Chapter 2

Mechanical Working of Metals

The mechanical working of metal is defined as an intentional deformation of metals
plastically under the action of externally applied forces.
The mechanical working of metals is described as HOT WORKING and COLD
WORKING depending upon whether the metal is worked above or below the
RECRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE.
RECRYSTALLISATION TEMPERATURE is temperature at which new grains are formed in
the metal.
HOT WORKING:
The working of metals above the recrystallization temperature is called HOT WORKING.
The HOT WORKING should be carried above the recrystallization temperature but below the
melting point or burning point, otherwise the metal becomes not suitable for further use.
Advantages of HOT Working:
In comparison with the cold working, the advantages of hot working are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

NO strain Hardening.
Lesser forces are required for deformation.
Greater ductility of materials is available, and therefore more deformation is possible.
Equipment of lesser power is needed.
No residual stresses in the material.

Disadvantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Heat energy is needed.

Poor Surface finish of the material due to scaling of surface.
Poor accuracy and dimensional Control of parts.
Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts.
Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome.

Different hot working processes:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Hot rolling
Hot forging.
Hot extrusion.
Hot Piercing.
Hot drawing.
Piping and tube production.

Cold Working:-

 The working of a metal below their recrystallization temperature is known as Cold

Working. Most the cold working are carried out in room temperature..
The cold working distorts the grain structure and does not provide an appreciable
reduction in size.
It requires much higher pressures than hot working.
The metal, being in a more rigid state, is not deform permanently until the stress
exceeds the elastic limit, results in the increased strength and hardness of metal. This
method is known as work hardening or Strain hardening.
Advantages of cold working:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Improved surface finish.

No heating is required.
Better dimensional control is achieved.
Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.
Better strength, fatigue and wear properties of materials.
Contamination problems are almost negligible

Disadvantages of cold working:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Higher forces are required for deformation.

Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
Less ductility is available.
Metal Surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
Strain hardening occurs.

Comparison of Cold Working and Hot Working:

SL
NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Cold Working

Hot Working

Cold working is done on metal at

room temperature or at a temperature
below recrystallization temperature.
The metal surface becomes harder.
The elongated grains due to cold
working do not refined.
More force is required for cold
working.
The process is slower.
Large machines are required.
Producing complex shapes is
difficult.
Good dimensional accuracy and
good surface finish.

In hot working, metal is heated above the

recrystallization temperature and worked.

Rolling:-

The metal surface becomes tough.

The elongated grains are reformed into small
grains.
Less force is required for hot working.
The process is faster.
Small machines can be used.
Complicated shapes can be easily produced.
Dimensional accuracy is not good. Surface
finish will not be as good as cold worked
parts.

Rolling is a metal forming process in which the metal is passed between the rolls to
get a desired shape by plastic deformation.
Rolling may be classified into HOT Rolling and COLD Rolling depending upon the
temperature at which the metal is rolled.
Principle of Rolling:
The rolls will have the desired profile on its periphery.
During Rolling, Plastic deformation of the metal takes place.
When the metal passes through the roller, the metal is subjected to high compressive
stress this makes the metal to elongate.
The crystals of the metal are elongated in the direction of rolling.
In rolling cross section of the work piece is reduced.

Hot Rolling:
Hot Rolling Occurs above the recrystallization temperature.
In hot rolling process, metal in plastic state is passed between the two rolls revolving
at the same speed but in opposite direction.
As the metal passes through the rolls, its thickness is reduced and the length is
increased.
Hot rolling is as shown in figure.

Cold Rolling:
Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature, which
increases the strength via strain Hardening upto 20% also increases the surface finish
and holds tighter tolerances.
Commonly Cold Rolled products are sheets, strips, bars and rods etc.

 Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a work piece as much as hot rolling in a
single pass.
Cold rolling is as shown in figure.

Rolling Mills:
Rolling Mills are of the following types:
1) Two high rolling mill.
2) Three high rolling mill
3) Four high rolling mill.
Two High Rolling Mill:
It consists of two heavy horizontal rolls, placed exactly one over the other as shown
in figure.
These rolls are supported on bearings in housing and placed over a rigid stand.
The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll and
lower roll is fixed.
Both the rolls rotate in opposite direction to one another as shown in figure.
Thus work can be rolled by feeding in one direction only.
There is another type of two high mill which incporates a drive mechanism that can
reverse the work piece continuously through back-and-forth passes between the rolls.
This type of rolling mill is known as Two-high reversing mill.

Three High Rolling Mill:

 A Three high rolling mill consists of three rolls mounted one over the another as
shown in fig
The top and bottom rolls rotate in same direction, but the middle one rotates by
friction in opposite direction.
The work piece is passed between upper and middle rolls in one direction and then
passed in the reverse direction between the middle and lower rolls.
All the three rolls rotate continuously in a same fixed direction and are never be
reversed.
These mills are used for blooming, billet rolling or finish rolling.

Four High Rolling Mill:

It consists of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and two of larger diameter,
arranged directly one over the other as shown in figure.
The two larger diameter rolls are called back-up rolls and ther main function is to
prevent the deflection of the smaller rolls, which otherwise would result in thickening
of rolled plates or sheets at the centre.
The smaller rolls are called as working rolls and they are the rolls which concentrate
the total rolling pressure over the metal.

Drawing:
Drawing is a metal working operation in which the diameter or thickness of a metal is
reduced by pulling the metal through a die or set of dies.
Principle of drawing:

 In this process, the metallic workpiece is pulled through a hole in a die, either
manually or automatically.
The pointed/reduced end of the bar or coil, which is smaller than the die opening, is
passed through a die where it enters a gripping device of the drawing machine.
The drawing machine pulls or draws the remaining unreduced section of the bar or
coil through the die.
The die reduces the cross section of the original bar or coil, shapes the profile of the
final product and increase the length of the original product.
The different types of Drawinfg ares as follows
1)
2)
3)
4)

Deep Drawing.
Wire drawing.
Rod drawing (or Bar drawing)
Tube drawing.

Deep drawing:
Deep drawing is defined as a process of making cup shaped parts from sheetmetal.
In this process a die with a cavity is used.
The sheet metal is heated first to a plastic state and is placed above the cavity in the
die.
A punch is used to force the sheet metal throught the cavity of a die to form a cup.
The process is considered deep drawing when the depth of the drawn part exceeds its
diameter.

Wire drawing:
Wire drawing is used for reducing the diameter of a wire and this process is carried
out of wire whose diameter is less than 16mm.
In this operation a series of dies with decreasing hole sizes are used.
First the wire is feed into the die with the largest hole and is drawn though it.
It is then fed into the second die with a smaller hole and drawn again. This process is
repeated using many dies. In the end, a fine wire with small diameter is obtained.

Rod drawing or Bar drawing:

Rod drawing is an operation used to reduce the diameter of the rod.
It is similar to wire drawing.
In this process rod is pulled through a suitable hole in a die. Due to force on the rod,
the diameter of the rod decreases.

Tube drawing:
In tube drawing, a hollow tube is pulled through a hole in a die, this reduces its crosssectional dimensions.
Tube drawing is a metalworking process to size a tube by shrinking a lrge diameter
tube into a smaller one, by drawing through a die.

Extrusion:
Extrusion is a process in which a work piece, of a certain length and cross section, is
forced to flow through a die of a smaller cross sectional area, thus forming the work to the
new cross section.
A large force is required in extrusion, therefore most of the metals are hot
extruded and the force is applied either hydraulically or mechanically.

Uses of extrusion:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Used for the production of rods, tube etc.

Used for the production of Aircraft parts, flooring strips, etc.
Used for the production of Lead covered cables, moulding trim, door trim,etc.
Used for the production of Uniform cross-sectional profile.
Used for gears, collabpisble tubes, shock absorbers cylinders.

Direct extrusion or Forward extrusion:

The most and common method used is the direct process.
Figure shows the principle of direct extrusion where the metal billet is placed
in the container and pushed through the die by the ram pressure.
The direction of the metal flow will be in the same direction as ram travels.
Direct extrusion finds application in the manufacture of solid rods, hollow
tubes and hollow and solid sections according to the design and shape of the
die.

Indirect Extrusion or backward Extrusion:

Indirect extrusion is similar to the direct extrusion expect that the extruded part is
forced throught the hollow ram as shown in the figure.
It involves no friction between the metal billet and the container walls, because the
billet does not move in the container.
Less total force is required compared to direct extrusion.

Tube Extrusion:
It is a form of direct extrusion process but uses a mandrel to shape the inside of the
tube as shown in the figure.

 The die containing the mandrel is placed in position by the die holder at the extruding
point.
The hot metal is placed into the container as shown in the figure.
The ram is then made to move slowly with a uniform pressure, which extrudes the
metal through the die and around the mandrel to produce the required size and shape
of the tube.

Forging:
Forging is a process by which metals and alloys are plastically deformed to desired
shapes by the application of a compressive force.
When the forging is done on the metal below the re-crystallization temperature it is
called Cold forging.
Examples: bolt heads, rivets, nails etc.
When the forging is done on the metal above the re-crystallization temperature it is
called Hot Forging.
Examples: Connecting rods, Crack shaft, Cam shaft etc.

Advantages of forging:
1) Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to impact and fatigue
loads.
2) Forging refines the structure of the metal.
3) The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained in forging operation.
4) The forged parts can be easily welded.
5) Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have good reliability.

Disadvantages of forging:
1) Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature results in scaling
which wears the dies.
2) The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.
3) Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts having undercuts etc.
4) Some materials are nt readily worked by forging.
5) The initial cost of the forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is high.
Smith Forging Operations (Common forging operations):
1) Upsetting:
Upsetting is the process of increasing the thickness of a bar and to reduce the
length by applying the end pressure.
This pressure may be obtained by driving the end of the bar against the anvil,
by supporting on the anvil and hitting with the hammer.
2) Drawing Down:
Drawing down is the process of increasing the length of a bar by reducing the
thickness.
The length of the bar is increased at only one end and it is carried out by
striking the work piece with straight peen hammer.
3) Swaging:
It is the process of removing the irregularities in the surface.
It is also the operation of reducing or changing the cross-sectional area of
diameters by revolving the stock under fast fact of blows of hammer.
4) Setting Down:
It is the operation of reducing the thickness of the work piece in small area
first; the portion of the workpice to be thinned is heated.
5) Punching:
It is the process of producing the holes generally cylindrical by using the hot
punch over a cylindrical die.
It is done by placing the workpiece over a die having a hole of required size
and placing the hot punch of the required size of the hole over the workpiece
in alignment with the die hole and the hammer.
6) Cutting:
It is a main forging operation to cut out a metal rod or plate into two pieces
with the help of a chisel and hammer when the metal is in red hot condition.
A cold or hot chisel is used for cutting the metals.
7) Bending:

 It is a very commonly used forging operation in forging shop to give a turn to

a metal rod or plate.
The operation is performed by hammering the metal over the edges of the
anvil, or over a block of metal held in a vice.
It is carried out by spreading of the metal in the inside of the bend and
narrowing at outside.
8) Fullering:
It is the process of reducing the workpiece between two ends at a central
portion so as to increase its length by using convex shaped die.
The workpiece is placed between the convex dies and then struck by hammer
on either side.
9) Welding:
It is the process of joining the two metal pieces by pressing together two
surfaces with high pressure, after they have been heated to a welding
temperature. This process is also known as forge weld.