodwin,
2008). The quantitative paradigm stands in contrast to the qualitative paradigm,
which in recent years has become increasingly popular in psychological research
(Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008; Heppner & Heppner, 2004; Heppner, Kivlighan &

87

Wampold, 1999). The qualitative paradigm deals with themes that arise out of
data, and data collection includes methods such as interviews, case-study
reports and observational studies (Dyer, 1995; Heppner et al., 1999). The
quantitative paradigm is concerned with generalisations of results from a sample
group to the population as a whole (Heppner et al., 1999). The use of statistics is
employed to achieve this aim. Two types of statistical techniques used in the
quantitative paradigm are descriptive and inferential statistics (Dyer, 1995;
Heppner et al., 1999).
4.2.2 Descriptive and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics reduces a large quantity of data into information that is more
easily comprehended (Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008). According to Dyer (1995),
this statistical method is frequently used as a starting point in quantitative
research, as it is uncomplicated to compute and may be used as the foundation
upon which further statistical analysis may be built. Thus, the goal of descriptive
statistics is to summarise data into manageable information. Inferential statistics
is used to generalise data from a sample group into the population as a whole
(Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). This statistical technique allows for the testing of
hypotheses that are not directly available. As such, an inference is derived from
the data set (Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008).
4.2.3 Survey design and correlational research
The research design used in this study is the survey design. Survey research
involves the administration of questionnaires to participants to determine a
particular variable, such as attitudes or personality (Goodwin, 2008; Heppner et
al., 1999). Although surveys are generally used to develop an accurate
description of a particular variable, in this research, the aim of the questionnaires
was to establish the relationship between the variables of personality and

88

burnout (Goodwin, 2008). To achieve this objective, correlational research was

employed.
Correlational research is used to measure the nature of the relationship and
strength of the relationship between variables. This strategy does not attempt to
manipulate the variables, but is rather concerned with variables as they naturally
exist. However, correlational research is not used to infer underlying causal
relationships between the variables (Gravetter & Forzano, 2003; Heppner et al.,
1999). The correlational research design allows for an investigation of a
relationship between personality traits and burnout (Goodwin, 2008). In addition
to the use of Pearson product-moment correlations to investigate this
relationship, multiple regression analyses were used to explore the combined
effect of personality traits on burnout.
4.3 Hypotheses
Hypotheses deal with the expected results to be obtained from a research
inquiry. Hypotheses are generally based upon a scientific theory, allowing for
both prediction and testability (Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008). The hypotheses
tested in this research are:
(Ho1): The MBI-SS is not a valid and reliable instrument in the South African
context.
(Ha1): The MBI-SS is a valid and reliable instrument in the South African context.
(Ho2): There is no statistically significant relationship between the Big Five
personality traits and burnout.
(Ha2): There is a statistically significant relationship between the Big Five
personality traits and burnout.

89

4.4 Research method

This section discusses the participants sampled in the study, the nature of the
questionnaires

administered

and

the

administration

procedure

of

the

questionnaires.
4.4.1 Participants
The participants in this study were university students (N = 297). The majority of
the participants fell into the age group between 18 and 24 (94.6%). This age
group can be considered the usual age of university student populations. Several
participants did however indicate other ages. The mean age of the participants
was 21.24 (SD = 2.675). Further descriptions of the participants are provided in
Tables 4.1 to 4.5. Participants were selected by means of non-probability
sampling. In non-probability sampling, the researcher does not know the
probability of a particular individual been selected. For this reason, the use of
non-probability sampling is considered to be a biased method of participant
selection as there is a risk of selecting a biased sample (Gravetter & Forzano,
2003). However, despite this disadvantage, the strength of the non-probability
sampling method is that it removes the requirement of having to specify the
entire population, as in random sampling techniques (Dyer, 1995). Thus,
according to Dyer (1995), the use of this technique is acceptable when the
representativeness of the sample from the population is not a significant factor.
Various forms of non-probability sampling techniques are available. The
technique used in this research was convenience sampling. In convenience
sampling, individuals who are available and willing to participate in a study are
selected (Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). This technique is considered an ineffective
means of data collection as it does not make use of a random selection process,
resulting in a biased sample. However, despite this limitation, convenience
sampling allows for the attainment of a large sample in a short duration of time

90

(Dyer, 1995; Goodwin, 2008; Gravetter & Forzano, 2003; Heppner et al., 1999).
Goodwin (2008) contends that this sampling technique is suitable when the
participants selected meet the requirements of the study. For these reasons, the
use of non-probability sampling, and convenience sampling in particular, was
considered acceptable in this study, as the required participants are university
students. Thus, the participants selected in this study fulfilled Goodwins (2008)
requirement.
In order to reduce bias in a study using the non-probability sampling technique,
Gravetter and Forzano (2003) suggest that two strategies are employed. Firstly,
the researcher must make an attempt to obtain a representative sample.
Secondly, the description of the sample obtained must be clear and
unambiguous to allow readers to scrutinise the sample for bias and
representativeness. In this study, both these strategies were employed. The
researcher ensured that questionnaires were provided to students from various
faculties, as students from only one faculty may skew the results. For example,
students from the Faculty of Humanities may have a trend toward certain
personality traits (see for example the argument provided by Schaufeli and
Enzmann (1998) around personality traits and burnout, provided in section 2.7.2),
and this may negatively affect the hypotheses tested in the study. Furthermore,
based on the limitations of the studies by Mostert et al. (2007) and Pienaar and
Sieberhagen (2005), participants from various ethnic and language groups as
well as participants from both genders were selected in order to obtain a
representative sample. Table 4.1 presents the gender and racial distribution of
participants in this study.
Table 4.1 Gender and Racial Group Distribution of Participants
N
297

GENDER

RACIAL GROUP

Female

Male

Missing

Black

Coloured

White

Asian

Missing

191

104

76

10

179

30

91

The participants in this study consisted of 191 women (64.3%) and 104 men
(35%). Of the four racial groups, 76 were black (25.6%), 10 coloured (3.4%), 179
white (60.7%) and 30 Asian (10.1%). Table 4.2 summarises the language
distribution of the participants in this study.
Table 4.2 Home Language Distribution of Participants
LANGUAGE

N = 297

English

158

Afrikaans

65

IsiZulu

25

Isixhosa

Setswana

12

Northern Sotho

Southern Sotho

10

Other

15

Missing data

In order to explore the reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS in South
African university students, participants from a variety of languages were
included in the sample. The majority of the participants (158, 53.2%) indicated
that English was there home language. Sixty-five participants (21.9%) indicated
that they spoke Afrikaans, and 57 participants (19.1%) indicated that they spoke
one of the indigenous African languages. Fifteen participants (5.1%) indicated
that they spoke a language not indicated on the biographical questionnaire.
Several of these other languages are African languages, but languages not
indigenous to South African were also included. The language distribution in this
sample was representative of the general university population. In addition, the
limitations of previous studies using the MBI-SS in South Africa made the
sampled language groups satisfactory for this study. Table 4.3 summarises the
faculty distributions of the participants.

92

Table 4.3 Faculty Distribution of Participants

FACULTY

N = 297

Education

Law

Engineering

Humanities

83

Science

18

Management

82

Economics and Finance

40

Health

64

Missing data

In order to ensure that the sample was not biased, the participants were selected
from a variety of faculties and all year groups of university study. The majority of
the students were from the Faculties of Humanities, Management and Health
(77%). The remaining faculties accounted for 22% of the sample. Table 4.4
indicates the year groups in which the participants were registered.
Table 4.4 Year of Study Distribution of Participants
YEAR

N = 297

1st year

45

2nd year

113

rd

3 year

48

Post-graduate

89

Missing data

The study obtained students from the various years of study at university. The
first year students accounted for 15.2% of the sample. The second year group,
from which the majority of students were obtained, consisted of 38.3% of the total
sample. The third year group sample was 16.2% and the post-graduate sample
was 30% of the total sample respectively. The year of study distribution allowed

93

for a representative sample of the university population. The biographical

questionnaire included a question pertaining to the part-time work distribution of
the participants. Table 4.5 presents this information.
Table 4.5 Part-time Work Distribution of Participants
PART-TIME WORK

N = 297

Yes

146

No

149

Missing data

There were an almost an equal number of participants who had part-time work
(49.2%) as those who did not have part-time work (50.2%).
4.4.2 Instruments
Two psychometric instruments were employed, namely, the Basic Traits
Inventory - Short Form (BTI-SF; Taylor & de Bruin, 2006) and the Maslach
Burnout Inventory - Student Survey (MBI-SS; Schaufeli et al., 2002). A
biographical questionnaire was also included to obtain the necessary
biographical data for the study. In this section, the three questionnaires are
discussed.
4.4.2.1 The Basic Traits Inventory - Short Form
The Basic Traits Inventory (BTI; Taylor & de Bruin, 2006) was developed to
assess the Big Five factors of personality in the South African population. The
five

f a c t o r s are

Neuroticism,

Extroversion,

Openness

to

Experience,

Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. The five-factor model has received

empirical support in the South African context, as discussed under section 3.5.3.

94

The BTI is a paper-and-pencil test, in which the respondent completes a

questionnaire by means of self-reported answers. The BTI consists of 193 items,
which are rated on a five-point Likert type scale that range from strongly disagree
to strongly agree (Taylor & de Bruin, 2006). The standardisation sample for the
BTI consisted of police applicants and trainees (62.2%), psychology students
(17.8%), medical aid call centre employees (2.7%) and Masters of Business
Administration students (3.2%). The ethnic status of the sample was Black
(66.3%), White (14.8%), Coloured (3.4%), Asian (2.6%), other (0.6%) and
unspecified (12.4%). Factor analyses established that the Big Five factors
emerged across the various cultural groups found in South Africa. Congruence
coefficients were found to be at, or above 0.96, indicating that the Big Five
personality factors are found in both the Black and White population groups in
South Africa (Taylor, 2004; Taylor & de Bruin, 2006).
The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients (total coefficients including both the
Black and White ethnic groups) reported in the BTI manual (Taylor & de Bruin,
2006) are Extroversion (0.87), Neuroticism (0.93), Conscientiousness (0.93),
Openness to Experience (0.87) and Agreeableness (0.89). Thomson (2007), in a
sample of men and women in the corporate sector, found Cronbach reliability
coefficients

of

0.89

Conscientiousness,

for

0.89

Extroversion,
for

Openness

0.94
to

for

Neuroticism,

Experience

and

0.91

for

0.90

for

Agreeableness.
The BTI-SF is a shortened version of the BTI, and similarly measures the Big
Five personality traits. The BTI-SF consists of 60 items which are rated on a fivepoint Likert type scale that range from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The
authors of the BTI extracted these 60 items from the original instrument. This
version of the BTI is currently being regarded as a research instrument. The
following Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained for the BTI-SF in this study:
Extroversion (0.84), Neuroticism (0.88), Conscientiousness (0.88), Openness to

95

Experience (0.85) and Agreeableness (0.81). Thus, the reliability coefficients in

the study were found to be satisfactory (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1983, 2001).
4.4.2.2 The Maslach Burnout Inventory - Student Survey
The MBI-SS (Schaufeli et al., 2002) is an adapted version of the MBI-GS, and
measures three aspects of the burnout syndrome: exhaustion, cynicism and
professional efficacy. The instrument consists of 15 items, five items measure
exhaustion, four items cynicism and six items professional efficacy. The items
are scored on a 7-point frequency scale, with the range covering 0 (never) to 6
(always). The professional efficacy scale is reverse scored. The MBI-SS has
adapted items from the MBI-GS for use in the student population (Schaufeli et
al., 2002). For example, the item I feel emotionally drained from my work [italics
added] was replaced with I feel emotionally drained from my study [italics
added] (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 467). As with the other versions of the MBI,
there are no norms scores available for the MBI-SS. Rather, burnout is indicated
by the attainment of high scores on exhaustion and cynicism, and low scores on
professional efficacy (Schaufeli et al., 2002).
Recently a professional inefficacy scale was added to the MBI-SS (Bres et al.,
2007; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007). The professional inefficacy scale consists of
negatively worded items from the professional efficacy scale. The professional
inefficacy scale also consists of six items which are scored on a 7-point
frequency scale. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients as reported by Bres et
al. (2007) were 0.65 for the Dutch sample and 0.62 for the Spanish sample.
Despite the relatively low reliability correlations, Bres et al. (2007) found that
observed and latent correlations, concurrent validity and confirmatory factor
analysis supported that professional inefficacy is a better fit with burnout than the
professional efficacy scale. An item analysis conducted by Bres et al. (2007)
found that no items required alteration; however, the professional inefficacy scale
may require more items to improve the internal consistency of this scale. The

96

professional inefficacy scale was included in this study in order to determine the
reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS with and without this scale. This
allowed for an examination of the reliability of the professional efficacy and
inefficacy scales in the South African student population.
The MBI-SS has been researched in South Africa (Mostert et al., 2007; Pienaar
& Sieberhagen, 2005). In the study by Mostert et al. (2007), Afrikaans and
Setswana speaking participants (N = 353) were selected from the Economic and
Management Sciences Faculty at two campuses from a local university. Mostert
et al. (2007) randomised the items of the MBI-SS with items from the Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli et al., 2002) to prevent response
bias. The Cronbach alpha coefficients found were 0.74 for exhaustion and 0.68
for cynicism, with professional efficacy not been explored in the study. These
reliabilities are not considered high (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), but Mostert et al.
(2007) demonstrated evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the MBISS for South African university students. One item from the cynicism scale (I
have become more cynical about the potential usefulness of my studies) was
found to be statistically insignificant (Mostert et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2002,
p. 478). Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005) sampled student leaders (N = 154)
from the Students Representative Council and members of the House
Committees from a local university. The majority of students were Afrikaans
speaking and from the White ethnic group. Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005)
found Cronbach alpha coefficients of 0.79 for exhaustion, 0.73 for cynicism and
0.76 for professional efficacy.
The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the present study are presented in section
5.2.2 as they form part of the research question. The reliability coefficients were
however found to be satisfactory for the purpose of this study (Nunnaly &
Bernstein, 1994). The reader is referred to page 102 to inspect the Cronbach
alpha coefficients obtained in the study.

97

4.4.2.3 Biographical questionnaire

The biographical questionnaire required information pertaining to the participants
age, gender, ethnic group, current year of study, current part-time work, and
faculty in which registered. This information allowed for the selection of a
representative sample, as it was possible to ascertain whether the sample was
biased or unbiased in favour of certain groups of students.
4.4.3 Administration of the questionnaires and procedure
The questionnaires used in this research were administered during normal
lecture time, as per permission from the lecturers. The administration was
performed by the researcher under supervision of a registered psychologist. The
participants were informed about the nature of the study as well as that
participation was voluntary. In addition, the participants were directed to carefully
scrutinise the confidentiality section provided in the questionnaire pack before
continuing with the study. Ethical considerations were of paramount importance
in this study. Section 4.6 of this chapter provides a full description of the ethical
procedures followed.
4.5 Data analyses
Based on the research problem, the general purpose of the study was to
determine the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout, as
well as to explore the reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS. The data
analyses in the study were performed by using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS, version 15). Descriptive (mean scores and standard deviations)
and inferential statistics were employed in the analysis of the data. The
reliabilities of the BTI and MBI-SS were ascertained by means of Cronbach alpha
coefficients. Cronbachs alpha is used as a measure of internal consistency

98

reliability and is able to ascertain the reliability of measures that have multiple
items that are not dichotomous (Urbina, 2004; Wolfaardt & Roodt, 2005).
In addition to assessing the reliability of the MBI-SS, the construct validity of this
instrument for the South African context was assessed by means of confirmatory
factor analysis (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Factor analysis is used to ascertain the
factor domains that underlie a variable or measure. Thus, it allows for the
grouping together of factors that measure the same, or a similar construct (de
Bruin, 2005; Urbina, 2004). Two types of factor analysis exist, namely,
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis is
concerned with the discovery of the factors that underlie a construct. Conversely,
confirmatory factor analysis is used to confirm the factors that already exist in a
particular measure (Urbina, 2004). Confirmatory factor analysis was performed in
this study to investigate whether the postulated three-factor model emerged for
the group. To determine whether factor analysis was viable, inter-correlations
among the items were calculated. Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) recommended
that the number of coefficients greater than 0.30 be considered to ascertain
whether a factor analysis is appropriate.
To further evaluate the factorability of the data, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
measure of sampling adequacy was calculated. The KMO index ranges from 0 to
1, with 0.6 suggested as the minimum value for a factor analysis (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2001). In determining the number of factors to be extracted, the Kaiser
eigenvalues-greater-than-one criterion and Cattells scree test were considered
(Pallant, 2007). Within the broad spectrum of factor analysis, this study made use
of principal axis factor analysis. Principal axis factor analysis is a multivariate
procedure which rotates the data such that maximum variabilities are projected
onto the axes (Pallant, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
Once the number of factors was determined, the resultant factor matrix was
interpreted. To facilitate interpretation, the factors were rotated. Diekhoff (1992)

99

stated that the factors which explain the most variance are rotated to make their
meaning clearer. For the purposes of this study the factors were rotated
according to the oblique Direct Oblimin criterion. To enhance interpretation of the
factor matrix, loadings greater than 0.30 were considered. This approach was in
line with Diekhoffs (1992) recommendation that factor loadings of greater than or
equal to 0.30 for oblique rotations are salient.
The relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout was
determined by means of Pearson product moment correlations. The correlation is
used to explore the strength and direction of a relationship between variables
(Pallant, 2007). Following the guidelines of Cohen (1988), correlations of about
0.10 may be regarded as small, correlations of about 0.30 as moderate, and
correlations of 0.50 and higher as large. The predictive effects of the Big Five
personality factors and burnout were ascertained by means of multiple
regression analyses (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Multiple regression analysis is used
to predict the variance between the dependent variable and independent
variables (Coolican, 2004; Pallant, 2007). Multiple regression permits for multiple
predictions in which the influence of each predictor variable is directly
proportional to the correlation that exists between the variable and the criterion,
and inversely proportional to other predictors (Urbina, 2004). Thus, multiple
regression analysis explores the interrelationships among variables and the
contribution of each predictor to explaining the variance in the dependent
variable (Pallant, 2007; Urbina, 2004). This method was used to determine how
much variance in burnout can be explained by personality (Heppner & Heppner,
2004).
4.6 Ethical considerations
The proposal for the study was submitted to the Faculty of Humanities Higher
Degrees Committee. The ethical considerations were approved by the
Committee. Participants were informed about the nature and role of the research,

100

as well as the importance of their participation in the research. Participants were

also informed that participation is free and voluntary, and that they have the right
to decline participation if they so choose. In addition they were informed that
there are no deleterious consequences following their refusal to participate in the
study. Confidentially was strictly upheld, and no personally identifying information
was required from the participants. The participants were also required to
complete an informed consent form. The participants were informed that the
research results would be made available in printed and electronic format at the
University of Johannesburg library, and the participants were encouraged to
scrutinize the results obtained. In addition, the consent form clearly demarcated
that results would possibly be published in a scientific journal.
4.7 Preview of the contents of the following chapter
In chapter 5 the results of the data analyses are reported.

101

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the Big Five
personality traits and burnout in university students, and also to explore the
psychometric properties of the MBI-SS in the South African context. The
psychometric properties of the MBI-SS were determined by Cronbachs alpha
coefficients and confirmatory factor analysis. The results of the reliability and
validity analyses are presented, followed by the correlation matrix of the Big Five
personality traits and the three components of burnout (emotional exhaustion,
cynicism and professional efficacy). Hereafter the results of the multiple
regression analyses for each of the dependent variables, namely, emotional
exhaustion, cynicism and personal accomplishment are presented.
5.2 The psychometric properties of the MBI-SS
This study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS, as
only two studies have explored this instrument in the South African context (see
section 4.4.2.2). The descriptive statistics of the MBI-SS are presented, and this
is followed by the results of the reliability analysis and a discussion of the factor
analysis of the MBI-SS.
5.2.1 Descriptive statistics for the MBI-SS
The means and standard deviations of the three components of the MBI-SS were
determined. The descriptive statistics for the MBI-SS are presented in Table 5.1.

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Table 5.1 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of the MBI-SS

MBI-SS Scale
Minimum Maximum Mean
SD
Emotional exhaustion

1.00

30.00

14.22

6.50

Cynicism

0.00

24.00

6.15

5.48

Professional efficacy

5.00

36.00

26.10

5.54

High scores on emotional exhaustion and cynicism, and low scores on

professional efficacy are indicative of burnout (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Pienaar
and Sieberhagen (2005) obtained a mean of 12.97 for emotional exhaustion,
9.94 for cynicism and 18.62 for professional efficacy in the student population.
The mean score for emotional exhaustion in this study is higher than the score
obtained by Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005). The professional efficacy score in
this study is significantly higher and the cynicism score lower than the one
reported by Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005). It thus appears that the students in
this sample were experiencing low to average levels of burnout.
5.2.2 The reliability coefficients of the MBI-SS
The reliability coefficients of the MBI-SS were ascertained by means of
Cronbachs alpha coefficients (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Cronbachs alpha
determines the extent to which the items of a scale measure the same underlying
construct (Pallant, 2007; Urbina, 2004). Alpha values equal to or greater than
0.70 indicate good reliability (Nunnaly & Bernstein, 1994). The Cronbach alpha
coefficient for the emotional exhaustion scale in this study was 0.87. The
cynicism scale obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.88 and the reliability
coefficient of the professional efficacy scale was 0.78. These reliability
coefficients are considered to be satisfactory (Nunnaly & Bernstein, 1994).
The alpha coefficient for the newly developed professional inefficacy scale was
0.81. This reliability alpha is higher than the ones reported in previous research.
Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) found Cronbach alphas of 0.62 for Spanish

103

students and 0.65 for Dutch students. Although a better reliability coefficient was
obtained for the professional inefficacy scale, the subsequent analyses in the
study did not make use of the professional inefficacy scale as no research has
been conducted on this scale in the South African context. The researcher made
use of the original MBI-SS, which consists of the professional efficacy scale.
This allowed for an exploration of the MBI-SS as it currently exists. Furthermore,
the reliability coefficients and factor analyses revealed that the two scales appear
to be mostly equivalent. Inclusion of the professional inefficacy scale was based
on recent research by Bres et al. (2007) and Salanova and Schaufeli (2007)
which indicated that this scale may be more appropriately suited to the burnout
scale, and was thus included in this study based on a theoretical basis.
However, due to the limited studies on the professional efficacy scale and the
lack of studies exploring this scale in the South African context, the researcher
did not include this scale in the analyses. Further research is required into this
newly developed scale.
5.2.3 Confirmatory factor analysis of the MBI-SS
The factor analysis of the MBI-SS was conducted by means of confirmatory
factor analysis. Factor analysis is used to summarise a set of variables into a
smaller set of factors by means of the intercorrelation between variables (Pallant,
2007). Within the broad spectrum of factor analysis, this study made use of
principal axis factor analysis.
In order to evaluate the factorability of the MBI-SS data, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was calculated and Bartletts Test of
Sphericity was determined. The KMO value in this study was 0.83, exceeding the
recommended value of 0.60 and the Bartletts Test of Sphericity reached
statistical significance, supporting the factorability of the correlational matrix
(Pallant, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). In determining the number of factors
to be extracted, the Kaiser eigenvalues-greater-than-one criterion and Cattells

104

scree test were considered. According to the Kaiser criterion, only factors with
eigenvalues of 1.0 or more should be retained (Cramer, 2003). Cattells scree
test illustrates the number of factors to be extracted by plotting the eigenvalues of
the factors on a graph. All factors above the break in the plot are considered to
be salient (Pallant, 2007). The Kaiser eigenvalues-greater-than-one criterion and
the screeplot suggested three factors to be extracted, and for this reason three
factors were extracted in the subsequent analyses. The three-component
solution explained a total of 63.4% of the variance, with factor 1 contributing
35.88%, factor 2 contributing 16.65% and factor 3 contributing 10.85%. The
screeplot is presented in Figure 5.1.

Eigenvalue

0
1

10

11

Factor Number

Figure 5.1 Cattells screeplot of the eigenvalues of the MBI-SS

105

12

13

14

15

5.2.3.1 Factor rotation

To aid in the interpretation of these three factors, the factors were rotated
according to the oblique Direct Oblimin criterion. To enhance interpretation of the
factor matrix, loadings greater than 0.30 were considered. This approach was in
line with Diekhoffs (1992) recommendation that factor loadings of greater than or
equal to 0.30 for oblique rotations are salient. Table 5.2 presents the pattern
matrix of the Oblimin Rotation with a three-factor solution of the MBI-SS.
Table 5.2 Pattern Matrix with Oblimin Rotation of Three-Factor Solution of
MBI-SS items
Item

Pattern coefficients
Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

0.704

- 0.039

0.018

0.789

0.050

- 0.067

0.767

0.006

0.055

0.653

- 0.057

0.125

0.869

0.020

- 0.007

0.176

- 0.156

0.662

0.211

- 0.088

0.733

- 0.008

0.092

0.822

- 0.029

0.014

0.837

10

- 0.057

0.565

0.122

11

0.084

0.541

- 0.024

12

- 0.065

0.711

- 0.002

13

- 0.001

0.662

- 0.005

14

0.061

0.467

- 0.325

15

- 0.016

0.691

- 0.055

Note: All values greater than 0.30 are underlined

106

The rotation solution indicated a number of strong loadings with most variables
loading substantially on only one factor. Question 14 (I have learned many
interesting things during the course of my studies) however loaded on two
factors. Although this item cross loaded on two factors, the item was not removed
from subsequent analyses.
5.2.3.2 Correlations of the factors
The interfactor correlation coefficients among the three factors ranged from -0.20
(between Factor 1 and 2) to 0.41 (between Factor 1 and 3). In accordance with
Cohens (1988) guidelines of interpreting correlations, none of the correlations
obtained are considered large ( 0.50) indicating that the three factors are
measuring separate constructs. The interfactor correlation coefficients are
presented in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Interfactor Correlation Matrix
Factor

Emotional exhaustion

1.000

Professional efficacy

-0.203

1.000

Cynicism

0.407

-0.357

1.000

5.2.4 Hypotheses related to the reliability and validity of the MBI-SS

The study revealed that the MBI-SS appears to be a reliable and valid instrument
for the South African context. The reliability coefficients were found to be
satisfactory (alpha coefficients exceeding 0.70), and the confirmatory factor
analysis revealed a three-factor structure. As such, the null hypothesis (Ho1) that
the MBI-SS is not a valid and reliable instrument in the South African context is
rejected. The alternative hypothesis (Ha1) that the MBI-SS is a valid and reliable
instrument in the South African context is accepted.

107

5.2.5 Summary of the statistical findings of the MBI-SS

The data analyses found that the Cronbach reliability alphas of the MBI-SS were
0.87 for emotional exhaustion, 0.88 for personal accomplishment and 0.78 for
professional efficacy. These reliability alphas are considered satisfactory.
Cattells scree test suggested that three factors be extracted. The eigenvalues
indicated that the three-factor solution explained a total of 63.4% of the variance,
with factor 1 contributing 35.88%, factor 2 16.65% and factor 3 contributing
10.85%. The three factors were subsequently rotated according to the oblique
Direct Oblimin criterion, where loadings greater than 0.30 were considered. Most
of the variables loaded on one component respectively. Only question 14 (I have
learned many interesting things during the course of my studies) was found to
load on two components. The factor correlations between the three factors
suggested that a three factor structure solution was optimal. Based on the results
the null hypothesis (Ho1) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted
(Ha1).
5.3 The relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout
The relationships between the Big Five personality traits and burnout were
determined by means of Pearson product moment correlations and the predictive
effect of personality in burnout was ascertained by means of multiple regression
analysis. The following section presents the correlation coefficients among the
individual personality traits and burnout, and this is followed by the results
pertaining to the predictive effect of personality traits on burnout.
5.3.1 The correlations between the Big Five personality traits and burnout
The relationships between the Big Five personality traits (Neuroticism,
Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness)
and burnout (emotional exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy) were

108

investigated by determining Pearson product moment correlation coefficients.

According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) coefficients greater than 0.30 may be
regarded as meaningful. The levels of significance of the correlations were
considered at p 0.05 and p 0.01. Analysis of the data in this study revealed
several statistically significant correlations, both at the 0.01 and 0.05 significance
levels. Table 5.4 presents the correlation matrix.
Table 5.4 Correlation Matrix of the Big Five Personality Traits and Burnout
E
E

EE

CY

PA

1.00

-0.179(**)

1.00

0.234(**)

-0.169(**)

1.00

0.458(**)

-0.134(*)

0.330(**)

1.00

0.320(**)

-0.084

0.230(**)

0.398(**)

1.00

EE

-0.129(*)

0.343(**)

-0.167(**)

-0.096

-0.077

1.00

CY

-0.139(*)

0.266(**)

-0.229(**)

-0.060

-0.174(**)

0.467(**)

1.00

PA

0.211(**)

-0.245(**)

0.444(**)

0.250(**)

0.226(**)

-0.201(**)

-0.376(**)

Note: E = Extroversion; N = Neuroticism; C = Conscientiousness; O = Openness to Experience;

A = Agreeableness; EE = Emotional exhaustion; CY = Cynicism; PA = Professional efficacy
* Correlation significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
** Correlation significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Table 5.4 indicates that there are several significant correlations between the
personality traits and burnout. There was a statistically significant negative
correlation between Extroversion and emotional exhaustion (r = -0.129; p < 0.05)
and Extroversion and cynicism (r = -0.139; p < 0.05). Furthermore, a statistically
significant positive correlation between Extroversion and professional efficacy
was found (r = 0.211; p < 0.01). Although statistically significant, these
relationships are not necessarily meaningful based on Tabachnick and Fidells
(2001) recommendation that coefficients > 0.30 may be regarded as meaningful.

109

1.00

Neuroticism demonstrated a statistically significant positive relationship with

emotional exhaustion (r = 0.343; p <0.01) and cynicism (r = 0.266; p < 0.01)
respectively, and a statistically significant negative relationship with professional
efficacy (r = -0.245; p < 0.01). The relationship between Neuroticism and
emotional exhaustion may be considered meaningful as it is > 0.30. Although the
relationship between Neuroticism and Cynicism is 0.27, it is close to 0.30 and
may thus also be considered meaningful. The relationship between Neuroticism
and professional efficacy may not necessarily be regarded as meaningful
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
Conscientiousness demonstrated a statistically significant negative correlation
with emotional exhaustion (r = -0.167; p < 0.01) and cynicism (r = -0.229; p <
0.01). These relationships are statistically significant. However, they do not
satisfy Tabachnick and Fidells (2001) recommendation of coefficients > 0.30 as
meaningful.

statistically

significant

positive

correlation

between

Conscientiousness and professional efficacy (r = 0.444; p < 0.01) was found, and
this may in turn be considered meaningful (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
Openness to Experience demonstrated a statistically significant positive
relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.250; p < 0.01). Although statistically
significant, the relationship is not necessarily meaningful based on Tabachnick
and Fidells (2001) recommendation that coefficients > 0.30 may be regarded as
meaningful.
Agreeableness showed a statistically significant negative relationship with
cynicism (r = -0.174; p < 0.01) and a statistically significant positive relationship
with professional efficacy (r = 0.226; p < 0.01). These correlations are statistically
significant. They do not however satisfy Tabachnicks and Fidells (2001)
recommendation that coefficients > 0.30 may be regarded as meaningful.

110

5.3.2 The combined effect of personality traits on burnout

Multiple regression analyses were used to assess the ability of personality traits
to predict burnout. The independent variables were Extroversion, Neuroticism,
Conscientiousness,

Openness

to

Experience

and

Agreeableness.

The

dependent variables were emotional exhaustion, cynicism and professional

efficacy, respectively. Three separate multiple regression analyses were
conducted in order to determine the combined effect of personality on burnout.
The results of the multiple regression analyses are presented in Tables 5.5 to
5.10.
Table 5.5 Predictive Effect of Personality Traits on Emotional Exhaustion
Change Statistics
Model

Adjusted
R

0.365(a) 0.133

df1

df2

Change Change

0.118

0.133

8.835

Sig. F
Change

288

0.000

a Predictors: (Constant), Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,

Openness to Experience
b Dependent Variable: Emotional Exhaustion

The results indicate a statistically significant positive relationship between the

personality traits and emotional exhaustion, R = 0.133, F(5, 288) = 8.835, p <
0.001. Personality traits explained 13.3% of the variance in emotional
exhaustion. The standardised regression weights, t-values, p-levels and semipartial correlations of the predictor variables (personality traits) with emotional
exhaustion are summarised in Table 5.6.

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Table 5.6 Regression Weights, t-Test and Effect Sizes in the Prediction of
Emotional Exhaustion
Standardised
Model

Coefficients

Correlations
Zero-

Constant

3.403

0.001

order

Partial

Part

-0.038

-0.610

0.543

-0.126

-0.036

-0.033

0.316

5.612

0.000

0.343

0.314

0.308

-0.103

-1.752

0.081

-0.171

-0.103

-0.096

-0.011

-0.161

0.872

-0.108

-0.009

-0.009

-0.011

-0.177

0.859

-0.077

-0.010

-0.010

Note: E = Extroversion; N = Neuroticism; C = Conscientiousness; O = Openness to Experience; A

= Agreeableness
a

Predictors:

(Constant),

Extroversion,

Neuroticism,

Conscientiousness,

Openness

to

Experience, Agreeableness
b Dependent Variable: Emotional Exhaustion

Table 5.6 indicates that only Neuroticism ( = 0.316, r = 0.308, t = 5.612, p <
0.001) was statistically significantly related to emotional exhaustion in the
presence of all Big Five personality traits. Although the correlational analysis
revealed that there were also statistically significant relationships between
Extroversion and emotional exhaustion and Conscientiousness and emotional
exhaustion, in the presence of the other traits, it appears that they do not make a
unique contribution to the explanation of emotional exhaustion as a component of
burnout. The predictive effects of the personality traits and cynicism are
presented in Table 5.7.

112

Table 5.7 Predictive Effect of Personality Traits on Cynicism

Change Statistics
Model

Adjusted

R
2

0.358(a) 0.128

df1

df2

Change Change

0.113

0.128

8.480

Sig. F
Change

288

0.000

a Predictors: (Constant), Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,

Openness to Experience
b Dependent Variable: Cynicism

The results indicate a statistically significant positive relationship between the

personality traits and cynicism, R = 0.128, F(5, 288) = 8.480, p < 0.001.
Personality traits explained 12.8% of the variance in cynicism. The standardised
regression weights, t-values, p-levels and semi-partial correlations of the
predictor variables (personality traits) with cynicism are summarised in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8 Regression Weights, t-Test and Effect Sizes in the Prediction of
Cynicism
Standardised
Model

Coefficients

Correlations
Zero-

Constant

3.423

0.001

order

Partial

Part

-0.068

-1.082

0.280

-0.146

-0.064

-0.060

0.227

4.015

0.000

0.266

0.230

0.221

-0.180

-3.048

0.003

-0.231

-0.177

-0.168

0.105

1.598

0.111

-0.066

0.094

0.088

-0.134

-2.182

0.030

-0.174

-0.128

-0.120

Note: E = Extroversion; N = Neuroticism; C = Conscientiousness; O = Openness to Experience; A

= Agreeableness
a

Predictors:

(Constant),

Extroversion,

Neuroticism,

Experience, Agreeableness
b Dependent Variable: Cynicism

113

Conscientiousness,

Openness

to

Table 5.8 indicates that Neuroticism ( = 0.227, r = 0.221, t = 4.015, p < 0.001)
and Conscientiousness ( = -0.180, r = -0.168, t = -3.048, p < 0.005) were
statistically significantly related to cynicism in the presence of all Big Five
personality traits. Although the correlational analysis revealed that there were
also statistically significant relationships between Extroversion and cynicism and
Agreeableness and cynicism, in the presence of the other traits, it appears that
they do not make a unique contribution to the explanation of burnout. The
predictive results of the personality traits and professional efficacy are presented
in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9 Predictive Effect of Personality Traits on Professional Efficacy
Change Statistics
Model

Adjusted
R

0.498(a) 0.248

0.235

df1

df2

Change Change
0.248

19.037

Sig. F
Change

288

0.000

a Predictors: (Constant), Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,

Openness to Experience
b Dependent Variable: Professional Efficacy

The results indicate a statistically significant positive relationship between the

personality traits and professional efficacy, R = 0.248, F(5, 288) = 19.037, p <
0.001. Personality traits explained 24.8% of the variance in professional efficacy.
The standardised regression weights, t-values, p-levels and semi-partial
correlations of the predictor variables (personality traits) with professional
efficacy are summarised in Table 5.10.

114

Table 5.10 Regression Weights, t-Test and Effect Sizes in the Prediction of
Professional Efficacy
Standardised
Model

Coefficients

Correlations
Zero-

Constant

3.919

0.000

order

Partial

Part

0.046

0.792

0.429

0.212

0.047

0.040

-0.157

-3.000

0.003

-0.245

-0.174

-0.153

0.368

6.722

0.000

0.445

0.368

0.343

0.064

1.044

0.297

0.256

0.061

0.053

0.088

1.539

0.125

0.226

0.090

0.079

Note: E = Extroversion; N = Neuroticism; C = Conscientiousness; O = Openness to Experience; A

= Agreeableness
a

Predictors:

(Constant),

Extroversion,

Neuroticism,

Conscientiousness,

Openness

to

Experience, Agreeableness
b Dependent Variable: Professional Efficacy

Table 5.10 indicates that Neuroticism ( = -0.157, r = -0.153, t = -3.000, p <

0.005) and Conscientiousness ( = 0.368, r = 0.343, t = 6.722, p < 0.001) were
statistically significantly related to professional efficacy in the presence of all Big
Five personality traits. Although the correlational analysis revealed that there
were also statistically significant relationships between Extroversion and
professional efficacy, Agreeableness and professional efficacy as well as
Openness to Experience and professional efficacy, in the presence of the other
traits, it appears that they do not make a unique contribution to the explanation of
burnout.
5.3.3 Hypotheses of the relationship between personality traits and burnout
The data analyses revealed several significant relationships between personality
traits and burnout. As such, the null hypothesis (Ho2) that there is no statistically

115

significant relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout is
rejected, and the alternative hypothesis (Ha2) that there is a statistically significant
relationship between the Big Five personality traits and burnout is accepted.
5.3.4 Summary of the relationship between the Big Five personality traits
and burnout
Several statistically significant correlations between the Big Five personality traits
and the three burnout components were found in the study. The analysis
revealed that Extroversion was negatively related to emotional exhaustion (r = 0.129; p < 0.05) and cynicism (r = -0.139; p < 0.05), and positively related to
professional efficacy (r = 0.211; p < 0.01). Neuroticism demonstrated a positive
relationship with emotional exhaustion (r = 0.343; p <0.01) and depersonalisation
(r = 0.266; p < 0.01) and a negative relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.245; p < 0.01). Conscientiousness demonstrated a negative relationship with
emotional exhaustion (r = -0.167; p < 0.01) and cynicism (r = -0.229; p < 0.01)
and a positive relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.444; p < 0.01).
Openness to Experience demonstrated a positive relationship with professional
efficacy (r = 0.25; p < 0.01). Agreeableness demonstrated a negative relationship
with cynicism (r = -0.174; p < 0.01) and a positive relationship with professional
efficacy (r = 0.226; p < 0.01). Although many of the correlations were statistically
significant, the relationships may not necessarily be regarded as meaningful
based on Tabachnick and Fidells (2001) recommendation that coefficients >
0.30 may be regarded as meaningful.
The multiple regression analyses revealed that the personality traits were able to
explain approximately 13% of the variance in emotional exhaustion (R = 0.133,
F(5, 288) = 8.835, p < 0.001). The personality traits accounted for 12.8% of the
variance in cynicism (R = 0.128, F(5, 288) = 8.480, p < 0.001) and almost 25%
of the variance in professional efficacy (R = 0.248, F(5, 288) = 19.037, p <
0.001). It appears that in the presence of the other traits only Neuroticism is

116

statistically significantly related to emotional exhaustion ( = 0.316, r = 0.308, t =

5.612, p < 0.001). In regards to cynicism, Neuroticism ( = 0.227, r = 0.221, t =
4.015, p < 0.001) and Conscientiousness ( = -0.180, r = -0.168, t = -3.048, p <
0.005) were found to be statistically significantly related to the cynicism factor in
the presence of the other traits. Neuroticism ( = -0.157, r = -0.153, t = -3.000, p
< 0.005) and Conscientiousness ( = 0.368, r = 0.343, t = 6.722, p < 0.001) were
also found to be statistically significantly related to professional efficacy in the
presence of the other traits. Based on the results the null hypothesis (Ho2) was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis (Ha2) accepted.
5.4 Conclusion
In this section the results of the data analyses was presented. The results
indicate that the MBI-SS is considered a reliable and valid instrument in the
South African context and that a statistically significant relationship between
personality and burnout exists.
5.5 Preview of the contents of the following chapter
The subsequent chapter provides a discussion of the results from the data
analyses. Furthermore, an exploration of future directions for study and
interventions, as well as the limitations of the study are presented.
followed by a conclusion.

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This is

CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction
The aim of the study was to explore the reliability and construct validity of the
MBI-SS, and to determine the relationship between the Big Five personality traits
and burnout as well as the predictive effect of the Big Five personality traits on
burnout. This chapter discusses the implications of the results presented in
Chapter 5. The findings are discussed in the context of previous research
findings with regards to the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS, and the
relationship between personality and burnout. Thereafter the limitations and
research implications of the study are presented. Directions for future research
are subsequently reviewed. This is followed by the conclusion.
6.2. Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested in the study:
(Ho1): The MBI-SS is not a valid and reliable instrument in the South African
context.
(Ha1): The MBI-SS is a valid and reliable instrument in the South African context.
(Ho2): There is no statistically significant relationship between the Big Five
personality traits and burnout.
(Ha2): There is a statistically significant relationship between the Big Five
personality traits and burnout.

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6.3 Discussion of the results of the study

In this section the results pertaining to the aforementioned hypotheses are
discussed.
6.3.1 Discussion of the reliability and construct validity of the MBI-SS
Hypothesis one is concerned with the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS in
the South African context. The psychometric properties of the MBI-SS have
received support both internationally and in South Africa (Lingard, 2007; Mostert
et al., 2007; Pienaar & Sieberhagen, 2005; Schaufeli et al., 2002). The
psychometric properties of the MBI-SS are also supported by the findings from
this study. Cronbach alpha coefficients for the MBI-SS in this study were 0.87 for
emotional exhaustion, 0.88 for cynicism, 0.78 for professional efficacy and 0.81
for professional inefficacy. As such, the alpha coefficients obtained in the current
study are considered satisfactory and the results indicate that the MBI-SS can be
considered a reliable instrument in the South African context. Schaufeli et al.
(2002) explored the Cronbach alpha coefficients in a sample from Spain,
Portugal and the Netherlands. In these studies, the alpha coefficients for
exhaustion were 0.74, 0.79 and 0.80, respectively. The alpha coefficients for
cynicism were 0.79, 0.82 and 0.86, and the alpha coefficients for professional
efficacy were 0.76, 0.69 and 0.67, respectively. In South Africa, Mostert et al.
(2007) obtained Cronbach alpha coefficients of 0.74 for exhaustion and 0.68 for
cynicism. Pienaar and Sieberhagen (2005) found Cronbach alpha coefficients of
0.79 for emotional exhaustion, 0.73 for cynicism and 0.76 for professional
efficacy. The results of the current study showed coefficients that are somewhat
higher than the aforementioned research.
The somewhat higher reliability coefficients in this study may be explained by the
demographic characteristics of the sample. Mostert et al. (2007) only made use
of students in the Economics and Management Sciences faculty, and Pienaar

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and Sieberhagen (2005) made use of members of the students representative

council and house committees. Mostert et al. (2007) sampled mostly Afrikaans
and Setswana speaking students, and Pienaar et al. (2005) sampled mainly
Afrikaans speaking students. The current study included students from a variety
of faculty groups, and several different language groups. Reliability coefficients
obtained from a measurement instrument are subject to the nature of the sample
and

the

assessment

instrument

(Urbina,

2004).

Thus,

demographic

characteristics may have affected the reliability coefficients. Mostert et al. (2007)
randomised the items of the MBI-SS and the engagement questionnaire in order
to reduce answering bias and response sets. Thus, the higher Cronbach alpha
coefficients in the study could also be explained by answering bias and response
sets, as the items in the study were not randomly presented.
As already mentioned, the Cronbach alpha coefficient for the professional
inefficacy scale in this study was 0.81. Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) found
alpha coefficients of 0.62 and 0.65 for Spanish and Dutch speaking students
respectively on this scale. The alpha coefficient in the current study thus exceeds
the alpha coefficients obtained by Schaufeli and Salanova (2007). In discussing
the professional inefficacy scale it is important to note that the scale has only
recently been introduced to the MBI-SS, and there are limited studies that have
made use of this scale. The re-wording of the professional efficacy to
professional inefficacy may have changed the meaning of the items for students
(Urbina, 2004). In addition, the sample of the study by Schaufeli and Salanova
(2007) were Dutch and Spanish speaking students.
The re-wording of the professional efficacy scale, as well as the language
differences between Dutch, Spanish and English, may have affected the internal
consistencies of the professional inefficacy scale (Kanjee, 2005). In the current
study, the English speaking students may have more easily grasped the
qualitative meaning of the items. The sample in the study by Schaufeli and
Salanova (2007) consisted mainly of students in the social sciences (for

120

example, psychology, sociology, anthropology), with most students studying in

the field of psychology. The current study attempted to obtain a more
heterogeneous sample of students from various faculties and years of study. The
more diverse sample may have increased the Cronbach alpha coefficients as it
did not obtain burnout scores from a homogenous sample (Jooste, 2006; Urbina,
2004; Wolfaardt & Roodt, 2005).
The construct validity of the MBI-SS was determined by means of confirmatory
factor analysis. Several studies have found evidence for a three-factor structure
of burnout in the student population (cf. Lingard, 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2002).
Lingard (2007) conducted a principal components factor analysis with varimax
rotation in order to determine the discriminant validity of the three burnout
dimensions. The study found that the items clearly loaded on the expected
factors, except for the item I have become less enthusiastic about my studies,
which loaded on emotional exhaustion and cynicism (Lingard, 2007). Mostert et
al. (2007) applied structural equation modelling to determine the construct validity
of the MBI-SS. The study did not include the professional efficacy scale of the
MBI-SS. A two factor structure was found, in which only one item I have become
more cynical about the potential usefulness of my studies was removed. Pienaar
and Sieberhagen (2005) also made use of structural equation modelling to
determine the validity of the MBI-SS and found that the three-factor structure of
burnout was supported.
The results of the current study are similar to the aforementioned results, in that
a three-factor structure was found. However, the item I have learned many
interesting things during the course of my studies was found to load on two
factors. An inspection of the factor loadings provided by Lingard (2007) reveals
that the lowest loading in the pattern matrix after the item I have become less
enthusiastic about my studies was the item I have learnt many interesting
things during the course of my studies. The factor loading was 0.582, whereas in
the current study the factor loading was 0.467. In regards to this item, Schaufeli

121

et al. (2002) found that instead of a positively loading on efficacy, the

modification indices suggested that the item I have learned many interesting
things during the course of my studies loads negatively on cynicism. The current
study found that this item also loaded negatively on cynicism. This suggests that
the item may not fit in the three-factor model.
As already mentioned, the results of the factor analysis of the MBI-SS
demonstrated a satisfactory fit with the theoretical three-factor structure of
burnout. Three factors clearly emerged from the sample. Questions one to five
had salient loadings on the emotional exhaustion factor. This indicates that the
exhaustion component of the MBI-SS is clearly measuring the emotional
exhaustion factor of burnout. Questions six to nine had clear loadings on the
cynicism factor, indicating that these questions are measuring the cynicism
component of the MBI-SS. With exception to question 14, which loaded on
cynicism and professional efficacy, questions 10 to 15 had salient loadings on
professional efficacy, indicating that the professional efficacy factor is measured
by the MBI-SS.
6.3.2 Discussion of the relationship between the Big Five personality traits
and burnout
Hypothesis two was concerned with the relationship between personality and
burnout. The data analyses determined that several significant relationships exist
between the personality traits and the burnout constructs. Although many of the
relationships

were statistically significant, only

those relationships

with

coefficients > 0.30 were considered meaningful (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The
discussion however includes all of the statistically significant relationships.
Various studies have demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between
personality and burnout (Bhler & Land, 203; Deary et al., 1996; Miner, 2007;
Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). Common findings from

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these studies are that Neuroticism and Extroversion tend to be consistently

related to all three of the burnout constructs (Bakker et al., 2006; Piedmont,
1993; Zellars et al., 2000). Although there is less consensus about Openness to
Experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, each of the three traits also
appears to be related to the burnout constructs (Bakker et al., 2006; Kokkinos,
2007; Zellars et al., 2000). The findings of the current study support the
aforementioned findings.
In this study, Neuroticism demonstrated a statistically significant positive
relationship with emotional exhaustion (r = 0.343; p <0.01) and cynicism (r =
0.266; p < 0.01) respectively, and a negative relationship with professional
efficacy (r = -0.245; p < 0.01). These results are in line with previous research,
which have generally found that Neuroticism is related to all three of the burnout
constructs (Bakker et al., 2006; Bhler & Land, 2003; Kokkinos, 2007). Bhler
and Land (2003) found that Neuroticism demonstrated a positive relationship with
emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. Similar findings were obtained by
Kokkinos (2007) and Bakker et al. (2006). Miner (2007) and Kokkinos (2007) also
found

n e g a t i v e relationship

between

Neuroticism

and

personal

accomplishment.
Research has shown that Neuroticism is related to tendencies to experience
negative affectivity, and expect the worst from situations (McCrae & Costa, 2006;
Watson & Clark, 1992). In addition, individuals scoring higher on Neuroticism
tend to experience a sense of apprehension and underestimate their own abilities
(Bakker et al., 2006; Zellars et al., 2000). As such, it is possible that students
scoring higher on Neuroticism may tend to worry more often about the outcome
of events (such as test and assignment results) than those students scoring
lower on Neuroticism. This worry may lead to these students experiencing less
satisfaction with their university work. Thus, students scoring higher on
Neuroticism may become emotionally exhausted and cynical toward their work
more often than those students scoring lower on Neuroticism. Phlem, Jonas,

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Ruf and Harzer (2005) found that examination anxiety accounts for 10% variance
in emotional exhaustion. Thus, the tendency toward negative affect in regards to
university work may augment experiences of emotional exhaustion for these
students. The augmented emotional exhaustion and cynicism may in turn result
in reduced feelings of accomplishment at university.
Individuals scoring lower on Neuroticism may be more calm and relaxed (McCrae
& John, 1992), enabling them to cope better with the demands of university life
and allowing the use of more effective coping strategies in dealing with stress (cf.
Bolger & Zuckerman, 1995; Deary et al., 2003). These individuals may also make
friends more often than their counterparts and thus have a stronger socialsupport base. This in turn serves as a resource, promoting personal growth and
feelings of accomplishment at university (Demerouti et al., 2001).
The Pearson product moment correlations indicated a statistically significant
relationship between Extroversion and the three respective burnout constructs,
namely, emotional exhaustion (r = -0.129; p < 0.05), cynicism (r = -0.139; p <
0.05) and professional efficacy (r = 0.211; p < 0.01). These findings are similar to
the results of previous studies mentioned in Chapter 3. Extroversion has been
found to consistently demonstrate a relationship to burnout (Bakker et al., 2006;
Piedmont, 1993; Zellars et al., 2000). For example, Tomic et al. (2004), Kokkinos
(2007) and Bakker et al. (2006) demonstrated that Extroversion is negatively
related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation/cynicism, and positively
related to personal accomplishment/professional efficacy.
Individuals scoring high on Extroversion tend to be more people-orientated,
optimistic, enthusiastic, and have augmented levels of energy. Furthermore, high
scores on Extroversion are related to problem-focused coping and rational action
(Bouchard et al., 2004; DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; McCrae & Costa, 2006;
Watson & Clark, 1997; Zellars et al., 2000). It may be possible that students
scoring higher on Extroversion tend to engage in social activities more often than

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students scoring lower on Extroversion. The subsequent social support may act
as a resource and buffer the deleterious effects of stress (McCrae & Costa, 2006;
Demerouti et al., 2001)
These students may also be more optimistic and enthusiastic regarding their
work, and therefore be more able to cope with negative events related to their
studies. Students scoring higher on Extroversion may experience emotional
exhaustion less frequently due to their tendency toward increased energy,
optimism and positive affect (Zellars et al., 2000). Conversely, students scoring
lower on Extroversion may tend to remain isolated from their peers, seldom
discussing their stressors at university or seeking social contact with their peers
(Abouserie, 1994; Friedlander et al., 2007). This in turn may result in augmented
experiences of exhaustion and cynicism toward the university and their studies.
Individuals who are more extroverted may also be more willing to seek
assistance, be it from peers or university staff, when they are experiencing
difficulties with their studies. This assistance may help the students to more
easily understand their work, and as such may reduce a cynical attitude toward
their work from developing. For example, Cushman and West (2006) found that
vague teaching and unavailable staff is related to experiences of burnout for
students, and as such, seeking assistance from university staff may reduce
experiences of cynicism and increase the students understanding of their work.
This in turn may lead to augmented feelings of personal accomplishment.
In this study Openness to Experience demonstrated a statistically significant
positive relationship with professional efficacy (r = 0.250; p < 0.01). From
previous studies it appears that this factor is positively related to personal
accomplishment (Deary et al., 1996; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). The results of
this study thus coincide with previous research. Openness to Experience is
related to creative thinking and a willingness to undergo new experiences. In
addition, individuals measuring high on Openness to Experience tend to make
use of more adaptive and flexible coping strategies (Bouchard et al., 2004;

125

DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al., 2004; McCrae, 1987; McCrae &
Costa, 1986). Students who score high on Openness to Experience may be more
likely to attempt creative solutions to solving their difficulties at university. These
individuals may also tend to experience problems at university as a challenge
rather than as a bulwark to their studies (Zellars et al., 2000). These factors may
contribute to individuals scoring higher on Openness to Experience to undergo
less emotional exhaustion and cynicism, and feel an increased sense of personal
accomplishment. An individual who experiences a high level of personal
accomplishment may also experience more confidence in attempting to master
new situations, hereby reducing experiences of burnout from occurring.
Agreeableness demonstrated a statistically significant negative relationship with
cynicism (r = -0.174; p < 0.01) and a statistically significant positive relationship
with professional efficacy (r = 0.226; p < 0.01). These findings are supported by
Bakker et al. (2006) who found that Agreeableness was positively related to
personal accomplishment and Deary et al. (1996) who found that Agreeableness
was negatively related to depersonalisation. Agreeableness is considered the
interpersonal aspect of personality. Thus, individuals scoring high on this factor
tend to be more pleasant and trusting than others (Digman, 1990; McCrae &
Costa, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992; Zellars et al., 2000). Students scoring higher
on Agreeableness may be more prone to receive social support and trust people
for assistance with their problems at university. This increased social support
may serve as a resource, promoting feelings of personal accomplishment and
reducing experiences of cynicism toward the university (Demerouti et al., 2001).
Jacobs and Dodd (2003) found that reduced social support was positively related
to depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment, thus providing
support for the aforementioned.
Receiving support from the university staff may be similar to receiving support
from a supervisor, which has been demonstrated to reduce experiences of stress
and burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Bakker et al. 2005, Behson, 2005).

126

These individuals may also be less likely to experience emotional exhaustion due
to the social support that is available to them. For example, Tully (2004) found
that nursing students who made use of coping strategies such as seeking others
advice tended to experience lower levels of stress. Individuals who score low on
Agreeableness tend to be quarrelsome and difficult to relate to (McCrae & Costa,
2006; McCrae & John, 1992; Zellars et al., 2000). Thus, students scoring lower
on Agreeableness may tend to not seek out assistance with their problems due
to their lack of trust in others (McCrae & Costa, 2006). This in turn may augment
their experiences of emotional exhaustion and cynicism, resulting in reduced
feelings of personal accomplishment.
Conscientiousness demonstrated a statistically significant negative relationship
with emotional exhaustion (r = -0.167; p < 0.01) and cynicism (r = -0.229; p <
0.01), respectively. A statistically significant positive relationship was found
between Conscientiousness and professional efficacy (r = 0.444; p < 0.01).
Research has demonstrated that Conscientiousness is positively related to
personal accomplishment (Kokkinos, 2007; Piedmont, 1993). In addition,
Kokkinos

(2007)

found

that

negative

relationship

exists

between

Conscientiousness and depersonalisation. Conscientiousness is linked to

problem-solving coping strategies, and an achievement orientation. These
individuals are also more likely to be organised and purposeful in their actions
(Bouchard et al., 2004; DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Lee-Baggley et al., 2004;
McCrae & Costa, 2006).
The organised and purposeful behaviour of students scoring higher on
Conscientiousness may lead to less experience of being overworked, especially
during examination periods. These individuals may tend to work consistently,
hereby avoiding large amounts of work the day before an assignment or
examination (McCrae & Costa, 2006; Zellars et al., 2000). This in turn may result
in increased experiences of personal accomplishment and reduced feelings of
depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion. Students scoring lower on

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Conscientiousness may tend to be compulsive, lazy and impulsive, failing to

ensure consistent completion of work, which is a requirement of higher education
studies (Abouserie, 1994; Monk & Mahmood, 1999). For example, Dahlin and
Runeson (2007) found that higher scores on impulsivity, a facet order of
Conscientiousness, was associated with limited strategic planning and goal
directedness in relation to students studies, which places them at-risk in longterm and demanding education. The aforementioned may lead to increased
experiences of emotional exhaustion and cynicism, and also reduced feelings of
accomplishment at university.
6.3.3. Discussion of the predictive effect of the Big Five personality traits
on burnout
The results of this study indicated that personality accounts for a significant
proportion of the variance in burnout. The personality traits demonstrated a
positive relationship with emotional exhaustion (R = 0.133, F(5, 288) = 8.835, p
< 0.001), and were able to account for 13.3% of the total variance in emotional
exhaustion. In the presence of all the personality traits, only Neuroticism was
statistically significantly related to emotional exhaustion ( = 0.316, r = 0.308, t =
5.612, p < 0.001. The results of the study revealed that a significant positive
relationship exists between the personality traits and cynicism (R = 0.128, F(5,
288) = 8.480, p < 0.001). The personality traits explained 12.8% of the variance
in cynicism. In the presence of all the traits, Neuroticism ( = 0.227, r = 0.221, t =
4.015, p < 0.001) and Conscientiousness ( = -0.180, r = -0.168, t = -3.048, p <
0.005) were statistically significantly related to cynicism. The results of this study
also found a significant positive relationship between personality traits and
professional efficacy (R = 0.248, F(5, 288) = 19.037, p < 0.001). The personality
traits explained 24.8% of the variance in professional efficacy. Neuroticism ( = 0.157, r = -0.153, t = -3.000, p < 0.005) and Conscientiousness ( = 0.368, r =
0.343, t = 6.722, p < 0.001) were statistically significantly related to professional
efficacy in the presence of all Big Five personality traits.

128

Burger (2008) indicates that personality is able to account for approximately 10%
of the variance in behaviour. In relation to burnout, there is evidence that
personality traits are able to predict burnout (Hochwlder, 2006). The results of
the current study are similar to previous research. Hochwlder (2006) found that
personality traits accounted for 7% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 3%
in depersonalisation and 8% in personal accomplishment. In addition,
Neuroticism was found to be positively related to emotional exhaustion,
Agreeableness negatively related to depersonalisation, and Conscientiousness
positively related to personal accomplishment (Hochwlder, 2006). The results of
the current study are similar to Hochwlder (2006) in that Neuroticism was
positively related to emotional exhaustion, and Conscientiousness positively
related with professional efficacy.
Bakker et al. (2006) made use of stepwise regression analyses and found that
Neuroticism was the sole predictor of the personality variables that made a
significant prediction of emotional exhaustion. Neuroticism accounted for 13% of
the variance in emotional exhaustion and was positively related to emotional
exhaustion. Depersonalisation was accounted for by three personality traits,
Neuroticism, Extroversion and Autonomy, which together accounted for 17% of
the variance in depersonalisation. Neuroticism was positively related to
depersonalisation, and Extroversion negatively related to depersonalisation. For
personal accomplishment, Extroversion and Neuroticism were significant
predictors of this burnout construct, and together accounted for 19% of the
variance. Extroversion was positively related to personal accomplishment and
Neuroticism negatively related to personal accomplishment. The findings of the
current study are similar to those reported by Bakker et al. (2006) in that
Neuroticism was related to emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal
accomplishment.
Kokkinos (2007) similarly made use of stepwise regression analyses and found
that Neuroticism and Conscientiousness were positively related to emotional

129

exhaustion and Extroversion negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Of the

three personality traits, Neuroticism accounted for the most variance in emotional
exhaustion. Conscientiousness was the strongest predictor of depersonalisation.
Neuroticism and Openness to Experience also accounted for some of the
variance in this factor. Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience were
negatively related to depersonalisation and Neuroticism positively related to
depersonalisation. Conscientiousness, Extroversion and Neuroticism explained
approximately

23%

of

the

variance

in

personal

accomplishment.

Conscientiousness and Extroversion were positively related to personal

accomplishment,

and

Neuroticism

negatively

related

to

personal

accomplishment. The results of the current study are similar to Kokkinoss (2007)
results in that Neuroticism was positively related to emotional exhaustion, and
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism

was

negatively
negatively

related
related

to

depersonalisation.
to

professional

In

addition,

efficacy

and

Conscientiousness positively related to professional efficacy.

Zellars et al. (2000) exploring the role of the five-factor personality traits in
burnout in the health care setting, made use of regression analysis to determine
the relationship. Zellars et al. (2000) found that in the presence of the other traits,
only Neuroticism significantly predicted emotional exhaustion, and was positively
related to emotional exhaustion. This finding is similar to Bakker et al. (2006),
and the results obtained in the current study. In regards to depersonalisation,
Extroversion, Agreeableness and Openness to Experience were found to be
negatively related to depersonalisation in the presence of the other traits. Bakker
et al. (2006) obtained similar results. The results of the study differ in relation to
Conscientiousness, as Zellars et al. (2000) did not find that this personality trait is
significant in relation to depersonalisation. Reduced personal accomplishment
was negatively related to Extroversion and Openness to Experience in the
presence of the other five-factor traits (Zellars et al., 2000). An interesting result
obtained by Zellars et al. (2000) is that Neuroticism was not found to be

130

statistically significant in relation to reduced personal accomplishment; a finding

that the aforementioned researchers and the current study found.
In examining the aforementioned findings it is evident that different personality
traits account for each of the three burnout constructs. It is important however to
note that these studies did not make use of the MBI-SS, but rather the three
original MBI versions. Also, different personality measures were used to assess
the Big Five personality traits, each of which has different psychometric
properties. As such, the small differences noted in the findings could be
explained by the different instruments used. The author was unable to find
research which has explored the relationship of the Big Five personality traits
with the burnout constructs using the MBI-SS.
6.4 Limitations and recommendations
All studies are subject to limitations. This section addresses the limitations of the
current study and the implications for future research endeavours. Due to the
limitations, caution must be used in generalising the results of the present study
to the general population.
The sampling technique used in this study was non-random, and participants
were selected on their willingness to complete the questionnaires. Thus, the
sample was biased toward those students who were more willing to participate.
This in turn may bias the sample in the study, and impact on the subsequent
results (Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). Students were only selected from one
higher education institution, and thus the results cannot be generalised to
students from other higher education institutions and geographical locations.
Data from other universities may have yielded different results. The students in
the study were also limited in terms of language distribution. Although the study
included participants speaking an indigenous African language, the majority of
the sample consisted of English speaking students. Language is an important

131

factor in the exploration of the psychometric properties of psychological tests, as

language differences may impact on the reliability and validity of the instrument
(Urbina, 2004).
Survival bias should also be taken into account. Survival bias results in
individuals who generally have reduced experiences of burnout remaining at
work, whereas those individuals scoring higher levels of burnout tend to leave
work (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Survival bias may impact on students,
resulting in students leaving tertiary studies before completion. This in turn would
impact on the data. The mean level of burnout obtained in the study appears to
be low to average, and therefore survival bias should be taken into account. Data
from students experiencing greater levels of burnout may have yielded different
results. The study did not control for part-time work in the student population in
the data analyses. Thus, the results may have been influenced by part-time work.
Based on the aforementioned limitations, several recommendations for future
research are made. Future studies should include random sampling techniques
in exploring burnout in university students, thus addressing bias in sample
selection. Studies should explore burnout in various cultural and demographic
areas. South Africa is a multi-cultural society. As such, studies are required in
academic institutes beyond the North-West and Gauteng provinces. Future
studies should also sample the various language groups, with particular focus on
the traditional African languages. This may assist with the exploration of the
psychometric properties of the MBI-SS. Future studies of the psychometric
properties of the MBI-SS are greatly needed in South Africa. The two items, I
have become more cynical about the potential usefulness of my studies and I
have learned many interesting things during the course of my studies, should
also be subject to research endeavours. The newly developed professional
inefficacy scale must be explored, as previous research (Schaufeli & Salanova,
2007) suggests that this scale is more appropriate to the burnout construct. In
addition, the higher Cronbach alpha coefficient for this scale compared to the

132

professional efficacy scale requires research attention to validate or refute

Schaufeli and Salanovas (2007) research.
Research into factors impacting students experience of burnout appears to be
limited. The author was only able to obtain one study (Cushman & West; 2006)
which explored precursors to burnout in the student population, thus
necessitating investigation in this area. As such, qualitative studies should
explore precursors to students experiences of burnout in the South African
context. Such studies may allow for prevention and intervention of burnout in
students. Qualitative studies may also set the framework for future quantitative
studies pertaining to factors related to burnout in South African university
students.
The current study found similar results to previous research on the relationship
between the Big Five personality traits and burnout. Future studies should build
upon this research and explore the aforementioned relationship in a variety of
student population groups. Personality constructs beyond the trait approach
should also be included in future studies. The antithesis of burnout, namely
engagement, which was not included in the current study, may also be included
in studies exploring the relationship of personality with burnout. Such an inclusion
would allow for a salutogenic approach to personality research, and would also
be in line with the current trend in burnout research, namely, the focus on
engagement (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). The
results of all the suggested research would allow for greater insight into students
experiences of burnout, as well as allowing for future preventative and
intervention strategies.

133

6.5 Implications of the study

This investigation indicates the importance of taking student burnout into
account. The results suggest that students do experience burnout, and that
personality traits are related to experiences of burnout. It may be beneficial to
explore personality constructs in students who are experiencing high levels of
burnout. Knowledge of the impact of personality traits on burnout may assist with
intervention programmes, such as addressing deleterious coping strategies and
cognitive appraisals. Knowledge of personality traits in relation to burnout may
also assist with preventative counselling. Psycho-educational and life skill
programmes could include personality measures, allowing students to gain
insight into their own risks and resiliencies in relation to burnout. This would allow
students to better monitor their experiences of exhaustion, cynicism and
professional efficacy.
The importance of a valid and reliable instrument to measure burnout in
university students has been demonstrated in the study. Not only does this meet
the ethical requirements of the Professional Board of Psychology, but it is also in
line with the best practice of test use. The study also provides evidence that the
professional inefficacy scale may be more suited to the burnout construct. The
notion that burnout occurs in students requires a reliable and valid instrument to
explore students burnout, as many students seeking counselling services may be
experiencing several of the burnout symptoms (Jacobs & Dodd, 2003).
6.5 Conclusion
The findings of this study, in context with past research, have significant
implications with regards to burnout research. Historically, burnout research was
limited to the human-service fields (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003; Schaufeli et al.,
1996). However, it has become clear that students can also experience burnout
(Schaufeli et al., 2002). Although students do not hold formal employment, their

134

student based activities can be considered their job (Bres et al., 2007). Burnout
may have deleterious consequences on students well-being, including reduced
academic performance, impaired memory, diminished self-esteem, exhaustion
and intentions to leave university prematurely (Gauch, 2006; Jacobs & Dodd,
2003; Law, 2007; Meier & Schmeck, 1985; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Students are
likely to experience three to four years of intense and difficult studies. With the
escalating costs of university study, they cannot afford to leave university
prematurely. Not only will this negatively impact on the student, but also on the
economy and well-being of South Africa as a whole.
In light of the aforementioned, it is clear that interventions are required to prevent
students experiencing burnout. Personality is able to account for approximately
10% of the variance in behaviour (Burger, 2008), and as such, knowledge of a
students personality may assist in future interventions with students who have
augmented experiences of burnout. Unfortunately, the relationship between
personality and burnout has not received much empirical attention, both
internationally and in South Africa (Kokkinos, 2007; Maslach, 1993, Storm &
Rothmann, 2003).
The current study explored the psychometric properties of the MBI-SS and the
relationship between personality traits and burnout. Accordingly, it appears that
the MBI-SS is both a reliable and valid instrument in the South African context.
Furthermore, it appears that there is a statistically significant relationship
between personality and burnout, and that personality is able to account for
much of the variance in burnout. Further research is required into the
psychometric properties of the MBI-SS in South Africa, and especially in regards
to the professional inefficacy scale. The relationship between personality and
burnout also provided support that knowledge of a students personality traits
may assist with subsequent intervention programmes.

135

Based on the aforementioned findings and the deleterious consequences of

burnout for both students and higher education institutions, Neumann et al.
(1990, pp 20-21) may be correct in asserting that [r]esearch on students
burnout in colleges may emerge as one of the promising areas of investigation in
higher education.

136

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