Article

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

PhET Interactive Simulations: Transformative Tools for Teaching

Chemistry
Emily B. Moore,*,, Julia M. Chamberlain, Robert Parson, and Katherine K. Perkins

School of Education, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and JILA, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States

S Supporting Information
*

ABSTRACT: Developing uency across symbolic-, macroscopic-, and particulate-level

representations is central to learning chemistry. Within the chemistry education
community, animations and simulations that support multi-representational uency are
considered critical. With advances in the accessibility and sophistication of technology,
interactive computer simulations are emerging as uniquely powerful tools to support
chemistry learning. In this article, we present examples and resources to support successful
implementation of PhET interactive simulations. The PhET Interactive Simulations
project at the University of Colorado Boulder has developed over 30 interactive
simulations for teaching and learning chemistry. PhET simulations provide dynamic access
to multiple representations, make the invisible visible, scaold inquiry, and allow for safe
and quick access to multiple trials, while being engaging and fun for students and teachers.
The simulations are readily accessible online, and are designed to be exible tools to
support a wide-range of implementation styles and teaching environments. Here, we
introduce the PhET project, including the projects goals and design principles. We then
highlight two simulations for chemistry, Molecule Polarity and Beers Law Lab. Finally, we share examples (with resources) of the
variety of ways PhET simulations can be used to teach chemistryin lecture, laboratory, and homework.
KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, High School/Introductory Chemistry, Elementary/Middle School Science,
Second-Year Undergraduate, Computer-Based Learning, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Internet/Web-Based Learning

PHET PROJECT GOALS AND DESIGN

Since 2002, the PhET project has developed 127 interactive
simulations (sims) for science and mathematics education, with
over 30 sims for teaching chemistry and all available for free
online.5 The project has broad pedagogical and accessibility
goals that drive design and dissemination choices, shown in
Figure 1. Notably, PhET sims aim to simultaneously support
content, process, and aective goals. Sims are widely used
across K12 and college levels (over 40 million uses worldwide
in 2012), and are highly regarded for their quality and impact,
as recognized by the NSF/Science Magazine Visualization
Challenge award and the 2011 Tech Award for Technology
Benetting Humanity.
PhET sims are created by a team of content, education, and
interface design experts, along with experienced teachers and
professional software developers. Each sim is also informed by
student interviews. With the use of principles that leverage
design to support students in achieving the diverse goals of the
sims, PhET sims have a distinct look and feel.8 These design
principlesinformed by the research and design experience
from the PhET project, and research from the science
education and educational design communities3,9,10include

nimations and simulations have long been recognized as

important in the teaching and learning of chemistry.14
With increased access to technology in the classroom,
interactive visualization tools have emerged as uniquely
powerful for transforming chemistry education. Interactive
simulations provide dynamic access to multiple representations,
make the invisible visible, scaold the inquiry process, and
allow for multiple trials and rapid feedback cycles, while being
engaging and fun for students and teachers. Interactive
simulations are readily accessible online, which allows for
exible use.
In this article, we introduce the PhET Interactive Simulations
project5 at University of Colorado Boulder. The educational
eectiveness of interactive simulations depends on the quality
of the simulation design as well as its implementation with
students.6,7 Here we highlight two chemistry simulations,
Molecule Polarity and Beers Law Lab, and describe a range of
strategies and resources for eective implementation of PhET
simulations in the classroomfrom use as in-class demos to
writing simulation-based guided-inquiry activities. We include
Supporting Information and Web links to support both new
and experienced PhET users.
2014 American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

Published: July 2, 2014

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being intuitive, engaging and fun. For more details on PhETs

goals, design principles, and development process, see
Lancaster et al.12

PHET FOR CHEMISTRY

PhET chemistry sims address topics ranging from subatomic
particles to chemical dynamics. Through interactive representations, the sims allow students to explore complex chemical
phenomena (e.g., dissolving) and multiple representations,
spanning particulate, symbolic, and macroscopic levels. Rather
than requiring accurate interpretation of a static visual model,
students can engage with and discuss dynamic systems that
provide feedback specically designed to support student
learning. A list of available chemistry sims and their alignment
with the typical sequence in introductory undergraduate
chemistry is included in the Supporting Information.
Here, we highlight two recently developed sims, illustrating
available features and how these features support student
learning.
Figure 1. Pedagogical and Accessibility Goals. Image by PhET
Interactive Simulations and used with permission.

Molecule Polarity Sim

The Molecule Polarity sim addresses bond dipole and molecule

polarity. The topics are sequenced through three tabs, shown in
Figure 2. The Two Atoms tab targets the relationship among
electronegativity, bond dipole and dipole representations; the
Three Atoms tab targets the relationship between bond
dipoles and molecule dipole, and the Real Molecules tab
allows students to explore trends across example real molecules.
In the Two Atoms tab, students can interact with a generic
two-atom molecule by rotating the molecule and changing the
electronegativity of each generic atom. As students interact with
the molecule, they can view and draw connections to the
corresponding changes in the bond dipole arrow, partial
charges, and bond character (more ionic to more covalent).
Students can observe the eect of changing the electronegativity of the generic atoms on electrostatic potential and
electron density surfaces. The two-atom molecule is situated
between two plates; students can turn on an electric eld and
see how the molecule will rotate to align with the eld,
demonstrating a physical eect of the molecules polarity.
In the Three Atoms tab, students can change the
electronegativities in a generic three-atom molecule and can
drag atoms to change the bond angle. This additional feature
supports students in making sense of molecular dipole as the
sum of bond dipoles. Students can visualize and investigate how
these interactions aect the bond dipole, partial charges, and
the molecule dipole. In the Real Molecule tab, students can
choose from a list of 19 real molecules to view in an embedded
Jmol window. By comparing bond dipoles, molecular dipoles,
partial charges and atom electronegativity values, students can
determine trends in molecule polarity and geometry.

Interactivity: Sims allow students to interact with key

parameters for conceptual understanding (e.g., adding or
removing solute in solution).
Dynamic Feedback: Each interaction results in immediate
visual feedback (e.g., solution color changes). Dynamic
feedback supports students to ask and answer their own
questions as they explore a feature or phenomenon.
Multiple Representations: Students can explore and
develop connections across multiple representations
(e.g., coordinating pictorial and symbolic representations
of dipoles).
Pedagogically Usef ul Actions: Sims allow actions that are
dicult or impossible in the real world, which can
provide insight that is otherwise dicult to achieve (e.g.,
allowing students to change the electronegativity of
generic atoms and see the eect on bond dipoles).
An Intuitive Interface: The intuitive interface supports
student engagement and exploration by minimizing
barriers to use (e.g., simple starting screen with options
to build complexity) and emphasizing learning through
interaction (e.g., obvious initial interactions provide
relevant feedback). The intuitive interface allows for
instruction to focus on conceptual understanding, rather
than on how to use the sim.
Real World Connections: Where possible, the sims are
designed to connect science concepts to students
everyday life.
Challenges and Games: Sims are designed to be engaging
and fun, sparking curiosity and a sense of challenge to
motivate student interaction and exploration.
Implicit Scaf folding: The sims provide students with
implicit, rather than explicit, guidance. This results in
students being guidedwithout feeling guided.8,11 Implicit scaolding is accomplished through careful choice
of sim scope, color and location of available objects,
interactivity, feedback, and sequencing of concepts
through tabs.
In combination, these principles have produced a suite of
tools that are transforming the educational experience of
students, supporting their understanding of chemistry concepts
through exploration, experimentation, and discussion while

Beers Law Lab Sim

The Beers Law Lab sim, shown in Figure 3, addresses solution

concentration and Beers Law, which relates the absorbance of
light to the properties of the solution. The Concentration tab
targets the concept of concentration and molarity, and the
eects of dilution and evaporation. The Beers Law tab targets
the relationships among solution concentration, path length,
molar absorptivity, and wavelength of a solutions light
absorbance.
In the Concentration tab, students can engage in real-world
actions that change the solution concentration. A menu of eight
solutions lets students select from seven colorful inorganic
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Figure 3. Beers Law Lab simulation tabs: Concentration (upper)

and Beers Law (lower). Image by PhET Interactive Simulations and
used with permission.

STUDENT USE OF SIMS: A CLOSER LOOK

Observing students using PhET sims provides valuable insight
into how sims work to implicitly scaold productive student
interactions and sense making, insight that can ground and
inform the integration of sims into instruction. In the following
example, two students (S1 and S2) in a class of 80 explored the
Molecule Polarity sim prior to receiving a guided-inquiry
activity handout.13 At this point in class, they had been given
instructions to Just play with that sim for ve or 10 min. Think
about how the molecule shape impacts the polarity. Try to
understand whats going on as you play. Students had received
no prior instruction on the topic of molecule polarity during
this course. The following transcript describes what happened
over the rst 1:19 (min:s) after the sim opened on S1s laptop.
0:00 Molecule Polarity opens to the Two Atoms tab.
0:02 S1: OK. So. OK. So lets see here. [increases Atom B
electronegativity to maximum] Im just messin around.
0:21 S2: I think thats what were supposed to do right now.
[increases to maximum then decreases to minimum Atom A
electronegativity]
0:29 S1: OK. So if electron, er, if atom A is more
electronegative [increases Atom A electronegativity]
what does this mean?
0:38 S2: Thats the
0:39 S1: That means it [the bond dipole arrow] gets smaller?
[moves Atom A electronegativity higher, then lower]
0:40 S2: Yeah.
0:45 S1: OK, and the same thing here. [moves Atom B
electronegativity slider higher, then lower] OK, so the less
electronegative that is and the more that is, the farther
apart theyre gonna be. And if you bring em [electronegativity sliders for Atom A and Atom B] closer
together [moves Atom B electronegativity lower and Atom A

Figure 2. Molecule Polarity simulation tabs: Two Atoms (upper);

Three Atoms (middle); Real Molecules (lower). Image by PhET
Interactive Simulations and used with permission.

compounds, plus drink mixan everyday solution. Students

can add solute either by shaking in solid crystalline particles or
by dispensing a concentrated stock solution from a dropper.
Students can explore the eects of adding solute and water to
the solution, removing solution through a drain, and removing
water by evaporation. Each action causes a corresponding
change in the solutions color intensity, and a movable probe
allows comparison to quantitative concentration values. When
solute is added beyond the solubility limit for each compound,
saturation occurs and a solid forms at the bottom of the beaker.
In the Beers Law tab, students can dynamically control the
solution concentration and container width (path length) while
observing the eects on a colored light beam as it passes
through solution. This tab supports students coordination of
the qualitative visual representation of colored light beam
intensity and the corresponding quantitative values for
absorption and percent transmittance. A wavelength control
for the visible spectrum allows students to investigate and
compare the absorbance of light across the visible spectrum for
dierent colored solutions.
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Supporting Information for Molecule Polarity guided-inquiry

activity). The tool has transformed the way students
approached this subject, encouraging sense making and concept
invention instead of relying solely on rote memorization and
pattern recognition.

electronegativity higher]OK. [moves Atom A electronegativity slider higher and lower] Oh, it switches
[direction of bond dipole arrow]. Cause thatd be
more [Atom As electronegativity] and thatd be less
[Atom Bs electronegativity]. [selects Partial Charges,
then moves Atom A electronegativity to minimum and Atom
B electronegativity to maximum]
1:18 S1: Makes sense, all right.
1:19 S2: Yeah.
S1 quickly began interacting with the sim, exploring the atom
electronegativity feature and dipole representation. This pattern
of interaction is typical of students we have observed with sims
in interviews and classrooms.1216 The sims are designed so
that starting interactions are obvious and intuitive, and result in
immediate, productive feedback for sense making. The choice
of interactive features focuses attention on concepts, and the
intuitive design ensures students quickly understand how to
interact with the sim. In this example, the generic two-atom
molecule and the electronegativity sliders were inviting and
intuitive, like colorful, real-world controls. The students
immediately began interacting with this sim feature and making
sense of the bond dipole representation.
These students then discussed the relationships between the
electronegativity sliders and the periodic table, and explored the
bond character feature. Next, they moved to the Three Atoms
tab, where they grappled with the molecular dipole arrow
representation.
3:14 [Selects Three Atoms tab.]
3:16 S1: [rotates molecule] Oh, wow. [moves Atom C
electronegativity f rom less to middle, pauses, then moves
to more]
3:21 S1: OK.
3:29 S1: So what is this [molecular dipole arrow] pointing to?
Im trying to think how this works here. [moves Atom C
electronegativity f rom more to less] More, less[moves
Atom B electronegativity f rom the middle to less then to
more, then back to the middle, moves Atom C electronegativity from more to the middle, pauses, then to less,
selects Partial Charges, then Bond Dipole]
4:05 S1: OK. So those are just like when we were lookin at
the two [Two Atoms tab].
4:14 S2: Yeah.
4:16 S1: So its [bond dipole] always gonna be pointing
toward the negative. And then what does this [molecular
dipole] signify?
4:25 S2: The dipole. I guess thatsI dont know.
4:30 S1: I dont know how to explain that.
4:32 S2: Maybe the sum of the two bond dipoles.
4:34 S1: Uh huh.
The sequencing of the tabs provided scaolding to support
these students eorts to make sense of the challenging concept
of molecule polarity; their experience with bond polarity in the
Two Atoms tab allowed them to progress toward understanding the molecular dipole.
The sim provided a range of opportunities for conceptually
rich, student-centered activities and discussions. Within this
classroom, the teacher leveraged the implicit scaolding within
the sim to allow students to discover and make sense of key
relationships and representations. After 10 min of open play,
the students were primed to engage in and contribute to
discussions around these topicsfacilitated by the teacher and
a guided-inquiry activity (see In-Class Student Use section, and

TEACHING WITH PHET SIMS

PhET sims are designed to support a wide range of teaching
needs. They can help address a range of learning goals
content, process, and aective goalsand can be incorporated
into teacher demos, interactive discussions, in-class activities,
laboratories and homework. The design features that support
exploration and engagement by students also serve to support
the dynamic role of the teacher, providing the unique
opportunity to explore and illustrate concepts in response to
student questions in real time. In this section, we describe
several ways of using the two sims highlighted above based on
observations and faculty accounts of sim use, and include
example classroom-tested supporting materials in the Supporting Information. In the following descriptions, we focus on the
teacher facilitation aspects of sim use; studies have shown
improved student learning and engagement when using sims in
these types of contexts.15,16
Teacher-Led Sim Use

Sims can be used in a variety of ways in the classroom to

discover, demonstrate, communicate, apply, or test an idea.
PhET sims provide unique opportunities for teachers to engage
students in actively processing and applying the ideas in the
sims.
In a traditional Lecture Demo approach,14,15 the teacher
uses a sim that is projected onto a screen. For example, the
Molecule Polarity sims Three Atoms tab can be used to
demonstrate that the molecular dipole is the sum of the bond
dipoles. The teacher opens the sim with the Bond Dipole
arrow representation showing. When the molecular dipole is
introduced, the teacher adds the Molecular Dipole arrow. The
teacher can then illustrate various ways to change the bond
dipoles, allowing students to visualize the relationship between
bond and molecular dipoles.
To increase active participation and processing by students,
the teacher can use a sim to support an interactive discussion.
In a recent classroom use of the Molecule Polarity sim, the
teacher asked students When will a triatomic molecule be
polar? A student responded, When all the electronegativity
values are the same, the atom is non-polar. To guide the
discussion toward investigating bond dipoles, the teacher asked,
What happens when electronegativity values are dierent?
After students discussed this scenario with their peers, the
teacher was able to easily do the experiment, leveraging the
features of the sim to create the case of diering electronegativity values. This approach could further increase student
engagement by asking students to explore the sim on their
personal computers, using a guiding question followed by an
interactive class discussion.
Sims also couple naturally with concept tests administered
with personal response systems (clicker questions).17 For
example, in a recent lecture the Beers Law Lab sim
Concentration tab was used. The teacher asked students
What will happen to the concentration when water is added to
double the solution volumewill it increase, decrease, or stay
the same? (Figure 4). After providing time for discussion and
recording responses, the teacher increased the solution volume
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Figure 4. Example clicker question for use with Beers Law Lab
simulation. Image by PhET Interactive Simulations and used with
permission.

by adding water and related the change to the molarity

relationship. The teacher could have elicited student reasoning
on why the observed behavior occurred, and then have asked
how the concentration of the solution changes if the amount of
solute is doubled before saturation is reached, and again after
saturation is reached. Such discussions help develop students
ability to solve problems by qualitative reasoning and sense
making around chemical processes, instead of relying solely on
mathematical formulas.
For more tips on writing clicker questions with sims see
Supporting Information. For more information about using
sims in the classroom, see our video tutorials.18

Figure 5. Example of two Concept Tables from an activity utilizing the

Molecule Polarity simulation. Image by PhET Interactive Simulations
and used with permission.

Sim Use with Written Guided-Inquiry Activity

In-Class Student Use

Sims are specically designed to support inquiry-based learning,

making them excellent for use with guided-inquiry activities in
the lecture class,13 laboratory, and recitations.12 From classroom observations across K12 and undergraduate classrooms,
the PhET group has developed tips for writing activities that
complement sims by supporting development of student
process skills, content understanding, and aective goals. We
recommend the following:
Identifying two to three learning objectives, aligned with
the design of the sim, to be addressed by the activity.
Activities that attempt to do too much can become
overly prescriptive, minimizing opportunities for studentdriven inquiry.
Taking advantage of sim-specic features by structuring
questions around interactive components of the sim and
utilizing games or challenges designed into the sim.
Keeping the activity worksheets relatively sparse to
encourage students to focus on sense making with the
sim rather than lling in answers.
Scaolding students understanding through the use of
Concept Tables (Figure 5)structured areas that
eectively cue students toward discovering and making
sense of particular sim features and scenarios.
Avoiding the use of explicit sim use directions: move
slider to the left.
These activity tips aim to encourage the development of
activities that guide productive exploration and sense making
with the sim, and keep students actively thinking throughout
the activity. For examples of guided-inquiry activities designed
around PhET sims, see Supporting Information.

In this style of sim use, the teacher (or teaching assistant) asks
students to bring their laptops to class (or recitation) to engage
in an in-class activity with a sim.13 For tips on successful sim
use with student laptops, see Supporting Information. For the
example activity described below (included in the Supporting
Information), students are in groups with shared computers,
and use the Molecule Polarity sim while working through a
guided-inquiry activity facilitated by the teacher. The activity
has a modular, four-part structure, allowing the exibility to
choose a stopping point and ask students to nish outside of
class.
Part I of the activity includes a prompt for students to
explore the Molecule Polarity sim for 5 minutes. This open
exploration time with the sim allows students to nd all sim
features and to begin asking and answering their own
conceptual questionsas in the student transcript example
above.
Part II of the activity focuses attention on exploration of the
representations in the Two Atoms tab. Students are asked to
explain the ways to change the polarity of the generic two atom
molecule, cueing students to nd that dif ferences in atom
electronegativity aect bond polarity. Through the use of a
Concept Table (shown in Figure 5, Concept Table 1), students
are cued to connect the various representations in the sim (e.g.,
bond dipole arrow and partial charge symbols) with their
understanding of molecule polarity. The teacher could facilitate
a class discussion around group responses to the Concept
Table, and highlight or expand on student ideas.
Part III of the activity focuses attention on exploring the
Three Atoms tab, with questions that guide students inquiry
to include a second factor aecting polaritythe spatial
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arrangement of atoms. Students are prompted to nd new ways

to change the polarity of the generic three-atom molecule, and
asked how changing the bond angle aects polarity, highlighting the signicance of the spatial arrangement of atoms in
molecular polarity. Students are then asked to determine the
relationship between bond dipoles and molecular dipole. After
students have worked on responses to this question, the teacher
could facilitate a discussion around student responses, resulting
in a group consensus. Next, students are asked a challenge
question Can a non-polar molecule contain polar bonds? and
to use examples to illustrate their ideas.
Part IV of the activity provides an opportunity for students to
explore molecular polarity in the context of real molecules.
With the use of a Concept Table (Figure 5, Concept Table 2),
students are cued to predict the bond and molecular polarity of
real molecules, and then to check their prediction with the sim.

to covering the topic in class. Or, sims can be used to deepen,

reinforce, or extend conceptual understanding of the topic.
Questions involving the use of sims can also be incorporated
into Learning Management Systems, including multiple-choice
questions that allow for automated grading. An example
homework assignment using the Beers Law Lab sim, including
questions appropriate for a Learning Management System, is
included in Supporting Information.

UPCOMING RESOURCES
The PhET Interactive Simulations project continues to develop
new interactive sims for chemistry while shifting its sim
development to HTML5, a Web browser technology that is
compatible with tablets. We are also currently developing a
Teach with PhET Web site, to accompany the existing PhET
Web site. This new Web site will contain detailed professional
development materials and resources for teaching with PhET
sims, including video tutorials, guidelines and tips for sim use
across a range of implementation styles, examples of authentic
classroom use, and expanded sim specic teacher guides with
video introductions to individual sims.

Laboratory Student Use

Sims can be coupled with laboratory activities to deepen

conceptual understanding of experiments and to develop
representational competence. Students can be assigned a prelab activity, where they explore a concept prior to conducting
related physical experiments in a laboratory setting. Sims can
also be used during the laboratory, with physical experimentation coupled with exploration of the sim. In this example, we
coupled the Sugar and Salt Solutions sim with a common
chemistry labmeasuring the conductivity of dierent
solutions. The activitys learning goals include the following:
supporting students to dierentiate between ionic and covalent
compounds based on composition and physical behavior, and
to represent solutions using chemical formulas and particulate
level drawings.
The Sugar and Salt Solutions sim (see Supporting
Information for a full description) allows students to add
ionic and covalently bonded solutes to water, and to observe
how each solute dissolves at the macroscopic and particulate
levels. In this lab activity, included in Supporting Information,
students are rst prompted to explore the Macro tab of the
sim, which shows only what one could observe macroscopically.
Students are then prompted (through the use of a Concept
Table) to explore whether sugar or salt solutions conduct
electricity, to relate this to whether the solute contains ionic or
covalent bonds, and to determine how the conductivity changes
with solution concentration.
Next, students are asked to explore the Micro tab of the
sim, which shows a particulate level view of the dissolving
process. Students are prompted to compare how sugar and salt
dissolve in solution, and relate their observations to the
presence of ionic or covalent bonds. On the basis of their
observations, students are then asked to explain the
conductivity results found during exploration of the Macro
tab.
This sim work is then followed by a series of lab experiments,
where students test the conductivity of solutions (e.g., sucrose,
sodium chloride, and ethanol). Once students complete the lab
experiments, they are asked to explore the Water tab of the
sim, which shows a two-dimensional view of water solvation of
sodium chloride and sucrose. On the basis of their experience
with the Water tab, students are prompted to draw particulate
level representations of solutions.

CONCLUSION
A principal goal of the PhET Interactive Simulations project is
to transform the educational environments of both teachers and
students. PhET sims are research-based tools for teaching
chemistry that support the development of process skills,
content learning, and aective goals, in a way that is free, easily
accessible, and exible. In this article, we introduced the PhET
project, highlighted two sims for chemistry, and described a
range of approaches for integrating PhET sims into classrooms
and courses. We hope the examples, guidance, and links
provided here will encourage chemistry teachers new to sims to
consider ways of implementing PhET sims in their courses, and
inspire experienced sim users to continue nding and sharing
eective and creative ways of using the sims. Additional
supporting materials for sims, including activities submitted by
users, are available at our Web site.5

ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information
*

Table listing a typical undergraduate general chemistry course

sequence aligned with existing PhET sims; support for
developing clicker questions; tips for encouraging students to
bring laptops to class; example activities (in-class, lab, recitation
and homework); description of the Sugar and Salt Solutions
sim. This material is available via the Internet at http://pubs.
acs.org.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: Emily.Moore@colorado.edu.
Notes

The authors declare no competing nancial interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the PhET team for their contributions and
dedication. We also thank participating teachers and students
for their contributions to these eorts. This work was
supported by the National Science Foundation (DUE-

Homework

Homework assignments can have students investigate a sim

discovering trends, ideas, or questionsto prime students prior
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1226321). Supporting Information materials is by PhET

Interaction Simulations and used with permission.

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