Leonard Livadaru

Digitally signed by Leonard Livadaru

DN: cn=Leonard Livadaru, o=TU Iasi,
ou=University, email=leonard997@yahoo.com,
c=RO
Date: 2015.01.10 16:12:51 +02'00'

Michael Faraday propounded the

principle
of
electro-magnetic
induction in 1831. It states that a
voltage appears across the terminals
of an electric coil when the flux
linked with the same changes. The
magnitude of the induced voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of
the flux linkages.

Faraday's electromagnetic induction experiment

The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of induction coils.
These coils were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the explosive
charges in the mines.

During the second half of the 19th century the alternators, transformers and
induction motors were invented. These machines work on alternating power
supply. The role of the transformers became obvious.
The transformer which consisted of two electric circuits linked by a common
magnetic circuit helped the voltage and current levels to be changed, keeping
the power invariant.
Transformers can link two or more
electric circuits. In its simple form
two electric circuits can be linked by
a magnetic circuit, one of the electric
coils called a primary is used for
the creation of a time varying
magnetic field. The second coil
called a secondary which is made to
link this field has an induced
voltage in the same. The magnitude
of the induced emf is decided by the
number of turns used in each coil.
Thus the voltage level can be
increased or decreased by changing
the number of turns.

The transformer provides an electric

isolation between the two circuits.

The frequency on the two sides will be

the same.

The
electric
power
at
one
voltage/current
level
is
only
transformed into electric power, at the
same
frequency,
to
another
voltage/current level.

Constructional features
Transformers used in practice are of extremely large variety, depending upon
the end use. In addition to the transformers used in power systems, in power
transmission and distribution, a large number of special transformers are in
use in applications like electronic supplies, rectification, furnaces, traction
etc.

Here more common constructional aspects alone are discussed. These can
be broadly divided into:
Core construction
Winding arrangements
Insulation

Cooling aspects

Core construction
Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of highly
permeable material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low
reluctance for the path of the flux and the flux lines mostly confine themselves
to the iron.
Over the years progressively better magnetic properties are obtained by going
in for hot rolled non-oriented to hot rolled grain oriented steel.
The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced from over 0.5 mm to
the present 0.25 mm per lamination.
These laminations are coated with a thin layer of insulating varnish, oxide or
phosphate. The magnetic material is required to have a high permeability and
a high saturation flux density, a very low remanence Br and a small area under
the B-H loop to permit high flux density of operation with low magnetizing
current and low hysteresis loss.
The resistivity of the iron sheet itself is required to be high to reduce the eddy
current losses. The eddy current itself is highly reduced by making the
laminations very thin. If the lamination is made too thin then the production
cost of steel laminations increases.
The steel should not have residual mechanical stresses which reduce their
magnetic properties and hence must be annealed after cutting and stacking.

In the case of very small transformers (from a few volt-amperes to a few kilo
volt-amperes) hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E & I, E & E, L
& L or U & I are used and the core cross section would be a square or a rectangle.

The percentage of silicon in the steel is about 3.5%. Above this value the steel
becomes very brittle and also very hard to cut. The saturation flux density of the
present day steel lamination is about 2 Tesla.

Broadly classifying, the

core construction can be
separated into core type
and shell type.
In
a
core
type
construction the winding
surrounds the core.
In a shell type on the
other hand the iron
surrounds the winding.

Stepped core construction thus becomes mandatory for the core of large
transformers.

In some power transformers the core is

built up by threading a long strip of steel
through the coil in the form of a toroid
(wound core). This construction is
normally
followed
in
instrument
transformers to reduce the magnetizing
current and hence the errors.

Windings
Windings form another important part of transformers.
In a two winding transformer, two windings would be present.
The one which is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called as a primary
winding.

The second winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a secondary.
If the secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer is called a step
down transformer.
If the secondary voltage is greater than it is a step up transformer.
A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer by making the low voltage
winding its primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the windings as High
Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with more number of turns will
be a HV winding.

Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils

sandwiched coils .

and

Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a transformer is varnish
or enamel in dry type of transformers. In larger transformers to improve the heat
transfer characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper
or cloth and the whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing
transformer oil.

The major insulation is between the windings. Annular bakelite cylinders serve
this purpose. Oil ducts are also used as part of insulation between windings. The
oil used in the transformer tank should be free from moisture or other
contamination to be of any use as an insulator.

Cooling Aspects
Cooling transformers becomes more and more difficult as the rating increases.
Simple air cooling of the transformers is adopted in dry type transformers.
The limit for this is reached by the time the rating is a few kVA. Hence air
cooling is used in low voltage machines. This method of cooling is termed as
AN (Air Natural).
Air Blast (AB) method improves on the above by directing the blast of air at
the core and windings.
Substantial improvement is obtained when the transformer is immersed in an
oil tank. The oil reaches the conductor surface and extracts the heat and
transports the same to the surface of the tank by convection. This is termed as
ON (Oil Natural) type of cooling.
OB (Oil Blast) method is an improvement over the ON-type and it directs a
blast of air on the cooling surface.
The rate of circulation of oil can be increased with the help of a pump, with
the cooling at the surface remaining natural cooling to air. This is termed as
OFN (Oil Forced Natural).
If now a forced blast of air is also employed, the cooling method becomes OFB
(Oil Forced Blast).

The transformer oil properties are:

Insulting property
Viscosity

Purity
Sludge formation
Acidity

Flash point And Fire point

LECTURE 4

TYPES OF INDUCTION MACHINES

SPECIAL FEATURES, ADVANTAGES, DRAWBACKS

Tesla motor

Ferraris motor

Squirel cage motor

Wound rotor motor

Lecture 5

INDUCTION MACHINE
Operation principle, Equations and equivalent circuit, Power
balance, Torque-slip characteristic, Operation duties

Summary

Z B

13

17

21

Operation principle

2. Induced voltage in rotor winding

3. Occurrence of rotor field

4. An electromagnetic torque is developed and the

rotor starts to accelerate up to

5. The induced voltage has a pulsation of:

6. The rotor field is rotating up-against rotor with

and towards stator with

GENERATOR

-
+

MOTOR

00
n1 n1

FRANA

+1 +1
00

+
-

s
n

Equations of the ideal

induction machine

I1 R1 X1
U1

-E1

I1 R1 X1
U1

-E1

X2 R2/s I2
-E2

X2 R2
-E2

I2
R2(1-s)/s

Equations of induction machine in

referred quantities
The referred machine equivalent machine
with the real one but which has the same
number of turns (w) and the same winding
factor (kw) on both windings.

X2 R2

I1 R1 X1
U1

-E1

Xm -E2=-E1
I10

I2
R2(1-s)/s

Equations of real induction machine

R1
I1
U1

X1 N X'2
I10
I I10a
Xm
Rm

R'2
I2'
R'2(1-s)/s

Power balance
Input active power

Losses in stator winding and stator core

Electromagnetic power

Losses in rotor winding

Mechanical power

Output power

MOTORING DUTY

Pmec

Pe

P1

I1

R1

I10

X1
I10

U1

-E1 Rm

pfv+ps

pj2

pFe1

pj1

P2

'

R2
I
Xm

'

X 2

I2'
'

R 2(1-s)/s

SYNCHRONISM

P=0
Pel

Pmec
pj10

pFe1
pfv+ps

GENERATING DUTY

P2

pj1

pFe1

P1

pj2

pfv+ps

Q1

Mcr1
generator

motor

MN
s= -1

P
MP

O
scr2

Q2

frn

sN

s=1

scr1

Mcr2

|Mcr2|>
Mcr1

1. Start-up
2. Performance characteristics
3. Speed variation + reversal

MAS28R_10

(E3) Ampere (rms)

1

Pornire

0,5

Nominal

0,25

0,5

0,75

I. Direct-on-line method
L1
L2
L3

I1/I1N

M/MN
I1

M
3

3~

4
3
2

1
0

n/n
0,5

11

I. Direct-on-line method

1. Start-up current Ip=(4-7.5)In

2. Starting torque depends on motor parameters

3.

II. Star-delta start-up

IlY

IfY
Uf

Ul

IlD
IfD

Ul=Uf

+ +

L3
L2
L1 Il
K
II(D)

u1 v1 w1
Stator
u2 v2 w2

Inv
I(Y)
Rotor

II. Star-delta start-up

=
=

=
=

6
5
4

II. Star-delta start-up

4
I1/I1N
M/MN

(ID)
S

(MD)
2
N
2
Q
R
(IY)
1
1
0
0
(MY)

1
Y
MpY

Ps
1

II. Star-delta start-up

1. The starting current (inrush current) decreases 3 times
2. Starting torque decreases 3 times
3. All the 6 terminals of the three-phase winding must be
available at the terminal box (6 terminals)

4. The normal operation of the machine corresponds to delta

connection
/Y - 380/660 V (400/690)
/Y - 220/380 V

III. Start-up with autotransformator

L3
L2
L1

UR
Il
K2

S
IlA

K3

IlM

AT
1

1' 2' 3' W1

W2

u1 v1 w1
K1

3~Y

a)

= ,

III. Start-up with autotransformator

1. The starting current decreases of w1/w2 times

2. The starting torque decreses of (w1/w2 )2

3. Available for high power motors (4-5 MW)

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

IV. Soft-starter start-up

1. The starting voltage can be ajusted

2. The starting slope can be adjusted. The braking as

well.
3. One soft-starter for more motors is possible.

V. Start-up with series connected

resistances in rotor circuit

+ +

L3
L2
L1

2
K

Rp2
Rp3
C

+ +

P
MPmax

1,5

MAB

3~

M/MN

Rp1

U
N 0 1

S
2

Q
3

0,5

0
1
2
3

0
a)

sN

sU

sS

sQ

C pe plot 0 C pe 1 C pe 2 C pe plot 3

s
b)

V. Start-up with series connected

resistances in rotor circuit
1. A decrease of the starting current with more then 30%
2. The starting torque can reach the Mmax value (when
Rp=5,1R2)
3. The starting torque can be mainteined within certain high
values (for ex. 1,5-2 In)
4. Start-up under full and heavy load

Reversal

Speed regulation

=

Speed regulation

1. Variation of supply voltage FREQUENCY

2. Change of the number of poles
3. Variation of the slip

Mechanical characteristic

M
Mcr

O n1
nN

N
2

nQ

S
3

MN

4
I

MP
0

sN
O

scr

MP
1 s

P
MN

M
Mcr

Speed regulation by change of pole number

1. Available ONLY for cage motors

2. Consists in changing the current direction across half of
every phase winding
3. STEP Speed regulation

4. The motors can have TWO or FOUR speeds

5. The speed ratio is usually of 1/2 but there are solutions of
2/3 or 3/4 ratios

Speed regulation by change of pole number

- Ground rule -

Speed regulation by change of pole number

- Connections *

1
4

L3
6 *
3

L1
*

(dubl-stea)

*
5
2
*
L2
a1)
1 L1
*

4
*

L2

*5

3 *
L1
63

YY

2p
Viteza mica

L1 L2 L3
4 5 6
1 2 3
la putere
constant

Viteza mic,

D
p2 mare
(triunghi)

*
L3
2
a2)

Conexiuni

p
Viteza mare

Viteza mare,
p1 D
mic

Conexiuni
4 5 6
1 2 3
L1 L3 L2
2 3
Conexiuni

L2

4
*

4 5 6

Speed regulation(triunghi)
by change of
pole
number
1
2
3
6
*
- ConnectionsL1- L3 L2
*
3 *

*5

L1
63
1
5* 4
6
*
3
6 *
2
3 5
*
*
*
L3
4
5
3
5
16
5
35
1
* 4 L1
6
L2
*
63
3
316 *
5
5
2
633
*
*
*
4
5 53
5
L3
5

L3

a2)

Viteza mare,
p1 D
mic
(triunghi)

2p
L2
31
b1)
63
5

Viteza mica

Conexiuni
L1 L2 L3
1 2 3
4 5 6

Viteza mic,
p2 mare
YY
(dubl-stea)

p
b2)

Viteza mare

Viteza mare,

Conexiuni
1 2 3
4 5 6
L1 L3 L2

la cuplu
constant

Speed regulation by change of pole number

- Connections L1
Conexiuni
1
Y
63
6*
L1 L2 L3
45
3
(stea)
1 2 3
5* *
2p
6
4 5 6
*
*
3 3*
5
2
Viteza mica
la cuplu
L2
1
5 L3 5
Viteza mic,
4 c1)
L1
31
16
6
Conexiuni
variabil
YY
4
23
63
*
p
mare
35
3
2
16
5
1 2 3
5*
L3
(dubl-stea)
*
35 6
*
4 5 6
16
p
*
2
3 3*
5
L1 L3 L2
Viteza mare
4 35
5 5
c2)
L2
Viteza mare,
Fig. 5. 38 Variante
16 de scheme Dahlander
pentru modificarea numrului de poli: a1a2 (la putere
35 constant); b1-b2 (la cuplu constant); c1-c2 (la cuplu variabil).

Speed regulation by change of pole number

- Connections -

Connection type

Flux ratio:
2/1

Yoke flux density

ratio: Bj2/Bj1

Air-gap flux density

ratio: B2/B1

YY/

1/1,05

1/1,05

1/0,52

/YY

1/1,41

1/1,41

1/0,71

Y/YY

1/2,42

1/2,42

1/1,21

Speed regulation by change of pole number

mechanical characteristic 60f/p1

a2, b2, c2
1
2

60f/(2p1)

3
4

c1

b1

a1

5
M
Fig. 5. 44 Caracteristici mecanice la diverse tipuri de
conexiuni Dahlander

Speed regulation by frequency variation

Variation of the frequency brings MAJOR modifications of the
machine electro-magnetic quantities
=

= +

+ +

+ +

Mechanical characteristics corresponding

to frequency variation

Speed regulation by supply voltage variation

+ +

+ +

+
+ +

+ +

Speed regulation by supply voltage variation

L1
L2
L3
T1

n1

n
N
nN

T2

T3
4

u1 v1 w1
(0,6)UN

3~Y

a)

n'N

(1UN)
(0,7) (0,8) (0,9UN) caract.

naturala

MN

U1 scadenatural

b)

Speed regulation by supply voltage variation

1. Ineffectual method Speed regulation within small limits

2. Decrease of the overload factor

3. The speed regulation is practically indistingushable for

small loads

Speed regulation by variation of

BOTH frequency and supply voltage
2,52,
5

n/n1

2,5
f1/f1N= 2,
2,25
5
2,0
1,75

J
I

1,5

U1=ct, G
F
P=ctC
1
1

C0
E

1,25
1,0

natural
A
U1/f1=ct,

B
C

0,75
0,5
0,25

Mcr=ct
1

M/MN
2

1. Speed regulation within

large limits(including over
synchronism values)
2. U/f=const. strategy up to
rated frequency
3. Over rated frequency, the
voltage U1 stands unmodified

Speed regulation by variation of BOTH frequency and supply voltage

L1
L2
L3

L1
L2
L3
Redr
Redr.1
Lf

id

Lf

Cf

Filtru

Cf

Ud

Redr.2

Inv

Lf

Cf

Filtru

MA
id
a)

Ud
Ondulor de tensiune
(invertor)

Fig. 5. 46 Invertoare de tensiune: a) ireversibil; b) reversibil

b)

Speed regulation by variation of BOTH frequency and supply voltage

id
+

Lf

Ud

1'

2'

3'

M.A.

Ud'

C
L1,L2,L3

Redr.

Inv.
Filtru activ

Fig. 5. 47 Schem de alimentare a motorului asincron cu invertor de curent

Speed regulation by variation of

rotor resistance
1. Available ONLY for wound-rotor motors

2. The resistence connected to rotor circuit is voluminous

Speed regulation by variation of

rotor resistance
L1
L2
L3
G1

n1

n
nN

MAB

0 N
R'2
1 N'
2
" R'2+R'r1
N"
nN'
3
R' +R'
nN" N"' 2 r2
nN"' R'2+R'r3

caract.
naturala

natural

caract.
Rr1
Rr2
Rr3
G2

3~

C0
C1
C2
C3

R'r crete
a)

MN

artificiale

artificiale
M
b)

Fig. 5. 34 Reglarea vitezei prin nserierea de rezistene n circuitul rotoric

Speed regulation by variation of

rotor resistance
1. Speed regulation can be performed towards lower values
of the speed.

2. Effective method for high loads.

3. The overload factor stands unmodified (Mmax=ct) but pullout slip value changes.
4. Significant losses on the rotor resistance which involves
decrease of the efficiency.

Performance characteristics
n/n
M2/MN
I1/I1N 1
1,0
2,0 1,5

1,6 1,2 0,8 cos

1

I1/I1N

1
2

1,2 0,9 0,6

0,8 0,6 0,4
0,4 0,3 0,2
0

0
a)

I1

M/MN
3 6

I1/I1N

M
1 Mcr

3
M/MN
4

M2/MN

3
1

5
6
0,2 0,4

s
0,6

0,8

P2/P2N
1,2

MN
1
0

MP

b)
Fig. 5. 55 Caracteristicile motoarelor asincrone trifazate

2
1
n/n
1

2
1

2
1

12
11
10
a)

S
1 2 3

10 11 12

12

1 2 3

10 11 12

b)

= + +

+ + +
=
=

I. Split-phase motor

No capacitor is necessary. The

phase difference between the main
and auxiliary currents is about 30.

Medium starting torque.

Structure used up to 250W.

II. Capacitor-start motor

The capacitor has a rather high

value and is used only for start-up.
High starting torque.
Structure used up to a few kWs

III. Permanently split capacitor motor

Identical windings
In between capacitor value
High inrush current
High starting time
Torque
operation

for

rated

Structure used up to 200W

Auxiliary
winding

Main
winding

pulsations

Easy reversal by moving the

capacitor in the other phase

IV. Capacitor-start capacitor run motor

C1>C2

Structure used up to a
few kWs

Auxiliary
winding

Main
winding

C2

C1

V. Shaded-pole motor

Salient
winding.

poles

and

concentrated

Each pole has a shaded-coil.

NO reversal one sense of rotation.
High reliability but poor performance.

Smooth cylindrical rotor

Salient poles

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
a)

b)

1. Stator yoke, 2. Stator winding, 3. Rotor (field) winding, 4.

Rotor yoke, 5. Salient rotor pole, 6. Pole shoe, 7. Damper
winding

3
2

Damper winding
1- Field pole, 2 Short circuit ring, 3 Cage bar, 4 Pole shoe

Turbo-generator

Hydro-generator

Field (excitation) system

A
B
C
11
2

- 7
+

3
1. Stator (armature) winding, 2. Rotor, 3. Field winding, 4. Rings, 5. Brushes, 6.
Voltage regulator, 7. Exciter.

Field (excitation) system

A
B
C

8
11
2

- +
6

4
3
1. Stator winding, 2. Rotor, 3. Field winding, 4. Rotor rings, 5. Brushes, 6.
Voltage regulator, 8. Rectifier.

Field (excitation) system

A
B
C

11

11

10

+
-

12
9

13

8
3

1.Stator winding, 2. Rotor, 3. Field winding, 6. Voltage regulator, 8. Rectifier,

9. Exciter rotor (reversed synchronous generator), 10. Armature winding, 11.
Field winding of exciter, 12.Underexciter (DC generator), 13. Field winding of
underexciter.

Field (excitation) system

Field systems with

permanent magnets

Surface mounted

Spoke PMs

Interior PMs

Operation principle generating

0

Rotor

Stator

n1

n1

1. Revolving air-gap magnetic field (created by mechanical

means)
2. Induced voltage in stator winding (shifted in phase behind
magnetic flux by /2)
3. Connection to stator terminals of activ-inductive load
(there is a phase difference between current and voltage)

4. The three-phase current system produces a revolving

magnetic field (reaction field)
5. Composition of the two fields
resultant field

Phasor diagram

E0
Ea

Ia

Electric diagram, equations

ia
Z

R
et

(R,L,C)

+ =

= + +

Salient pole generator

Operation principle generating

- Salient poles rotor

n1

stator

vad
q

va

vaq

a)

vad(ad, bad)

vaq

baq
aq

b)

q
o

+ + + =

=
+

" =

=
+

Power balance
MEC
P1

pex

EL
P2

Pe

pjex

pm

pj1

=
=
+

pFe1

Synchronous generator states of operation

I. Stand-alone unit (island operation)
C
K3
Re
= Ue

A
K1

Ie
GS
3

A
V

n = const
M1

K2
A
L

Synchronous generator states of operation

II. Connected to a grid (parallel operation)
R
S
T
K

GS
3
n

Ie

I. Island operation
a) The machine can operate at any speed (the concept of synchronous
speed operation is no longer available)

b) The VOLTAGE across the terminals varies proportionally with the speed

c) The FREQUENCY of the output voltage varies proportionally with the

speed

I. Island operation operation characteristics

Electric quantities: E0, U, Ia, Ie, P1, P2, , cos, f
- No-load characteristic E0 = f(Ie), n=const., Ia = 0
- External characteristics U=f(Ia), n=const., Ie =const., cos=const.
- Regulation characteristics Ie =f(Ia), n=const., Ia =const., cos=const.

Eo

UN

Ie
2

UN
3

cos=0 ind.
1
2
3

cos=1
cos=0,8 cap.
cos=0 cap.

A
O

IeN

Ie

IN
O

II. Grid operation

1. Equal voltage values

R
S
T
V1

2. Equal frequencies
3. Identical sequence of the phases

V4 U

V2 K

V3
V5 E
GS
3

4. Connection instant
Ia

P2=PN

Ie

P2=0,5 PN
P2=0
Q0
O

Q0
Ie
Ieopt

Operation principle motoring

1. Rotating magnetic field (created by stator winding by electric means)

2. Rotor movement with synchronous speed (mandatory)

3. Coupling of the two rotating fields. Developing of electromagnetic
torque

4. The resultant magnetic field leads before rotor magnetic field (internal
angle is negative)
5. The synchronous machine develops electromagnetic torque ONLY at
synchronism

Power balance
EL
P1

pex

MEC

Pe

pjex pFe1

pj1

=
=

P2

pm

Operation characteristics of synchronous motor

n

n1

0,5

M
O

MN

Mm

a.
a.
b.

Mechanical characteristic
Performance characteristics

cos

I1/IN
0,5
b.

1
P2/P2N

V characteristics of synchronous motor

cos

Ia

P2=PN

0;

32

P2=0,5 PN

P2=PN

P2=0,5 PN
P2=0
Q0

(ind.)

(cap.)

Q0
Ie

Ieopt
y

a)

Iar=Ia /Iao
B

Ieopt
b)

Ie

Synchronous motor start up

R
S
T

1. Presence of damper (starting) winding

2. Field winding is disconnected from
exciter and connected to a resistor (K2 on
position 1)

U
K1

3. Supply of the stator winding (K1 closed)

4. Operation of the synchronous machine
as induction motor. Acceleration of the
rotor up to 0.9 of synchronous speed.

MS
3
Rd

Ie
1
K2

Ex + 2

5. Connection of the exciter to field

winding (K2 on position 2).
Synchronization and operation as
synchronous motor.

DC MACHINE
Lecture 9

Def: Electrical machine that exchange electric

energy with the exterior environment (grid or load)
under DC quantities

Main building blocks of DC machine

Main building blocks of DC machine

q

A2

1
2
3

d
F2

4
S
A1

5
6

Ia
IA

q
7
8
9
N
Ie
F1

10
11
12

1-Stator yoke, 2-Pole core, 3-Pole shoe, 4-Field winding, 5-Inter-pole (commutation pole), 6-Inter-pole winding,
7- Compensation winding, 8-Rotor yoke, 9-Commutator, 10-Brushes, 11- Armature winding, 12-Shaft.

DC and AC machines
DC machine

AC machine

DC and AC stators
DC stator

AC stator

DC and AC rotors
DC rotor

AC rotor

Commutator and brushes

Magnetic fields in DC machine

Main (excitation) field

Reaction field

WeIe

n
IA

C'

A'
rez

Neutral axis

Resultant field

Magnetic fields in DC machine

Excitation field

Reaction field

Resultant field

Basic generation of electric energy

n
Ia
Ru

Ia
Up P1

l1

Ru

l2

Ia=0

l1

l2

P1 n

Ia

P2

P2

B
In1

In1

In2

a) t=0

In2

b) t=T/4

Ia
(Up)
n
l2

Ia

Ru

Ia
Up P1

P2

0
B

T/4

2T/4 3T/4 T
t

Ia
l1

In1
In2

c) t=2T/4

d) Ia=f(t)

Principle of operation as generator

Ie

Ie
l1
Ru

Ia

Ia

Ru
P1

Up P1

l2
Ia

S1
S2

Ia=0
l1 n

P2

l2

n
Ie

S1

Ie

P2

a) t=0

S2
b) t=T/4

Ia
(Up)
Ie

n
Ia

Ru

l2

Ia

1
l1

Up P1

Ia

S2
Ie

S1
P2

c) t=2T/4

t
0

T/4

2T/4 3T/4 T
d) Ia=f(t)

Principle of operation as motor

Ie

Ie

F
Ia

(-)

Ia

S1
P2

Ie

S1

a) t=0

P2 S
2

b) t=T/4

F
(Me)

Ia
Ua

Ie

(+)
Ia
P1

l2

l2

Ie

S2

Ia=0 (+)
Ua
l1
(-) P1

(+)
Ia
Ua P1

B
1

l1
Ia
Ie

P2
c) t=2T/4

F
0

T/4

t
2T/4 3T/4 T

d) F=f(t) or Me=f(t)

DC winding basic components

pri
frontale

mnunchi de
ducere

ws=3

u=3
d1
d2

i1
i2

mnunchi de d3
ntoarcere
a)

b)

i3
c)

a) Coil made of three turns, b) Coil hosted by slots, c) Slot hosting double layer
winding

Types of DC windings

y1
1

y1

K-1

K 1

y5

yk

Lap winding
y1
y2
2

b1) nfurare ondulat nencruciat

Wave winding
y1
K-1

K 1

y5

7
y2

yk

yk
K

y2

K
2 3
K
1
a1) nfurare buclat nencruciat

y2
yk

Example of lap winding

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Ia
15

16

P1
4Ia
A1

P2

10

P3

Ru
A2
a)

11

12

13

14

P4

Types of excitation circuits

Types of excitation circuits

- A2 + A1 - F2

F1 +

A1

A1 +

M
E2

A2

M
E1 D2 D1

- A2
B2
B1
e)

c)

A1
D2 D1

E2

D1

d)

D2

b)

A2

E1

A1 +
A1

A2

a)

G
E2

E1 D2 D1

A2

f)

a) Motor separate excitation; b) Motor - shunt(parallel) excitation; c) Motor - series excitation; d) Motor compound excitation; e) Motor series excitation and inter-poles; f) Generator - compound excitation.

DC Motors
Lecture 10

Ia
(Up)

Ie
l1
Ru

Ia

GENERATOR

Ia

Up P1

l2
Ia

S1
S2

Ie
P2

t
0

a) t=0

T/4

d) Ia=f(t)

F
(Me)

Ie

F
Ia

(-)

2T/4 3T/4 T

(+)
Ia
Ua P1
Ia

S1

Ie

S2
P2

a) t=0

T/4

t
2T/4 3T/4 T

d) F=f(t) or Me=f(t)

MOTOR

-Induced voltage

in the rotor winding

=
-Electromagnetic torque

MOTOR OPERATION
P=EIA

P1= UIA

pje= ReI2e

pja=

RAI2A

pc-p=UpIA

-P1 input power (electric power)

- P electromagnetic power
- P2 output power (mechanical power

=
=

= Me

PMec= M2
(P2)

pmec

pFe

- pje losses in excitation winding

- pja losses in rotor winding
- pc-p brush-commutator contact losses
- pmec mechanical losses
- pFe iron losses (in rotor core)

MOTOR OPERATION
+

Ue
IA

Ie

RA
E
UA

Mmec

MFe

UA
0
Mr

Me
ML

RAIA

Rc

Re

M
n

IA

Up
b)

a)

= + +

Exact expression

= +

Approximated expression

1. Start-up characteristics
2. Operation characteristics

3. Variable speed characteristics

4. Bracking characteristics

I. Start-up characteristics

= +
=

IAP

2
n
nN
iA
1

IAN
0

1. Start-up (rheostat method)

Rc

Rp

I=IA+Ie

Ie
IA=iA

21

3
0
P C

RA

U=var.

Shunt excited

Re

Rreg (Rp)

+
I

S
U

IA= Ie = I

210
3
C

E
Re
e
Rs

Ie

RA

M
n

Series excited

I. Start-up characteristics

IAPmax
2
IAPmin

nN
iA

IAN

2 IAN

n
1,5 IAN

IAN
1

t3

t2

t1

2. Start-up (variable DC voltage device)

Ie

Rc

IA

Chopper

RA
Uvar
E

M
n

Re
e

II. Operation characteristics

Speed-torque characteristic
n
n0

2-real

nN
1-ideal

elastic variation

N n
nN

inelastic (rigid) variation

MN Me

Shunt excited

MN

Series excited

Me

II. Operation characteristics

Speed-torque characteristic
n
1

1 - Series excitation

2 Cumulative compound excitation

nN

3 - Shunt excitation
4 Differential compound excitation

MN

Compounded excited

Me

III. Speed regulation

=

1 Variation of supply voltage

2 Variation of rotor circuit resistance

3 Variation of excitation flux

1. Variation of supply voltage

Ue

Chopper

K
RA
U=

M
M
M

Ie

V
U=var T
C

Re
e

var

RA

MS
n

UN

UN

3/4UN
nN

2/4UN

Re

n0
nN

IA

+
Chopper

IA

1/4UN
MeN

Shunt excitation

3/4UN
2/4UN

Me

1/4UN
MeN

Series excitation

Me

2. Variation of rotor circuit resistance

Rreg

+
I=IA+ Ie
K

Rf

21

U=var.

IA

0 1 2 3

IA=iA

Rreg

Ie

Re

RA

RA
MS
n

Re
U= ct

n
nN
0

0
1
2
3

RA
RA+ Rreg1

Rreg=0

RA+ Rreg2

nN

Rreg2

RA+ Rreg2
O

MeN

Shunt excitation

Rreg1

Me

b)

Rreg3

Me

Series excitation

3. Variation of excitation flux

Rf
Ie

+
I=IA+Ie

IA= Ie = I

+
I

IA=iA
RA
UA

S
E
U

Re

Re

ereg

Ie

M
n

Rs

- S

1/2

3/4

n0
nN

MeN Me

Shunt excitation

0.5e
0.75e
e

MN

Me

nN

Series excitation

RA

Reversal

=
a. Change of the sign of IA
rotor winding (A1 with A2)

Switch of the terminals of the

b. Change in direction of
Change of the sign of Ie
Switch of the terminals of the excitation winding (D1 with D2 for
example)
+

A1

D1

M
D2

A2

A2

M
D2

A2

A1

D1

D2
A1

D1

NEVER EVER the reversal is obtained by switching + with -