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Personal Computing:
Toward a Conceptual
Model of Utilization1
By: Ronald L. Thompson
School of Business Administration
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont 05405
Christopher A. Higgins
School of Business Administration
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario
CANADAN6A 3K7
Jane M. Howell
School of Business Administration
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario
CANADAN6A 3K7
Abstract
Organizations continue to invest heavily in personal computers for their knowledge workers.
When use is optional, however, having access
to the technology by no means ensures it will be
used or used effectively. To help us gain a better
understanding of factors that influence the use
of personal computers, researchers have recently
adapted the theory of reasoned action proposed
by Fishbein and Azjen (1975). This study uses
a competing theory of behavior proposed by
Triandis (1980). Responses were collected from
212 knowledge workers in nine divisions of a
multi-national firm, and the measures and
research hypotheses were analyzed using partial least squares (PLS). The results show that
social norms and three components of expected
consequences (complexity of use, fit between the
job and PC capabilities, and long-term con'This research has been supported in part by: the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the
National Centre for Management Research and Development
(Canada), and the School of Business Administration at the
University of Western Ontario. This article was developed in
part from a paper presented at the Administrative Sciences
Association of Canada (ASAC) annual meeting in Montreal
in June 1989.
Introduction
Many information systems (IS) researchers have
stressed the need to build IS research on a
cumulative tradition, using referent disciplines
and theoretical arguments as a foundation
(Goodhue, 1988; Keen, 1980; Robey, 1979). The
value of referent disciplines, Keen (1980) argues,
is to keep IS researchers from "falling into the
framework of the month trap" (p.11).
Research investigating the relationship between
attitudes and computer utilization is one area
where many IS researchers have been remiss,
to date, in using existing models or theories,
particularly those from the social psychology
literature (Davis, et al., 1989; Goodhue, 1988;
Robey, 1979). This lack of theoretical justification provides a potential explanation for the mixed
empirical support found for the hypothesis that
attitudes influence computer use (Davis, et al.,
1989; Lucas, 1975; 1978; Pavri, 1988; Robey,
1979; Schewe, 1976; Schultz and Slevin, 1975;
Swanson, 1982).
IS researchers have recently adopted Fishbein
and Azjen's (1975) theory of reasoned action into
the context of information technology use (see
Davis, et al., 1989; Pavri, 1988). This theory,
widely tested in sociological and psychological
research, has been found to be lacking in certain
respects. Triandis (1980) has proposed a theory
that incorporates many of the same concepts and
contructs but also modifies and redefines them.
For example, while Fishbein and Azjen's theory
considers all beliefs that a person has about an
act or behavior, Triandis makes a distinction
between beliefs that link emotions to the act
(occurring at the moment of action) and beliefs
that link the act to future consequences. He
argues that behavioral intentions are determined
by feelings people have toward the behavior
125
Utilization
of PersonalComputers
Social factors
Triandis(1971)arguedthatbehavioris influenced
by social norms, which depend on messages
receivedfromothersand reflectwhatindividuals
thinkthey should do. In his laterwork,Triandis
(1980) expanded this term and called it social
factors, that is, "the individual'sinternalization
of the reference groups' subjective culture,and
specific interpersonalagreements that the individualhas made withothers, in specific social
situations"(p. 210). Subjectivecultureconsists
to do whatis perceived
of norms(self-instructions
to be correct and appropriateby members of a
culturein certainsituations);roles (whichare also
concerned with behaviors that are considered
correctbut relateto persons holdinga particular
positionin a group,society,or socialsystem);and
values (abstractcategories withstrong affective
components).
Empiricalsupport for the relationshipbetween
social normsand behaviorcan be foundin many
Utilization
of PersonalComputers
Habit
Facilitating
Conditions
Behavior
Affect
Triandis(1971) defines attitude as "an idea,
charged withaffect, that predisposes a class of
actions to a particularclass of social situations"
(p. 2). He acknowledges that attitudeis an imprecise termthat is more useful for discussions
where precisionis not necessary. For research
involvinga linkbetween attitudesand behavior,
however, Triandis(1980) argues for precision
through the separation of the affective and
cognitive components of attitudes. To do this,
Triandis(1980)uses the termaffect,whichrefers
to "the feelings of joy, elation, or pleasure, or
depression, disgust, displeasure, or hate
associated by an individualwitha particularact"
(p. 211).
Accordingto Goodhue (1988), most IS researchers have not made a distinctionbetween the
of PersonalComputers
Utilization
Perceived consequences
Accordingto Triandis(1971), anotherimportant
factorinfluencingbehavioris the expected consequences of the behavior, later re-named
perceived consequences (Triandis,1980). He
argues that each act is perceived as having
potentialconsequences thathave value,together
thatthe consequence willoccur.
witha probability
The perceived consequences construct is consistent withthe expectancy theoryof motivation
proposedby Vroom(1964)and developedfurther
by Porterand Lawler(1968). The basic premise
of expectancy theoryis that individualsevaluate
the consequences of their behaviorin terms of
Complexity
Accordingto Rogersand Shoemaker(1971)complexityis defined as "the degree to whichan innovation is perceived as relativelydifficultto
understand and use" (p. 154). Tornatzkyand
Klein(1982) find that the more complex the innovation, the lower its rate of adoption. If PC
utilizationcan be viewed withinthe contextof innovationadoption,then these results suggest a
negative relationshipbetween complexity and
Utilization
of PersonalComputers
Job Fit
The second near-termcomponentrelates to the
capabilitiesof a PC to enhance an individual's
job performance.Morespecifically,this dimension is definedas perceivedjob fitand measures
the extentto whichan individualbelieves thatusing a PC can enhance the performanceof his or
herjob (e.g., obtainingbetterinformation
fordecision making or reducing the time requiredfor
completing importantjob tasks).
The positive relationshipbetween perceivedjob
fit and PC utilizationhas empiricalsupport. In
Tornatskyand Klein's(1982)meta-analysisof innovationadoption,they find that an innovation
is more likelyto be adopted when it is compatible with individuals'job responsibilities.Robey
(1979) finds that the "performancefactor," as
operationalizedby Schultz and Slevin (1975), is
the strongest predictorof utilization.Theirconstruct is similarto Floyd's(1986) "system/work
fit" (i.e., facilitatingaccomplishment of core
tasks, improvingindividualjob productivity,and
improvingqualityof workoutput),whichhe found
to be positivelyrelatedto the use of mainframebased informationsystems. It is also similarto
Davis,et al.'s (1989)"perceivedusefulness"construct(definedas the user's subjectiveprobability
that using a specific applicationsystem will increase his or her job performance),which they
find to be strongly correlated with utilization.
Additionalsupportis offeredby Goodhue(1988),
who suggests thatan importantpredictorof use
is the correspondencebetweenjobtasks and the
capabilitiesof the informationsystem to support
the tasks. Cooper and Zmud(1990), in a study
of the adoptionof MRPsystems, also findtasktechnology compatibilityto be a majorfactorin
explainingadoptionbehaviors.Buildingon these
findings, the hypothesis to be tested is:
H4: There will be a positive relationship
between perceived job fit and the
utilization of PCs.
Long-Term Consequences of Use
The thirdand finalcomponentof perceivedconsequences includedhere is definedas long-term
consequences of use. These are outcomes that
have a pay-offin the future,such as increasing
the flexibilityto change jobs or increasingthe opportunitiesfor more meaningfulwork.Forsome
individuals,the motivationto adoptand use PCs
may relate more to buildingor planningfor the
futurethan to addressing currentneeds.
Empiricalsupportfor this construct is provided
by Beatty(1986),who findsa strongpositiverelationship between perceived long-term consequences of use and actual use of CAD/CAM
systems. Interviewswithadopters revealed that
they believed that use of the system would
enhance theircareer mobility,even thoughthey
were not convinced it wouldassist them greatly
on their current job. Therefore, the next
hypothesis is:
H5: There will be a positive relationship
between perceived long-term consequences of use and the utilization of
PCs.
Facilitatingconditions
Triandis(1980) states that behaviorcannot occur ifobjectiveconditionsin the environmentprevent it. He defines facilitatingconditions as
"objectivefactors,'outthere'in the environment,
thatseveraljudges or observerscan agree make
an act easy to do" (p. 205). Inthe context of PC
use, the provisionof supportforusers of PCs may
be one type of facilitatingconditionthat can influence system utilization.By trainingusers and
assisting them when they encounterdifficulties,
some of the potentialbarriersto use are reduced
or eliminated.Schultzand Slevin(1975)consider
"support/resistance" (the system has top
management, technical, implementation,and
organizational
support,and not undueresistance)
as one factorinfluencingutilization.Robey(1979)
finds a positive correlation between "support/resistance"(as defined and measured by
Utilization
of PersonalComputers
Habits
Althoughhabitsare not specificallytested in this
study,they are clearlyan importantdeterminant
of behaviorand must be acknowledged. According to Triandis (1971), habits are situationbehavior sequences that occur without selfinstruction.The individualis usually not conscious of these sequences.
Priorresearchhas shownthathabitsare a strong
predictorof behavior.Forexample, Sugar (1967)
measuredthe attitudes,norms,and habitsof college students concerningcigarettesmoking.On
a separate occasion, the same students were offered a cigarette.The strongest single predictor
of behaviorwas habit, followed by norms; the
least importantpredictor was attitudes. This
wouldbe expected because frequent,repetitive
past behavior(i.e., a habit)generally would be
highlycorrelatedwithcurrentbehavior.Forthis
study, however, including the habit construct
presents a majordifficulty.
At a conceptuallevel, one could argue that habit
should play a role in the utilizationof a PC; the
PC might be used for certain tasks simply
because it has been used in the past, not
necessarily because it is the most efficientor effective approach. At a measurement level,
however,difficultiesexist. Triandis(1980) notes
that habits can be measured by the frequency
of occurrenceof behavior.This is preciselyidenticalto our measure of utilization,which leads to
a tautology.Forthis reason, we did not include
the habit construct in this study.
To summarize,we have adaptedthe theoryof interpersonalbehaviorproposedby Triandis(1980)
to the context of PC use by knowledgeworkers
in optionaluse environments.This theory suggests thataffect,perceivedconsequences, social
factors,facilitatingconditions,and habitsare the
primarydeterminantsof behavior.Twomodifications to the theorywere made in orderto test the
model withinthe IS context. First,three distinct
cognitive components of perceived consequences (complexity,job fit and long-termcon-
Methods
of constructs
Operationalization
To operationalizethe constructs, we referenced
the workof manyresearchers,includingAmoroso
(1986), Beatty (1986), Floyd (1986), Howard
(1985), and Pavri(1988). We were unableto use
exact replicationsof many of the instruments
used in these studies because they were originally designed within the context of mainframebased systems. Instead,we developednineitems
(using the work of other researchers for
guidance), modified 14 items from previous
scales, and used nine items directlyfrom prior
studies. Table 1 lists, in an abbreviatedformat,
all of the measurement scale items that were
ultimatelyselected. The instructionsprovidedto
the respondentand scale anchorsare also shown
for one construct as an example.
Social factors were operationalizedby asking
respondents: (1) the proportion of their coworkerswho regularlyused a PC; (2) the extent
to whichseniormanagementof the business unit
supportedPC use; (3) the extent to whichthe individual'sboss supportedthe use of PCs forthe
job; and (4) the extent to which the organization
supportedthe use of PCs. These questionswere
designed to tap the normsforPC use at the peer,
superior,and organizationallevel. The fouritems
were adopted from Pavri (1988).
The affect construct was operationalizedwith
three items:(1) PCs made workmoreinteresting;
(2) workingwith PCs was fun; and (3) PCs were
all right for some jobs but not the kind of job
wanted(reversescored).The firsttwo itemswere
taken from Howard(1985), while the thirdwas
developedspecificallyforthis study.A five-point,
Likert-typescale was used, with anchors ranging from stronglydisagree to strongly agree.
The complexityscale includedstatements such
as "workingwith PCs is complicated" and "it
takes too long to learn how to use a PC to make
it worththe effort."Respondents were asked to
ratethe degree to whichthey agreedordisagreed
witheach statement, on a scale from1 (strongly
Utilization
of PCs
,.
131
of PersonalComputers
Utilization
Construct
Social Factors
SF1.
SF2.
SF3.
SF4.
JF1.
JF2.
JF3.
JF4.
JF5.
JF6.
LT1.
LT2.
LT3.
LT4.
LT5.
LT6.
FC1.
FC2.
FC3.
FC4.
UT1.
UT2.
UT3.
of a
of a
of a
of a
of a
of a
*The instructionsto the respondents for these items were: "Inthis section we wish to determinehow
useful you believe a personal computercould be for your currentjob responsibilities.Please tell us
how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements (1 = strongly diagree;
2= somewhat disagree; 3= neitheragree nor disagree; 4= somewhat agree; 5= stronglyagree)."
(Note: the instructionsand scale anchors differedfor other constructs.)
Utilization
of PersonalComputers
Sample
The studywas conductedin a largemultinational
manufacturing
organization.The populationof interest was knowledge workers (defined as
managers or professionals)who used a PC in
their jobs. The study excluded individualswho
were requiredto use a PC. Four hundredand
fifty-five questionnaires were distributed
throughout the organization. A total of 278
questionnaires were returned, for a gross
response rate of 61 percent. Thirty-six
respondents reported that they did not have
access to a PC, nine respondentsdid notanswer
questions concerning PC utilization,and 21 individualsindicatedthatthey were requiredto use
a PC as part of their jobs. These respondents
were removed, leaving a final sample of 212
knowledge workers(a net response rate of 47
percent). The respondents represented a wide
varietyof job classificationsacross the nine divisions of this organization.Ninetypercent of the
respondentswere male, and more than 70 percent held undergraduateor graduate degrees.
The majorityof respondents were between 30
and 50 years of age (60 percent), with the remainder being split roughly between those
youngerthan30 and olderthan50. About43 percent of respondentsclassified theirjob function
as engineer or professional, 32 percent as
managerialor supervisory,20 percent as staff
specialist, and 5 percentas executive. Descriptive statisticsrelatingto the respondents'utilization of PCs are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Procedure
A contact person within the participating
organization arranged for the distributionof
questionnairesto managers and professionals
who used PCs to some extent. The survey
package contained a cover letter from the
organizationas well as a cover letter from the
researchers. All respondents were guaranteed
confidentialityof individualresponses, and only
summary statistics were returnedto the participatingorganization.One follow-upletterwas
sent to non-respondents.
The datawerecollectedusingthe DISKQmethod
developed by Higgins,et al. (1987).This method
replaces the traditionalpencil-and-papersurvey
withan interactivequestionnairepresentedon a
MISQuarterly/March1991 133
Measure
Intensity of Use*
Firstquartile;
Median:
Thirdquartile:
30 - 45 minutes
60 - 90 minutes
> 120 minutes
1 package
2 packages
3 packages
Range:
1 to 5 packages
Frequency of Use
Percent
4
49
53
2%
23%
25%
106
50%
Data analysis
To test the research hypotheses, partialleast
squares (PLS) analysis was used. PLS is a
regression-based technique, with roots in path
analysis (Pedhazur, 1982; Wold, 1985). It has
emerged as a powerful approach to studying
causal models involvingmultipleconstructswith
multiplemeasures. Ithas been used in marketing
(Barclay,1986),organizationalbehavior(Higgins
and Duxbury,forthcoming;Howelland Higgins,
1990), and MIS(Grant,1989; Rivardand Huff,
1988).
Fornell(1982; 1984) refersto techniquessuch as
PLS and its close cousin LISREL(Joreskogand
Sorbom,1981)as second generationmultivariate
analysis techniques. These second generation
134
Test of measures
The internalconsistency of the measurement
model was assessed by computingCronbach's
coefficientsare displayed
alphas.These reliability
for each of the constructsin Table 4. The Cron-
Construct
3
4
Cronbach's
Alpha
C01
C02
C03
C04
.69
.80
.36
.59
.26
.17
.25
.19
.25
.04
.11
.11
.37
.37
.20
.26
.13
.18
.03
.06
.12
.05
.20
.23
.01
-.07
.10
.17
2. Job Fit
JF1
JF2
JF3
JF4
JF5
JF6
.30
.14
.18
.24
.31
.34
.44
.53
.80
.61
.49
.90
.12
.22
.25
.29
.24
.22
.34
.30
.42
.38
.39
.50
.27
.19
.13
.17
.14
.22
.12
.19
.11
.12
.11
.12
.17
.20
.31
.23
.19
.34
.82
3. Long-Term
Consequences
LT1
LT2
LT3
LT4
LT5
LT6
.02
.16
.09
.18
.03
.10
.19
.15
.18
.23
.17
.13
.73
.53
.68
.79
.50
.45
.27
.20
.28
.29
.17
.23
.18
.16
.10
.17
.06
.10
.15
.00
.00
.05
-.08
.02
.18
.13
.17
.20
.12
.11
.76
.61
1. Complexity
4. Affect
5. Social Factors
AF1
.40
.40
.40
.65
.27
.16
.21
AF2
.28
.26
.21
.29
.12
.09
.09
AF3
.43
.48
.32
.95
.24
.09
.30
.60
SF1
.12
.11
.07
.22
.78
.18
.30
SF2
.18
.15
.19
.16
.50
.29
.10
SF3
SF4
.17
.05
.19
.15
.30
.15
.23
.08
.68
.54
.31
.58
.11
.11
6. Facilitating
Conditions
FC1
FC2
FC3
FC4
.03
.06
.12
.04
.14
.12
.13
.09
.01
.10
.09
.12
.07
.10
.12
.12
.31
.39
.37
.37
.76
.88
.78
.90
.07
.06
.07
.14
.86
7. Utilization
UT1
UT2
UT3
.25
.23
.16
.35
.35
.13
.24
.19
.13
.29
.28
.14
.26
.25
.21
.10
.13
- .01
.90
.85
.51
.64
.65
135
136
Results
Table 7 shows the path coefficients, which are
standardizedregression coefficients, generated
fromthe PLS analysis. Jackknifing(Fornelland
Barclay, 1983) was used to calculate the
statistical significance levels for these coefficients. This is a non-parametrictechnique that
does not requirethe usual assumptions of normalityassociated with regression models.
The tests of hypotheses providemoderatesupport for our model of PC utilizationbased on
Triandis'(1980) theory of behavior.Fourof the
six hypothesizedrelationshipswere statistically
significant(p < .01), and the amountof variance
in utilizationexplained by the model was 24
percent.
Support was found for Hypothesis 1, which
postulatedthat social factorswouldpositivelyinfluence the utilizationof PCs (path = .22; p <
.005). Hypothesis2 was not supported.The path
fromaffect to utilizationwas .02, which was not
statistically significant. For Hypothesis 3, as
predicted,there was a significant,negative relationshipbetween perceptions about complexity
of use and the utilizationof PCs (path = -.14; p
< .01). Similarly,Hypothesis4, whichstated that
jobfitwouldbe a predictorof utilization,was supportedby the results (path = .26; p < .005). For
Hypothesis5, the path coefficientbetween longterm consequences and utilizationwas positive
and statisticallysignificant(path = .10; p < .01),
providingsupportforthe hypothesis.Facilitating
conditions(Hypothesis6) had a small, negative
whichwas notstatistically
influenceon utilization,
significant (path = -.04).
Factor
4
5
JF5
JF6
.51
.67
.74
.77
.79
.74
.04
.17
.01
.07
.10
- .01
.03
-.02
.15
.22
.10
.03
.23
.11
-.01
.10
.24
.20
-.08
.15
.14
.05
.01
.19
-10
.19
.06
.05
.06
.04
Facilitating
Conditions
FC1
FC2
FC3
FC4
.15
.07
.01
.05
.77
.87
.77
.82
-.21
.04
.07
.12
-.02
-.07
.05
-.02
.04
-.01
.04
.01
Long-Term
LT1
LT2
LT3
LT4
LT5
LT6
.17
- .01
.03
.08
.03
-.05
.61
.61
.70
-.10
.22
-.05
.18
.14
.04
-.12
.76
.47
.11
.01
.15
-.03
.22
Job Fit
Consequences
Complexity
Utilization
Affect
Social Factors
JF1
JF2
JF3
JF4
CO1
C02
C03
C04
.26
-.05
.28
.11
.11
.14
-.03
.01
-.08
.46
-.08
.20
.06
.12
.09
.13
.01
.16
.14
.14
-.06
-.13
-.10
.11
.06
.01
.07
-.04
.04
.06
.01
.04
- .01
.08
.10
.33
.07
.06
.04
.04
02
.15
.08
.10
.08
-.02
'.66'
.05
.741
.08
.03
.12
- .07
-.11
-.06
.26
- .08
.65
.06
.03
-.06
.48
.25
.07
.02
-.03
.61
.05
.01
.03
.73
.03
.01
.05
.04
.04
.01
.01
.20
-.38
.12
.34
.68
.76
.23
-.01
-.12
-.05
.16
-.12
.42
-.02
.05
UT1
UT2
.25
.11
.03
.06
.09
.08
.14
.01
.83
.83
UT3
.07
- .03
.21
.20
.49
AF1
AF2
.27
.12
.13
.10
.28
.15
.08
.21
.10
.05
AF3
.32
.19
.31
.20
-.02
.41
.26
SF1
.17
.05
-.02
- .08
-.11
.07
.17
.07
-.07
.55
.10
.17
.69
.40
.02
.41
SF2
SF3
SF4
-.07
.09
.43
-.02
.10
.14
.05
.34
.32
.17
.03
.12
.03
.72
.01
.02
.01
.38
-.09
.20
137
intercorrelations
4
5
3
1.00
1. Complexity
2. Job fit
.28
1.00
3. Long-TermConsequences
4. Affect
.17
.28
1.00
.48
.52
.39
1.00
5. Social Factors
.19
.21
.24
.28
1.00
6. FacilitatingConditions
7. Utilization
.07
.14
.11
.13
.43
1.00
.28
.38
,25
.32
.31
.11
1.00
Hypothesis
H1. Social Factors to Utilization
.22**
.02
-.14**
.26**
.10*
-.04
R2 = .24
*p < .01;*p
p < .005
138
139
Managerial Implications
success.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the associate
editor and the anonymous reviewers for their
helpfulcomments on this article.
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Utilization
of PerrsonalComputers
Dynamics,TheJournalof Applied
Organizational
Psychology, Sloan ManagementReview, ACM
Transactionson OfficeInformation
Systems, and
OfficeTechnologyand People. The primaryfocus
of his researchis the impactof technologyon individualsand organizations.Specificresearchinterests include computerized monitoring,
organizationalchampions,and the impactof personal computers on work and family life.
Jane M. Howell is assistant professor in the
organizationbehavior group of the School of