8/11/2009

SE URBAN 2007-8
Class notes and slides on:
Highway Materials
Highway Construction and
Highway Maintenance

Soil properties and

Classification

Highway Materials

Soil
Aggregates
Bitumen

Soil Types

Soil Formation
Soil Types
Particle Size Analysis and Grading Characteristics
Physical Properties of Soils
Engineering classification of soils

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Particle Size Analysis

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Classification

1.Soil Texture
2.Soil Structure
3.Bulk Density
4.Pore Space
5.Soil Temperature

Das,
1998

8/11/2009

Crushed stone (aggregate)

AGGREGATES

Aggregate" is a collective term for the mineral

materials such as sand, gravel and crushed
stone that are used with a binding medium
(such as water,
water bitumen,
bitumen portland cement,
cement
lime, etc.) to form compound materials (such
as asphalt concrete and portland cement
concrete). By volume, aggregate generally
accounts for 92 to 96 percent of HMA and
about 70 to 80 percent of portland cement
concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and
subbase courses for both flexible and rigid
pavements

Aggregates Types - Gravel

Naturally occurring, water born pieces of
rock, in buried or current stream beds
Normally rounded with smooth surfaces,
other properties dependent on parent rock
Crushed gravel is larger gravel particles that
have been reduced in size by a crusher
May be washed to remove undesirable
material
May be screened to divide into desired size
groupings

Aggregates Types - Sands

9 Naturally occurring, water or wind born pieces of
rock in buried or current stream beds or dunes

9 Often rounded with smooth surfaces, other

properties dependent on parent rock
9 May be washed to remove undesirable material
9 May be screened to divide into desired size
groupings

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Classification of Natural
Aggregates

In accordance with size

In accordance with sources:
In accordance with unit weight

In accordance with size

In accordance with sources

1. Natural Mineral Aggregates - Sand, gravel,
and crushed rock derived from natural
sources.
(a) Igneous Rocks - Granite, basalt: hard,
t
tough,
h strong
t
E
Excellent
ll t aggregates
t
(b) Sedimentary Rocks - about 80% of
aggregates; Natural sand and gravel)
Limestone, sandstone Excellent to poor
(c) Metamorphic Rocks -.
Marble, schist, slate Excellent to poor

Coarse aggregate: Aggregates predominately

retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. For
mass concrete, the maximum size can be as
large as 150 mm.
Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing
No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve and predominately
retained on the No. 200 (75 mm) sieve.

Aggregate Production

Aggregates are produced in a quarry or mine

whose basic function is to convert in situ rock
into aggregate with specified
characteristics.
h
Usually
ll the
h rockk is blasted
bl
d or
dug from the quarry walls then reduced in
size using a series of screens and
crushers. Some quarries are also capable of
washing the finished aggregate.

8/11/2009

Sand and gravel excavation.

CRUSHING
The first steps of processing begins after the
extraction from quarry or pit. Many of these
steps also are common to recycled materials,
clay, and other manufactured aggregates.
The first stage in most operations is the
reduction and sizing by crushing. Some
operations, however, provide a step prior to
crushing called scalping.

Surge pile.

GRADATION CONTROL
The best technique for gradation control is screening.
Screening can be done wet or dry, depending on the
kind of aggregate being processed and the degree of
consistency needed for each product. Washing, for
example, may be necessary to clean a concrete
aggregate, but it may not be needed for hot mix
asphalt products, which can contain more fines. For
gradation control alone, however, a producer may
come to realize that gradation consistency can only
be maintained by using wet screening, especially for
the hot mix asphalt products. Gradation consistency
is usually an overriding factor for a hot mix asphalt
customer. Water volume and flow direction are critical
in wet screening.

8/11/2009

Screening.
SAND PRODUCTION
Sand plays a critical role as a construction aggregate and it
deserves special attention when considering the means of
process control. Unlike coarse aggregate where various
types of crushers can be used to upgrade mineral quality
quality,
sand basically relies on the same techniques to address
both mineral quality and sizing. These techniques are
called particle exclusion.Whichever size the producer
decides to eliminate for quality reasons obviously also will
affect sizing.

NATURAL SAND
Good quality natural sand is readily available in
many areas and may be easy to obtain and
process. As with the gravels that they often
accompany,the sand deposits may not have been
laid uniformly
uniformly, meaning a potential
change in quality and size is possible. In some
deposits, sand found below the water table differs
in fines content and quality from that found above
the water table. Subsurface drilling, sampling, and
testing is necessary to know to what degree and
where these differences occur.

PAVING ASPHALTS
Origins, properties,
manufacture and use

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Sources and Manufacture of

Asphalt

Sources

natural asphalt
crude oil

Asphalt manufacture

Composition and Structure of

Asphalt

distillation
extraction
modification
cracking processes

- oxidation
-

Physical and chemical character of asphalt is determined by:

composition of crude oil
method of crude oil and asphalt processing
Asphalt: complex, multicomponent, colloidal system
Asphalt is composed of a multitude species which differ by:
molecular mass, chemical structure, polarity
Molecular mass between 400 - 3000 D
Carbon skeleton: 25 - 150 atoms

Paving asphalt represents 3 ~ 4 % of the

total annual crude oil throughput in USA
and Canada

Composition and Structure of Asphalt

(Contd)

Composition varies considerably among

asphalts manufactured from different
crude oils
The largest portion of paving asphalts are
produced as vacuum residues with the cut
point between 425C and 565C

Specifications of Paving
Asphalts

The role of specifications:

specify properties that directly reflect asphalt

behaviour
express these properties in physical units
provide limits for those properties to exclude
poor performing
f
products
provide information from which the service
performance can be predicted

Important properties of asphalt:

mechanical
adhesive
durability

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Classical Penetration- Based

Specification

Specifications of Paving Asphalts (Contd)

Conventional tests used for asphalt
characterization:

Penetration Grade

Ageing characteristics:

REQUIREMENTS FOR ASPHALT CEMENT FOR USE IN PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

ASTM D946

penetration, ductility, softening point R&B,

flash point, spot test, Fraass breaking point..
Thin Film Oven Test, Rolling Thin Film Oven
Test, Pressure Aging Vessel

Rheological tests:

Bending Beam Rheometer, Direct tension Test,

Dynamic Shear Rheometer

Penetration @ 77F(25C) 100g, 5s

40-50

60-70

85-100

120-150

200-300

Min Max

Min Max

Min Max

Min Max

Min

Max

40

50

60

70

85

100

120

150

200

300

Flash Point, F (Cleveland open cup)

450

---

450

---

450

---

425

---

350

---

Ductility at 77F (25C) 5cm/min, cm

100

---

100

---

100

---

100

---

100A

Solubility in trichloroethylene, %
Retained penetration after thin-film
oven test, %
Ductility at 77F (25C) 5cm/min, cm
after thin-film oven test
A

---

99

---

99

---

99

---

99

---

99

---

55+

---

52+

---

47+

---

42+

---

37+

---

---

---

50

---

75

---

100

---

100A

---

If ductility at 77F (25C) is less than 100 cm, material will be accepted if ductility at 60F (15.5C) is 100 cm minimum
at the pull rate of 5 cm/min

The Road Construction

Process

Highway Construction

The type of road construction used varies from one

job to another. The type of construction adopted for
a particular road depends on: the volume and nature
of traffic to use the road,
the nature of the materials available,
the topography,
foundation conditions,
type and availability of construction equipment, and
financing arrangements and timing.

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The Road Construction

Process

Any road construction job consists of number of basic steps,

although the relevant importance and the interaction between
these steps will vary from job to job. These steps can be
summarized as:
planning, programming and pre-construction activities;
site clearance;
setting out;
earthworks;
bridge construction;
drainage structures;
pavement construction;
placement of road surfacing;
placement of road furniture; and
landscaping.

Sequence of Operations

The normal sequence of operations in cut and fill work is:

In Cut
excavate to the depth necessary to reach formation level,
transport away from the site undesirable material such as
o ganic soils,
organic
soils
haul suitable materials from cuts to fill areas, and
suitably dispose of any excess cut material.

In Fill
drain water from depressions and dispose of any unsuitable
underlying material,
spread fill material in horizontal layers not more than 250 mm
thick, and
thoroughly compact these layers to required density.

Earthworks

The eventual aim of the earthworks phase of the construction is

to position the subgrade underlying the pavement layers in the
right location and at the correct level, and to provide drainage.
The operations to be performed are:
formation
f
ti off cuttings
tti
b
by excavating
ti th
through
h hi
high
h ground,
d
formation of embankments by filling over low ground,
shaping the finished surface to design levels, and
excavating for drainage works.
The earthworks is often the largest task in the road building
process and therefore careful planning and organisation are
essential. Speed and efficiency depend very much upon the
quantity and types of earthmoving plant available.

NED roadwork-11 Aug 2009

Subgrade prepared

Base course materials stacked

40

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Pavement Construction

Gravel and Crushed Rock Pavements

Source: pits,quarries.
Haulage: trucks.
Spreading: grader or paver.
Compaction: higher compaction standard than subgrade;
different roller types used.
Accuracy of levels important.
Asphalt Pavements
Manufacture: fixed plants (up to 400 tonnes per hour), or
large mobile plants.
Haulage: trucks.
Placement: paving machine.
Compaction: rollers - smooth vibrating drum and pneumatictyred.
Usually final layer thin to achieve good riding surface.

Placement of Road Surfacing

May be gravel, sprayed bituminous seal, asphalt or
cement concrete.
Construction of Sprayed Bituminous Surfacing
Pavement must be sound. For new work: compaction and
trimming of underlying gravel or crushed rock pavement.
For existing bituminous surface: patching. Steps:
Sweep surface - drawn rotary broom + hand
sweeping.
Prepare binder - transport to job by road or rail tanker,
or in drums.
Flux and/or cutback binder.
Incorporate adhesion agent.
Prepare aggregate - stockpiles, precoating

Pavement Construction

Cement Concrete Pavements

Manufacture: ready-mixed batching plant.
Haulage: agitator truck.
Large quantities: site manufacture + normal trucks.
Placement: slip-form paver.
Compaction: internal vibrators + external screeds
screeds.

Spray binder - air temperature should be > 15 C; no

rain should be threatening; mark out spray runalignment and start and finish.
Apply aggregate - quick incorporation into hot bitumen
before excessive cooling; spreaders required; drag
broom to correct spreading inconsistencies.
Roll surface - to bed stone; pneumatic-tyred or static
steel drum rollers.
D
Drag
b
broom
Record work - quantities bitumen sprayed, aggregate
spread, etc.
Traffic control - throughout steps 1 to 10; minimise
traffic delays.

11

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Preparation for a Sprayed

Bituminous Surfacing
Left: Sweeping a gravel pavement
prior to the application of a
prime. Sweeping is usually carried

out with
drawn mechanical brooms,
although
some hand sweeping is often
required
as well.

Construction of HMA Road

Preparation for a Sprayed

Bituminous Surfacing
Right: Damping the
pavement. It is found that a

prime or seal will

adhere better to an
underlying gravel
pavement if the pavement is
slightly damp.

Left: A bitumen road tanker.

Transport of bitumen to the
job site will
usually be by rail tanker or
road tanker.

Asphalt Production
Right: Batching Plant, Toowoomba. The mix
falls through a series of inclined
vibrating screens and the various size
fractions are stored in hot storage bins.
The plant operator then weighs out the
correct proportions of each size for a
single batch. The sizes are mixed and then
the required amount of hot bitumen
is added and mixing continued. The batch
is then discharged from the mixer into a
waiting truck, and the batching process
repeated.
Left: Hot Storage Bins, Brisbane Plant. In
the Brisbane plant, the batches of
hot mix are stored in insulated storage
bins, and this means that arriving trucks
can be filled more rapidly.

12

8/11/2009

Asphalt Paving.

Left: Paving Machine, Front View.

This is a view of the front of a

typical
self-propelled, floating screed,
paving
machine. Tip trucks discharge the
hot
asphalt into the front hopper and it
is
then conveyed to the rear of the
machine
by a chain and slat conveyor.

Right: Paving Machine, Rear View.

This picture shows a truck with its

tray
tipped, discharging mix into the
paver.
The operator sits on top and steers
the
machine to the required alignment.

Construction of RCC Road

Asphalt Paving.
Right: Screed Unit. The screed unit
consists of levelling arms,
a screed plate which vibrates to act
as a
tamper, and thickness controls. It is
supported
d by
b the
h mix
i which
hi h gives
i
it
i
a
floating action.
Left: Reference Beam Attached to
Paver. A long moving reference

beam, mounted
on shoes (or skis) can be used to
ensure
the screed follows a smooth line
regardless of irregularities in the
surface
being paved.

Construction of RCC Road

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Construction of RCC Road

Dowel bars location

Placement of dowels and tie

bars

PCC thickness

14

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Roofing paper

Tie bars

Roofing paper-1

Dowel basket

15

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Placement of reinforcement

Forms, Steel form

Dowels images

Wooden Form

Figure 7.113:
Steel Forms

16

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Removal of Form

Vibrator

75% Time
40% Quality
Drop

Highway Maintenance
Surface Distresses

40% Quality
Drop

Each Rs.1000 of
R
Renovation
ti Cost
C t
Here
Will Cost
Rs.4000 to
Rs.5000 if
Delayed to Here

17% Time
Years

17

8/11/2009

Surface Distress

According to the HAPI Pavement Guide

start with

Fracture (e.g., cracking, spalling)

Distortion (e.g., deformations)
Disintegration (e.g., stripping, raveling)

Surface Distress
ASTM E1778 Standard Terminology
Relating to Pavement Distress

Alligator cracking
Bleeding
Block cracking
Corrugations
Edge cracking

Oil spillage
Polished aggregate
Potholes
Raveling
Reflection cracking
Rutting

Surface distress

1.

2.

3.

Surface distress is "Any indication of poor or

unfavorable pavement performance or signs of
impending failure; any unsatisfactory performance of a
pavement short of failure" (Highway Research Board,
1970). Surface distress modes can be broadly classified
into the following three groups:
Fracture. This could be in the form of cracking or
spalling resulting from
f
such things as excessive loading,
fatigue, thermal changes, stripping, slippage or
contraction.
Distortion. This is in the form of deformation, which can
result from such things as excessive loading, creep,
densification, consolidation, swelling, or frost action.
Disintegration. This is in the form of stripping or
raveling, which can result from such things as loss of
bonding, chemical reactivity, traffic abrasion, aggregate
degradation or binder aging.

Alligator cracks are interconnected cracks, forming a series of

small blocks resembling an alligators skin. This occurs when
the sub-base gravel fails to provide adequate support for the
asphalt pavement. It is also known as fatigue cracking, and
repeated heavy loads and moisture create excess flexing of
the surface.
NO
Defects

Low

Med

High

Low

Med

High

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8/11/2009

Alligator Cracking

Potholes arise when the wearing surface

disintegrates under traffic, due to inadequate
structural strength in one or more layers of the
pavement. They are bowl-shaped voids and are
often located in areas of poor drainage. Patches are
portions of pavement that have been removed and
replaced, usually to repair defects in the pavement.
Problems occur when the patches crack, settle, or
distort.
NO

Defects

GOOD

(0)

FAIR

(2)

POOR

(5)

Alligator/Fatigue

ALLIGATOR Cracking

Problem: Roughness,
indicator of structural failure,
cracks allow moisture
infiltration into the base and
subgrade, eventually results
in potholes and pavement
disintegration if not treated.

A series of interconnected
cracks caused by fatigue
failure of the HMA surface
under repeated traffic
loading. As the number
and magnitude of loads
becomes too great,
longitudinal cracks begin to
form (usually in the
wheelpaths).
h l th ) After
Aft
repeated loading, these
longitudinal cracks connect
forming many-sided sharpangled pieces that develop
into a pattern resembling
the back of an alligator or
crocodile.

Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support for the given loading,

which can be caused by a myriad of things. A few of the more common
ones are:
Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics
Probably the most common reason is a loss of base, subbase or subgrade
support from things like poor drainage or spring thaw. Water under a
pavement will generally cause the underlying materials to become weak.
Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer. The stripped depth
contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA thickness
decreases.
Increase in loading (i.e., the pavement is being loaded more heavily than
anticipated in design)
Inadequate structural design (i.e., the pavement was designed too thin
for the anticipated loads)
Poor construction (i.e., inadequate compaction)

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8/11/2009

Alligator Cracking

Alligator Cracking

Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be

investigated to determine the root cause of
failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit
or coring the pavement to determine the pavement's
structural makeup as well as determining whether or
not subsurface moisture is a contributing
factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is
apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally
ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into
one of two categories:

Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of

subgrade support. Remove the cracked pavement

Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of

general structural failure. Place an HMA

overlay over the entire pavement

surface. This overlay must be strong enough
structurallyy to carryy the anticipated
p
loading
g
because the underlying fatigue cracked
pavement most likely contributes little or no
strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).

area then dig out and replace the area of poor

subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if
necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

Block Cracking
Edge cracks are approximately 1ft from the road
edge. Normally they are caused by lack of shoulder
support, or by the settlement of the material under
the edge. This can indicate poor drainage, frost
heaves, or shrinkage of the surrounding earth.

NO
Defects

Low

Med

High

Low

Med

High

Description: Interconnected
cracks that divide the
pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks
range in size from
approximately 1 ft2 to 100
ft2. Larger blocks are
generally classified as
longitudinal and transverse
cracking.
g Block cracking
g
normally occurs over a large
portion of pavement area
but sometimes will occur
only in non-traffic areas.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature
cycling. Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to
expand and contract with temperature cycles because of:
Asphalt binder aging
Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

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Corrugation and Shoving

Block Cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and

extent of the block cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal
to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are
kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks

with raveled edges). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Description: A form of plastic

movement typified by ripples
(corrugation) or an abrupt
wave (shoving) across the
pavement surface. The
distortion is perpendicular to
the traffic direction. Usually
occurs at points where traffic
starts and stops
((corrugation)
g
) or areas where
HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping)
combined with:
An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix
contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of
aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Depression

Corrugation and Shoving

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved

pavement should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure. Repair
strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:

Small, localized areas of corrugation or

shoving. Remove the distorted pavement

and patch.

Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative

of general HMA failure. Remove the

Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly

lower elevations than the surrounding pavement. Depressions
are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water
can cause vehicle hydroplaning

Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting

from inadequate compaction during construction.
construction
Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A
pavement depression should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure (i.e., subgrade settlement or frost
heave). Depressions should be repaired by removing the
affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of
poor subgrade. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

damaged pavement and overlay.

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8/11/2009

Longitudinal Cracking
Depression

Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or

laydown direction. Usually a type of fatigue cracking.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates
possible onset of fatigue cracking and structural failure.
Possible Causes:
Poor joint construction or location. Joints are generally the
least dense areas of a pavement. Therefore, they should be
constructed outside of the wheelpath so that they are only
infrequently loaded. Joints in the wheelpath like those
shown in third through fifth figures above, will general fail
prematurely.
A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including
joint reflection cracking)
HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future fatigue cracking)
top-down cracking

Longitudinal Cracking

Longitudinal Cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and

extent of the cracking:

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and

q
cracks)). Crack seal to p
prevent (1)
( )
infrequent

entry of moisture into the subgrade through the

cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack
edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are
kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and

numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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8/11/2009

Patching

Description: An area of pavement that has been

replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter
how well it performs.

Patching

Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes:
Previous localized pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched
Utility cuts
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The
only way they can be removed from a pavement's
surface is by either a structural or non-structural
overlay

Polished Aggregate

Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the

portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt
binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles.

Polished Aggregate

Problem: Decreased skid resistance

Possible Causes: Repeated traffic
applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the
protruding rough, angular particles become
polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is
susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive
studded tire wear.
Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or BST or
overlay.

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8/11/2009

Potholes

Potholes
Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement
surface that penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down
to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely
to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (1 to 2 inches) and
seldom occur on roads with 4 inch or deeper HMA surfaces
(Roberts et al., 1996).

Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result

from driving across potholes at higher speeds), moisture
infiltration
Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of
fatigue cracking. As fatigue cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which
can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The remaining
hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Repair: In accordance with patching techniques

Raveling

Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer

from the surface downward as a result of the dislodgement of
aggregate particles.
Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water
collecting in the raveled locations resulting in vehicle
hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance
Possible Causes:
Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt
binder as a result of:
A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt
binder to bond with the dust rather than the aggregate
Aggregate segregation. If fine particles are missing from the
aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind
the remaining coarse particles at their relatively few contact
points.
Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is
required to develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA.
Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires,
snowplow blades or tracked vehicles).

Raveling

Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root

cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:
Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement and
patch.
Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the
damaged pavement and overlay

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8/11/2009

Rutting

Description: Surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement

uplift (shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are
particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with
water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting and
subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does
not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits wheel path
depressions as a result of compaction/mix design
problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits
wheel path depressions due to loading.
loading In this case
case, the
pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing surface
depressions in the wheel path.
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a
vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.

Rutting

Rutting

Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a

pavement's layers or subgrade usually caused by consolidation
or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic
loading. Specific causes of rutting can be:
Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it
is not compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may continue
to densify under traffic loads.
Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement
structure)
Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high
asphalt content, excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of
angular aggregate particles)
Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as
the ruts described here, but they are actually a result of
mechanical dislodging due to wear and not pavement
deformation.

RUTTING

Repair: A heavily rutted pavement

should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient
compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix
design or studded tire wear). Slight
ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be
left untreated. Pavement with deeper
ruts should be leveled and overlayed.

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Rutting

Slippage Cracking

Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks

generally having two ends pointed into the
direction of traffic.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause
the pavement surface to slide and deform. The
resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a
low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between
the surface HMA layer and the next underlying
layer in the pavement structure.
Repair: Removal and replacement of affected
area.

Transverse (Thermal)
Cracking

Slippage Cracking

Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's

centerline or laydown direction. Usually a type of thermal
cracking.
Problem:
P
bl
All
Allows
moisture
i
infiltration,
i fil
i
roughness
h
Possible Causes:
Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or
asphalt binder hardening.
Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface
HMA layer
top-down cracking
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent
of the cracking:

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Transverse (Thermal)
Cracking

Transverse (Thermal)
Cracking

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and

infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)

entry of moisture into the subgrade through

the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al.,
1996).

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and

numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay

Water Bleeding and Pumping

Description: Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs
when water seeps out of joints or cracks or through
an excessively porous HMA layer. Pumping (rightmost photo) occurs when water and fine material is
ejected from underlying layers through cracks in the
HMA layer or out the sides of the HMA layer under
moving loads.
loads
Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of
high pavement porosity (water bleeding), decreased
structural support (pumping)
Possible Causes:
Porous pavement as a result of inadequate
compaction during construction or poor mix design
High water table
Poor drainage

Water Bleeding and Pumping

Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be
investigated to determine the root cause. If the
problem is a high water table or poor drainage,
subgrade drainage should be improved. If the
problem is a porous mix (in the case of water
bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be applied to
limit water infiltration

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8/11/2009

Water Bleeding and Pumping

Joint Reflection Cracking

Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid
pavement. The cracks occur directly over the
underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection
cracking does not include reflection cracks that occur
away from
f
an underlying
d l i joint
j i or from
f
any other
h type
of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
Possible Causes: Movement of the rigid pavement
slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal
and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.

Joint Reflection Cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity

and extent of the cracking:

Joint Reflection Cracking

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and

infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)

entry of moisture into the subgrade through

the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. In general, rigid pavement
joints will eventually reflect through an HMA
overlay without proper surface preparation.

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and

numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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