Preface

Bhutan lies in the Himalayas which were formed by collision between the Indian plate and Eurasian
Plate that started about 50 million years ago. Each year, the Indian Plate advances relentlessly
about 20mm towards the Asian plate resulting in the stress built up in the Himalayan region.
The two earthquakes of 2009 and 2011 which affected mainly the eastern, western and southern
Bhutan have re-confirmed the active seismicity in the region. These two earthquakes caused severe
damages to properties in Bhutan.
The earthquakes can neither be predicted nor be prevented but proactive precaution can be taken to
reduce the risk by building safer homes. It is said Earthquakes do not kill but bad buildings do.
This Earthquake Resistant Construction Training Manual- 2013 is an updated and improved
version of the previous Good Construction Practices Manual 2011.
The Manual provides various measures to be considered in proper planning, design and
construction of the houses to achieve good seismic resistance.
The Ministry of Works and Human Settlement is pleased to bring forth this Earthquake Resistant
Construction Training Manual - 2013 and anticipate all the users and the home owners to take
full advantage more so , this should serve as a good guideline to all artisans, engineers, architects
and builders in rendering their services.
The Manual will be reviewed and updated periodically as and when better methods are available to
suit our context. We would also, appreciate valuable comments and suggestions on this Manual for
consideration in its next edition.

Honble Dasho Secretary

Ministry of Works and Human Settlement

Acknowledgement

This Earthquake Resistant Construction Training Manual- 2013 is prepared with the financial
assistance from the UNDP Bhutan office and USAID. The Ministry of Works and Human
Settlement would like to thank the UNDP and USAID for their support.
The Ministry would also like to thank the members of the Technical Core Group for their valuable
inputs in developing and fine tuning the Manual. The Members are:
1) Mr Karma Jamtsho, Thimphu Dzongkhag
2) Mr Jigme Dorji, Thimphu Thromde
3) Mr Karma Sonam, SPBD, MoE
4) Mr Sonam Norbu, SPBD, MoE
5) Mr Tshering Dupchu, HIDD, MoH
6) Mr Pema, DCHS, MoHCA
7) Mr Yeshey Lotay, DDM, MoHCA
8) Mr Karma Drupchu, Gelephu Thromde

ii

Scope of the Manual

This Manual specifically deals with stone masonry construction in Bhutan. Traditionally stone
masonry constructions in Bhutan were carried out using mud mortar. The recent trend in stone
masonry construction is using cement mortar and steel. However, it is unfortunate that both these
constructions are happening with little or no regard to earthquake safety of these houses. The lack
of earthquake resistant features in these houses has resulted in major damages and losses during
recent earthquakes. This Manual, therefore, endeavors to identify and highlight shortcomings of
present construction practices in stone masonry and recommend internationally accepted
strengthening measures.
This Manual could be used by all professionals involved in building constructions particularly stone
masonry buildings.

iii

Definition of Key Terms

Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, vertically above the place of origin (hypocenter) of
the earthquake.
Magnitude: It is the quantity to measure the size of an earthquake and is independent of the
place of observation.
Wythe: is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit thickness. A wythe maybe independent of, or interlocked with, the adjoining wythes.
Delamination : is a failure mode where by a splitting apart of layers takes place, or division
into separate layers.
In-Plane Failure of Wall: The failure that takes place due to the forces parallel to the axis of
the wall.

Out - of-Plane Failure of Wall : the failure that takes place due to the forces perpendicular to
the axis of the wall.

iv

Preface
Scope of the Manual

Contents

1. Seismicity, Past Damage and Pattern

1.1 Seismic Hazard in and Around Bhutan
1.2 Damages of Past Earthquakes
1.3 Seismic Deficiencies and Damage Patterns

1
1
3
4

2. Stone Masonry with Cement Mortar

2.1 Materials
2.2 Site Selection
2.3 Building Layout
2.4 Foundation
2.5 Wall
2.6 Seismic Bands
2.7 Use of Reinforced Concrete Bands
2.8 Use of vertical reinforcement
2.9 Roof Anchorage

7
7
7
9
11
12
15
16
18
21

3. Stone Masonry with Mud Mortar

3.1 Material
3.2 Site Selection
3.3 Building Layout
3.4 Foundation
3.5 Wall
3.6 Seismic Bands
3.7 Use of Horizontal Timber Bands
3.8 Vertical Plank Reinforcement
3.9 Roof Anchorage

22
22
23
25
27
28
31
31
33
34

4. Appendix A. Building Typology in Bhutan

35

5. Appendix B. Damage Assessment Format for 2009 Earthquake

37

6. Appendix C. Damage Assessment Format for 2011 Earthquake

38

7. References

44

1. Seismicity, Past Damage and Pattern and Building Typology in Bhutan

1.1 Seismic Hazard in and around Bhutan

Tectonic and Seismic History

Bhutan lies in the Himalayan region which

Great earthquakes have occurred on 12th June

were formed by a collision between the Indian

1897, 60 Km from Bhutan in Assam, in 1905

plate and Eurasian Plate that started about 50

in Western Himalaya and in 1950 in far

million years ago.

eastern Assam. The frequency of these

massive earthquakes is four in 200 years. Fifty

Each

year,

the

Indian

Plate

advances

five years have now elapsed since the regions

relentlessly about 20mm towards Eurasian

last great earthquake and Pakistans 2005

Plate. The friction in the shallowest parts of

quake is just a wakeup call for a potential

the collision clamps Asia and India together

future great earthquake. The elastic reservoir

for hundreds of years beneath the Himalaya

of the Tibetan plateau is sufficiently mature to

and released when sufficient stress has

drive three or four M8 earthquakes. The

developed to tear the rock apart. The small

private dwellings of more than 150 million

earthquakes

signify

people in northern India, Pakistan, Bhutan,

accumulation

of

the

region

Sikkim and Nepal, assembled at minimum cost

great

will be in great danger. The source of

earthquakes alone allow the incremental

seismicity around Bhutan and Seismic Hazard

northward motion of Indian plate.

Map of India and nearby areas are shown in

surrounding

stress

future

in

continued

rupture;

the
the

Figure 1 and Figure 2.

Figure 1: Source of Seismicity around Bhutan (Bilham et al [ 1])

1

Figure 2: Seismic Hazard

Map of India and Adjoining
Areas
Source: http://
earthquake.usgs.com

The list of Historical earthquakes that affected Bhutan in the past are given in the Table 1.
Table 1: List of Historical Earthquakes that affected Bhutan
Sl No.
1

Magnitude
(Richter)
7.0

Date

Location (Epicenter)

1713

Border Between Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh

7.6

11 June 1806

Eastern Bhutan

8.0

12 June 1897

60 Km from south of Bhutan in Assam

6.5

12 May 1906

Border of Bhutan, India and China

5.7

13 August 1910

Border of India and Bhutan

8.0

15 January 1934

India and Nepal Border

6.7

21 January 1941

South Eastern Bhutan

7.3

29 July 1947

India and China Border

8.7

15 August 1950

India and China Border

10

6.4

23 February 1954

Border of Bhutan, India and China

11

6.6

29 July 1960

Southern Bhutan

12

6.4

19 November 1980

North East India

13

6.8

20 August 1988

Nepal

14

5.5

26 March 2003

Paro

15

5.0

11 February 2006

Arunachal Pradesh, felt in Trashigang

16

5.7

14 February 2006

Sikkim

17

5.8, 5.5

24 February 2006

Dewathang

18

6.1

21 September 2009

Narang, Mongar

19

6.9

18 September 2011

Sikkim, India
2

1.2 Damages of Past Earthquakes

The damages on rural homes reported by the affected Dzongkhags and compiled by the Department
of Disaster Management for 2009 and 2011 Earthquakes are presented in the Tables below. The
Damage Assessment format used for the 2009 earthquake is incorporated in the Appendix B and for
the 2011 earthquake is put in Appendix C.

Table 2: 2009 Earthquake Damage to Rural Homes

Dzongkhag

Houses Damaged
Beyond
Repair

Major
Repair

Dead

Trashiyantse

21

70

Partial
Repair
400

Zhemgang

Trashigang

147

445

439

572

18

Pemagatshel

25

24

24

187

Lhuentse

24

87

Mongar

260

331

413

1253

18

Samdrupjongkhar

10

11

Gasa

23

Punakha

10

Chukha

22

11

Sarpang

12

Tsirang

28

Total

462

884

1335

2269

12

39

Minor
Repair
106

Injured

Table 3: 2011 Earthquake Damage to Rural Homes

Note: Cat III: Total Collapsed , Cat II: Substantial to Heavy Damage, Cat I: Minor Damage

Dzongkhag

Houses Damaged
Cat I

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

14

356

15

383

21

22

15

58

Wangdueg

145

47

193

Zhemgang

48

50

5568

1008

401

6977

14

62

Chhukha
Dagana

551

101

18

670

367

70

12

449

Gasa

209

15

229

Haa

515

319

200

1034

Lhuentse

61

63

Mongar

439

35

478

Paro

837

129

54

1020

27

32

868

39

910

18

19

645

189

81

915

46

50

336

16

367

Trongsa
Tsirang

Pemagatshel
Punakha
S/jongkhar
Samtse

15

Trashigang

18
19
20

Injured

Total

62

14

17

Cat III

Bumthang

Sarpang
Thimphu

16

Cat II

Dead

Trashiyangtse

TOTAL

1.3 Seismic Deficiencies and Damage Patterns

i) Lack of Structural Integrity

The seismic performance of a masonry

house depends on how well the walls are
tied together and anchored to the floor and
roof. When the walls are not connected
properly at the intersections, each wall
vibrates on its own when subjected to
ground shaking. When the walls are well
connected, the building vibrates as a
monolithic box and such a structure can be
called a well integrated structure.

walls at the intersections, and collapse of

roof or floors due to the inadequate wall to
floor anchorage.
Significant tensile and shear stresses
develop at the wall intersections when the
seismic forces are transferred from
transverse walls to the shear walls. When
the wall connections are inadequate or
absent, verticals cracks may develop or
separation may take place at the wall
intersections.

Lack of integrity is manifested by damage to

walls at the intersections, separations of
4

ii) Delamination of Wall Wythes

Stone masonry walls constructed of two wythes are susceptible to delamination. The space between
the wythes is usually filled with small stones and mortar. Delamination takes place when the
vertical wall wythes bulge and collapse outward due to earthquake shaking.
The absence of the through-stones is the primary cause of delamination. The process of
delamination and a picture of delaminated wall are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

Figure 3: The Process of Delamination

Figure 4: The Picture of Delamination

iii) Out-of-Plane Wall Collapse

Out-of-plane wall collapse occurs when the

walls are not connected at their intersections and
there are no seismic bands at the floor and roof
levels. Therefore, each wall vibrates on its own
when subjected to earthquake shaking and the
walls perpendicular to the direction of the
earthquake shaking move away from the floors
and roof and might topple resulting in the out of
plane failure. Depending on the intensity of
earthquake shaking, this failure mechanism is
characterized either by vertical cracks developed
at the wall intersections or by tilting and
collapse of the entire wall. Out-of-plane failure
of a Chorten wall is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: The Picture of Out-of-Plane Failure

iv) In-Plane Shear Cracking

Damage to stone masonry

walls due to in-plane seismic
effects (in the direction of the
wall length) is less common
than damage due to the
out-of-plane seismic effects.

factors like pier dimensions, wall thickness, building height and

masonry shear strength influence the in-plane failure mechanism.
The in-plane shear cracking failure is shown in Figure 6.

Using irregular stones, weak

mortar and absence of
vertical reinforcement makes
the walls more susceptible.
A typical masonry wall
consists of piers between
openings and a portion below
the openings (sill) and above
the openings (spandrel).
When subjected to in-plane
earthquake shaking, masonry
walls demonstrate either
rocking or diagonal cracking.
Rocking is characterized by
the rotation of the entire pier,
which results in the crushing
of pier end zones. Piers can
also suffer diagonal shear
cracking
(X-cracking).
Diagonal cracks develop
when tensile stresses in the
pier exceed the masonry
tensile strength. Several

Figure 6: Failure Modes of In-Plane Shear Cracking

v) Poor Quality of Construction

Poor quality of construction and use of low quality of building materials are the cause of significant
earthquake damage and destruction in the stone masonry.

2. Stone Masonry with Cement Mortar

2.1 Materials
i) Stone

ii) Cement Mortar

Type:
Natural building stones such as granite,
limestone, sandstone etc. are to be used.

The mortar shall be cement and sand of 1:4

ratio. Use clean sand for mortar and concrete.
Do not use sand with large amount of silt or
clay. Mix the dry ingredients together before
adding water. Use fresh and lump free cement
for mortar and concrete. The water used for
cement mortar should be portable.

Durability:
Stones should be hard, tough, compact
grained, uniform in texture and color and
crack-free.

iii) Steel Reinforcement

Size:
Stones small enough to be lifted and placed by
hands can be used. The length of the stone
shall not be more than 3 times the height and
shall not be less than 200mm.

The Steel rod should be of yielding strength of

415 Mpa or higher (TMT). Plain bars should
not be used.

2.2 Site Selection

Site conditions play a very important role in the seismic safety of a building. The site should
provide a stable and firm base for the building. In earthquake prone areas where the site is inclined,
the following precautions must be taken into account:
a) The house should not be constructed 3m into the cut slope, as the horizontal forces of the
earth might cause the adjacent walls to collapse.

b) The house should not be constructed near or on top of the edge of slopes as it might
collapse due to earth avalanches.

c) Buildings should not

be constructed on the
loose fill, as its low
bearing
capacity
might
cause
differential settlement
of the foundation.

d) The house should not

be constructed on the
unstable slopes as it
might slide down.
The slopes where the
tress are bent as
shown in the picture
are not stable.

e) Houses should be
built above the
possible flood line
and with adequate
distance from the
river banks. Buffer
zone of 30m from the
river bank should be
maintained as per the
NEC Act.

2.3 Building layout

i) Shape/plan of the building

Building plans should be regular, simple and

symmetrical. Regular shaped buildings like
square, rectangular or circular resist the
earthquakes more effectively. During the
earthquake movements the corners of the
non-uniform buildings are stressed more and
may be damaged. When the proposed plan of
the building is irregular, it should be divided

Square

into smaller blocks of regular plans. Complex

buildings shall be made simple by providing
gaps at appropriate locations. A separation gap
of 75-100mm should be provided. The length
of the building should not be more than three
times its width. The above mentioned idea are
depicted in the Figure 7.

Rectangle

Narrow Rectangle

L Shape

U Shape

Improved shape using separation

Figure 7: Layout of the Houses

ii) Long walls

divided into smaller blocks with sufficient

gaps between them. Interior cross walls and
buttresses could be constructed as another
option and these options are shown in Figure
8.

Long walls are weak and flexible against

earthquake forces and can easily fall down
during the earthquake. When the building is
longer than three times its width, it should be

Note: use cross walls/buttresses in every 5m in either direction

Figure 8: Cross Walls and Buttresses
9

iii) Building Elevation

Building should be as regular as possible along its height. Vertical irregularities are not recommended, but if they cannot be avoided, a load-bearing wall should be provided below each wall in
the upper story.
The pictorial representation of the above mentioned is shown in the Figure 9.

DO

DO NOT

DO NOT

Figure 9: Regular buildings are recommended, Building irregularity in vertical direction: and buildings
with setbacks or overhangs are not recommended.

iv) Building Height

Stone masonry buildings with cement mortar should be limited to two stories in high seismic zones.

v) Box Effect (Structural Integrity)

Structural integrity/box action of a building

can be achieved by ensuring good connections
between all building components like,
foundation, walls, floors and roof. The box
effect is shown in Figure 10. The key elements
required to achieve the box effect is shown in
Figure 11.

Experiences from the past earthquakes have

shown that damage to unreinforced masonry
buildings is significantly reduced when the
building components are well connected and
building vibrates as monolithic box.

Figure 10: Box Effect

10

Figure 11. Key Requirements for Structural Integrity in a Masonry Building

2.4 Foundation
Foundation of a building is the
part of the building below the
ground level. The purpose of the
foundations is to transfer the load
of the superstructure to the
ground. The weight of the structure must be suited to the load
capacity of the ground which in
turn shall be stable. An adequate
depth of the foundation should be
provided and it should reach the
stable ground with adequate bearing capacity.

The thickness of footing should not be less than 450mm for

one storey and 600mm for two storied. It is preferable to
have larger stones for foundation. The foundation details for
stone masonry with cement mortar is shown in Figure 12.

The minimum depth of the foundation should be 1m or 3.3 feet.

The minimum width of the foundation should be 2 times the wall
thickness for two storied and 1.5
times the wall thickness for one
storey.
Figure 12: Foundation Details with Cement Mortar

11

2.5 Wall
i) Slenderness Ratio:

iii) Wall height

Very long walls which tend to warp or bend

under in-plane loading are considered slender
walls. These walls are not effective in resisting
lateral earthquake loads. This slenderness ratio
is calculated as effective height divided by the
effective thickness or effective length divided
by the effective thickness whichever is less.

The wall height should be limited to 3m for

stone masonry with cement mortar.
iv) Wall thickness

The recommended thickness of a stone

masonry wall in cement mortar is 450mm and
the recommended minimum wall thickness is
380mm.

As per the IS 1905, the maximum slenderness

ratio for a load bearing wall in Portland cement
or Portland Pozzolana cement mortar for not
more than two storeys should be limited to 13.
Also in the IS 1905, the regular sized unit
stones is considered.

v) Course Work

Construction of walls in both unreinforced and

reinforced masonry are carried out in course
layers to achieve desired bonding between
masonry units and also to allow setting of the
fresh course work before next course layer is
continued. A good masonry wall construction
therefore should incorporate the following
important elements at appropriate stages of the
coursework to achieve good bonding between
masonry units and proper connections at
various intersections of walls.

ii) Layout of Walls

Most rural houses in Bhutan have asymmetric
wall layouts and this have resulted in failures
due to torsion. Asymmetric wall layout
directly translates to unequal distribution of
structural stiffness thereby creating torsion or
twisting of the structure. Wall layout should be
therefore as symmetric as possible in both
directions.

The height of the wall constructed in one lift

should not be more than 600mm or 2feet as
shown in Figure 15. There should not be
vertical mortar lines as shown in Figure 14. A
good sample without vertical mortar line is
shown in Figure 16.

Figure 14: Poor interlocking with almost vertical

mortar lines
Figure 13: Symmetric (above) and Asymmetric
(below) layout of walls
12

Figure 15: Maximum of course work 600mm

in Single lift

Figure 16: Picture of no vertical mortar

lines in Course Work

vi) Use of through-stones

Through-stones are the long stones placed through the wall to tie the wall together and prevent
delamination which is one of the main causes of collapse of stone masonry wall during earthquake.
Through-stones make the wall perform like hands with interlaced fingers as shown below.
When through-stones are unavailable, precast concrete members (1:2:4) of 150mm (6) by 150mm
(6) cross-section, or 8mm / 10mm diameter rod in S-shaped or hooked link with a cover of
25mm (1) from each face of the wall may be used. Through-stones should be placed every
600mm (2feet) along the wall height and every 1200mm (4feet) along the wall in plan as shown in
Figure 18.

Figure 17: Through Stone Action

13

Figure 18: Placement of Through-Stone

vii) Use of corner stones

Wall intersections should be strengthened with

corner stones to ensure the integral, box action
of the building during the earthquake shaking.
These corner stones should be ideally placed
no further apart than 600mm or 2 feet along
the wall height. The recommended minimum
dimension of corner stones are (450x275x150)
mm.
The interlacing of corner stones is shown in
Figure 19.

Figure 19: Corner Stone

viii) Control on Wall Length, Building Height and Openings

Height of the Stone masonry walls should be restricted as follows:

Ceiling height = Maximum 3000mm(9.8 feet).
Span of walls between cross walls = Maximum of 6000mm (19.7feet) .
Details on the control of wall length and opening lengths in the wall, together with mathematical
for formula is shown in the Figure 20.
14

Figure 20 Control on Wall length, height and openings

*Information obtained from Bothara et al. (1)

2.6 Seismic Bands

Providing seismic band is the most critical
earthquake resistant provision in a stone
masonry. Bands are usually provided at the
plinth, lintel, floor and roof levels. The band
acts like a ring or a belt and holds the walls
together and ensures integral box action of the
entire building. A lintel band also reduces the
effective wall height, and reduces the bending
stresses in the walls due to out-of-plane
earthquake effects and thus reducing the
chances of delamination. During the
earthquake, the band is subjected to bending.
The portion of the band perpendicular to the
direction of the earthquake shaking is
subjected to bending while the remaining
portion is in tension. A seismic band must be
continuous (like a loop or a belt). The
demonstration on how the seismic bands work
is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21: Demonstration of How Bands Work

15

2.7 Use of Reinforced Concrete Bands

Reinforced concrete bands are use in the stone masonry houses with cement mortar. The required
number and size of reinforcing bars in a RC band depends on the room span, the importance of the
building and the number of stories. The minimum requirement of bars, their placement details and
the placement of bands are depicted through pictorial representation and tabulated in the Figures 22
26 and Table 4. A minimum concrete cover of at least 25mm (1) should be maintained.

Table 4: Reinforcement in Concrete Band

Length of Wall in Number of Storey

room
Less than or equal to 2
5m or 16.4 Feet

Diameter of Rod

6m or 19.7 feet

12

12

Figure 22: Location of Plinth, Floor and Roof

Bands in a Single Storeyed Modern
House

Figure 23: Location of Plinth, Floor and Roof

Bands in a Traditional two Storeyed
House
16

Figure 24: Details of Steel Rod in Horizontal Concrete Band

Figure 25: Details of Steel Rod at

a L-Junction

Figure 26: Details of Steel Rod at

a T-Junction
17

2.8 Use of Vertical Reinforcement

In unreinforced masonry walls, there are three basic failure modes due to earthquake lateral
loading:

1) Rocking of masonry piers and as

a result crushing of corners of
these piers. This happens when
walls are slender and the weight
above is light as shown in Figure
27.
Figure 27: Rocking of wall piers

2) Diagonal cracking of masonry

piers as shown in Figure 28. This
is the most common type of
failure in in-plane mode in
masonry constructions.
Figure 28: X-cracking of wall piers

3) Sliding under the roof, below the

lintel level or at the sill level as
shown in the Figure 29. This
happens because of reduced wall
sections due to openings like
doors and windows. This sort of
failure mode is rare.
Figure 29: Sliding of walls along sill,
lintel and plinth.

18

Placing vertical reinforcement

in masonry walls basically
provides tensile strength and
partial confinement to wall
piers. The behavior of
masonry
is
significantly
improved to mitigate the
above failure modes. This
effect is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Tensile strength provided by vertical steel reinforcement

In particular, the rocking behavior of slender masonry behavior is modified into bending due to the
presence of vertical reinforcement wherein the tensile strength is provided by the vertical
reinforcement. The vertical reinforcement in walls also increases the shearing strength at the
reduced wall sections and this prevents the sliding of wall piers at opening along sill, lintel and
below the roof. These effects are depicted in Figures 31 32.

Figure 31: Vertical reinforcement causes

Bending of Masonry Piers instead of
rocking

Figure 32: Sliding is resisted by vertical

reinforcement.

In wider walls, the placement of vertical reinforcement enhances the capacity of wall sections to
resist lateral earthquake loads. Due to this enhanced capacity, the process of development of
X-crack is substantially delayed. The vertical reinforcement along with RCC bands strengthens the
opening to prevent formation of opening cracks at the corners. These effects are shown in Figures
33-34.

Figure 33: Cracking in the building with no

corner reinforcement

Figure 34: Prevention of X-cracks due to vertical

reinforcement and RCC bands
19

Instructions for installation of vertical

reinforcements

1. Place vertical reinforcement at all wall

corners, wall T-junctions, adjacent to door
and window openings. The spacing of two
adjacent vertical reinforcement in long
walls without opening should be less than
1.5m
2. Anchor all steel bars in foundation and
roof band. The anchorage provided should
not be less than 450mm.
3. Use 12mm
or
reinforcement bars.

larger

diameter

4. Place 100mm diameter, 750mm long PVC

around steel bars and build masonry
around it.
5. Extract the pipe after building masonry till
600mm and fill the cavity with 1:2:4
concrete or 1:4 cement mortar.
The above mentioned instructions are depicted
more clearly in the pictorial forms in adjacent
picture and the Figures 35 - 37.

Figure 36: Installation of Vertical

Reinforcement

Figure 35: Concrete Bonding with Vertical

Steel Reinforcement
20

Figure 37: Vertical Steel Reinforcement (PLAN)

2.9 Roof Anchorage

The integrity of the roof and its connection to
the supporting walls is very important and it
acts as a lid on the top of the box. In masonry
building with cement mortar, it is advisable to
embed anchor bolt into the walls to be
connected to the roof. The spacing of these
anchor bolts should be the same spacing as
the trusses. This idea is shown in Figure 38.
An option to connect roof trusses to the roof
joist in the traditional setting is shown in
Figure 39.

Figure 39: Roof Truss and roof joist connection

in a Traditional House

Figure 38: Roof Truss

and Band Connection in
21

3. Stone Masonry with Mud Mortar

3.1 Materials
i) Stone

The total content of the clay and silt should not

be less than 60% by weight.

Type:
Natural building stones such as granite,
limestone, sandstone etc are to be used. Round
stones and river stones shall not be used.

Simple field tests which can be conducted to

identify the content of sand and clay for
ordinary soil are as follows and shown in
Figure 40.

Durability:
Stones should be hard, tough, compact
grained, uniform in texture and color and
crack-free.

1. Moist cast test. *

Compress moist soil by squeezing it in your
hand. When you open your hand, if the soil
holds together (that is, forms a cast), pass it
from hand to hand the more durable the
cast, the higher the percentage of clay.

Size:
Stones small enough to be lifted and placed by
hands can be used. The length of the stone
shall not be 3 times the height and shall not be
less than 200mm.

2. Ribbon test. *
Roll a handful of moist soil into a cigarette
shape and squeeze it between your thumb and
forefinger to form the longest and thinnest
ribbon possible. Soil with high silt content will
form flakes or peel instead of forming a
ribbon. The longer and thinner the ribbon, the
higher the percentage of clay.

ii) Mortar

The thickness of the mud mortar shall not be

more than 30mm or roughly a bit more than
1.0 inch and shall be used as economically as
possible.
A good quality of mud mortar free from
organic matter, pebbles and other large
particles should be used. The soil should be
thoroughly kneaded with water to achieve a
dense mortar paste. A good mix should
preferably conform to the following
mechanical composition.
Clay 18 -22% by weight
Silt 40 -45% by weight
Sand 30-40% by weight

Figure 40: Moist Cast Test and Ribbon Test

* For these tests, the soil specimen should be gradually moistened and thoroughly reshaped and
squeezed to bring it to its maximum "plasticity" and to remove dry lumps. Do not add too much
water, as the sample will lose its cohesion.
22

3.2 Site Selection

Site conditions play a very important role in the seismic safety of a building. The site should
provide a stable and firm base for the building.
In earthquake prone areas where the site is inclined, the following precautions must be taken into
account:
a) The house should not be constructed 3m into the cut slope, as the horizontal forces of the
earth might cause the adjacent walls to collapse.

b) The house should not be constructed near or on top of the edge of slopes as it might
collapse due to earth avalanches.

c) Buildings should not be

constructed on the loose
fill, as its low bearing
capacity might cause
differential settlement of
the foundation.

d) Houses should be built

above the possible flood
line and with adequate
distance from the river
banks. Buffer zone of
30m from the river bank
should be maintained as
per the NEC Act.

23

e) The house should not be constructed on the unstable slopes as it might slide down. The
slopes where the trees are bent as shown in the picture are not stable.

24

3.3 Building layout

may be damaged. When the proposed plan of
the building is irregular, it should be divided
into smaller blocks of regular plans and
complex buildings shall be made simple by
providing gaps at appropriate locations. A
separation gap of 75-100mm should be
provided. The length of the building should
not be more than three times its width. The
above mentioned idea are depicted in the
Figure 41.

i) Shape/plan of the building

Building plans should be regular, simple and

symmetrical. Regular shaped buildings like
square, rectangular or circular resist the
earthquakes more effectively. During the
earthquake movements the corners of the
non-uniform buildings are stressed more and

Square

Rectangle

Narrow Rectangle

L Shape

U Shape

Improved shape using separation

Figure 41: Layout of the Houses

ii) Long walls

Long walls are weak and flexible against

earthquake forces and can easily fall down
during the earthquake. When the building is
longer than three times its width, it

should be divided into smaller blocks with

sufficient gaps between them. Interior cross
walls and buttresses could be constructed as
another option. These ideas are depicted in
Figure 42.

Note: use cross walls/buttresses in every 5m in either direction

Figure 42: Cross Walls and Buttresses
25

iii) Building Height

Stone masonry buildings with mud mortar should be limited to one storey.

iv) Box Effect (Structural Integrity)

Structural integrity/ box action of a building

can be achieved by developing a box action by
ensuring good connections between all
building components like, foundation, walls,
floors and roof. The box effect is shown in
Figure 43 The key elements required to
achieve the box effect is shown in Figure 44.

Experiences from the past earthquakes have

shown that damage to unreinforced masonry
buildings is significantly reduced when the
building components are well connected and
building vibrates as monolithic box.

Figure 43: Box Effect

Figure 44: Key requirements for structural integrity in a masonry building

26

3.4 Foundation
The foundation detail is shown in Figure 45.
Foundation of a building is
the part of the building below
the ground level. The purpose
of the foundations is to
transfer the load of the
construction to the ground.
The weight of the structure
must be suited to the load
capacity of the ground which
in turn shall be stable. An
adequate depth of the
foundation
should
be
provided and it should reach
the stable ground with
adequate bearing capacity.
The minimum width of the
foundation should be at least
1.5 times the wall thickness
and the minimum depth
should be 750mm or 2.5 feet.
The thickness of footing
should be 450mm.

Figure 45: Foundation Details for Mud Mortar

3.5 Wall
i) Layout of Walls

Most rural houses in Bhutan have asymmetric

layout of walls and have resulted in failures
due to torsion. Asymmetric wall layout directly
translates to unequal distribution of structural
stiffness thereby creating torsion or twisting of
the structure. Wall layout should be therefore
as symmetric as possible in both directions as
shown in figure 46.
ii) Wall height

The wall height should be limited to 2.7 m for

stone masonry with mud mortar.
iii) Wall thickness
The recommended minimum wall thickness is
450mm.

Figure 46: Symmetric (above) and Asymmetric

(below) layout of walls
27

iv) Course Work

A coursework of wall is usually about 600 mm

in one lift . There should not be vertical mortar
lines. These to do and not to do are depicted in
Figure 47.

Construction of walls in both unreinforced and

reinforced masonry are carried out in course
layers to achieve desired bonding between
masonry units and also to allow setting of the
fresh course work before next course layer is
continued. A good masonry wall construction
therefore should incorporate the following
important elements at appropriate stages of the
coursework to achieve good bonding between
masonry units and proper connections at
various intersections of walls.

Figure 47: Dos and Donts

v) Use of Through-Stones
Through-stones are the long stones placed through the wall to tie the wall together and prevent delamination which is one of the main causes of collapse of stone masonry wall during earthquake.
Through-stones make the wall perform like hands with interlaced fingers as shown in Figure 48.
When the through-stones are unavailable, wooden bars of 50mm (2) by 50mm (2) cross-section,
8mm/10mm diameter rod in S-shaped or hooked link with a cover of 25mm (1) from the each face
of the wall may be used. A pair of overlapping stones can also be used, each extending at least three
-quarters of the wall thickness. Through-stones extending over the full wall thickness must be used
every 600mm in the height and at 1.2m maximum spacing along the length as shown in Figure 50.
Figure 49 shows a picture of wall failure due to delamination.
28

Figure 49: Wall Failure due to Delamination

Figure 48: Through Stone

Figure 50: Through-Stone placement along wall height and in plan.

29

vi) Use of Corner Stone

All intersections should be

strengthened with corner
stones to ensure the integral
box action of the building
during earthquake. These
corner stones should be
placed no further apart than
600mm or 2 feet along the
wall height. Well placement
of corner stones is shown in
Figure 51.

Figure 51: Picture of Wall with Corner Stone

vii) Control on Wall Length and Building Height

Height of the Stone masonry walls should be restricted as follows:

Ceiling height = Maximum 2700 mm (8.9feet).
Span of walls between cross walls = Maximum of 5000 mm (16.5feet).
Details on the control of wall length and opening lengths in the wall, together with mathematical for
formula is shown in the Figure 52.

Figure 52: Control of Wall Length, Height and Openings

Information obtained from Bothara et al. (1)

Number of Storeys:
A maximum of 1 storey construction is recommended for stone masonry using the mud mortar.
30

3.6 Seismic Bands

Providing seismic band is the most critical earthquake
resistant provision in a stone masonry construction. Bands are
usually provided at the plinth, lintel, floor and roof levels. The
band acts like a ring or a belt and holds the walls together and
ensures integral box action of the entire building. A lintel
band also reduces the effective wall height, and reduces the
bending stresses in the walls due to out-of-plane earthquake
effects and thus reducing the chances of delamination. During
the earthquake, the band undergoes bending and pulling
actions. The portion of the band perpendicular to the direction
of the earthquake shaking is subjected to bending while the
remaining portion is in tension. A seismic band must be
continuous (like a loop or a belt). A demonstration of how a
seismic band works is shown in Figure 53.

Figure 53: Demonstration of How

Bands Work

3.7 Use Horizontal Timber Bands

Timber bands are used in stone masonry with mud mortar. Timber bands are made using a pair of
parallel planks or runners nailed together with small cross members. The corners of the timber
bands should be strengthened by diagonal knee-braces. The required size and number of timber
elements depends on the distance between the cross-walls, type of timber and importance of the
building. But for a wall span up to 5 m, generally long parallel timber runners with dimensions of
50mm by 100mm and cross members with dimensions of 50 mm by 50 mm placed at the spacing of
half a meter along the runner is enough. This type is usually used as Plinth Band and it is shown in
Figure 54. For a roof band timber plank band of usually 300mm by 35mm thick is used as shown in
the Figure 55.
a) Plinth Band

Figure 54: Plinth Band

31

b) Roof Band

Timber plank 300 mm x 35 mm thick (1 by 1.4 thick) to be provided on top of wall at roof level.

Figure 55: Corner T and L Roof Band

Figure 56: Wooden Bands used in the

Southern Bhutanese Houses

Figure 57: No sill and very Short Lintel leads

to cracking at the corners.

c) Sills and Lintels

Adequate length sill and lintels are also necessary for seismic protection as shown in the Figure 57.

Min250mm(10)

Figure 58: Sill and Lintel Band

32

3.8 Vertical Plank Reinforcement

Vertical reinforcement in the stone masonry with mud mortar can be provided in the form of two
planks nailed to each other and placed at the wall corners. This arrangement will also acts as a connection between the plinth and the roof band. It will also reinforce the wall corners and prevent the
inward failure of the walls during the earthquake.
A pictorial representation of the above mentioned arrangement is show in the Figure 59.

Figure 59: Vertical Plank Reinforcement

33

3.9 Roof Anchorage

The integrity roof structures and its connection to the supporting walls is very important as it acts
as a lid on top of a box . An option to anchor the roof trusses to the roof joist with bolts is shown
Figure 60. Another way to anchor the roof may be as represented in the Figure 61, at least it is better than not anchoring at all.

Figure 60: Connection of Roof Truss and

Roof Band in Traditional Houses

Figure 61: Anchoring Roof for Wind and

Earthquake Protection

34

4. Appendix A:
Building Typology in Bhutan
The most common type of buildings found in the different regions around Bhutan as summarized

1. Reinforced Concrete
Buildings- mostly in
Urban areas

2. Rammed Earth Houses

3. Brick Houses

4. Stone Masonry in mud

mortar

35

5. Stone and Brick Masonry

in cement Mortar

6. Timber Houses

7. Eckra Houses

8. Bamboo Houses

36

Appendix B : Damage Assessment Format for 2009 Earthquake

Classification of damage to masonry buildings

Grade 1: Negligible to slight damage (no structural damage, slight non-structural damage)
Hair-line cracks in very few walls.
Fall of small pieces of plaster only.
Fall of loose stones from upper parts of buildings in very few cases.
Grade 2: Moderate damage (Slight structural
damage, moderate non-structural damage)
Cracks in many walls.
Fall of fairly large pieces of plaster.
Partial collapse of smoke chimneys on roofs.
Grade 3: Substantial to heavy damage
(moderate structural damage, heavy nonstructural damage)
Large & extensive cracks in most walls. Roof
tiles detach. Chimneys fracture at the roof
line; failure of individual non-structural
elements (partitions, gable walls).
Grade 4: Very heavy damage (heavy structural
damage, very heavy non-structural damage)
Serious failure of walls (gaps in walls), inner
walls collapse; partial structural failure of
roofs & floors.

Grade 5: Destruction (very heavy structural

damage)
Total or near total collapse of the building.

37

Appendix C : Damage Assessment Format for 2011 Earthquake

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR RAMMED EARTH BUILDINGS

Dzongkhag:

Gewog:

Village:

Name of Owner:

House No:

Thram No:

Year of construction:

No. of Storey:

Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Three Categories of damages have been assigned for Rammed Earth Structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earthquakes buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural
damages. Damage location and patterns may also be different for engineered and non-engineered
structures.
Categorization of Damage for Rammed Earth Buildings
Category I: Moderate Damage

Tick

- Cracks on walls < 25% (excluding settlement/old

cracks)
- Fall of plaster from the wall.
- Dislocation of joineries, posts and joists
- Displacements of frames, floors and roof
- Displacements of doors and windows
- Displacement of Rabsey from the wall
- Collapse of roof (less than 25%)
- Crack on the rammed earth wall supporting roof
truss
Category II: Substantial to Heavy Damage
- Large and Extensive cracks in many of the walls.
- Vertical cracks running through all floors
- Collapse of roof (25 to 50%)
- Dislocation of partition walls/ non load bearing
walls
- Dislocation of ceiling joists and floor joists
- Bulge/tilt of walls
- Dislocation of Rabsey from wall
38

Category III: Total or, Near Collapse

- Serious failure of both structural and non-structural components, collapse of walls, roof and floors

- Total or, near total collapse of the building

Final Categorization:
Category I :
Category II :
Category III:
Additional Informations

Foundation &Plinth

Roofing Materials

Stone with Mud motar

Stone with Cement motar

CGI Sheet

Shinglap

Others

Remarks:

Name and signature of the Surveyor:

Signature of the House Owner:

39

Date of Inspection:

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR STONE MASONRY BUILDINGS

Dzongkhag:

Gewog:

Village:

Name of Owner:

House No:

Thram No:

Year of Construction:

Number of Storey:

Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Four categories of damages
have been assigned for Stone masonry structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earthquakes buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may also
be different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
Categorization of Damage for Stone Masonry Buildings
Category I: Negligible to Slight Damage

Tick

- Hairline Cracks in walls

- Fall of small pieces of plaster
- Fall of loose stones from upper parts of building
Category II: Moderate Damage
- Cracks in walls (5 to20%)
- Fall of fairly large pieces of plaster
- Displacement of Rabsey
- Displacement of doors & windows
- Displacement of roof truss
Category III: Substantial to Heavy Damage
- Cracks in walls (21 to 40%)
- Dislocation of partition walls
- Collapse of roof (25to50%)
- Dislocation of ceiling joist and floor joist
- Dislocation of Rabsey
- Dislocation of doors & windows

40

Category IV: Total or, Near Collapse

-Serious failure of both structural and non structural
components, collapse of walls, roof and floors

- Total or, near total collapse of the building

Final Categorisation
Category I :

Category II :

Category III:

Category IV:
Additional Informations

Foundation &Plinth

Stone with Mud motar

Stone with Cement motar

Roofing Materials

CGI Sheet

Others

Shinglap

Remarks:

Name and signature of the Name & Signature of the House

Surveyor:
Owner:

41

Date of Inspection:

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR DAKCHAR ZHIKOR (EKRA TYPE) BUILDINGS:

Dzongkhag:

Gewog:

Village:

Name of Owner

House No:

Thram No:

Year of Construction:

Number of Storey:

Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Two Categories of damages
have been assigned for Ekra type structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earthquakes buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may
also be different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
Categorization of Damage for Ekra Type Buildings
Category I: Substantial to Heavy Damage
Tick
- Damages in most Ekra walls
- Dislocation of timber joints / doors and windows
- Cracks in foundation and plinth
Category II: Total or, Near Collapse
- Serious failure of both structural and non-structural
components, collapse of ekra walls, timber posts, joists,
roof & floors.
- Total or, near total collapse of the building

Final Categorisation
Category I :
Category II :
Additional Informations
Foundation &Plinth

Stone with Mud motar

Stone with Cement motar

Roofing Materials

CGI Sheet

Others

Shinglap

Remarks:

Name and signature of the Surveyor:

Name & Signature of the House Owner:

42

Date of Inspection:

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR WOODEN BUILDINGS:

Dzongkhag:

Gewog:

Village:

Name of Owner

House No:

Thram No:

Year of Construction:

Number of Storey:

Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Two Categories of damages
have been assigned for wooden structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earthquakes
buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may also be
different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
Categorization of Damage for Wooden Buildings
Category I: Substantial to Heavy Damage
Tick
- Dislocation of joineries, posts and joists
- Dislocation of frames, floors and roof
- Cracks in foundation and plinth
Category II: Total or, Near Collapse
- Serious failure of both structural and non-structural
components, collapse of ekra walls, timber posts, joists,
roof & floors.
- Total or, near total collapse of the building

Final Categorisation
Category I :
Category II :
Additional Information
Foundation &Plinth

Stone with Mud motar

Stone with Cement motar

Roofing Materials

CGI Sheet

Others

Shinglap

Remarks:

Name and signature of the Surveyor:

Name & Signature of the House Owner:

43

Date of Inspection:

5. References
1. Bilham, R., Gaur, V.K., and Molnar, P.: Himalayan Seismic Hazard, 293, 1442-4, Science,
2001.
2. Bothara. J, Brzev.S, 2011. A TUTORIAL: Improving the Seismic Performance of StoneMasonry Buildings, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, USA.
3. Boen. T, Earthquake Resistant Design of Non-Engineered Buildings in Indonesia, 2001.
EQTAP Workshop IV. Kamakura.
4. Brzev.S 2007. Earthquake-Resistant Confined Masonry Construction, Department of Civil
Engineering, British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
5. Guidelines for EQ Resistant Construction of Non-Engineered Rural and Suburban Masonry
Houses in C/S mortar in Earthquake Affected Areas, 2006. Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA).
6. Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Non-Engineering Construction, 2004. National Information
Center of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India.
7. Guideline on Proper Construction Practices for Non-Engineered Buildings (Stone Masonry)2010, Standards and Quality Control Authority, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement,
Thimphu, Bhutan
8. IS 1597 (part 1): 1992 (reaffirmed 2002) Construction of Stone masonry code of practice.
9. IS 13828: 1993 (reaffirmed edition 2003) Improving Earthquake resistance of low strength
masonry buildings Guidelines
10. IS 43261993 Earthquake resistant design and construction of buildings Code of practice.
11. Papanikolaou .A, Taucer. F, 2004. Review of Non-Engineered Houses in Latin America with
Reference to Building Practices and Self-Construction Projects, Institute For Protection and
Security of the Citizen, European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA) I-21020 Ispra
(VA) Italy.
12. Murty.C.V.R, Earthquake Tip, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India.
13. Zangmo.D, Retrofitting of Rammed Earth Walls with Prestressing, A Dissertation, 2008.
Department of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University, Japan.

44