ETEC 523

Information Theories
Summer 2016

Memetics (Lynn Wu)

Definition: Memetics is an arrangement of information that is able to process from one person to another
persons memory through imitation.
Explanation: In the book, The Selfish Gene written by Richard Dawkins, he explained that memes are like
replicators and he compared them to genes. Genes transmit themselves from body to body via sperms or eggs,
and memes transmit themselves from brain to brain via imitation. Memes, like genes, work in groups called
memeplex. They work together to spread information that can continue to live overtime. For example, Dawkins
and Blackmore described how religion can change peoples ideas, life, and perspectives.
Examples:

Catch-phrases and ideas are examples of memes.

Implications For School Librarianship: Library is an essential place for different learners to come and find various
resources to increase their knowledge, experiences, and ideas. The spread of information is crucial to our personal growth,
development, and spirituality. Librarians are the facilitators of learning and propagators of knowledge.
Works Cited
Meme, the New Replicator Access on June 16, 2016. www.rubinghscience.org/memetics/dawkinsmemes.htm
Memetics. Access on June 16, 2016. http://memetics.chielens.net/memetics/index.html

Memetics

(Juan Rodriguez)

A meme is an information pattern which is capable of being

copied to another individuals memory, mostly by means of
imitation (though other techniques are possible as well) and which
is subject to a selection process.
A meme is a viral piece of information (any human pattern that is
not innate) that is transferred and replicated by the people who
are infected by it.
For example, religion is a memeplex (a group of memes) that
together spread their message and beliefs to new hosts which in
turn will change their life to replicate similar to the memeplexs.
Those new host will then transfer said meme to other new hosts.
Memetics has implication for a school librarian when trying to
teach students about digital citizenship. In order for students to
imitate/demonstrate good digital citizenship, a school librarian
needs to be a role model of the concept, and the purveyor of its
goods. In other words, Monkey see monkey do!
Chielens, K. (2006). Towards a definition of memes. Memetics. Retrieved
June 9, 2016, from http://memetics.chielens.net/memetics/definition.html

Hanks, M. (n.d.). Pyramid [Digital image]. Retrieved June 9,

2016, from
http://www.scamsolver.com/wp-content/uploads/Pyramid.png

Model of Text Comprehension

Andrea Crammer

Text Comprehension is the capacity to perceive and understand the

meanings communicated by texts.
Fluent Readers construct meaning with text. Reading comprehension
is a transaction in which the reader brings purposes and prior
experiences to relate with the text so that the reader may understand
the printed work. Text comprehension engages word identification
(which includes decoding text and sight word knowledge),fluency
(ability to read with developmentally appropriate rate, intonation and
phrasing) and vocabulary (oral language knowledge of word
meanings). Comprehending text also depends on the readers
background experiences, purposes, feelings and visualizations.
For example, in a elementary small group reading lesson, the teacher
librarian previews a book about plants. The teacher holds up the book
and asks, What do you think this book is going to be about by
looking at the title and the picture? Next page, teacher introduces
some of the vocabulary words and their meanings. The teacher
previews the photographs in the book, reinforcing the language used
in the text. For example, teacher says on page 3, See three kinds of
plants. What are some ways plants are alike?
The implications for teacher librarians are that we first need to think
aloud and model reading comprehension strategies for the student to
watch and implement. Then, the teacher and the student can engage
in the comprehension strategy together so that the student
completely understands the cognitive process. Lastly, the student is
able to do the comprehension task independently.

Targeted Reading Intervention. (n.d.). Retrieved June

09, 2016, from http://targetedreadingintervention.org/
Understanding Reading Comprehension |
Scholastic.com. (n.d.). Retrieved June 09, 2016, from
http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/understandin
g-reading-comprehension
Comprehension Skills, Strategies & Best Practices.
(n.d.). Retrieved June 09, 2016, from
http://www.benchmarkeducation.com/best-practices-libr
ary/comprehension-strategies.html

Epistemology

(Madalyn Bradburn)

The study of nature and the

scope of knowledge and
justified belief.
The investigation of what
distinguishes justified belief
from opinion.
Epistemology asks various
questions in regards to the
components of knowledge
(truth, belief, justification).
Under Epistemology, many
well-known theories have
emerged such as:
Constructivism, Skepticism,
Foundationalism, etc.
When grouped together,
learning and student beliefs of
knowledge are considered
epistemological.

As an elementary school teacher, epistemology

falls right into a students learning process. This
theory focuses on the aspect of knowledge and
trying to justify that thought with evidence.
Students in elementary school are constantly
required to justify their thinking, or knowledge,
with evidence.
1. Mastin, Luke. (2008). The Basics of Philosophy: Epistemology.
Found on June 12, 2016 from
http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_epistemology.html
2. Image: Epistemology in Research. Found on June 12, 2016 from
Google Search (linessaysper.dynu.com)
3. Chan & Elliott. (1998). Epistemological beliefs in learning to teach.
Found on June 12, 2016 from
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000859.htm

Epistemology
(Lisa Astudillo)

Epistemology comes from the Greek word Episteme which

means knowledge.
It is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of
knowledge.
The nature of knowledge is studied along with belief, truth,
and justification.
The study of the nature of knowledge.
The critical investigation of knowledge and its validity.
Introduction to the word and the concept.

As a new teacher/librarian, the traditional

concept of knowledge, meaning, and
communication are changing so rapidly. The
sophisticated information storage and new and
emerging technologies are advancing too
quickly that the library experience is changing
both for the Librarian and the students(users).
Also the relationship between the students and
the Librarian is dynamically changing. What the
libraries are being used for today seems reliant
on new technology and the Librarian keeping on
top of the new advancing knowledge and
keeping student up to date.

Anderson, G. T. (1992). Dimensions, context, and freedom: The

library in the social creation of knowledge. In E. Barrett (Ed.),
Sociomedia: Multimedia, hypermedia, and the social construction of
knowledge (pp. 107-124). Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
epistemology. (n.d.) American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language, Fifth Edition. (2011). Retrieved June 15 2016
fromhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/epistemology

Biometrics (Shelly Hayes)

Definition: The process by which a persons unique
physical and other traits are detected and recorded
by an electronic device or system as a means of
confirming identity.
Biometrics can be divided into two different
groups: Physiological and Behavioral
Physiological: is connected to a persons body
shape. Some examples of this are facial and
fingerprint recognition scanners.
Behavioral is connected to a persons actions. One
example of this is keystroke technology, it measures
the time the keys are held down and the length
between strokes, This is used on frequently used
words like usernames and passwords.
Implication for school Librarianship
Currently schools assign a barcode for each student.
The bar code is used to identify the student in order
to check out materials. Human error can be expected
while using this method of identification. A biometric
technology such as a fingerprint scanner can reduce
the incidence of human error tremendously. Also
biometric technology was once very expensive has
become more affordable.

Citations
Biometric Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved June 16,
2016, from
http://bio-metrica.com/biometric-theory
Biometric traits classification [Digital image].
(n.d.). Retrieved June 16, 2016, from
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/4/46/Biometrics_traits_classification.png

Semiotics (Beth Morris)

Semiotics is a discipline that studies images,

symbols, signs and other similarly related objects
in an effort to understand their use and meaning.
Proposed in early 1900s by American linguist
C.S. Peirce.
A sign represents the object or referent, in the
mind of an interpreter (people). There are three
kinds of signs: icon (sign that stands for an object
such as pictures), symbol (bald eagle for United
States), and index (part A (the signal pattern) with
part B (the behaviorally relevant situation)- Ex:
dark clouds in the west are an index of impending
rain.
When someone raises their hand, they are
making a social code or communicating that they
wish to speak.
Social media is a great example-posting a picture
(sign), giving the photo a name, place or date
(interpretant), and using facebook or twitter as a
means of posting it (object)
As a science teacher, I teach the periodic table to
students in Grades 3 to 5. Once they understand
symbols, they can master compounds and
understand products and reactants in chemical
equations.

Dewey, Matt. [digitmatt] (2007, November, 4).

Semiotics: Study of Signs. [Video File]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEgxTKUP_WI

Schneider, F. (2013). Image retrieved from

http://www.politicseastasia.com/studying/guide-to-t
he-theory-of-semiotics/
Social Tagging, Online Communication, and
Peircean Semiotics. [luckycharm 54] (2008).
Internet on-line. Retrieved from:
http://www.slideshare.net/andreasinica/social-taggi
ng-online-communication-and-peircean-semioticspresentation
Walker, G. (n.d.). Semiotics Theories. Retrieved
from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/comm321/
gwalker/semiotics.htm

The Information Processing Approach to Cognition

Minerva Samayoa Juarez

*Cognitive Psychology is the most influential approach of psychology.

As a teacher-librarian,the process I use to help my students learn and put things
*Stage Theory by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) - Information is processed
into memory is embedded in the learning process. We have such limited time
and stored in three stages.
with the students that we need to make the learning count.

Sensory Memory (STSS) -1

Environment makes sources of information such as light,

Using the Information Processing Approach in the Classroom
sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.

Brain only understand electrical energy

1.Gain students attention

Use cues to signal when you are ready to

Transduction of energy is when one form of energy is

begin.
changed to another=A memory is created.

Move around the room and use voice

inflections.

sec vision 3 sec hearing

Short-Term Memory (STM)

What we are thinking at any given time

2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.

Review previous days lesson.

Have a discussion about previously covered

Lasts 5-20 sec unless repeated

content.

Conscious Memory

Limited number of units processed at once 52

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

3. Point out important information.

Provide handouts.

Write on board.

Preconscious is easily recalled info

Unconscious Memory is data not available when

conscious.
4. Present information in an organized manner.

Show a logical sequence to concepts and

skills.

Elaboration and distributive help move info into LTM. Used

Go from simple to complex when presenting

in Direct Instruction Model
new material

Imaging, method of loci, pegword, rhyming, initial

letter
5. Show student how to categorize (chunk) related

Present info in categorize.

Distributive Practice is when practice is broken up into

information.

Teach inductive reasoning.

short sessions.
6. Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new
info.

Connect new info to something already known.

Look for similarities and differences in
concepts.

7. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.

Make up silly sentences with first letter of each

word.
Use mental imagery techniques.

8. Provide for repetition of learning.

Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved June 16, 2016 from,
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html

9. Provide opportunities for overlearning of fundamental

concepts and skills.

State important principles several times (STM).

Have items on each days lesson from previous
lesson (LTM).
Schedule periodic reviews of previously
learned concepts and skills (LTM).

Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.

Play games with content related to class.

Semiotics - Cindy Besst

Semiotics is the science of signs.

There doesn't have to be a relationship between a word or symbol

that conveys the meaning of an object a sign -- and the actual
meaning of the object. The sign can be arbitrary. For example,
the series of letters c h a i r are an arbitrary sign representing that
thing you're sitting on as you read this.
There are different categories of signs. Some signs ("icons") are
related to the actual meaning because they have similarities to it.
For example, a picture is a sign. A poetic comparison of the sun to
an oven is a sign, and the way the sun and an oven are similar is
the actual meaning.
Some signs ("indices") have a causal relationship with the object's
actual meaning. Steam is a sign or "index" of boiling water.
Finally, some signs ("symbols") follow rules and conventions, but
there is no similarity or causal relationship between the symbol
and the actual meaning. For example, a word that names an
object.
When we use a symbol to think about a meaning, we don't have to
experience the object, or meaning, first hand to consider and
interpret it. And we can use it in many different ways. For
example, a dollar bill can be a sign (symbol) and the actual
meaning can be any number of things at once, such as wealth,
lack of wealth, greed, security, and so on.

Dewey, Matt. [digitmatt]. (2007, Nov. 4). Semiotics: The Study of Signs [Video
file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEgxTKUP_WI

Hoelzel, Carolina. (2015, Dec. 17). A Brief

Introduction to Semiotics [Video File].
Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50gq_VHv
cS8

Implications for the Teacher Librarian:

Mathematics lessons are a natural use of
semiotics. In math classes visiting the library,
the teacher librarian has the opportunity to teach
the students that equations, numbers, and
formulas are symbols that have a particular
meaning. It is key to communication between
the teacher librarian and the students that both
parties understand clearly what specific meaning
a particular "symbol" being taught has.
Furthermore, students who are taught that they
can use different equations ("symbols") to arrive
at the same conclusion achieve a deeper
understanding of mathematics.

Information Processing Approach to Cognition

Definition: Information is processed in 3 stages:

1) Sensory- From environment;brain only understands
electrical energy.

2) Short Term Memory- AKA working memory The

learner must pay attention/attend Learner is more likely to
attend if interesting & recognizes a pattern. Two keys for
retaining STM-organization and repetition

3) Long Term Memory-two processes most likely to

move information into long term
memory(elaboration/distribution).

Christina Leone

Huitt, W. (2003). Educational Psychology Interactive:

The Information Processing Approach. Retrieved June
16, 2016, from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infopro
c.html
Information processing theory. (n.d.). Retrieved June 16,
2016, from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Information
Processing TheoryHuitt, W. (2003). Educational
Psychology Interactive: The Information Processing
Approach. Retrieved June 16, 2016, from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infopro
c.html
Information processing theory. (n.d.). Retrieved June 16,
2016, from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Information
Pro

Example & Implications for Teaching.

The following examples & strategies can be used in
aiding learners to retaining information into long
term memory:
Loci (location)-information to be retained put into a
specific location , imagery/Pegword(number/rhyming
schemes) rhyming(phrases/songs), initial letter(1st
letter in a list makes a word/sentence).

Huitt, W. (2003). Educational Psychology Interactive:

The Information Processing Approach. Retrieved June
16, 2016, from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infopro
c.html
Information processing theory. (n.d.). Retrieved June 16,
2016, from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Information
Processing Theory

David Fraga ETEC 523 Information Theories Dr. L. Farmer CSULB Assignment #1 Information Theories Guide and Comparison

The Beginnings of Information Theory

The publication of Shannon's 1948 paper, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", in the Bell System Technical Journal
was the founding of information theory as we know it today.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Early telecommunication, like telegraphy with Morse code, used the idea of encoding information and data compression.
Ralph Hartneys (Bell Labs) 1928 paper Transmission of Information quantified that information was a measureable quantity, not just
symbols.
Claude E. Shannons (Bell Labs) classic paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication established the discipline of Information
Theory.
This introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process underlying information theory.
From this, information entropy, redundancy, coding theorem, channel noise, channel capacity, and the binary digit [bit] developed.
With the rise in digital components, error correction, data compression, parity checks, digital modulation opened digital information
access.
This has made possible many modern devices for data communication and storage such as modems, DVDs, CD/DVD drives, solid
state drives, mobile phones, and World Wide Web/Internet protocols possible.

The article is somewhat technical in nature, most likely of interest to those with a math, science, or engineering background. Other than the
historical background for school librarianship, if you master some of the ideas and terms within the article, you can have some pleasant
conversation with your site or district technology specialist or microcomputer technician, and perhaps be invited to lunch. Believe me, it helps.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Information Theory - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory

History of Information Theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_information_theory
Shannon, C.E. (1948), "A Mathematical Theory of Communication",
Bell System Technical Journal, 27, pp. 379423 & 623656, July &
October, 1948.
R.V.L. Hartley, "Transmission of Information", Bell System
Technical Journal, July 1928
Andrey Kolmogorov (1968), "Three approaches to the quantitative
definition of information" in International Journal of Computer
Mathematics.

Theories of Knowledge

Jennifer Wehage

What we know is based upon how information is perceived and interpreted. Knowledge can be obtained from using ones previous
experiences, theological beliefs, and scientific explanation to turn information into what is known. There are multiple ways of
converting information, including the following nine philosophies, many of which have a relationship with a god and belief system.
Skepticism
Doubting the validity of
information - complete
knowledge cannot exist

Subjectivism
There is no clear truth each person has a
different way of evaluating
information

Objectivism
Knowledge is based on
reason and sense data

Critical or Representative
Realism
Distinction between sense
data and the object being
represented

Personalism
Meaning known through
ones conscious mind - a
difference between
experience and belief

Neo-Thomism
Also called
Neo-Scholasticism.
Whatever exists is itself,
there is no change over
time (confliction of
evolution)

Intuitionism
Truths are known through
intuition rather than logic,
science, or data

Pragmatism
Practicality is the basis of
acquired knowledge emphasis on reason, logic,
and usefulness

Phenomenalism
Physical objects do not
exist - they are a collection
of thoughts molded by
sense data including
dreams and hallucinations.

Implications for School Librarianship

As learning theories evolve, librarians need to understand how to deliver information for others to absorb. In a school environment,
the librarian must support the knowledge theory of the teacher and the assignments given to students.
De Wulf, Maurice. "Neo-Scholasticism." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 17 Jun.
2016 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10746a.htm>.
"Logic: Theories of Knowledge." Logic: Theories of Knowledge. Quartz Hill School of Theology, n.d. Web. 15 June 2016.
"ToK Documents." Pan American School of Bahia IB Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 June 2016.

Ontology

Lisa Litzel

In general, its the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of

being.
In information science is can be defined as a vocabulary of concepts and
relations that enable us to express knowledge and intention without
semantic ambiguity. It is a set of concepts that are specific in some way
in order to create an agreed upon vocabulary for exchanging
information.
In the context of computers, ontology acts a structural framework. It is
widely used to organize information and concepts in fields such as
artificial intelligence, systems, semantics, and biomedical and
information architecture
For Example: In artificial intelligence, an ontology is, according to Tom
Gruber, an AI specialist at Stanford University, "the specification of
conceptualizations, used to help programs and humans share
knowledge." In this usage, an ontology is a set of concepts - such as
things, events, and relations - that are specified in some way (such as
specific natural language) in order to create an agreed-upon vocabulary
for exchanging information.
Implications for school librarianship: As users, sharers, and instructors
of information knowledge we have to keep abreast of new ontologies as
they are continuously being created. We cant back away because it
seems scary and daunting, we just have to jump on in. These are the jobs
of our students futures and we need to help them comprehend this vast
information system.

What is Computer Ontology? - Definition from Techopedia.

(n.d.). Retrieved June 17, 2016, from
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/591/computer-ontolo
gy
Malanga, D. (n.d.). Creation and Use of Ontologies in
Information Science. Retrieved June 17, 2016, from
http://www.slideshare.net/dmalanga/role-of-ontologies-in

The Beginning of Information Theory

Ronny Cunningham
What is Information Theory? It is a
mathematical representation of the
conditions and parameters affecting the
transmission and processing of
information.
Who developed this theory? Formal
study first began in 1924 by Harry
Nyquist, a researcher at Bell Laboratories
who published a paper titled Certain
Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed.
Later in 1948 Claude Shannon went
further in the theory when he published
A Mathematical Theory of
Communication in the Bell System
Technical Journal.
So what does this mean? Essentially
this is the mathematical study of the
coding of information and how rapidly
such information can be transmitted, e.g.
computers, telephones.

Claude Shannon
How is this theory relative to me? Due to the
information theory we have been able to develop
computers, and reliable telecommunications. This
theory has also had a large impact in physiology,
linguistics, and physics.
Implications in special education: As a special
education teacher it is difficult to understand such a
theory in its complexity, But Shannons theory of
information is responsible for developers to create
assistive technologies to help students communicate
and access their curriculum.

Information Theory; Mathematicshttp://www.britannica.com/topic/information-theory

Information Theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory

Philosophy of Information

Erica Bustos

Definition: Philosophical analysis of the idea of information from a historical and systematic perspective.
Explanation: The interest in Philosophy of Information is recent. The idea of information has evolved as it has moved through various eras.

Classical Philosophy: Information was a technical notion associated with a theory of knowledge and ontology that originated in Platos
theory of forms, developed in a number of his dialogues.

Medieval Philosophy: An early version of the technical concept of sending a message in modern information theory, but the idea is older.

Modern Philosophy: Starting at about the 14th century the term ;information emerged to mean education and inquiry. The term was also
used explicitly for legal inquiries. Therefore, the term ;information; lost its association with the concept of form and became less formal.

Example: The gradual change of information can be seen through this development.
Information as the process of being informed

->

Information as a state of an agent

Information as the disposition to inform

Representative Image: The image of wax has been compared to information because they are both able to change their properties(change qualities
but remain the same) depending on the necessity.
Implications:
Implications for future teachers, with the idea of philosophy of information, would encompass the teaching of the
background and history of information to students. With any topic, it is important to address where the ideas stem
from and how the ideas have evolved throughout history to become what we currently know them as.
Works Cited:
Adriaans, Pieter, "Information", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/information/>.
Image Source: http://gasparillapirateposter.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Wax-Seal-2-e1393358692577.jpg

Biometrics

Adama Booker

Biometrics is a process that uses an individuals unique physiological or behavioral characteristic for security and identity
purposes. To verify individuals, the biometric template captured is compared with the stored information of the registered user, that
is either on a smart card or in a database (Bio-Metrica LLC, 2012). To identify individuals, the biometric template is compared to all
records within the database and the closest match is returned to authenticate the individual (Bio-Metrica LLC, 2012).
Physiological biometrics use optical cameras and/or infrared lighting to scan an individuals features. Examples are fingerprints,
facial features, hand and finger geometry, iris,retina and vein geometry. Retina recognition is the most precise and reliable due to
its unchanging nature (Bio-Metrica LLC, 2012).Behavioral biometrics include keystroke, signature, and voice recognition. The
way the activities are conducted by individuals are measured, such as the length of time a key is held when typing.Cognitive
biometrics, a new trend, is based on specific responses of the brain to stimuli, which can be used to trigger a database search.
Using biometrics will help K-12, especially middle school students greatly. Instead of memorizing usernames and passwords that
they usually forget, students can use behavioral biometrics to log into devices at school. Although children are fingerprinted and
footprinted when they are born, I believe parents would oppose any physiological biometric being used in schools. In my
experience, parents give the least amount of information that they are allowed to give to schools. Its hard enough getting updated
phone numbers.
Reference
Bio-Metrica, LLC. (2012, June 1).
Biometric theory.
Retrieved from http://bio-metrica.com/biometric-theory

Bio-Metrica, LLC. (2012, June 1).

Basic block diagram of biometric system [diagram].
Retrieved from http://bio-metrica.com/biometric-theory

A Discipline-Independent Definition of Information

Ronel Wright

Definition: [T]he value attachedto a characteristicproduced by a process.

Explanation: The author, recognizing that the term information had been used in various contextse.g., mathematics, engineering,
and general discoursehas put forth a definition of the term that he posits is applicable to any and all disciplines. (The abbreviated
version of the definition above specifically excludes the mathematically-related language of functions, although it was the use of
functional language that in part attracted me to this topic as a math teacher.)

Example: Losee uses in this article the example of a telephone conversation to illustrate his point. He asserts that an electrical engineer
will focus on pulses and waveforms; a linguist might examine phonetic or syntactic aspects; a student of culture might look at potential
cultural biases affecting the quantity and quality of conversation. However, each of these scholars is looking in different ways at the
same set of information.
Implications for school librarianship: A definition covering all potential uses for information allows every audience some comprehension
of the term. This facilitates greater understanding and increased ability to communicate across varying backgrounds and experiences.
Probably more relevant with adults, or at high-school level and above than in lower grades.
Source: Robert M. Losee, A Discipline Independent Definition of Information. J American Society for Information Science 48 (3), 1997, 254-269.
Retrieved online from http://ils.unc.edu/~losee/b5/book5.html.