Basic concepts to understand

polarisation of Light

Polarization of Light
Nature of light: light waves are transverse in
nature i. e. the waves propagates in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of vibration of
particles. According to Maxwell, light waves are
electromagnetic In an EMW
electromagnetic.
EMW, electric & magnetic
field vector vibrate mutually perpendicular & also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
waves. Now, according to available theoretical and
experienced evidence, it is the electric field vector
E which produces all the observed effects of light.
So whenever we take of vibrations in a light wave,
we mean vibrations
ib ti
off th
the electric
l t i vector
t E
E.

Light is emitted by excited atoms & molecules. Any

actual source of light contains millions & millions
atoms oriented at random. Each atom emits light
for 10-8 sec. and the emitted wave is linearly
polarised. So in a ray of light millions of waves
follow each other in rapid succession at random.
In this way, vibrations in all directions. So an
ordinary light beam is unpolarised. In unpolarised
li ht th
light,
the electric
l t i vector
t kkeeps on changing
h
i itits
direction in a random manner. If electric vector
oscillates in a particular direction
direction, then light is said
to be linearly polarised.

Experimental demonstration of polarisation:

To demonstrate polarisation, we used Tourmline
y
, which has certain characteristics
crystal,
features. This crystal allow vibrations to pass
g which are p
parallel to its crystallographic
y
g p
through
axis, & completely stop, which are perpendicular
y
g p
axis.
to crystallographic

Analyzer

Law of Malus: when a completely plane

polarised
l i d lilight
ht b
beam iis iincident
id t on an
analyzer, the intensity of the polarised light
t
transmitted
itt d through
th
h th
the analyzer
l
varies
i as
the square of cosine of the angle between
th planes
the
l
off ttransmission
i i off th
the analyzer
l
and the polarizer.
P
Proof:
Q
a
a cos

A sin
O

a = amplitude of vibrations transmitted by the

polarizer.
polarizer
= angle between the plane of transmission of
analyzer & that of polarizer
polarizer.
Resolve a in to two perpendicular components.
1 a cos ,
1.
parallel to the plane of
transmission of the analyzer & is
transmitted.
2. a sin , perpendicular to the plane of
transmission of the analyzer
y
& is blocked.
So transmitted amplitude = a cos .
y
& transmitted intensity,
I [a cos ]2

I = k a2 cos2
= I0 cos2
(1)
where I0 = ka2 = intensity of the incident plane
polarised light.
I cos2
p
cases: 1. if the p
polarizer & the analyzer
y
are
Special
parallel, = 0 or 1800, then
cos = 1
&
I = I0 (max. intensity) equal to the
intensity of incident light.
2 If the
2.
th polarizer
l i
& th
the analyzer
l
are perpendicular
di l
to each other, = 900, then cos = 1
and I = 0

Assignment
Show that only transverse wave can be
polarized.
In electromagnetic wave,
wave which vector
Electric or Magnetic is responsible for
propagation of light?
State and prove ,the law of Malus.

Polarization of Light by
Double Refraction & Nicol
prism

Double Refraction
A ray of an ordinary unpolarised light when
incident on a calcite or quartz crystal, splits up in to
t
two
refracted
f t d rays. This
Thi phenomenon
h
is
i called
ll d
Double Refraction. These crystals having this
property are said to be doubly refracting crystals.
On rotating the crystal about incident ray as axis,
one of the refracted ray remains stationary and is
known as ordinary ray as it obey the ordinary laws
of refraction. It is plane polarized with vibration
normal to the plane of paper
paper. The second ray
rotates round the first ray and is called Extra
ordinary ray as it does not obey the ordinary laws

of refraction. This ray is also plane polarized with

vibrations in the plane of paper
paper.
This can be verified by viewing O & E rays through
a Tourmline crystal( analyzer). As the analyzer is
rotated, the intensities of O & E images undergo a
change. If intensity of O image increases, then that
of E image decreases and vice versa
versa.
Optic Axis, Principal Section and Principal
Plane:
A calcite crystal(caco3) has rhombohedron
structure. Each of six faces of the crystal
y
is a
parallelogram whose angles are 780 &
1020(nearly). At the two diametrically opposite
corners the three angles of the faces are obtuse
obtuse.
These corners are called Blunt corners.

Optic Axis: The direction of optic axis is a

line passing through any one of the blunt
corners and equally inclined to the three
edges meeting there. Along optic axis,
there is no double refraction
Principal Section: A plane containing the
p axis and p
perpendicular
p
to a p
pair of
optic
opposite faces of the crystal is called
principal
p
p section of the crystal
y
for that p
pair
of faces. A principal section, always cuts
y
in a
the surfaces of the calcite crystal
parallelogram having angles 710 & 1090.

NICOL PRISM: It is an optical device made from

calcite crystal and is used in many optical
instrument for producing and analyzing plane
polarized light. It is constructed in such a way
that the O-ray get totally reflected and E-ray get
transmitted. It gives an instance beam of plane
polarized light.
Principle: It depends on the phenomenon of
double refraction. i.e. ordinary and extra ordinary
rays in calcite possess unequal refractive index.
C
Construction:
t ti

continued
In a Nicol prism
prism, we want total internal
reflection of ordinary ray and transmission of
E t
Extraordinary
di
ray att calcite
l it Canada
C
d
balsam interface.
The refractive index of calcite for O Ray is
o = 1.658 and for E ray
y is
E = 1.486
& CB = 1
1.55
55
Canada balsam is optically rarer for O ray
and
d optically
ti ll d
denser ffor E ray. Also,
Al
th
the
critical angle

continued
c = sin
i -11 (1.55/1.658)
(1 55/1 658) = 69
69.2
2o
when angle of incidence at calcite- Canada balsam
i t f
interface
become
b
greater
t than
th critical
iti l angle,
l th
then
the conditions of total
total internal reflection are satisfied , the O
O-ray
ray get
totally reflected. The E ray get transmitted.
Limitation: Nicol prism can not be used for
highly convergent and highly divergent beams. The
angular limit is 14o on either side ( 28o in total in
both sides between the extreme rays )

continued
Uses of Nicol Prism:
Nicol prism is used as a Polarizer and as an
Analyzer.

Assignment
What do you mean by double refraction ?
What is the function of Canada balsam in a
Nicol ?
What do you mean by Optic axes ?
Give the principle, construction and working
of Nicol.
Nicol Give its limitations
limitations.

Huygens theory of Double

Refraction

Huygens's theory of double

refraction
According to this theory,
1 A point
1.
i source off monochromatic
h
i light
li h iin a
doubly refracting crystal become the
source off ordinary
di
and
dE
Extraordinary
t
di
disturbances and sends out two
corresponding
di wavefronts.
f t
2. The Ordinary wave travel in all direction
with equal velocity and so the Ordinary
wave front is spherical.
3. The velocity of E wave varies with the
direction and so the corresponding

continued
Wavefront is ellipsoid of revolution with optic
axis as axes of revolution.
4 In the direction of optic axes
4.
axes, the ordinary and
E wave travel with same velocity and so the
t
two
wavefronts
f t touch
t
h each
h other
th along
l
optic
ti
axes.
5. In Negative crystal, the velocity of E wave is
greater than the velocity of O wave and so
the O wavefront lies inside the E- wavefront.
In positive crystal, the velocity of O- wave is
greater than the velocity of E wave and so E
wavefront lies inside the O- wavefront.

continued
Fi
Fig. shows
h
th
the H
Huygens's
' construction
t ti ffor
Negative and Positive crystals.

Refraction through a calcite

crystal
Optic axes parallel to refracting face and lying
in the plane of incidence
incidence.
Fig.

continued
One can see that in an uniaxial doublyy refracting
g
crystal, the Ordinary and Extraordinary waves
travel in same direction with unequal velocities.
Thi conceptt iis used
This
d
in the construction of Quarter wave plate and
Half wave plate.
Quarter wave Plate: It is a doubly refracting uniaxial
crystall off suitable
i bl thickness
hi k
and
d ffor a given
i
wavelength with optic axis parallel to refracting face
which introduce phase difference of /2 or path
difference of /4 between ordinary and
extraordinary
e
t ao d a y waves.
a es

continued
Let

= wavelength of light used

o and E = refractive indices of calcite for

O & E wave respectively.
ti l
t = thickness of the crystal
Then, path difference introduced by the
y
in O & E wave:
crystal
For Negative crystal: = ( o - E) t = /4
or t = / [4 ( o - E)]
For Positive crystal: = ( - o + E) t = /4
or t = /
[4 ( - o + E)]

continued
Uses: Quarter wave plate is used for production
of circularly and elliptically polarized light. When
used with a Nicol prism, it is used for detection
of circularly and elliptically polarized light.

Half wave plate

It is a doubly refracting uniaxial crystal of
suitable thickness for a particular wavelength
and optic axis parallel to refracting face
which introduce phase difference of or
path difference of /2 between ordinary and
extraordinary waves
waves.
Let
= wavelength of light used
o and E = refractive indices of calcite for
p
y
O & E wave respectively.
t = thickness of the crystal

continued
Then, path difference introduced by the
crystal in O & E wave:
For Negative crystal: = ( o - E) t = /2
or t = / [[2 ( o - E)]
For Positive crystal: = ( - o + E) t = /2
or t = / [2 ( - o + E)]
Use: Half wave plate is used Laurent's Half
Sh d P
Shade
Polari-meter
l i
as Half
H lf shade
h d d
device.
i

Assignment
Gi
Give th
the uses off a quarter
t wave plate.
l t
What do you mean by positive and negative
crystals ?
Give the Huygens
yg
theory
y of double
refraction. Give the construction of a Half
Wave Plate.

Elliptically & circularly

Polarized Light

Elliptically and circularly Polarized

Light
g
When Linearly polarized monochromatic
light is incident at an angle on a doubly
refracting crystal with optic axis parallel to
refracting face, it get split up in to Ordinary
and Extra-ordinary components. The two
components travel in same direction with
different velocities. On emergence.
depending on the thickness of the crystal
and angle of incidence, light may be
elliptically or circularly or plane polarized as
explained below.

Theory
Let A = amplitude of the incident plane
polarized light of wavelength .
= angle made by linear vibrations with
optic axes.
Th componentt off A in
The
i x- direction
di ti = A cos
And in y- direction = A sin
So E- wave
x = A cos sin (t + ) --------- (1)
And O wave
y = A sin
i sin
i ((t)
t)
--------- (2)

continued
On solving equation 1 & 2
x2/a2 + y2/b2 2xy/(ab) cos = sin2 -------(3)
Eq. (3) tell that the emergent light is elliptically
polarized.
Special cases:
(i) If thickness of the crystal is such that
= 0 or 2n then Eq. (3) gives
y = (b/a)x
(b/ )
It is an equation of straight line with slope
b/a. So the emergent light is plane
polarized.

continued
(ii) If thickness of the crystal is such that
= (2n + 1) then Equation (3) gives
y = -(b/a)x
Again it is an equation of straight line
line. So the
emergent light is plain polarized.
(iii) If thickness
hi k
off the
h crystall is
i such
h that
h
= (2n + 1) /2 then Eq. (3) gives
x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1
It is an equation of symmetrical ellipse
ellipse. So
the emergent light is Elliptically Polarized.

continued
If a = b or A cos = A sin
Or = 45o then,
x2 + y2 = a2
It is an equation
q
of a circle. So the emergent
g
light is circularly polarized. Since a quarter
wave plate introduce path difference of /4 or
phase difference of /2 between O & Ey waves and so Quarter wave p
plate is a
ordinary
suitable device to produce Elliptically and
yp
polarized light.
g
circularly

Detection of Polarized Light

For detection of light
light, we use a Quarter wave plate in
conjunction with an Analyzer (Nicol).
Given light
Rotating Nicol
Intensity
No Intensity
Intensity
Varies
variation
varies with
With zero
(Light is circularly non
non-zero
zero
Maxima
polarized or
minima
(Light is plane unpolarized)
(Light is
polarized)
elliptically or
partially
ti ll plane
l
polarized.

continued
quarter wave plate
in any position
Rotating
g Nicol

quarter wave
plate with optic
axes parallel to
p
principal
p section
of Nicol
Rotating Nicol

Intensity
varies
With zero
Minima
Light is
Circularly
Polarized

No intensity
variation
Light
g is
unpolarized

Intensity
varies with
zero
minima

Intensity
varies with
non-zero
minima

Light is
elliptically
polarized

Light is
partially plane
polarized

Assignment
Which plate you will use, quarter or half
wave plate to detect elliptically polarized
light ?
Give necessary theory to produce
elliptically and circularly polarized light.
Give a procedure to detect the given light.

Optical Rotation/ Rotatory

Polarization & Polarimeter

Optical Rotation/ Rotatory Polarization

Optical rotation is the phenomenon of rotation
of plane of polarization of plane polarized
light on passing through certain substances
substances.
The substance/ material which rotate the
plane
l
off polarization
l i ti are called
ll d optically
ti ll
active substances. If plane of polarization is
rotated
t t d in
i clockwise
l k i di
direction,
ti
th
then th
the
substance is called Dextro Rotatory or Right
h d d If plane
handed.
l
off polarization
l i ti is
i rotated
t t d iin
anti- clockwise direction, then the substance
i called
is
ll d L
Leavo R
Rotatory
t t
or L
Left
ft h
handed.
d d

Specific Rotation
Angle
g of rotation of p
plane of p
polarization depends
p
on
(i) Path length of solution/ thickness of the crystal.
(ii) concentration of solution/ density of material.
(iii) Temperature
(iv) Wavelength
Th angle
The
l off rotation
t ti off plane
l
off polarization
l i ti att a given
i
temperature and wavelength is
(i) Directly proportional to the concentration of
Solution.
c
(ii) Directly proportional to the path length of solution.
l
On joining
lxc
= S (l x c)

continued

where S is the constant of proportionality and

is called specific rotation or specific rotatory
power Its value depends on the nature of
power.
substance and temperature.
S = /(l x c))
The specific rotation at a given temperature
and wavelength is the angle of rotation in
degree produced by an optically active
substance of path-length one decimeter and
of concentration 1 gm cm-3.

Polarimeter
It is an optical instrument used to measure the
angle of rotation of plane polarized light when
it is passed through an optically active
substance.
Construction: It consists of
(i) a polarizer
(ii) an analyzer
((iii)) a g
glass tube containing
g solution of optically
p
y
active material of known concentration or
p
y active material.
optically

Continued
Figure.

Drawbacks: In this simplest form

form, it is however impossible
to find with precision the exact angle at which the
complete extinction of light occur. So we use Half shade
d i or Bi
device
Bi-quartz
t plate
l t tto llocate
t exectt extinction
ti ti off
light.

Assignment
What is an important use of half wave
plate?
Why an arrangement of two crossed Nicol
alone not preferred in experiments on
rotatory polarization ?
O
On what
a factors,
ac o s, the
e specific
spec c rotation
oa o
depends.

Laurent's Half shade

Polarimeter & quartz plate
Polarimeter

Laurents half shade device

It consists of two semi circular plates YXY
YXY &
YXY. The plate YXY is made up of quartz
while YX
YXY
Y is made up of glass
glass. Two plates
are cemented together along diameter
YY. The quartz plate is a half wave plate for
YY
a given wavelength of light with optic axes
parallel to YCY
YCY. Thickness of the glass plate
is such that it absorbs the same amount of
light as the quartz plate absorbs
absorbs, so that
intensity does not change during transmission
of light through plates
plates.

continued

Figure

Laurents half shade

Polarimeter
Construction:
C
t
ti

continued

Working: Make experimental arrangement as

shown.
Let principal plane of polarizer P makes an angle
with the optic axis off the quartz plate
i.e. principal plane of Nicol P is parallel to CQ. When
monochromatic
h
ti lilight
ht ffrom a source S after
ft passing
i
through Nicol P get polarized with vibrations along
CQ On passing through glass half
CQ.
half, the vibrations
remain along CQ as glass is not doubly refracting
but on p
passing
g through
g the q
quartz half,, a p
phase
change of is introduced between O and Eordinary components. On emergence, the plane of
polarization has rotated by 2 ( become along CQ )

continued

Now, if the principal plane of the analyzing Nicol A is parallel to CQ, the
plane
l
polarized
l i d lilight
ht th
through
h glass
l
plate
l t will
ill pass unobstructed
b t t d and
d th
thatt
through quartz half is partially obstructed. So half shade appear and glass
half appear brighter than the quartz half. If the principal plane of the
analyzing Nicol A is parallel to CQ
CQ , the quartz half appear brighter than the
glass half. When the principal plane of Nicol A is parallel to YCY, the two
halves appear equally bright. It is because the vibrations emerging out of
the two halves are equally inclined to principal plane of Nicol A.
First of all Nicol A is adjusted so that the two halves of the field appear
equally bright without the sugar solution. Note the position of Nicol A on
circular scale. Now place the tube of sugar solution of known concentration
in between Nicol P & A. Half shade will appear. Rotate Nicol A such that
the field of view appear equally bright again. Note the position of Nicol A on
circular scale. The difference of two readings
g g
gives angle
g of rotation .
Knowing the length (l) of tube in decimeter and concentration (c) of solution
in gm/cc, the specific rotation is calculated using equation,
S = /(l
( x c))

Biquartz device

A Biquartz consists of two semicircular pieces ACB and ADB of righthanded (R) and left-handed (L) quartz cut with their optic axes
perpendicular to their refracting faces. They are cemented together to
form a complete circular plate. The thickness of each half plate is about
3.75mm which is such that, each rotate the plane of polarization of
yellow light through 90o, one anticlockwise and other clockwise. This
Biquartz plate is placed just behind the polarizing Nicol to replace half
shade device.

continued

In this case,, we use white light.

g On passing
p
g through
g the
Biquartz normally, the different colors will be rotated through
different angles by each half but in opposite senses. For
yellow color this rotation is 90o. Thus if the principal plane of
Nicol A be parallel to AOB, the yellow color will be quenched
or extinguished. We observe a grayish violet tint called the
ti t off passage or sensitive
tint
iti tint.
ti t A slight
li ht rotation
t ti off Ni
Nicoll A
on either side of this position will change this tint to red in one
half and blue in the other half.
Working: Set P & A at tint of passage in absence of optically
active substance. Note the position of Nicol A on circular
scale Now place the optically active solution between
scale.
biguartz and Nicol A. The sensitive passage will disappear.
Rotate Nicol A such that, the sensitive tint

continued
re-appear.
pp
Note the p
position of Nicol A on circular scale.
The difference of two readings gives angle of rotation .
Specific rotation is calculated using formula:
S = /(l x c))
Relative Merit of Half shade & Biquartz:
The half shade device is sensitive and suitable for
persons suffering from color-blindness, while color blind
persons can not work with Biquartz Polarimeter. Also in
Biquartz, error is introduced due to variation in color
sensitivity of eye from person to person. On the other
hand,, the Biquartz
q
is more sensitive as compared
p
to half
shade devise.

Assignment
Define Specific Rotation. Describe the
construction and working of Bi-quartz
Polarimeter.
Give the construction and working
g of
Laurent's half shade Polarimeter.
Give relative merits of Half shade and Bi
Biquartz polarimeter.