INDIAN LITERATURE

Indian literature, writings of the Indian subcontinent, produced there in a variety of vernacular
languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Bengali,Bihari, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri,
Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi,Rajasthani, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Lahnda, Siraiki, and Sindhi, among
others, as well as in English. The term Indian literature is used here to refer to
literatureproduced across the Indian subcontinent prior to the creation of the Republic of India in
1947 and within the Republic of India after 1947.
The earliest Indian literature took the form of the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known as the
Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the Veda were added prose commentaries such as the
Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The production of Sanskrit literature extended from about
1500 bce to about 1000 ce and reached its height of development in the 1st to 7th centuries ce.
In addition to sacred and philosophical writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics,
court poetry, plays, and narrative folktales emerged.
Because Sanskrit was identified with the Brahminical religion of the Vedas, Buddhism and
Jainism adopted other literary languages (Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively). From these
and other related languages emerged the modern languages of northern India. The literature of
those languages depended largely on the ancient Indian background, which includes two
Sanskrit epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as the Bhagavata-purana and
the other Puranas. In addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the source of philosophical writing
in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great importance for the
development of court poetry in many of the modern literatures. The South Indian language of
Tamil is an exception to this pattern of Sanskrit influence because it had a classical tradition of
its own. Urdu and Sindhi are other exceptions.
Beginning in the 19th century, particularly during the height of British control over the
subcontinent, Western literary models had an impact on Indian literature, the most striking result
being the introduction of the use of vernacular prose on a major scale. Such forms as the novel
and short story began to be adopted by Indian writers, as did realism and an interest in social
questions and psychological description. A tradition of literature in English was also established
in the subcontinent.

The Story of the Ramayana Briefly

So, just to let you know what you are in for, here is a very brief summary of the Ramayana, the
adventures of lord Rama. Rama is the son of King Daaratha, but he is also an incarnation of
the god Vishnu, born in human form to do battle with the demon lord Ravana. Ravana had
obtained divine protection against other demons, and even against the gods - but because he
scorned the world of animals and men, he had not asked for protection from them. Therefore,
Vishnu incarnated as a human being in order to put a stop to Ravana. King Daaratha has three
other sons besides Rama. There is Lakshmana, who is devoted to Rama. There is also Bharata,
the son of Daaratha's pretty young wife Kaikeyi, and finally there is atrughna, who is as
devoted to Bharata as Lakshmana is to Rama.
When Daaratha grows old, he decides to name Rama as his successor. Queen Kaikeyi,
however, is outraged. She manages to compel Daaratha to name their son Bharata as his
successor instead and to send Rama into exile in the forest. Rama agrees to go into exile, and
he is accompanied by his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana. When their exile is nearly over,
Sita is abducted by the evil Ravana who carries her off to Lanka city (on the island of Sri Lanka).
Rama and Lakshmana follow in pursuit, and they are aided by the monkey lord, Hanuman, who
is perfectly devoted to Rama.
After many difficulties and dangers, Rama finally confronts Ravana and defeats him in battle.
What happens after that is a matter of some dispute in the different versions of the Ramayana.
Did Rama accept Sita back into his household? Or did he send her away because she had been
in the possession of another male? You will see different versions of the ending in the two
different editions of the Ramayana that you will read for this class.

A Digression About Time

In historical terms, the events of the Ramayana are supposed to precede the events of the
Mahabharata. The time periods of Hindu mythology are called "yugas," and the world as we
know it goes through a cycle of four yugas. Sometimes these four yugas are compared to a cow
standing on four legs. In the "Best Age," the Krita Yuga, the cow is standing on all four legs. In
the next age, the Treta Yuga, or "Age of Three," the cow is standing on only three legs and is
slightly teetering, and so the world is slightly corrupted. In the next age, the "Age of Two," or
Dwapara Yuga, there is only half as much righteousness in the world as there used to be, like a
cow standing on only two legs. This is followed by the worst age, the Kali Yuga, where there is
only one-fourth of the world's original righteousness remaining. As a result, the world of the Kali
Yuga has become extremely corrupt and utterly unstable. The cow is standing on just one leg!
The events of the Ramayana take place in the Treta Yuga, when the world is only somewhat
corrupted. The events of the Mahabharata take place much later, at the end of the Dwapara
Yuga, the "Age of Two," when the world is far more grim and corrupt than in Rama's times. The
violent and tragic events at the end of the Mahabharata mark the end of the Dwapara Yuga and
the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the worst age of the world.

We are living in the Kali Yuga, in case you were wondering...

The Story of the Mahabharata Briefly

In some ways, the entire story of the Mahabharata is an explanation of how our world, the world
of the Kali Yuga, came into being, and how things got to be as bad as they are. The Ramayana
has its share of suffering and even betrayal, but nothing to match the relentless hatred and
vengeance of the Mahabharata. The culmination of the Mahabharata is the Battle of
Kurukshetra when two bands of brothers, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, the sons of two
brothers and thus cousins to one another, fight each other to death, brutally and cruelly, until the
entire race is almost wiped out.
The five sons of Pandu, the Pandavas, are the heroes of the story. The eldest is King
Yudhishthira. Next is Bhima, an enormously strong fighter with equally enormous appetites.
After Bhima is Arjuna, the greatest of the warriors and also the companion of Krishna. The last
two are twins, Nakula and Sahadeva. These five brothers share one wife, Draupadi (she
became the wife of all five of them by accident, as you will learn).
The enemies of the Pandavas are the Kauravas, who are the sons of Pandu's brother,
Dhritarashtra. Although Dhritarashtra is still alive, he cannot manage to restrain his son
Duryodhana, who bitterly resents the achievements of his cousins, the Pandavas. Duryodhana
arranges for his maternal uncle to challenge Yudhishthira to a game of dice, and Yudhishthira
gambles everything away, even himself. The Pandavas have to go into exile, but when they
return they engage the Kauravas in battle. Krishna fights on the side of the Pandavas, and
serves as Arjuna's charioteer. The famous "Song of the Lord," or Bhagavad-Gita, is actually a
book within the Mahabharata, as the battle of Kurukshetra begins. When Arjuna faces his
cousins on the field of battle, he despairs and sinks down, unable to fight. The Bhagavad-Gita
contains the words that Krishna spoke to Arjuna at that moment.
The Pandavas do win the battle. Duryodhana is killed, and the Kaurava armies are wiped out.
But it is hardly a happy ending. Yudhishthira becomes king, but the world is forever changed by
the battle's violence. If you are familiar with the Iliad, you might remember how that epic ends
with the funeral of the Trojan hero Hector, a moment which is utterly bleak and sad. The same is
true for the Mahabharata. There are many truths that are learned in the end, but the victory,
such as it is, comes at a terrible price.