SAVEETHA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

SAVEETHA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 602-105

INPLANT TRAINING REPORT

On CONTROL SYSTEMS IN POWER PLANT

DONE AT

(Electronics Division, BHEL, P.O. Box 2606, Mysore Road, Bangalore-560 026)

SUBMITTED BY:
B.JAGADEESH BABU
Reg.No. 191412030
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
June 2016

SAVEETHA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

SAVEETHA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 602-105

INPLANT TRAINING REPORT

On CONTROL SYSTEMS IN POWER PLANT

DONE AT

(Electronics Division, BHEL, P.O. Box 2606, Mysore Road, Bangalore-560 026)

SUBMITTED BY:
B.JAGADEESH BABU
Reg.No. 191412030
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
June 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Industrial Exposure that I have experienced in (BARATH

HEAVY ELECTRICLS LTD.) has helped me a lot not only in
improving my theoretical knowledge but also to understand the
working of a large industry. I am grateful to the company for giving
me an opportunity to undergo In-Plant training in their organization.
I would like to express my gratitude towards BHEL Electronics
Division HR (MINI CHHABRA) for associating me in this training.
With profound gratitude, respect and pride, I express my sincere
thanks to our director Mrs. RAMYA DEEPAK, for providing
constant support and encouragement.
I take this opportunity to extend our heartfelt thanks to our beloved
principal Dr. D.DHANASEKARAN, for providing us the
opportunity to undergo this in-plant training.
I express my sincere thanks to our HOD Dr. P.C.KISHORE RAJA,
for providing us permission to do the training.

Duration: 20.06.2016 TO 01.07.2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction5
2. About the Company6
(i) Introduction of the Company.8
(ii) Mission of the Company...10
(iii) Vision of the Company.11
(iv) Profile of the Company.12
3. Work Details...
(i) topic 1: SMT... 16
(ii) topic 2: automation and control systems . 20
(iii) topic 3: solar cell manufacturing 22
(iv) topic 4: working of power plant...30
(v) topic 5: information and technology.36
4. Conclusion..42
5. Certificate of Training

INTRODUCTION
Bharat Heavy Electricals (BHEL or the company) is an India-based
engineering and manufacturing company that develops electrical and
power equipment in energy related and infrastructure sector. It
manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and
caters to sectors including power generation and transmission,
transportation, and renewable energy, among others. The company
operates in India and exports its products to several countries.

BHEL is headquartered in New Delhi, India and employs about

46,748 people. The company recorded revenues of INR418, 546.6
million ($9,178.7 million) during the financial year ended March 2011
(FY2011), an increase of 26.2% over FY2010. The operating profit of
the company was INR72, 109 million ($1,581.4 million) during
FY2011, an increase of 76.3% over FY2010.

The net profit was INR60,533.6 million ($1,327.5 million) in

FY2011, an increase of 39.9% over FY2010.Note: The operating
profit has been calculated after deducting the following items from
net turnover as mentioned in the company's "Consolidated Profit and
Loss Account" for FY2011: consumption of material, erection, and
engineering expenses; other expenses of manufacture; employees'
remuneration and benefits; administration, selling, and distribution
provisions (net); and depreciation and amortization

ABOUT THE COMPANY

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) established in the mid
fifties (1956) is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise
in India in the energyrelated/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was
established more than 40 years ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy
Electrical Equipment industry in India a dream that has been more
than realized with a wellrecognized track record of performance. The
company has been earning profits continuously since 197172 and
paying dividends since 197677.

BHEL has diversified its product base over the years and today caters
to the needs of almost all the key sectors of the economy. In addition
to the power generation equipment , BHEL products cater to a wide
spectrum of customers encompassing various fields of operation, like
Fertilisers & Petrochemicals,Refineries,Oil Exploration and
production,steel and metals,cement ,sugar and paper plants,
transportation and nonconventional energy sources etc.

With a massive network of 15 manufacturing Units located at various

important centres all over India ,BHEL manufactures almost all
critical high technology products required for power sector like Gas
Turbines,Steam Turbines,Turbogenerators, Boilers, Pumps and Heat
exchangers, Pulverisers and electrical switch gears.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product

groups and caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power
Generation
&
Transmission,
Industry,
Transportation,
Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, etc. The wide network of
6

BHEL's 15 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional

centres, over 100 project sites, eight service centres and 18 regional
offices, enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and
provide them with suitable products, systems and services
efficiently and at competitive prices. The high level of quality &
reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on design,
engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring
and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in
the world, together with technologies developed in its own R&D
centres.

BHEL's operations are organised around three business sectors,

namely Power, Industry including Transmission, Transportation,
Telecommunication & Renewable Energy and Overseas Business.
This enables BHEL to have a strong customer orientation, to be
sensitive to his needs and respond quickly to the changes in the
market.

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed

42,600 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to
develop himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and
retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative
style of management? All these have engendered development of a
committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms
of productivity, quality and responsiveness.

Introduction of the Company:

BHEL Electronics Division (EDN) ,located at Mysore Road
,Bangalore along with Electronics Systems Division (ESD-part of
EDN), located at Electronics City ,Bangalore is a leading supplier of
new Generation Power Plant Automation and Control Systems.
The Electronics Division has also emerged as a leading player in the
field of power transmission and distribution, industry, transportation
and non-conventional energy sources. The state-of-the-art equipment
and systems manufactured, meet the demanding requirements of both
the national and international markets in terms of technical
specification and quality.
The Division has established references both in India and overseas by
successful Installation of Power Plant Automation and Photovoltaic
Systems. Besides providing unified solutions for various control
system applications, the Division proudly holds the largest market
share for Power Plant Automation Systems in India
Presence

Power Plant Industries:Advanced control & automation

equipment and systems for power plants & process industries
8

Transmission and Distribution: Providing solutions for

improving the efficiency, quality of power and system stability

Transportation:IGBT based Traction Drive Systems for

Locomotives

Defence: Simulation systems and Controls for Naval Ships

Non-Conventional Energy:Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, MW

size Power Plants, Space grade Solar Panels, Space batteries and
provide system level solutions

Team

Behind the success of BHEL-EDN lies a major contribution of its

prime assets, the people.The environment at EDN has a whiff of
freshness about it, carrying an exciting mix of tradition and
innovation. The team of highly qualified and experienced
professionals is fully geared to face new challenges. Each one of
them, a talented individual performer and a committed team player, is
proud of the BHEL-EDN ethos. Many of them have been trained
abroad at the collaborators establishments in critical areas like
design, production, quality assurance and commissioning as well as
management concepts.
BHEL-EDNs strong team of highly efficient and experienced
installation and commissioning engineers ensures customer delight by
responding to their requirements even at short notices.Restoration of
power station units in shortest possible period at Srisailam HEP
Andhra Pradesh submerged in flood waters, Kothagudem TPS Andhra
Pradesh ravaged by fire and SEE sets submerged in flood waters at
Tenompangi HEP (Malaysia) are just a few examples of commitment
9

of BHEL engineers, which have been highly acclaimed by the

customers.
To ensure the continuous motivation of its employees, BHEL-EDN
encourages them to take active part in improving efficiency and
performance, through suggestion and productivity schemes.Periodic
in-house as well as external training sessions, seminars and other
programmes, ensure that the team is always at the leading edge of the
latest technological developments and managerial concepts.

Quality Policy
In its quest to be Global Engineering Enterprise, BHEL
pursues continual improvement in the quality of its products,
services and performance leading to Customer Delight
through commitment, Innovation and team work of all
employees.

Mission of the Company:

To optimize
Product/ Service Quality by improving key processes.
Value Addition by reducing Cost of Quality.
Customer Satisfaction by improving delivery and response.
10

Quality of Supplies by improving supplier performance.

Capability of human resources by upgrading skill and
competence

Vision of the Company:

Putting customers first.

Working with transparency, honesty & integrity.

Trusting and respecting individuals.

Fostering team work.

Striving to achieve high employee satisfaction.

Encouraging flexibility & innovation.

Endeavouring to fulfill social responsibilities.

Proud of being a part of the organization.

11

Profile of the Company:

12

THERMAL POWER PLANTS

Steam Generators, Steam Turbines, Turbo Generators along with regenerative
feed cycle up to 800 MW capacities for fossil-fuel, and combined-cycle
applications, capability to design and manufacture Steam Generators, steam
turbines with supercritical steam cycle parameters and matching Turbo
Generators of up to 1000 MW unit size.

Condensers, Condensate Extraction Pumps, Boiler Feed Pumps, Valves and

Heat Exchangers meeting above requirement of TG Sets up to 1000 MW.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Steam generator & Turbines and matching Turbo-Generators, Condensers up
to 700 MW capacity.
Heat exchangers
Pressure vessel
Reactor vessels

GAS-BASED POWER PLANTS

Gas turbines and matching generators ranging from 25 to 292 MW (ISO)
rating.
Gas turbine-based co-generation and combined-cycle systems for industry
and utility applications.

HYDRO POWER PLANTS

Custom-built conventional hydro turbines of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton
types with matching generators, pump turbines with matching motorgenerators upto 300 MW, Bulb turbine with matching generators up to 10
MW
High capacity pumps along with matching motors for Lift Irrigation Schemes
(up to 150 MW)
13 Digital Governor for conventional
Electro Hydraulic Microprocessor based
turbines

Microprocessor based Digital Controller for lift irrigation schemes

Topic 1: surface mount technology

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for

producing electronic circuits in which the components are
mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit
boards (PCBs). An electronic device so made is called a surfacemount device (SMD). In the industry it has largely replaced
the through-hole technology construction method of fitting
components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board. Both
technologies can be used on the same board, with the throughhole technology used for components not suitable for surface
mounting such as large transformers and heat-sinked power
semiconductors.

Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board

normally has flat, usually tin-lead, silver, or gold
plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads. Solder
paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first
applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel
14

stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a

jet-printing mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer. After pasting,
the boards then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where
they are placed on a conveyor belt. The components to be placed
on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either
paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large
integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays. Numerical
control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes,
tubes or trays and place them on the PCB.

The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven.
They first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the
board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised. The
boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to
melt the solder particles in the solder paste, bonding the
component leads to the pads on the circuit board. The surface
tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place,
and if the solder pad geometries are correctly designed, surface
tension automatically aligns the components on their pads. There
are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to
use infrared lamps; this is called infrared reflow. Another is to use
a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming
popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling
points which use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to
environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until
lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter
controls on soldering.
Currently at the end of 2008, convection soldering is the most
popular reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen
gas. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. With
infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board out so that
short components don't fall into the shadows of tall components.

15

Component location is less restricted if the designer knows that

vapor phase reflow or convection soldering will be used in
production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heatsensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in
large-scale automation, by focused infrared beam (FIB) or
localized convection equipment.

If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement,

reflow process may be repeated using either solder paste or glue
to hold the components in place. If a wave soldering process is
used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing
to prevent them from floating off when the solder paste holding
them in place is melted.

After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux

residues and any stray solder balls that could short out closely
spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with fluorocarbon
solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash
solvents e.g.limonene (derived from orange peels) which require
extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-soluble fluxes are removed
with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to
quickly remove residual water. However, most electronic
16

assemblies are made using a "No-Clean" process where the flux

residues are designed to be left on the circuit board [benign]. This
saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the manufacturing process,
and reduces waste.

Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC

- Association Connecting Electronics Industries require cleaning
regardless of the solder flux type used to ensure a thoroughly
clean board. Even no-clean flux leaves a residue which, under
IPC standards, must be removed. Proper cleaning removes all
traces of solder flux, as well as dirt and other contaminants that
may be invisible to the naked eye. However, while shops
conforming to IPC standard are expected to adhere to the
Association's rules on board condition, not all manufacturing
facilities apply IPC standard, nor are they required to do so.
Additionally, in some applications, such as low-end electronics,
such stringent manufacturing methods are excessive both in
expense and time required.

Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or

misaligned components and solder bridging. If needed, they are
sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any
errors. They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit
testing and/or functional testing) to verify that they operate
correctly.

17

Topic 2: Automation and control systems

BHEL- electronics division is offering state of the art distributed
digital control system through maxDNA/Mesto DNA platforms for
power plant & industrial automation . the synergy of BHELs
expertise in power plant controls & cutting edge technology.
maxDNA / Mesto DNA systems enables successful implementations
of unified DCS solutuion for the entire power plant & industrial
applications.
BHEL-EDNs unified plant automation solution with maxDNA
/Mesto DNA platform is provided for green field power plants as well
as renovation and modernization of existing power plants .
Benefits of Unified automation
BHELs unified automation solutions enable customers to reap rich
benefits such as:

Effective implementation of co-ordinated master control

Unified diagnostics
Unified human-machine interface &information management
Unified training for O&M personnel
Minimized spares inventory &optium resource management
Easy and seamless future expansion

maxDNA systems
18

maxSTATION-operator and engineering work stations

maxSTORIAN-historian
maxLINKS-gateway or maxOPC-link server
maxVUE-high resolution graphic user interface
maxTOOLS-development tool for system application

maxDNA sailent features

open architecture that uses software backplane and TCP/IP
protocol
32 bit controllers
Interface to master slave clock system
Online simulation & testing using virtual DPU
All maxSTATIONS have free acess to the network
Centralised engineering & online documentation
Built-in SOE with 1m.sec.resolution

Mesto DNA systems

19

Topic 3: solar cell manufacturing

Photovoltaic solar cells are thin silicon disks that convert sunlight
into electricity. These disks act as energy sources for a wide
variety of uses, including: calculators and other small devices;
telecommunications; rooftop panels on individual houses; and for
lighting, pumping, and medical refrigeration for villages in
developing countries. Solar cells in the form of large arrays are
used to power satellites and, in rare cases, to provide electricity
for power plants.

When research into electricity began and simple batteries were

being made and studied, research into solar electricity followed
amazingly quickly. As early as 1839, Antoine-Cesar Becquerel
exposed a chemical battery to the sun to see it produce voltage.

This first conversion of sunlight to electricity was one percent

efficient. That is, one percent of the incoming sunlight was
converted into electricity. Willoughby Smith in 1873 discovered
that selenium was sensitive to light; in 1877 Adams and Day
noted that selenium, when exposed to light, produced an electrical
current. Charles Fritts, in the 1880s, also used gold-coated
20

selenium to make the first solar cell, again only one percent
efficient. Nevertheless, Fritts considered his cells to be
revolutionary. He envisioned free solar energy to be a means of
decentralization, predicting that solar cells would replace power
plants with individually powered residences.

the photoelectric effectmetal absorbs energy from light and will

retain that energy until too much light hits ithope soared anew
that solar electricity at higher efficiencies would become feasible.
Little progress was made, however, until research into diodes and
transistors yielded the knowledge necessary for Bell scientists.

Further work brought the cell's efficiency up to 15 percent. Solar

cells were first used in the rural and isolated city of Americus,
Georgia as a power source for a telephone relay system, where it
was used successfully for many years.

A type of solar cell to fully meet domestic energy needs has not as
yet been developed, but solar cells have become successful in
providing energy for artificial satellites. Fuel systems and regular
batteries were too heavy in a program where every ounce
mattered. Solar cells provide more energy per ounce of weight
than all other conventional energy sources, and they are costeffective.

Only a few large scale photovoltaic power systems have been set
up. Most efforts lean toward providing solar cell technology to
remote places that have no other means of sophisticated power.
About 50 megawatts are installed each year, yet solar cells
21

provide only about. 1 percent of all electricity now being

produced. Supporters of solar energy claim that the amount of
solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface each year could easily
provide all our energy needs several times over, yet solar cells
have a long way to go before they fulfill Charles Fritts's dream of
free, fully accessible solar electricity.

Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite

gravel (the purest silica) or crushed quartz. The resulting pure
silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous
and boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of
electrons respectively to make a semiconductor capable of
conducting electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and require an
anti-reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide.
The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor
surrounded by protective material in a metal frame. The
protective material consists of an encapsulant of transparent
silicon rubber or butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile
windshields) bonded around the cells, which are then embedded
in ethylene vinyl acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar or
tedlar) makes up the backing. A glass cover is found on terrestrial
arrays, a lightweight plastic cover on satellite arrays. The
22

electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of copper. The

frame is either steel or aluminum. Silicon is used as the cement to
put it all together.

Manufacturing Process
Purifying the silicon

The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz

is placed into an electric arc furnace. A carbon arc is then
applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide
and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one
percent impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell
industry.
The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the
floating zone technique. A rod of impure silicon is passed
through a heated zone several times in the same direction. This
procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass.
At a specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure
end is removed.

23

Making single crystal silicon

Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures

that have the atomic structure of a single crystal. The most
commonly used process for creating the boule is called
the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is
dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is
withdrawn and rotated, a cylindrical ingot or "boule" of silicon is
formed. The ingot withdrawn is unusually pure, because impurities
tend to remain in the liquid.

Making silicon wafers

From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular
saw whose inner diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a
multiwire saw. (A diamond saw produces cuts that are as wide as the
wafer. 5 millimeter thick.) Only about one-half of the silicon is lost
from the boule to the finished circular wafermore if the wafer is then
cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular or hexagonal wafers are
sometimes used in solar cells because they can be fitted together
perfectly, thereby utilizing all available space on the front surface of the
solar cell.

24

 The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has
recently been found that rougher cells absorb light more
effectively, therefore some manufacturers have chosen not to
polish the wafer.)

Doping
The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon
wafers with boron and phosphorous is to introduce a small
amount of boron during the Czochralski process in step #3
above. The wafers are then sealed back to back and placed in a
furnace to be heated to slightly below the melting point of
silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit or 1,410 degrees Celsius) in
the presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous atoms
"burrow" into the silicon, which is more porous because it is
close to becoming a liquid. The temperature and time given to
the process is carefully controlled to ensure a uniform junction
of proper depth.
A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use
a small particle accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the
ingot. By controlling the speed of the ions, it is possible to
control their penetrating depth. This new process, however, has
generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.

Placing electrical contacts

Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the

receiver of produced current. The contacts must be very thin (at
least in the front) so as not to block sunlight to the cell. Metals
such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuumevaporated

25

through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely deposited on the

exposed portion of cells that have been partially covered with
wax. All three methods involve a system in which the part of the
cell on which a contact is not desired is protected, while the rest
of the cell is exposed to the metal.

After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed
between cells. The most commonly used strips are tin-coated
copper.

The anti-reflective coating

Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of
the sunlight. To reduce the amount of sunlight lost, an antireflective coating is put on the silicon wafer. The most
commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide,
though others are used. The material used for coating is either
heated until its molecules boil off and travel to the silicon and
condense, or the material undergoes sputtering. In this process, a
high voltage knocks molecules off the material and deposits
them onto the silicon at the opposite electrode. Yet another
26

method is to allow the silicon itself to react with oxygen- or

nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon
nitride. Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

Encapsulating the cell

The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into
silicon rubber or ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells
are then placed into an aluminum frame that has a mylar or tedlar
backsheet and a glass or plastic cover.

Quality Control
Quality control is important in solar cell manufacture because
discrepancy in the many processes and factors can adversely affect the
overall efficiency of the cells. The primary research goal is to find
ways to improve the efficiency of each solar cell over a longer
lifetime. The Low Cost Solar Array Project (initiated by the United
States Department of Energy in the late 1970s) sponsored private
research that aimed to lower the cost of solar cells. The silicon itself is
tested for purity, crystal orientation, and resistivity. Manufacturers
also test for the presence of oxygen (which affects its strength and
resistance to warp) and carbon (which causes defects). Finished
silicon disks are inspected for any damage, flaking, or bending that
might have occurred during sawing, polishing, and etching.
During the entire silicon disk manufacturing process, the temperature,
pressure, speed, and quantities of dopants are continuously monitored.
Steps are also taken to ensure that impurities in the air and on working
surfaces are kept to a minimum.
The completed semiconductors must then undergo electrical tests to
see that the current, voltage, and resistance for each meet appropriate
standards. An earlier problem with solar cells was a tendency to stop
27

working when partially shaded. This problem has been alleviated by

providing shunt diodes that reduce dangerously high voltages to the
cell. Shunt resistance must then be tested using partially shaded
junctions.
An important test of solar modules involves providing test cells with
conditions and intensity of light that they will encounter under normal
conditions and then checking to see that they perform well. The cells
are also exposed to heat and cold and tested against vibration,
twisting, and hail.
The final test for solar modules is field site testing, in which finished
modules are placed where they will actually be used. This provides
the researcher with the best data for determining the efficiency of a
solar cell under ambient conditions and the solar cell's effective
lifetime, the most important factors of all.

Functioning of power plant

28

Thermal power plants use water as working fluid. Nuclear and

coal based power plants fall under this category. The way energy
from fuel gets transformed into electricity forms the working of a
power plant. In a thermal power plant a steam turbine is rotated
with help of high pressure and high temperature steam and this
rotation is transferred to a generator to produce electricity.

Fig.1 Power is produced in thermal power plants by rotating steam turbine

Energy absorption from steam

When turbine blades get rotated by high pressure high temperature
steam, the steam loses its energy. This in turn will result in a low
pressure and low temperature steam at the outlet of the turbine.
Here steam is expanded till saturation point is reached. Since there
is no heat addition or removal from the steam, ideally entropy of the
steam remains same. This change is depicted in the following p-v
and T-s diagrams. If we can bring this low pressure, low
temperature steam back to its original state, then we can produce
electricity continuously.

29

Use of Condenser
Compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state requires a huge
amount of energy,so before compressing the fluid it should be
converted into liquid state. A condenser is used for this purpose,
which rejects heat to the surrounding and converts steam into
liquid. Ideally there will not be any pressure change during this heat
rejection process, since the fluid is free to expand in a condenser.
Changes in fluid are shown in the p-v and T-s diagram below.

Fig.3 Use of condenser in order to transform vapor into liquid state

30

Pump
At exit of the condenser fluid is in liquid state, so we can use a
pump to raise the pressure.During this process the volume and
temperature (2-3 deg.C rise)of fluid hardly changes, since it is in
liquid state. Now the fluid has regained its original pressure.

Heat Addition in Boiler & Rankine Cycle

Here external heat is added to the fluid in order to bring fluid back
to its original temperature. This heat is added through a heat
exchanger called a boiler. Here the pressure of the fluid remains the
same, since it is free to expand in heat exchanger tubes.
Temperature rises and liquid gets transformed to vapor and regains
its original temperature. This completes the thermodynamic cycle of
a thermal power plant, called Rankine Cycle. This cycle can be
repeated and continuous power production is possible.

31

Condenser Heat Rejection - Cooling Tower

In order to reject heat from the condenser a colder liquid should
make contact with it. In a thermal power plant continuous supply of
cold liquid is produced with the help of a cooling tower. Cold fluid
from the cooling tower absorbs heat from a condenser and gets
heated, this heat is rejected to the atmosphere via natural convection
with the help of a cooling tower.

Boiler furnace for Heat Addition

Heat is added to the boiler with help of a boiler furnace. Here fuel
reacts with air and produces heat. In a thermal power plant, the fuel
can be either coal or nuclear. When coal is used as a fuel it produces
a lot of pollutants which have to be removed before ejecting to the
surroundings. This is done using a series of steps, the most
important of them is an electro static precipitator (ESP) which
removes ash particles from the exhaust. Now much cleaner exhaust
is ejected into the atmosphere via a stack.

32

Fig.6 Main accessories of Rankine cycle - Cooling tower, Boiler furnace, ESP & Chimney

Optimizing a Thermal plant performance

There are various flow parameters which have to be finetuned in order to get optimum performance from a thermal
power plant.Lowering the condenser temperature or raising
the average boiler temperature will result in a high efficiency
power plant cycle according to the 2nd law of
thermodynamics (Carnot efficiency),most of the performance
improving technologies are working on this idea. Some latest
trends are listed below.

Expanding Turbine after Saturation

Expanding the steam in the turbine even after reaching the
saturation point may be a dangerous affair. As the steam
goes below saturation, wetness of the steam increases.
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These condensed water droplets collide with the turbine

blades rotating at a high speed, thus it can cause extreme tip
erosion to the blades. Turbine blade tip erosion is shown in
figure below. But as you expand more you will be able to
absorb more energy from the steam, thus increasing power
plant efficiency. Up to 15% wetness level is considered to
be safe for steam turbine operation. So most of the steam
turbine will expand up to this point in order to extract
maximum energy from the fluid.

Fig.7 Expanding turbine below saturation point in order to gain maximum power from steam

Raising average boiler temperature

If you can increase the average heat addition temperature of

the boiler, that will result in a power plant with higher
efficiency. One way to do this is to increase the compressor
pressure. This will shift the saturation point of the fluid to a
higher level, thus providing higher average temperature of
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heat addition. This is shown in the figure below. The blue

line represents change in the cycle after raising the
compressor pressure.

Information and technology :

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network Topology refers to layout of a network. How different nodes in a
network are connected to each other and how they communicate is determined
by the network's topology.
1. Mesh Topology
Mesh Topology: In a mesh network, devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between
network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network. There
are two types of mesh topologies:

Full mesh topology: occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every other
node in a network. Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in
the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full mesh is
usually reserved for backbone networks.
Partial mesh topology: is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than full mesh topology. With
partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme but others are only connected to one or two in the
network. Partial mesh topology is commonly found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed backbone.

2. Star Topology
Star Topology: In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub. Nodes communicate
across the network by passing data through the hub.

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Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes unusable.

3. Bus Topology
Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices on a local-area
network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to describe the main network connections
composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet
systems use a bus topology.

Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less cable than a star
topology.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it can be difficult to
identify the problem if the network shuts down.

4. Ring Topology

Ring Topology: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the nodes are connected in a
closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those messages addressed to it.
Main Advantage: One main advantage to a ring network is that it can span larger distances than other types of
networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.

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5. Tree Topology
Tree Topology: This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. In a
tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

Main Advantage: A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks as the tree topology "divides"
the whole network into parts that are more easily manageable.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of the central hub can cripple the
whole network.

OSI MODEL

ISO/OSI Model in Communication Networks

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So
to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other. ISO has developed this. ISO stands
for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System
Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a
complete communication system.

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Feature of OSI Model :

1.

Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this

OSI model.

2.

We see how hardware and software work together.

3.

We can understand new technologies as they are developed.

4.

Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.

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5.

Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different

networks.

Functions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer :
1.

It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2.

It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

3.

It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw

data over network.

4.

Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical
layer.

5.

It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.

6.

Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

1.

Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted

over the physical layer.

2.

The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free
from one node to another, over the physical layer.

3.

Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this

layer.

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4.

This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and
sent respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also
handled by this layer.

5.

This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages
the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to
stop, when the frame buffers are full.

Layer 3: The Network Layer :

1.

It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.

2.

It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.

3.

It decides by which route data should take.

4.

It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming
packets into messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1.

It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2.

Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are

done by this layer

3.

It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message
into smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.

4.

Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network

requirements.

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Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1.

Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two

different applications.

2.

Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data

are marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1.

Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the
data.

2.

While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be

ready for the application layer.

3.

Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems.

Under this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.

4.

It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer :

1.

It is the topmost layer.

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2.

Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services
provided by application layer.

3.

This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and
to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model:

1.

OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and

protocols.

2.

Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.

3.

Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.

4.

Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model:

1.

Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2.

Fitting of protocols is tedious task.

3.

It is just used as a reference model.

CONCLUSION

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I'm much thankful to college for suggesting the inplant

training, which will be very useful for my career. I have
learned many on-floor measuring methods that are used in
Industry apart from common instruments found on
Laboratory. Hope I could expand the obtained knowledge with
other students sooner. Again thanks for College and also for
Industry who helped all through my training.

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