Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals

of:

o
o
o

Changes in physical conditions in the environment

Changes in chemical conditions in the environment
Competition for resources

Change in Environment ---> limited resources ---> Selective

pressure ---> Competition ---> survival of the fittest -(genes
passed to next generation
--> adaptation of living organisms to the environment
Changes in physical conditions in the environment
These include natural conditions, such as temperature and the
availability of water.
The Australia landmass has become drier over time and this has led
to changes in the species of kangaroos that are present today.
Approximately 25 million years ago, Australia was considerably
wetter than today with large areas of rainforest. During this time,
kangaroos were small and omnivorous, with unspecialised teeth,
eating a variety of foods from the forest floor. Food was nutritious
and abundant; there was no need for specialised grinding teeth.
As Australia became more arid and grass became the dominant
vegetation in some areas, environmental selective pressure
resulted in larger kangaroos favouring teeth suitable for grass.
These teeth, high-crested molars, efficiently grind low-nutrition
grass into a more easily digestible paste. Slicing pre-molars have
been reduced.
Changes in chemical conditions in the environment
Chemicals that can affect the evolution of species include salts and
elements, such as iron. For example, many parts of Australia have
soils that have a high salinity. There are a range of salt tolerant
plants that have evolved to inhabit those areas. The animals that
feed from these plants have also evolved to inhabit those areas.
The sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, is a major problem to the
Australian sheep industry. It stresses, weakens and can be lethal to
sheep when larvae, laid by females, burrows into wounds and wet
wool. Chemicals, such as dieldrin and organophosphates, have
been used extensively to control the blowfly. However, genetic
resistance has occurred within the fly population that has made
these chemicals ineffective. Withholding a particular insecticide for
a time allowed the resistance of this particular blowfly population to
drop. Continued use of the insecticide has resulted in the mutation
of a modifier gene that increases and maintains the resistance.
Thus, the insecticides can never be effective again, regardless of
the number of blowfly generations that pass.
Competition for resources
This occurs within a species and between species. If a new species
is introduced into an area then the competition may lead to
different species using different resources.

 Resources can include food, space or mates. If populations that live

in the same area could specialise on slightly different resources or

breed at different times, they would avoid direct competition.
Some species of fruit fly have evolved into different species with
each confined to a different type of fruit tree. This is possible if
there are different flowering and fruiting times on each tree type
suited for different breeding cycles in the fruit flies. Eventually, two
distinct species can result.
Describe using specific examples how the theory of evolution is
supported by the following areas of study:
Palaeontology and Transitional Forms
Palaeontology is the study of fossils. Before Darwin, scholars recognised that
change in organisms over time was supported by evidence in undisturbed rock
formations with the oldest fossils at the bottom and the newest ones higher up.
Based on this, predictions were made and tested to attempt to validate the
theory of evolution by natural selection.
Predictions included:
The sequence of fossils found in rock formations should reflect the order of

changes in organisms from a common ancestor

Darwin predicted that the fossil record should show 'missing links'

between groups. e.g. amphibians evolved from fish so some organisms

should show features of both fish and amphibians
Evidence:
Fossils worldwide show a similar sequence suggesting living things

evolved in a particular sequence or order

Today, there are thousands of fossils that appear to have features from

two groups suggesting that a transition occurred from one group to another.
These fossils are called transitional forms and represent successive
change in organisms over time.
Transitional Form Examples
Fish to Amphibians. Lobe finned fish (fleshy finned fish) had bones in their

fins which could have allowed them to drag themselves over land. These
fins represent the ancestral limbs of terrestrial vertebrates.
Reptiles to Birds. Archaeopteryx is the oldest recognised fossilised bird. It

has both reptilian and bird like features.

o
Bird features: feathers, 'wishbone' extending to a keel bone (typical
to birds).
o
Reptilian Features: Teeth, bones in its tail and claws on the forearms
Limitations of palaeontology as evidence
Fossil record is incomplete and is not a random sample of past life.
Lack of fossils from 'soft bodied' organisms. Bias towards organisms which

fossilise better (hard bodied).

Unequal representation of transitional forms. Organisms such as horse

have well represented lines of descent. Many other organisms have no

known transitions

Correct age sequence has doubts as radiocarbon dating only goes back
50,000 years (not long in evolutionary terms)

Conclusion
Fossils give consistent evidence of past life forms that reflect evolutionary
patterns. However it has its limitations so further evidence is required to validate
the theory of evolution

Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of both living and extinct
organisms. The theory of evolution states that for a new species to appear a
group of individuals must become isolated from the rest. Predictions from
biogeography provide supporting evidence to the theory of evolution.
Prediction
If isolation is necessary for new species to appear, the new species should
resemble species that share a habitat. They will be more similar to:
Species that live close by than to species far away. (even if environmental

conditions far away are similar)

Species that lived in a common area before splitting up (Gondwanaland)

Evidence
Ratites: present day distribution of flightless birds suggested they

originated from a common ancestor on Gondwana. The different populations

evolved through isolation as Gondwana split up. There are no similar
flightless birds on the northern continents.
Australian Mammals and flowering plants: believed to have arisen due to

isolation from other continents. Organisms show similarities to other

southern continents.
Limitation
Limited to species which have become isolated at some point in time.
Conclusion
Inhabitants of islands resemble species on the nearest mainland suggesting that
evolution occurred once isolation occurred. Organisms that originated on
Gondwana and now live apart show similarities in structure, suggesting a
common ancestor before the continent split
Comparative Anatomy
Study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of living organisms.

Homologous: having the same or similar relation or structure; corresponding in

origin but not necessarily in function

Analogous: structures of different evolutionary origins (distantly related

species) that have evolved to become similar as they perform a similar function
in a common environment in which they live.
Vestigial Structures: homologous characteristics of an organism which have
lost all or most of their original function
Comparative Anatomy: the study of anatomical features of animals of different
species
Evidence
Homologous Structures:
Organs that have same basic plan in structure but show modifications are

termed homologous e.g. pentadactyl limb of all vertebrates have same

basic bone plan. Wing of bird, flipper of whale, forearm of lizard are
homologous. Flowering plants e.g. arrangement of leaves, structure of
vascular tissue and flower structure
Comparative anatomists study these homologies and determine degree of

similarity and relatedness

Analogous Structures:
Where body parts appear similar at first but are actually very different in
structure. e.g. wings of bird and wings of grasshopper.
They differ greatly in basic plan and are called analogous
Evolved to become similar as they were selected to be used for similar
purpose (flight).
Examples: Australian echidna, European hedgehog, well developed eyes in
octopuses, vertebrates and insects.
Vestigial Structures:
Evolutionary remnants of past body parts that do not serve a function
within population.
Presence of vestigial structures provides evidence for common ancestry
e.g. presence of appendix and coccyx in humans. Pelvic bones in snakes
and whales.

Limitations:
Bias in the organisms represented in the fossil record (lack of soft bodied

fossils, many hard bodied fossils) area in which fossil located, swamps,
riverbeds suitable for fossilisation, desert not.
Superficial structures may be analogous and not show common ancestors.

Many genes not expressed anatomically or have such subtle effects that
they are hard to detect
Different genes may affect phenotypic

Comparative Embryology
Comparison of the developmental stages of different species. Similarities

may infer relationships between organisms

Prediction
Related species show similarities in embryonic development

Evidence
Embryos show similarities during early development e.g. fish, amphibians,

birds, reptiles and mammals all have gill slits and tails with muscle blocks
during early embryonic life. This can be explained through common
ancestry. This suggests that their common ancestor lived in an aquatic
environment.
Gill slits developed into gills in fish and some amphibians. Embryonic gills

in mammals developed into part of the Eustachian tube that connects the
middle ear with the throat
Conclusion
Closely related embryonic organisms have homologous parts, providing

evidence that they shared a common ancestor

Biochemical Evidence
Biochemical evidence for evolution involves determining the sequences of
chemicals such as amino acids and proteins, or the sequence of base pairs in
DNA of two species
Amino Acid Sequencing
Protein found in many organisms e.g. cytochrome is studied

Sequence of amino acids in the protein is analysed and similarities and

differences between organisms identified

Similarities suggest organisms may share common ancestor, differences

imply evolution has occurred.

Number of differences is proportional to time since separation. Used to

construct evolutionary trees e.g. human and chimpanzees have identical

amino acid sequence and are closer related than human/gibbon which have
3 differences
DNA-DNA Hybridisation
Based on assumption related species have similar nucleotide order

Done by splitting double stranded DNA and exposing nucleotide bases on

each strand. (heat is applied to cause separation)

Separated segments of DNA from two species is combined to form hybrid

DNA. The more closely the base pairs are matched, the stronger the
bindings between the hybrid DNA.
Heat is applied to test how strong the bonds are in the hybrid DNA. The

higher the temperature required to separate, the more closely related the
species.
Closely related species have a similar order of nucleotide based so they

combine more strongly.

Thermal cycler is used to heat and cool the DNA strands

DNA Sequencing
Exact order of nucleotide bases is compared between species.

Piece of DNA is isolated from each organism

Multiple copies made to distinguish between the bases

Computer equipment called a DNA sequencer used to graph entire

sequence of bases which are then compared e.g.
ATGCTACGTACCT
ATGCTCTAGACCT
Fewer differences in organisms which are closely related

Conclusion
Closely related species have fewer differences in amino acid and DNA and

their DNA is dissociated at higher temperatures

Advantages
Allows comparison of organisms when homologous structures are
unavailable
Results are quantitative, not based on observation (comparative anatomy)
DNA sequencing reveals more detailed information than other techniques

Limitations
Some changes in DNA may not be identified if a change in the past has
reverted back to original form in a recent organism
Very expensive and can only be performed in high tech labs

Explain how Darwin-Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection

and isolation accounts for divergent evolution and convergent
evolution
Divergent Evolution:
Two species that are similar are from a common ancestor. There are
differences between species that are explained by natural selection, they
have been exposed to different selective pressures which have made them
become different. e.g. flightless birds once shared a common ancestor on
Gondwanaland. Once they became isolated due to continental drift, they
have evolved in new environment and can no longer breed with those
found elsewhere. Darwin's Finches migrated to the Galapagos Islands
where different selective pressures acted on them to become different
from the original population.
Convergent Evolution:
Subject to similar selective pressures. No recent common ancestor. Their
similarities are explained by selective pressures through natural selection.
e.g. marsupials in australia are similar to some placental mammals in
Europe due to living in similar environments. The Mole and Marsupial
Mole, Lesser Anteater and numbat, mouse and dunnart
Sit in a group of 5 around a table. Empty the contents of the 'prey' bag onto the
table. Each student uses one of the implements provided to act as a 'predator',
picking up prey as quickly as they can until all the prey has been 'killed'. Record
what each predator has consumed in a table like the one below. Repeat two more
times and take an average.

Predator

String

Rubber
band

Match
sticks

Paper

Straws Beans

Total

Peg

168

003

213

164

533

112

Spoon

32

21

01

44

10

17 17

chopstick 6 2
s

30

01

15

14

10

Skewer

50

Forceps
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

What predator caught the most prey? Forceps

What were the characteristics of this predator that made it successful? They
were able to precisely pick up prey with its 'beak' which was able to fully
close at the end and create a large amount of force.
Which predator caught the most varied prey? The forceps
What characteristics of this predator allowed it to catch such a wide variety
of prey? It's beak was suited to all of the prey as the forceps have very
precise pick up bits
Was any predator better suited to catching a particular type of prey? The
spoon was very well suited to pick up beans. This was due to the scooping
nature of the spoon which allowed it to pick up beans easily
In terms of natural selection what would initially happen to the numbers of
the most easily caught prey? They would severely drop
In terms of natural selection what would initially happen to the numbers of
the predator that caught the largest amount of prey? They would initially
rise as food is readily available and they would reproduce

This isn't a multi-generation test. What would increase the validity of this
test in terms of natural selection would be to remove the weakest predator
and replace it with another strong predator at the end of the round. Another
way would be to set a time limit of 30 seconds and see how many specific
prey had been eaten in that time. If all the beans had died out then they
would not survive to reproduce and would not be in the next round
Gametes: Sex cells that allow an organism to reproduce
Hybrid: offspring of parents who have different traits
Pollination: transferring of male pollen grains to the pistil
Fertilisation: when the male and female gametes unite
Parental generation: first generation
F1: offspring of second generation
F2: offspring of F1 generation
Dominant: trait that is more expressive in alleles than other traits (capital letter)
Recessive: trait that is submissive in the alleles to the other trait (lower case)
If organism contains a dominant and recessive allele then dominant trait will be
expressed
Phenotype: physical expression of organism's genes
Genotype: genetic make up of an organism
Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel
What he studied
Investigated breeding patterns of garden peas to determine inheritance of

characteristics
Used garden peas as they can be easily grown and cross bred, have a

short life cycle and both male and female parts are in the flowers
Traits he studied:

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Stem length (tall/short)

Seed colour (green/yellow)
Seed coat colour (grey/white)
Seed shape (round/wrinkled)
Colour of unripe pod (yellow/green)
Flower position (axial/terminal)
Pod shape (inflated/constricted)
Studied each trait individually
How he studied
Over 2 years he established pure breeding lines and then cross bred to
study inheritance
Previously it was believed that 'blending' would occur (tall + short =
medium)
Initial offspring resembled one parent but in later generations the other
parent's trait would appear.
Discovered mathematical ratios to provide evidence Mendel's Laws
Mendel's Laws:
o
Mendel's law of dominance and segregation
o
Mendel's law of independent assortment
Controlled Variables
To ensure pure breeding he made sure the plants self pollenated
To ensure cross breeding he manually transferred pollen from the anthers
to the stigma of contrasting plants

Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel

that led to his success
Experiments were well controlled, tested one variable at a time,

gathered first hand data that was quantitative

His techniques were:

o
Valid and reliable: Changed one variable at a time, controlled
all others. Used large sample sizes and repeated experiments for
different traits. Mathematically analysed results to identify patterns
and applied formulae to draw valid conclusions
o
Accurate: reduced possibility of experimental error.
Experiments were all in a controlled environment. Self fertilisation
kept plants isolated. Cross pollination removed anthers of one plant
and stigma of another then manually transferred pollen to prevent
self pollination
Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance
using Mendel's explanations

A monohybrid is an individual that has contrasting factors for a single

characteristic.
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of a single pair of contrasting
characteristics

Mendel's First Law of Dominance and Segregation

Only 1 member of a pair of factors is represented in a gamete

Offspring inherit 1 factor from each parent
When two hybrids breed they produce a ratio of 3:1 dominant to recessive
Called traits that are passed on 'factors' we call them 'genes'. Contrasting
forms of the same gene are called 'alleles'

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in

monohybrid crosses
Pure breeding = homozygous

If organism has identical alleles for a genetic trait (TT or tt) they are

homozygous
Hybrid = heterozygous

If organism has contrasting alleles for a trait (Tt) the individual is termed

heterozygous
Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples

Cells contain units of heredity called genes on chromosomes

Genes influence characteristics e.g. height, eye colour, hair colour
Each cell contains 2 copies of each autosomal gene. One from each
parent
Different variations of the same gene are termed alleles
Alleles are found in the same position on a pair of chromosomes
within cells
Diploid has 2 alleles of each gene Haploid has 1 allele

Gene
Segment of DNA on a chromosome

Specifies particular characteristics (seed colour)

Has two alleles in an individual and two or more in a population

Allele:
Alternative forms of the same gene

Found in identical places on similar chromosomes

Occurs in pairs in diploid but two or more alleles can be in a

population
Segregate during gamete formation

Pair during fertilisation when diploid condition of zygote is restored

Individuals can only have two alleles depending on their parents

Each organism has two factors that control each trait

These factors are called genes and are found on the chromosomes

and have alternate forms

The different gene forms that control one trait are called alleles . For
eye colour, there is 1 blue eye allele and 1 brown eye allele. The
offspring will have brown eyes. If there are 2 blue eye allele then
the child will have blue eyes

Law of Segregation

Alleles separate during meiosis

Each new cell gets one allele for each gene

Two Types of Crosses

Monohybrid cross: cross in which all traits are identical except one
Dihybrid cross: cross in which two traits differ between organisms

2.8 Current Use of Pedigrees

Pedigrees are used to study inheritance patterns as it is unethical to carry

out controlled breeding to assess their genotypes.
A pedigree can be defined as a graphical representation of the inheritance
patterns of a particular trait in related individuals over a number of
generations.

The Use of Pedigrees

They allow easy scientific analysis of inheritance and genetic traits within

families.
Useful for studying heredity patterns in animals

Human Pedigrees
Can be used to:

o
Determine if family traits are genetically inherited
o
Trace occurrence of genetic disorders, abnormalities or diseases
within a family
o
Deduce genotypes and assess if parents are carriers of defective
alleles
o
Predict likelihood of family members inheriting a trait or disorder
Advantages
Used by genetic counsellors to advise parents on the risks of producing a

child with defects

Used by researchers to develop a program to eliminate defects in the

population
To study genes which cause disorders, researchers use pedigrees to select

those individuals who are at risk and focus gene analysis on them
Animal Pedigrees
Pedigrees in animal breeding are used to:
Select suitable individuals for breeding by identifying desirable traits

Predict distance in relation between organisms to prevent inbreeding

Verify thoroughbred status of animals by breeding societies

Limitations of Pedigrees
Useful only for studying animals with small quantities of offspring

Relies on accurate and reliable record keeping within families

With small families, conclusions may be ambiguous
The same genetic defects may be due to changes in different genes and
can be inaccurately assessed as having a risk of a defective child