Highway Design and Geometric Layout

Highway Design Senior Project
2010
Part- I
Section-1: Introduction
There is a growing universal demand for well prepared professionals in all disciplines. In
addition, increased pressure has consequently been placed in educational institution to prepare
the required number of qualified professional to fulfill societys need. It is imperative that there
is a large need in the industry for engineers with training and experience, and the academic
should move successfully to fill the need. This is especially true for in the situation of Ethiopia
where there is a lack of well trained and experienced urban engineers.
Therefore, the integration of academic program and exposing students to more practical project
results in well-seasoned and, well-educated professionals.
Thus, this high way design project is intended to equip the students with practical design
reinforcing what they have attained theoretically in the class.
It is already known that, for rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a
good system of transportation is very essential. One of the transportation systems that are
economical for developing countries like Ethiopia is road. A well designed road network plays
an important role in transporting people and other industrial products to any direction with in
short time. Roads, to satisfy their intended purpose, must be constructed to be safe, easy,
economical, environmentally friend and must full fill the needs of inhabitants. Being safe, the
number of accidents that can occur will be minimized. Easiness decreases operation cost,
pollution and even time cost. Economical roads assure their feasibility according to their plans
and initiate further construction of roads. Schemes that do not satisfy the needs of localities may
not get the maximum utilization of the surplus man power that is really to exist in the rural
community and also its economical value may also decrease. Therefore, from this project it is
expected to understand and to get acquainted with the above facts by going through on the
following design aspects.
1.1
General Background
1
ECSC, IUDS, Urban Engineering Department (UE)
2010
This high way design project is taken from the Hargele - Afder Bare - Yet road project, which
is located in the Eastern part of the country in Somali National Regional State, Afder
Administrative Zone, Afder and Bare Woredas. The project is intended to facilitate the existing
and for the expected traffic load in the future, because the town is developing.
From this road we have given a stretch of 3 km emanating from station 12+500 to 15+500 for
this project to do geometric and pavement design in general.
1.2
Objectives
This final year design project on high-way has the following major objectives: To expose the prospective graduates to a detail and organized design on road projects;
To implement the knowledge that the prospective graduates have learned theoretically in
classes;
To ensure a good carrier development;
1.3
Brief Description of The Project Area
The Hargele - Afder Bare - Yet road project, is located in the Eastern part of the country in
Somali National Regional State, Afder Administrative Zone, Afder and Bare Woredas. The
project starts at Hargele (513N and 42 11E) and pass through Hargele, Afder, Bare, town and
ends at Yet. The project length is estimated to be 142.4km. The Location map together with the
topographic map of the project area is shown below.
Fig. 1.1 Project Location Map
2
2010
Location of the Project

Road
Fig. 1.3.3
Digitized Proposed Project Alternative Alignments
3
2010
Climate:
One of the environmental factors that affect performance of pavements structures is climate.
Hence, climate data of the project area mainly rainfall intensity, in terms of mean monthly and
mean annual and, temperature are required. According to the map shown on National Atlas of
Ethiopian Atlas, the project area is located in the region of the lowest annual rainfall. The mean
annual rainfall in this region is 300mm per year. The rainfall of the project area is characterized
by the following rainfall distribution:
April, May and October
The wettest Months
And in the remaining months
The driest months.
Topography:
The terrain of the project area through which the road alignment traverses is rolling in substantial
section of the project which is intercepted by mountainous terrain in some sections.
Potential of the area:
In the project area limited crop production, livestock and livestock products are available in the
area of influence of the road project even though the area is under attention to reverse food
deficit. There is an initiative to change the area that the potential resources of oil mining and salt
production may attract private investors and governmental agencies.
1.4 Scope of the project

The scope of the project goes as far as designing the geometry and pavement of a given road
section, with its appropriate drainage structures.
Section-2:
Geometric design
2.1 Geometric design Control and Criteria

4
2010
2.1.1 Terrain classification

2.1.1.1 Contour generation
The surveying data x, Y and Z coordinate taken from the road corridor using Hand Held GPS are
converted to a contour using GIS software.
2.1.1.2 Selection of center line
The center line of the road is delineated on the given road corridor using the contour elevations
by considering to have minimum earth work along the corridor.
2.1.1.3 Transverse terrain property
In order to know the type of the terrain along the selected center line or corridor, we took
horizontal distance perpendicular to the center line and vertical elevation measurements across
the road. Each measurement is taken longitudinally along the rod at 20m interval to get better
terrain classification. The values obtained are summarized in index table 2-1.
Slop= (vertical elevation / horizontal elevation)*100
Therefore, we generalize the following terrains classification along the road corridor:
STATION
From
To
TERRAIN
CLASSIFICATION
AVG. SLOPE
(%)
12+ 500
12+ 760
Rolling
23.14
12 + 760
13+ 080
Mountainous
26.63
13 + 080
13+ 520
Rolling
18.75
13 + 520
13+ 820
Mountainous
32.234
13 + 820
15 +500
Rolling
16.87
Table 2-2 Terrain Classification
5
2010
Fig 2-1 Generated contour.
2.1.2 Design traffic volume
6
2010
2.1.2.1 Traffic data analysis

In order to design the road, traffic data analysis is very important. Therefore, the secondary data
of traffic analysis we get from the project site comprises traffic volume before design, during
implementation and up to the design life time of the road. As the secondary data shows the
project life is 15 year. The traffic volume data and the design life time are expressed in the
following table.
Year
Car
4 WD
S/ Bus
L/ Bus
S/ Truck
M/ Truck
L/ Truck
T&
T
TOTAL
2008
12
14
44
2009
13
16
51
2010
14
16
52
2011
14
17
56
2012
15
18
58
2013
15
16
31
20
28
34
149
2014
16
17
34
21
30
37
160
2015
19
19
36
22
32
39
174
2016
19
21
38
25
35
41
184
2017
19
21
40
26
36
44
193
2018
20
22
43
28
38
46
205
2019
21
25
11
44
31
42
49
221
2020
22
26
11
47
32
44
52
232
2021
22
26
12
49
34
46
53
241
2022
22
29
12
52
35
48
56
253
2023
25
30
13
55
36
51
59
267
2024
25
32
13
57
39
54
60
279
2025
26
33
14
60
40
57
64
292
2026
27
34
14
62
43
60
67
307
2027
28
37
16
66
44
63
70
323
Table 2-3 Traffic data analysis

From the above data,
o Traffic volume when the road open
=149 veh/day
o Traffic volume at the end of the project life =323 veh/day

7
2010
2.1.3 Road functional classification

Some of the factors which affect road design control and criteria are functional classification of
the road. In Ethiopian case, we have five functional classes based on AADT and importance of
the road.
Since, AADT of the project lies between 200-1000, and the road expected to serve centers of
provisional importance, the road could be main access road (class II).
2.2 Geometric Design Standard

Based on the traffic data obtained from the above table we decide the project design standard to
be (DS4).
Because:a) Even if the AADT at the opening of the road (2013) is 149 veh/day it will be greater than
200 veh/ day after five year and it is 323 veh/day at the end of design life (15 years). So it
fulfills the requirements of DS4. Since the recommended traffic volume for DS4 is 2001000 veh/day.(ERA)
b) The second reason is that since the area is an oil mining area, we expect the road will
accommodate the expected traffic volume during the design life time.
c) Based on the above reason, we decide the road to be DS4, to get full knowledge from the
whole project since the project is for academic purpose.
Therefore, we took the entire design element based on DS4. Refer the above information from
ERA manual Table 2.1.
From Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT table of ERA for DS4,
AADT=200 1000 vehicle/day
Surface type = paved
Carriageway = 6.7m
Shoulder width =1.5m for rolling
= 0.5m for mountainous
8
2010
Design speed = 70km/hr for rolling

= 60km/hr =for mountainous
2.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

Based on our proposal of the center line of the road, we have tangents and curves. The curves are
curve1, curve2, curve3, curve4, curve5, and curve6.
Based on our terrain classification, the curves fall in to different terrain classification that leads
us to determine the radius and different elements of each curve.
Curve
Terrain type
Curve 1
Rolling
Curve 2
Rolling
Curve 3
Rolling
Curve 4
Error! Not a
valid link.
Curve 5
Rolling
Curve 6
Rolling
Table 2-4 Horizontal curves and their terrain classification

Since our road is DS4, the minimum radius of each curve based on the terrain is:Minimum horizontal radius = 175m for rolling
= 125m for mountainous
Refer the following table for the rest of the design elements of DS4 (ERA standards)
Design Element
Unit
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Urban/Peri- Urban
Design Speed
km/h
85
70
60
50
50
Min. Stopping Sight Distance
155
110
85
55
55
Min. Passing Sight Distance
340
275
225
175
175
% Passing Opportunity
25
25
15
20
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius
270
175
125
85
85
9
2010
Transition Curves Required
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Max. Gradient (desirable)
Max. Gradient (absolute)
Minimum Gradient
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Maximum Super elevation
Crest Vertical Curve
60
31
18
10
10
Sag Vertical Curve
36
25
18
12
12
Normal Cross fall
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Shoulder Cross fall
Right of Way
50
50
50
50
50
Table 2-5: Table 2-6 of ERA Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved)
2.2.1.1 Horizontal curve elements

Curve-1 Design computation
a) Terrain type = Rolling
b) Deflection angle = 390 (by measurement)
c) Point of intersection P.I=12+717.4m
d) Calculation of radius of the curve
Rmin
Vd 2
127(e f )
Where, Rmin=minimum radius

Vd=70km/hr.ERA, table 2.6
ed= 8% (max design super elevation rate, ERA, table 2.6)
f=0.14 (ERA. Table 8.1 for ed=8%)
Then, Rmin
70 2
175.3m
127(0.08 0.14)
10
2010
The calculated Rmin has no significant change from the recommended in ERA manual standard
(i.e., 175m), in addition to this, in order to minimize cut and fill, we use R min=175m from the
standard.
Therefore, radius of curve=Rc=175m
e) Tangent (T1)

T1 R * tan
39
61.97 m
2
T1 175 * tan
f) Point of curvature (PC)

P.C1= P.I1 - T1
=12+717.4 0+061.97
=12+655.43m
g) Length of the curve (L)
2
360
L1 * R *
2
119 .12m
360
L1 390 *175 *
h) Point of tangency (P.T)

P.T1= P.C1+L1
=12+655.43+119.12
=12+774.55m
i) External distance (E)
11
2010

E1 R * sec 1
2
39
E1 175 * sec
1 10.65m
2
j) Middle ordinate (M)

M 1 R * 1 cos
2
39
M 1 175 * 1 cos
10.04m
2
k) Chord (Chord from P.C to P.T)

C1 2 R sin
39
116 .83m
2
C1 2 *175 * sin
Fig.2.2 elements 0f curve-1

12
2010

b) Deflection angle = 330 (by measurement)
Rmin
Vd 2
127(e f )

Then, Rmin
70 2
175.3m
127(0.08 0.14)
(i.e., 175m), in addition to this to prevent overlaps with curve 3, we use Rmin=175m from the
standard.
e) Tangent (T1)
Rmin = 175m

T2 R * tan
33
51.84m
2
T2 175 * tan

13
2010
P.C2= P.I2 T2
=13+150.43 0+051.84
=13+098.59m
2
360
L2 * R *
2
100.79m
360
L2 330 *175 *

P.T2= P.C2+L2
=13+98.59+100.79
=13+199.38m

E2 R * sec 1
2
33
E2 175 * sec
1 7.52m
2

M 2 R * 1 cos
2
33
M 2 175 * 1 cos
7.21m
2
14
2010
C2 2 R sin
33
99.41m
2
C2 2 *175 * sin
Fig 2.3 elements of curve-2

b) Deflection angle = 59.620 (by measurement)
Rmin
Vd 2
127(e f )

15
Then, Rmin
2010
70 2
175.3m
127(0.08 0.14)
(i.e., 175m), in addition to this to prevent overlaps with curve 2, we use R min=175m from the
standard.
e) Tangent (T3)
Rmin = 175m

T3 R * tan
59.62
100.26m
2
T3 175 * tan

P.C3= P.I3 - T3
=13+363.64 0+100.26
=13+263.38m
2
360
L3 * R *
2
182m
360
L3 59.620 *175 *
16
2010
P.T3= P.C3+L3
=13+263.38+182m
=13+445.38m

E3 R * sec 1
2
59.62
E3 175 * sec
1 26.69m
2

M 3 R * 1 cos
2
59.62
M 3 175 * 1 cos
23.17 m
2

C3 2 R sin
59.62
173.99m
2
C3 2 *175 * sin

17
Rmin
2010
Vd 2
127(e f )

Then, Rmin
70 2
175.37 m
127(0.08 0.14)
(i.e., 175m), so we use Rmin=175m from the standard.
But to make the curve smooth, we took R=236m, I.e. =RC=236m
e) Tangent (T4)
R = 236m

T4 R * tan
90.81
239m
2
T4 236 * tan

P.C4= P.I4 T4
=14+045.5 0+239
=13+806.5m
2
360
L4 * R *
18
2010
2
374.m
360
L4 90.810 * 236 *

P.T4= P.C4+L4
=13+806.5+374m
=14+180.5m

E4 R * sec 1
2
90.81
E4 236 * sec
1 100.12m
2

M 4 R * 1 cos
2
90.810
M 4 236 * 1 cos
2
70.31m


C4 2 R sin
90.810
2
C 4 2 * 236 * sin
336.10m

19
2010

Rmin
Vd 2
127(e f )

Then, Rmin
70 2
175.4m
127(0.08 0.14)
standard.
e) Tangent (T5)
Rmin = 175m

T5 R * tan
44.15
70.97 m
2
T5 175 * tan

P.C5= P.I5 T5
=14+756.69 0+70.97m
20
2010
=14+685.72m
2
360
L5 * R *
2
134.85m
360
L5 44.150 *175 *

P.T5= P.C5+L5
=14+685.72+134.85m
=14+820.57m

E5 R * sec 1
2
44.150
E5 175 * sec
2
1 13.84m

M 5 R * 1 cos
2
44.15
M 5 175 * 1 cos
12.83m
2

C5 2 R sin
21
2010
44.150
2
C5 2 *175 * sin
131.54m

Rmin
Vd 2
127(e f )

Then, Rmin
70 2
175.4m
127(0.08 0.14)
standard.
e) Tangent (T6)
Rmin = 175m

T6 R * tan
22
2010
32.48
50.97 m
2
T6 175 * tan

P.C6= P.I6 T6
=15+226.73m 0+050.97
=15+175.76m
2
360
L6 * R *
2
99.20m
360
L6 32.48 0 *175 *

P.T6= P.C6+L6
=15+175.76m +99.20m
=15+274.96m

E6 R * sec 1
2
32.480
1 7.27 m
E6 175 * sec
2

M 6 R * 1 cos
2
23
2010
32.480
6.98m
M 6 175 * 1 cos
2

C6 2 R sin
32.480
2
C 6 2 *175 * sin
97.88m
2.2.1.2 Transition curve

When a vehicle traveling on a straight course enters a curve of finite radius, and suddenly
subjected to the centrifugal force which shock and sway. In order to avoid this it is customary to
provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve having a radius equal to infinity
at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius to the radius of the circular curve
where the curve begins.
Mostly transition curves are introduced between:A/ between tangents and curves
B/ between two curves
Various forms of transition curves are suitable for high way transition, but the one most popular
and recommended for use is spiral.
Design of transition curve

Even if there are places to design transition curve, ERA design manual standard recommends
where and how to design this horizontal alignment design elements. Especially for Ethiopian
road, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a speed equal
to or greater than 80km/hr. (ERA)
But the characteristics of our project road segment is;Speed=60km/hr (for mountainous terrain)
24
2010
Speed=70km/hr (for rolling terrain)

Terrain= mostly rolling and mountainous
Functional classification=Main access road.
Therefore, based on the ERA standard all curves in the project will not have transition curve. So,
it will be a simple curve with out transition curve.
2.2.1.3 Super elevation

Curve-1
When a vehicles moves in a circular path, it is forced radially by centrifugal force. The
centrifugal force is counter balanced by super elevation of the road way and/or the side friction
developed between the tire and the road surface. The centrifugal force is the result of design
speed, weight of car, friction, and gravitational acceleration having the following relation ship.
Fc
Wv 2
gR
Where, Fc= centrifugal force

W=weight of the car
V=design speed
g= acceleration due to gravity
R= radius of the curve
So, super elevation rate is changing the road cross section from the normal road to elevate
towards the center of the curve. I.e., it counteracts a part of the centrifugal force, the remaining
part being resisted by the lateral friction.
Terms in super elevation:
Tangent run out(Lt)
Super elevation runoff(Lr)
25
2010
Tangent run out (Lt)

It is the longitudinal length along the road designed to remove the adverse crown to a zero slope.
i.e., the outer edge of the road is raised from a normal cross slope to a zero slope which equal to
the grade level of the road (the level of the center line of the road).
Super elevation runoff length (Lr)

Super elevation run-off is a length of the road section from the point of removal of adverse
crown of the road to the full super elevated point on the curve.
Super elevation is equal to the length of transition curve when there is a transition curve. When
there is no transition curve i.e., when it is a simple curve,1/3 rd of the length is placed on the curve
and 2/3rd of the length is placed on the tangent part(ERA). Therefore, we follow the second
standard to design our super elevation since all the curves do not have transition curve.
Design computation
A/ computation of super elevation run-off
Super elevation runoff length can be obtained from table 8.5 (ERA) using radius (Rc) and super
elevation rate (e), or it can be computed from the following formula. (AASHTO)
Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
Where,
Lr=minimum super elevation run-off (m)
G=maximum relative gradient (percent)
n1=number of lanes rotated
Bw=adjustment factor for number of lane rotated
w=width of one traffic lane (in our case, w/2)
ed=design super elevation rate, percent
26
2010
Then, n1=1, since the number of lane rotated is =1(AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
bw=1, for one lane rotated(AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
G=0.55%, for Vd=70km/hr (AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
Design speed(Km/h)(Vd)
Maximum relative
gradient(%)(G)
Equivalent maximum relative

slope (%)
20
0.80
1:125
30
0.75
1:133
40
0.70
1:143
50
0.65
1:150
60
0.60
1:167
70
0.55
1:182
80
0.50
1:200
90
0.45
1:213
100
0.40
1:227
110
0.35
1:244
120
0.30
1:263
130
0.25
1:286
Table2-6 (Exhibit 3-27 Maximum relative gradients of AASHTO)
Therefore,
6.7
*1 * 0.08
1 48.87 m
Lr
0.55
But ERA recommends Lr=52m for ed=8% and Rc=175m. Thus, take Lr=52m
B/ computation of tangent run out (Lt)
Tangent run-out can be computed using the following equation. (AASHTO)
Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Where,
27
2010
Lt =minimum length of tangent run-out

eNC=normal cross slope rate, percent
ed =design super elevation, percent
Lr=super elevation runoff length
Then,
Lt
0.025
* 52 16.25m
0.08
C/ Location of super elevation run-off (Lr)

Since there is no transition curve (spiral) between the tangent and the curve in the project, 2/3 rd
of the super elevation length is placed on the tangent and 1/3rd of the length is placed on the
curve part.
i.e.,
1
* 52 17.33m (on the curve)
3
2
* 52 34.67 m (On the tangent)
3
Then,
The beginning of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C-34.67m
=12+655.43-0+034.67
=12+620.76m
The end of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C+17.33m

=12+655.43+0+017.33m
=12+672.76m
28
2010
D/ location of tangent run-out length

Beginning=beginning of Lr minus Lt
=12+620.76-16.25m
=12+604.51m
End=12+620.76m
E/ station where outer and inner edge of the road will have the same normal cross fall i.e., 2.5%
It is a length(R) where total crown removal is attained.
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
Then, the station is,
Beginning= station of beginning of adverse crown removal
=12+604.51m
End=station of beginning of adverse crown removal plus +R
=12+604.51+32.50m
=12+637.01m
On the same process we can do the super elevation at the exit of the curve.
We know that the length of curve 1=119.12m
Then the part of the curve to be full super elevated is
=119.12-2*(1/3*Lr)
=119.12-2*(1/3*52)
=84.46m
29
2010
F/ Then, the station of end of full super elevation is

=12+672.76+84.46m
=12+757.22m
G/ station of end of super elevation runoff is
=12+757.22+52m
=12+809.22m
H/ station of recovering adverse crown is
=12+809.22+16.25m
=12+825.47
Attainment of full super elevation:From three methods attaining full super elevation we use the method in which rotating the
surface of the road about the center line of the carriageway, gradually lowering the inner edge
and raising the upper edge, keeping the center line constant.
Illustration:
30
2010
Fig.2-4 Attainment of super elevation

Based on the above super elevation attainment, the results are shown on the following figure.
31
2010
Fig.2-5 Super elevation at entrance and exit for curve 1

Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
n1=1, since the number of lane rotated is =1(AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)

G=0.55%, (AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
Therefore,
6.7
*1 * 0.08
Lr
* 1 48.78m
0.55
32
2010

Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Then,
Lt
0.025
* 52 16.25m
0.08

curve part.
i.e.,
1
3
2
3
Then,
=13+98.59-0+034.67
=13+63.92m

=13+98.59+0+017.33m
=13+115.92m
33
2010
=13+63.92 -16.25m
=13+47.67m
End=13+63.92m
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
Then, the station is
=13+047.67m
=13+47.67m +32.50m
=13+080.17m
We know that the length of curve-2=100.79m
=100.79-2*(1/3*Lr)
=100.79-2*(1/3*52)
=66.12m
34
2010
=end of Lr+L
=13+115.92 +66.12m
=13+182.04m
G/ station of end of super elevation runoff is
=13+182.04 +52m
=13+234.04m
H/ station of recovering adverse crown are:
=13+234.04+16.25m
=13+250.29m

Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
G=0.55%, (AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
6.7
*1 * 0.08
Therefore,
2
Lr
* 1 48.78m
0.55
35
2010

Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Lt
0.025
* 52 16.25m
0.08

curve part.
i.e.,
1
3
2
3
Then,
=13+263.38 -0+034.67 m
=13+228.71m
=13+263.38 +0+017.33m
=13+280.71m
36
2010
=13+228.71-16.25m
=13+212.46m
End=13+228.71m
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
=13+212.46m
=13+212.46+32.50m
=13+244.96m
We know that the length of curve 3=182m
=182-2*(1/3*Lr)
=182-2*(1/3*52)
=147.33m
=13+280.71m +147.33m
37
2010
=13+428.04m
G/ station of end of super elevation runoff is:
=13+428.04 +52m
=13+480.04m
H/ station of recovering adverse crown is:
=13+480.04+16.25m
=13+496.29m

Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
G=.55%, for Vd=70km/hr, (AASHTO, exhibit 3-31)
Therefore,
6.7
*1 * 0.08
Lr
* 1 48.7m
0.55
But from ERA for ed=8% and v=70m/sec, by interpolation Lr=49.12m for Rc=236m. Thus, take
Lr=49.12m
38
Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Lt
0.025
* 49.12 15.35m
0.08
2010

curve part.
i.e.,
1
* 49.12 16.37 m (on the curve)
3
2
* 49.12 32.75m (On the tangent)
3
Then,
=13+806.5-0+032.75
=13+773.75m
The end of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C+16.37
=13+806.5+0+016.37m
=13+822.87m
39
2010
=13+773.75 -15.35m
=13+758.4m
End=13+839.25m
So, R=2*Lt
=2*15.35
=30.7m

=13+823.39m
=13+823.39m +30.70m
=13+854.10m
=374-2*(1/3*Lr)
=374-2*(1/3*49.12)
=341.25m
40
2010
=13+822.87+341.25m m
=14+164.12m
=14+164.12m +49.12m
=14+213.24m
=14+213.24 +15.35m
=14+228.59m

Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
Therefore,
6.7
*1 * 0.08
Lr
* 1 48.78m
0.55
41
Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Lt
0.025
* 52 16.25m
0.08
2010

curve part.
i.e.,
1
3
2
3
Then,
=14+685.72m -0+034.67m
=14+651.05m
=14+685.72+0+017.33m
=14+703.05m
42
2010
=14+651.05-16.25m
=14+634.80m
End=14+651.05m
E/ Station where outer and inner edge of the road will have the same normal cross fall i.e., 2.5%
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
Then, the station is;
Beginning=station of beginning of adverse crown removal
=14+634.80m
=14+634.80m +32.50m
=14+667.30m
=134.35-2*(1/3*Lr)
=134.35-2*(1/3*52)
=99.68m
=14+703.05m +99.68m
43
2010
=14+802.73m
G/ station of end of super elevation runoff are:
=14+802.73m +52m
=14+854.73m
=14+854.73m +16.25m
=14+870.98m

A/ computation of super elevation run-off:
Lr
wn1 ed b
w
G
6.7
*1 * 0.08
Therefore,
2
Lr
* 1 48.78m
0.55
44
2010

Lt
eNC
* Lr
ed
Lt
0.025
* 52 16.25m
0.08

curve part.
i.e.,
1
3
2
3
Then,
=15+175.76m -0+034.67m
=15+141.10m
=15+175.76m +0+017.33m
=15+193.10m
45
2010

=15+141.10m -16.25m
=15+123.85m
End=15+123.85m
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
=15+123.85m
End=station of beginning of adverse crown removal plus + R
=15+123.85m +32.50m
=15+156.35m
=99.20-2*(1/3*Lr)
=99.20-2*(1/3*52)
=64.53m
46
2010

=15+193.10+64.53m
=15+257.63m
=15+257.63m +52m
=15+309.63m
=15+309.63m +16.25m
=15+325.88m
Super elevation overlaps:

The end of tangent run out (super elevation runoff length) for curve 2 and the beginning of
tangent run out (super elevation runoff length) of curve 3 overlaps with an amount of:
Over lap= (13+250.29)-(13+212.46)
=42.83m
Therefore, this overlap length has to distribute on the curve part of each curve according to the
following.
Half of the overlap distance has to be added to the part of the curve. I.e. if the overlap length is d,
the part of super elevation on the curve will be
=1/3rd (Lr) +d/2
=17.33+42.83/2m
=38.475m
But this length has to be 40% of length of the corresponding curve.
47
2010
Check:
Lc of curve 2=100.79m
Then, 40%*100.79=40.32>38.745m.OK!
Lc of curve 3=182m,
Then, 0.4*182=72.8>38.475mOK!
Re-adjustment for super elevation stations.
Curve-2
1. The beginning of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C-(34.67-21.415) m
=13+98.59-(0+013.25)
=13+085.34m
2. The end of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C+17.33m
=13+98.59+ (0+017.33+21.415) m
=13+137.34m
3. Location of tangent run-out length
=13+085.34m -16.25m
=13+069.09m
End=13+085.34m
4. Station where outer and inner edge of the road will have the same normal cross fall i.e., 2.5%
48
2010
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
=13+069.09m
=13+069.09m +32.50m
=13+101.59m
We know that the length of curve-2=100.79m
=100.79-2*(1/3*Lr+21.415)
=100.79-2*(1/3*52+21.415)
=23.29m
5. Then, the station of end of full super elevation is
=end of Lr+23.29
=13+137.34m +23.29m
=13+160.63m
6. Station of end of super elevation runoff is
=13+160.63+52m
=13+212.63m
49
2010
7. Station of recovering adverse crown is:

=13+212.63m +16.25m
=13+228.88m
Curve-3
1. The beginning of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C-(34.67-21.415) m
=13+263.38 (0+013.25) m
=13+250.13m
2. The end of the super elevation runoff length is:=P.C+ (17.33+21.415) m
=13+263.38 + (0+38.75) m
=13+302.13m
3. Location of tangent run-out length
=13+250.13m -16.25m
=13+233.88m
End=13+250.13m
4. Station where outer and inner edge of the road will have the same normal cross fall i.e., 2.5%
So, R=2*Lt
=2*16.25
=32.50m,
50
2010

=13+250.13m
=13+250.13m +32.50m
=13+282.63m
=182-2*(1/3*Lr+d/2)
=182-2*((1/3*52) +42.83/2)
=104.50m
5. Then, the station of end of full super elevation is
=13+302.13m +104.50
=13+406.63m
6. Station of end of super elevation runoff is:
=13+406.63m + 52m
=13+458.63m
7/ station of recovering adverse crown is:
=13+458.63m +16.25m
=13+474.88m
51
2010
Fig 2-6 profile, section and station of super elevation, tangent run out for all curves
52
2010
STATIONS
CURVE NUMBER
Curve 1
12+604.51
12+620.76
12+637.01
12+672.76
12+757.22
12+792.97
12+809.22
12+825.47
Curve 2
13+069.09
13+085.34
13+101.59
13+137.34
13+160.63
13+196.38
13+212.63
13+228.88
Curve 3
13+233.88
13+250.13
13+282.63
13+302.13
13+406.63
13+442.38
13+458.63
13+474.88
Curve 4
13+756.4
13+773.75
13+789.10
13+822.87
14+164.12
14+197.89
14+213.24
14+228.59
14+634.80
14+651.05
14+667.30
14+703.05
14+802.73
14+838.48
14+854.73
14+870.98
15+123.85
15+141.10
15+156.35
15+193.10
15+257.63
15+293.38
15+309.63
15+325.88
Curve 5
Curve 6
Table 2-7 stations of super elevation, tangent run out for all curves.
53
2010
2.2.1.4 Curve widening

Widening on a curve is giving extra width on a road curves. This is because:
It has been found that the drivers on curves have difficulty in steering their
vehicles to outer edge of road as they are able to on the straight because the rear
wheels do not follow precisely the same path as the front wheels when the
vehicles negotiates a horizontal curve or makes a turn.
Also there is psychological tendency to drive at greater clearance, when passing

vehicle on curved than on straights. Hence, there is dire necessity for widening
the carriage way on curves.
On curves the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track
inside the front wheels.
Analysis of extra widening on horizontal curves

When vehicles negotiate a curve, the rear wheel generally do not follow the same track as
that of the front wheels. It has been observed that except at very high speed, the rear axle
of a motor vehicles remains in line with the radius of the curve. Since the body of the
vehicle is rigid, therefore, the front wheel will twist themselves at one angle to their axle,
such that vertical plane passing through each wheel is perpendicular to the radius of the
curve in order to trace the path on the curve. This is known as off tracking.
To determine width (W) it is necessary to select an appropriate design vehicle. The design
vehicle should usually be a truck because the off tracking is much greater for trucks than
for passenger car. (AASHTO) There fore, widening on horizontal curves depend on:
The length and width of the vehicle
Radius of curvature
54
2010
Fig 2-7 widening of pavements on horizontal curves

Let;
L= length of wheel base of vehicle in m.
b=width of the road in m,
w=extra width in m,
R1=radius of the outer rear wheel in m,
R2= radius of the outer front wheel in m,
n=number of lanes
Rc= radius of curvature
The formula obtained from the above geometries for extra widening for more than one
lane (mechanical widening) is:mechanical..widening wm
n * L2
2 * Rc
The extra widening needed for psychological reasons mentioned above is assumed as:-
55
psycho log icalwidening w p
2010
v
10 Rc
There fore, total widening w will be:w
n * L2
v
2 * Rc 10 Rc
Widening attainment on curves

The following rules apply for attaining widening on both ends of the curve. (AASHTO)
A. widening should be done gradually and has to be realized on the inside edge of unspiraled curve (on simple curve) pavements.
B. In the case of a circular curve with transition curves, widening may be applied on the
inside edge or divide equally on either side of the center line.
C. On highway curves without transition curves widening should preferably be attained
along the length of super elevation runoff. A smooth fitting alignment would result from
attaining widening on-one half to two-third along the tangent and the remaining along the
curve.
D. Widening is not necessary for large radius greater than 250m.
Curve-1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 Design computations
Design data: Rc = 175m, n=2
L= take 6m (for the design vehicle usually a truck, corresponding to AASHTO, Single
unit (SU))
V=70m/sec
w
n * L2
v
2 * Rc 10 Rc
2 * 62
70
0.73m
2 *175 10 175
56
2010
For all curves having a radius between 120 to 250m ERA recommends a minimum of
widening width equal to 0.6m. But we recommend the calculated value 0.73m. So, all the
curves will have the corresponding value unless they are no less than the recommended
value by ERA. Therefore, this widening will be introduced at the inner edge of the
curves. Because all the curves are un spiraled curves.
Fig2-8.widening of pavement on curves
WIDENING
WIDTH(M)
STARTING
STARTING
LAST PT OF END
POINT REMARK
POINT
OF POINT
OF FULL
OF
WIDENING
FULL
WIDENING
WIDENING
WIDENING
0.73
12+620.76
12+672.76
12+757.22
12+809.22
12+620.76
Table 2-8 widening stations for curve 1

Design data: Rc=236m, N=2, L= take 6m, V=70m/se
57
n * L2
v
2 * Rc 10 Rc
2 * 62
70
0.61m
2 * 236 10 236
CUR
VE
NO.
WIDENI
NG
WIDTH(
M)
2010
STARTING
POINT OF
WIDENING
STARTING
POINT OF
FULL
WIDENING
LAST PT OF
FULL
WIDENING
END POINT
OF
WIDENING
C1
0.73
12+620.76
12+672.76
12+757.22
12+809.22
C2
0.73
13+085.34
13+137.34
13+160.63
13+212.63
C2
0.73
13+250.13
13+302.13
13+406.63
13+458.63
C3
0.73
13+839.25
13+822.87
14+164.12
14+213.24
C4
0.61
14+651.05
14+703.05
14+802.73
14+854.73
C5
0.73
15+141.10
15+193.10
15+257.63
15+309.63
C6
0.73
12+620.76
12+672.76
12+757.22
12+809.22
Table2-9 Widening length and stations for all curves.
2.2.1.4 Site distance

Another element of horizontal alignment is the site distance across the inside of the
curves. Sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car or the
roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. For highway safety, the designer must provide
sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles.
They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on the traveled way.
Where there are site obstruction( such as walls, cut slops, buildings and longitudinal
barriers) on the inside of curves or the in side of the median lane on divided highways, a
design may need adjustment in the normal high way cross section or change in the
alignment if removal of the obstruction is impractical to provide adequate site distance.
Because of the many variables in alignment, in cross section and in the number, type and
58
2010
location of potential obstructions, specific study is usually need for each individual curve.
With site distance for the design speed as a control, the designer should check the actual
conditions on each curve and make the appropriate adjustment to provide adequate
distance.
Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent
intervals and for substantial portions of their length.
Stopping site distance

Stopping sight distance is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle traveling at a
given speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the road way becomes visible.
The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which
takes into account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the
vehicle. The formula is:
d= (0.278) (t) (v) +v2/ 254f
Where:
d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)
OR the stopping site distance is given in ERA manual in the following table.
Design Speed
Coefficient
Stopping Sight
Passing Sight
(km/h)
of Friction (f)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Reduced Passing
Sight
Distance
for design (m)
from formulae
20
0.42
20
160
50
30
0.40
30
217
75
59
2010
40
0.38
45
285
125
50
0.35
55
345
175
60
0.33
85
407
225
70
0.31
110
482
275
85
0.30
155
573
340
100
0.29
205
670
375
120
0.28
285
792
425
Table 2-10: Sight Distances

The coefficient of friction values shown in Table 2-10 have been determined from test
using the lowest results of the friction tests. The values shown in the third column of the
above table for minimum stopping sight distance are rounded from the above formula.
For the general use in the design of horizontal curve, the sight line is a chord of the curve,
and the stopping site distance is measured along the center line of the inside lane around
the curve.
The horizontal site line offset needed for clear site areas that satisfy stopping site distance
can be derived from the geometry for the several dimension explained in the following
figure.
60
2010
Fig 2-9 Site distance for horizontal curves

Relevant formulae are as follows:
Siteline( S ) 2 R sin
Middle..ordinate (d ) R 1 cos
2
Where = Deflection angle

R=radius (from the center line of the inner lane)
Design computation
Using the above formulas the stopping site distance(d), the line of site(S) and middle
ordinate(M) of each horizontal curves can be calculated from the datas of each curve
organized in the following table below.
curve no
deflection
angle(D)
Radius
speed(V)
(R),m
km/hr
driver
reaction
time
Coefficient of
friction(f)
(t) in sec.
Curve 1.
39
173.325
70
2.5
0.31
Curve 2.
33
173.325
70
2.5
0.31
Curve 3.
59.62
173.325
70
2.5
0.31
Curve 4.
90.81
234.325
70
2.5
0.31
Curve 5.
44.15
173.325
70
2.5
0.31
Curve 6.
32.48
173.325
70
2.5
0.31
Table 2-11 different data about each curve

Siteline( S ) 2 R sin
Middle..ordinate (d ) R 1 cos
2
61
Stoppingsitedist ..( d ) 0.278vt
Curve
Site line (S)

in m.
2010
v2
254 f
Middle
ordinate (M)
in m.
Stopping site distance(m)

Calculated
distance in m
Recommended by
ERA
curve 1
115.714
9.94
510.55
110
curve 2
98.454
7.14
510.55
110
curve 3
172.329
22.93
510.55
110
curve 4
333.72
69.81
510.55
110
curve 5
130.278
12.76
510.55
110
curve 6
96.945
6.92
510.55
110
Table2-12 Site distance elements
62
2010
Fig 2-10 stopping site distance of curve 1
Passing site distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads
that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the
roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions
and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. The
passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
63
2010
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v m + at1/2)
Where,
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where,
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, sec.
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table 7-2 of ERA standard:
Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
Speed Group (km/h)
Speed group(km/hr)
50-65
D3(m)
30
66-80
55
81-100
101-120
80
100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to 2/3 rd of

d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
64
2010
Even if it is calculated using the above formula ERA recommends passing site distance,
so we use the value given by ERA design manual.
Sample calculation
Curve 1
Data:
Design speed=70km/hr=v of passing vehicle
Assume the following values
T1=3.5 sec, T2=3sec, a=1.0m/sec2
V of passing vehicle=70km/hr
V of passed vehicle=65km/hr
i.e., m=70-65=5km/hr
Then,
d1= 0.278 t1 (v m + at1/2)
d1 = 0.278 *3.5* (70 5 + (1*3)/2)
d2= 0.278 vt2= 0.278 *70*3
=64.71m
=58.38m
d3=55m, for design speed group=66km/hr-80km/hr

d4= 2d2/3 = (2*58.38)/3 =38.92m
Therefore, total passing site distance is,
PSD=d1+d2+d3+d4 = Error! Not a valid link.Error! Not a valid link.Error! Not a valid
link.Error! Not a valid link. =218.95m
65
2010
Fig 2-11 Components of passing maneuver used in passing site distance.
2.2.2 Design of vertical alignment

The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The purpose of vertical alignment design is to determine the elevation of selected
points along the roadway, to ensure proper drainage, safety, and ride comfort. So it is
important to use different series of grades and to create a smooth transition between these
grades parabolic curves are used. The vertical alignment includes:
Joining the grades with smooth curve.
Location of appropriate gradients.
2.2.2.1 Design consideration

2.2.2.1.1 Gradient and grade controls
Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus
grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills.Highway should be designed to encourage
uniform operation throughout the stretch.In the analysis of grades and grade control, one
of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating of the motor
66
2010
vehicle.Determination of grades for vertical alignment the following are taken in to

consideration for;
1. The maximum limit of grades.
Visibility related to sight distance.
Stopping sight distance.
Passing sight distance.
Rider and passenger comfort.
Cost of vehicle operation
General appearance
Cut and fill (earth work)
2. The minimum limit of grades.
Drainage purpose
In this project the two cases are taken in to account as recommended by ERA 2001.
2.2.2.1.2 Vertical curves

A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between two tangent grades. There are two
types of vertical curves. Crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves.
When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade, it is
referred to as a crest curve.

When a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a positive grade, it is
termed as a sag curve.
In this project crest and sage curves are applied to create a smooth transition between
these grades.
Length of vertical curves

Crest curves:
For crest curves, the most important consideration in determining the length of the curve
is the sight distance requirement.
67
2010
Sight distance
stopping and
passing sight distance
Sag curves:
For sag curves, the criteria for determining the length of the curve are:
vehicle headlight distance,

rider comfort,
drainage control and
General appearance.
When the computed curve length for the above requirements is less than the minimum
curve length recommended by ERA2001, this recommended value is taken as curve
length.
Error! Not a valid link.Site distance (Both stopping and passing)

For Crest Vertical Curve
The stopping sight distance is the controlling factor in determining the length of a crest
vertical curve.
Minimum Length required for safe stopping calculated (from AASHTO)
When Sd Lvcmin
When Sd Lvcmin
The 100 in the above equations are to convert A from % into decimals.
Where Lvc min = Minimum length of vertical curve compute
Sd = Min. Stopping Sight Distance = 85 m for mountainous terrain.
Psd = Min. Passing Sight Distance
= 225 m for mountainous terrain.

68
2010
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of
sight lines. Shown in the figures below:
Fig 2-12 Site distance for crust curve
ERA Manual recommends that:

h1= Driver's eye height
= 1.07 meters
h2 = Object height for stopping sight distance = 0.15 meters

= Object height for passing sight distance:
= 1.30 meters
For sag Vertical Curve

Figure below shows the drivers sight limitation when approaching a sag vertical curve.
The problem is more obvious during the night time when the sight of the driver is
restricted by the area projected by the headlight beams of vehicle. Hence, the angle of the
beam from the horizontal plane is also important. This design control criteria is known as
69
2010
headlight sight distance. The headlight height of h = 0.6 m and upward angle for the
headlight projection cone of =1 is normally assumed. The governing equations are
(from AASHTO)
When Sd Lvcmin
When Sd Lvcmin
Fig 2-13 Site distance for sag curve

A driver may experience discomfort when passing a vertical curve. The effect of
discomfort is more obvious on a sag vertical curve than a crest vertical curve with the
same radius, because the gravitational and centripetal forces are in the opposite
directions. Some of the ride discomfort may be compensated by combination of vehicle
weight, suspension system and tire flexibility. The following equation has been
recommended by AASHTO as the minimum length of a vertical curve that will provide
satisfactory level of ride comfort.
70
2010
Rolling
Mountainous
Escarpment
Urban/Peri- Urban
Design standards from ERA manual:
km/h
85
70
60
50
50
Min. Stopping Sight Distance
155
110
85
55
55
Min. Passing Sight Distance
340
275
225
175
175
% Passing Opportunity
25
25
15
20
Max. Gradient (desirable)
Max. Gradient (absolute)
Minimum Gradient
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Crest Vertical Curve
60
31
18
10
10
Sag Vertical Curve
36
25
18
12
12
Design Element
Design Speed
Unit
Flat
Table 2-13 Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved)
Phasing: Even if we face phasing problem on vertical curve 1 with horizontal curve 3
and vertical curve 3 with horizontal curve 5, we took a corrective action by separating
them again vertical curve 2 and horizontal curve 4 corrected by making the ends of the
curves to end at a common station in the design process according to ERA.
2.2.2.2. Computation of gradients

1. Gradient of the first alignment (g1)
To calculate the first gradient;
Elevation of the first point
= 1386 m
Elevation of the second point
= 1395.4 m
Elevation difference
= 1395.4-1386 = 9.4 m
71
2010
Horizontal distance b/n the two points = (13+572)-(12+500) = 1072 m

Gradient (Slope) = elevation difference/horizontal distance
= (9.4/1072) = 0.0088
Gradient (Slope) g1 = 0.88 %
2. Gradient of the second alignment (g2)
To calculate the second gradient;
= 1395.4 m
= 1375 m
= 1375-1395.4 = -20.4 m
Horizontal distance b/n the two points = (14+000)-(13+572) = 428 m

Slope (gradient) = elevation difference/ horizontal distance
= -20.4/430 = -0.0477
Gradient (Slope) g2 = -4.77 %
3. Gradient of the third alignment (g3)
To calculate the third gradient
= 1375 m
= 1377 m
= 1377-1375 = 2m
Horizontal distance b/n the two points = (14+480)-(14+000) = 480m

Gradient (Slope)
= elevation difference/ horizontal distance

= (2/480) = 0.0042
Gradient (Slope) g3 = 0.42 %

72
2010
4. Gradient of the forth alignment (g4)

To calculate the forth gradient
= 1377 m
= 1352 m
= 1352-1377 = -25
Horizontal distance b/n the two points = (15+500)-(14+480) = 1020m

Slope (gradient) = elevation difference/ horizontal distance
= -25/1020 = -0.0245
Gradient (Slope) g4= -2.45%
Elevation
Grade
First point
second
point
station
Elev. diff.
First point
Second
point
Horizontal
distance(m)
Slope
(%)
g1
1386
1395.4
9.4
12500
13572
1072
0.88
g2
1395.4
1375
-20.4
13572
14000
428
-4.77
g3
1375
1377
14000
14480
480
0.42
g4
1377
1352
-25
14480
15500
1020
-2.45
Table 2-14: Summery of gradients of vertical alignment
2.2.2.5 Computation of vertical curve elements

There are three vertical curves in this project;
The first vertical curve is a crest curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade;
i.e. 0.88 % and -4.77 %.
The second curve is a sag curve connects a negative grade with a positive grade ;
i.e. -4.77 % and 0.42 %.
73
2010
The third curve is a crest curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade;
i.e. 0.42 % and -2.45 %.
1. For Curve one (crest curve)
Station of PVI
Elevation PVI
=
=
13+572
1395.4 m
Gradient, g1 =
0.88 %
Gradient, g2 =
-4.77 %
Grade Algebraic difference of grades (A)

A = g2-g1 =0.88 - (-4.77) = /5.64/ = 5.64 %
Computation of the curve length
a)
Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

The value of K = 18 for DS4 from design standard, and Mountainous
Lvcmin = AK = 5.64*18 = 101.58 m
But to get smooth vertical curve to different safety purpose we increase LVC from 101.58
to 120 m
b) Length required for safe stopping
When Sd Lvcmin
c) Length required for safe passing

74
2010
When Sd Lvcmin
d) Length required for ride comfort
e) Length required for aesthetic (appearance)

Lvcmin = 30 *A = 30*5.64 =169m
There fore the maximum of the above values
Lvcmin = 301.90 m is to be provided as
curve length, but this curve length over lap with one side of horizontal curve. Therefore
we provide minimum curve length recommended by ERA2001, which is LC = 200m. So
this value is provided as curve length and we post traffic sign that prevent passing for that
specific area.
Curve grade tabulation

From above table 2-14; g1=0.88 %, g2 = -4.77 % and LVC = 200 m,
Elev.PVI = 1395.4 m
Elev.PVC = Elev.PVI (g1* LVC/2 )
= 1395.4 (0.0088*200/2) = 1394.52 m
75
2010
Finished grade = (Ele.PVC +g1x) + ((g2-g1) x2)/2LV
STA.PVC
g1*X%
Tangent
grade(Ele.PVC+g1x)
(g2- g1)x2)/2LVC
Finished
grade
13472
1394.62
1394.52
13492
20
0.16
1394.77
-0.06
1394.64
13512
40
0.31
1394.93
-0.22
1394.65
13532
60
0.47
1395.09
-0.50
1394.54
13552
80
0.63
1395.24
-0.89
1394.32
13572
100
0.78
1395.40
-1.39
1393.99
13592
120
0.94
1395.56
-2.00
1393.54
13612
140
1.10
1395.71
-2.72
1392.99
13632
160
1.25
1395.87
-3.55
1392.31
13652
180
1.41
1396.03
-4.50
1391.53
13672
200
1.57
1396.18
-5.55
1390.63
Table 2-15 finished grade tabulation for curve-1
Fig. 2-14 elements of vertical curve-1

76
2.
2010
Curve Two (sag curve)

Elements of sag curve.
Station of PVI
= 14+000
Elevation PVI
= 1383.63 m

Gradient ( g1)
= -4.77 %
, Gradient(g2) = 0.42 %
A = g2-g1 = 0.42-(-4.77) = /5.18/
= 5.18 %
a) Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

The value of K = 25 for DS4 design standard, and Rolling.
L =AK=5.18*25 = 129.50 m
But to get smooth vertical curve for different safety purpose we increase L VC from
129.50 to 150 m

When Sd Lvcmin

When Sd Lvcmin
77
2010

Lvcmin = 30 *A = 30*5.18 =155 m
curve length. But to get smooth vertical curve for different safety purpose we increase
LVC from 352.92 to 362 m.
From above table 2-14 ; g1= 0.42 , g2 = -4.77 , and LVC = 362 m, Elev.PVI = 1375 m
Elev.PVC = Elev.PVI (g1* LVC/2)
= 1395.4 (0.0042*362/2) = 1383.63 m
Finished grade= (Ele.PVC +g1x) + ((g2-g1) x2)/2LVC)
Tangent grade
((g2-g1)x2)
(Ele.PVC +g1x)
2LVC
1383.63
1383.63
20
-0.95
1382.67
0.03
1382.70
13859
40
-1.91
1381.72
0.11
1381.84
13879
60
-2.86
1380.77
0.26
1381.03
13899
80
-3.81
1379.81
0.46
1380.27
STA.PVC
g1*X%
13819
13839
Finished grade
78
2010
13919
100
-4.77
1378.86
0.72
1379.58
13939
120
-5.72
1377.91
1.03
1378.94
13959
140
-6.67
1376.95
1.40
1378.36
13979
160
-7.63
1376.00
1.83
1377.83
13999
180
-8.58
1375.05
2.32
1377.37
14019
200
-9.53
1374.09
2.86
1376.96
14039
220
-10.49
1373.14
3.46
1376.61
14059
240
-11.44
1372.19
4.12
1376.31
14079
260
-12.39
1371.23
4.84
1376.07
14099
280
-13.35
1370.28
5.61
1375.89
14119
300
-14.30
1369.33
6.44
1375.77
14139
320
-15.25
1368.37
7.33
1375.71
14159
340
-16.21
1367.42
8.28
1375.70
14179
360
-17.16
1366.47
9.28
1375.75
14181
362
-17.25
1366.37
9.38
1375.75

79
2010
Curve Three (Crest curve)
Station of PVI
Elevation PVI
=
=
14+480
1377m
Gradient (g1) =
0.42 %
Gradient (g2) =
-2.45 %

A = g2-g1 =0.42 - (-2.45) = /2.87/ = 2.87 %
a) Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
The value of K = 31 for DS4 design standard, and Rolling
Lvcmin = AK = 2.87*31 = 88.90 m
But to get smooth vertical curve to different safety purpose we increase LVC from
88.90 to 120
When Sd Lvcmi
80
2010
When Sd Lvcmi

Lvcmin = 30 *A =30*2.87 = 86 m
curve length. But to get smooth vertical curve to different safety purpose we increase
LVC from 220.47 to 240m.
From above table: - g1=0.42, g2 = -2.45 and LVC = 240 m, Elev.PVI = 1377 m
Elev.PVC = Elev.PVI (g1* LVC/2) = 1377 (0.0042*240/2) = 1376.50m
Finished grade= (Ele.PVC +g1x) + ((g2-g1) x2)/2LVC)
Tangent grade
(g2-g1)x2)
STA.PVC
g1*X%
(Ele.PVC
+g1x)
2LVC
Finished
grade
14360
1376.50
1376.50
81
2010
14380
20
0.083
1376.58
-0.02
1376.56
14400
40
0.167
1376.67
-0.10
1376.57
14420
60
0.250
1376.75
-0.22
1376.53
14440
80
0.333
1376.83
-0.38
1376.45
14460
100
0.417
1376.92
-0.60
1376.32
14480
120
0.500
1377.00
-0.86
1376.14
14500
140
0.583
1377.08
-1.17
1375.91
14520
160
0.667
1377.17
-1.53
1375.64
14540
180
0.750
1377.25
-1.94
1375.31
14560
200
0.833
1377.33
-2.39
1374.94
14580
220
0.917
1377.42
-2.89
1374.53
14600
240
1.000
1377.50
-3.44
1374.06

Vertical
Curve
VC1
LVCmin
LVC adj
LVC
provide
Sta. PVI
Sta.PVC
Sta.PVT
Elev.PVI
Elev.PVC
5.64
18
101.58
120
200
13+572
13+472
13+672
1395.4
1394.52
82
2010
VC2
5.18
25
129.50
150
362
14+000
13+819
14+181
1375
1383.63
VC3
2.87
31
88.90
120
240
14+480
14+360
14+600
1377
1376.50
Table 2-18 summery of vertical curves
2.2.3
Road cross sections
A cross sectional elements in the high way design pertains to those features which deals
with its width. They will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders, right of way,
roadway width, pavement width, the median, side slopes, drainage features and earth
work profiles.
Carriage way:
The part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic as traffic lanes. For our project
for DS4 and main access road ERA recommends 6.7m.
Lane width
Feature of a high way having great influence on safety and comfort in the width of the
carriage way, due to this we use a lane width of 3.35 m which is recommended for DS4
road are shown in table 2.6 ERA 2001 for all roads design standards.
83
2010
Shoulders
Shoulder is:
Is the portion of the road between the outer edges and the edges of the carriageway are called shoulders.
Is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the

accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized
traffic, animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles;
and lateral support of the pavement courses. It will provide wherever possible for
emergency stopping and lateral support of the carriageway pavement.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single
bituminous surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge
raveling and maintenance problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder.
Sealing of the shoulder is recommended under the following conditions:
Where the total resulting gradient exceeds 25 per cent, it is recommended for
paved shoulder as the width is only 1m; this will reduce the frequent
maintenance needs in mountainous and escarpment terrains.
Where the shoulder material is readily erodible or where the availability of
material for shoulder maintenance is restricted.
Wherever there is significant pedestrian traffic in town and village areas.
Based on the above idea, ERA recommends a shoulder width based on design standard
and terrain classification. So, for this project since most of the route has a terrain of
rolling we took 1.5m for shoulder width as recommended by ERA manual. So, we took
1.5m shoulder throughout the route simplicity of the construction.
Road way:
84
2010
It consists of the carriage way and shoulders and parking lanes. I.e., for this project road
way width will be 6.7+1.5+1.5=9.7m
Right-of-way
It is the width of the land secured and preserved to the public for road purposes. The
right-of-way should be adequate to accommodate all the elements that make-up the cross
section of the high way and may reasonably provide future development.
For this project having design standard of DS4, ERA recommends a right of way width to
be 50m for all terrain type.
Normal cross fall
Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not
being so great as to make steering difficult, but it should facilitate drainage of the
pavement. It is depend up on the smooth of the surface and the intensity of the rain fall.
Therefore, we took 2.5% for normal cross fall for design standard of DS4 as
recommended by ERA.
Shoulder cross fall
It should be designed steeper than the pavement to facilitate quick drainage. Therefore we
took 4% for shoulder cross slope as recommended by ERA.
Side slope and back slope
Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the road way and
to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is depending on safety consideration, height
of cut or fill and economic consideration. ERA 2001 table 6.1 indicates the side slope
recommended for use in the design according to the height of cut and fill and the
material.
85
material
Earth
soil
rock
Height of slope
2010
Side slope
cut
fill
Back
slope
or 0.0-1.0m
1:4
1:4
1:3
1.0-2.0m
1:3
1:3
1:2
Over 2m
1:2
1:2
1:1.5
Any height
See standard details
Table2-19 Side and back slope

Depending to the given standard ratio our project is designed and set out the appropriate
and economical road section.
Fig 2-17 Elements of road cross section
86
Section-3:
3.1
2010
Drainage Standards and Structure Design
General
87
2010
88
2010
89
2.2
2010
Minor drainage analysis and design
2.2.1
Hydrological/ Hydraulic Analysis of Ditch
90
2010
runoff
ra inf all
a)
overlandtraveldis tan ce
velocityoflow
V 1 R 3 S 2
91
2010
-
-
92
2010
93
2010
)
)
94
2010
1 3 2
R S
n
95
2010
2.2.2 Structural design of ditch
96
2010
)
)
97
Catchment
Area
A(ha)
upper
elev.
Cc
2010
lower
elev.
L(m)
s(%)
Tc(s)
TC
provide
Q(m3/s)
2.18
0.25
1410.5
1385
312.84
0.08
4.27
7.0
180
0.27
3.22
0.25
1408.5
1385
306.53
0.08
4.31
7.0
180
0.40
7.88
0.25
1406.5
1387
365.89
0.05
5.68
7.0
180
0.99
14.00
0.25
1410.5
1387
500.26
0.05
7.58
7.6
149
1.45
6.11
0.25
1410
1386
334.31
0.07
4.72
7.0
180
0.76
3.70
0.25
1408
1386
400.79
0.05
6.02
7.0
180
0.46
9.75
0.25
1400
1366
431.99
0.08
5.55
7.0
180
1.22
7.57
0.25
1393.5
1366
367.12
0.07
4.99
7.0
180
0.95
32.57
0.25
1391
1346
1082.8
0.04
14.40
14.4
135
3.06
10
0.82
0.25
1352
1346
354.64
0.02
8.62
8.6
165
0.09
A ha
Cp
Bed
Slope%
L(m)
Cath.
L(m)
W(m)
Tc (s)
Tcprovide
Qasp(m3/s)
95.35
6.85
0.0653
0.95
0.025
93.8
2.6633
180
0.031273
133.18
6.85
0.0912
0.95
0.025
130.9
3.4425
180
0.04368
318.91
6.85
0.2185
0.95
0.025
310.62
6.6964
180
0.104595
526.1
6.85
0.3604
0.95
0.025
495.06
9.5877
9.6
155
0.148584
213.72
6.85
0.1464
0.95
0.025
206.78
4.8952
180
0.070095
85.79
6.85
0.0588
0.95
0.025
93
2.6458
180
0.028137
188.37
6.85
0.129
0.95
0.025
190.74
4.6001
180
0.061781
183.74
6.85
0.1259
0.95
0.025
183.94
4.4733
180
0.060263
1206.4
6.85
0.8264
0.95
0.025
1136.71
18.184
18.2
110
0.241794
10
31.8
6.85
0.0218
0.95
0.025
45.68
1.5304
180
0.01043
98
Q,asphalt(m3/s)
2010
Q,the
land(m3/s) Q total
B( bott
om)
B(top)
Velocity
Free
board
(m)
D
provide
0.031
0.27
0.30
0.016
0.26
0.30
0.61
2.53
0.3
0.56
0.044
0.4
0.44
0.016
0.30
0.35
0.70
2.79
0.3
0.60
0.105
0.99
1.09
0.016
0.42
0.49
0.98
3.51
0.3
0.72
0.149
1.45
1.60
0.016
0.49
0.57
1.13
3.85
0.3
0.79
0.070
0.76
0.83
0.016
0.38
0.44
0.89
3.27
0.3
0.68
0.028
0.46
0.49
0.016
0.31
0.36
0.73
2.86
0.3
0.61
0.062
1.22
1.28
0.016
0.45
0.52
1.04
3.65
0.3
0.75
0.060
0.95
1.01
0.016
0.41
0.48
0.96
3.44
0.3
0.71
0.242
3.06
3.30
0.016
0.64
0.74
1.49
4.63
0.3
0.94
0.010
0.09
0.10
0.016
0.17
0.20
0.40
1.92
0.3
0.47
99
2010
3.3.3 Hydraulics design of

culvert
A culvert is a type of structure that can transmit water as full or partly full. It is a structure
that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to increase hydraulic
capacity. It is also used to convey surface runoff through embankments. A culvert can be
a structure, as distinguished from bridges, that is usually covered with an embankment
and is composed of structural material around the entire perimeter.
A culvert can be a structure that is 6 meters or less in centerline span length, or between
the extreme ends of openings for multiple boxes.
Full flow is not common for culverts unless governed by a high downstream water
surface elevation. Full flow can be described by fundamental pipe flow. Partly full flow
culverts follow the law of open channel flow and need to be classified as either sub
critical or supercritical flow to accomplish the design procedure.
The following are concepts that are important in the hydraulics of culvert design:
Critical depth- the depth at which the specific energy of a given flow rate is at a
minimum. For a given discharge and cross-section geometry, there is only one critical
depth.
Crown- the inside top of the culvert.
Outlet- has tail water equal to or lower than critical depth. For culverts with free outlets, a
lowering of the tail water has no effect on the discharge or the backwater profile upstream
of the tail water.
Improved Inlet- has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow constriction at the inlet
and thus increases the capacity of culverts. These inlets are referred to as either side- or
slope-tapered (walls or bottom tapered).
100
2010
Invert- is the flow line of the culvert (inside bottom).

Normal flow- occurs in a channel reach when the discharge, velocity, and depth of flow
do not change throughout the reach. The water surface profile and channel bottom slope
will be parallel. This type of flow will exist in a culvert operating on a steep slope if the
culvert is sufficiently long enough.
Slope - Steep water surface slope occurs where the critical depth is greater than the
normal depth. Mild slope occurs where critical depth is less than normal depth.
Submerged- A submerged outlet occurs where the tail water elevation is higher than the
crown of the culvert. A submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than 1.2D.
Design criteria
Listed below by categories are the design criteria that should be considered for all culvert
designs.
Site criteria
Structure Type Selection
The type of drainage structure specified for a particular location is often determined
based on economic considerations. The following can serve as a guide in the selection of
the type of structure, proceeding from the most expensive to the least expensive. Culverts
are used where bridges are not hydraulically required, where debris is tolerable, and
where they are more economical than a bridge. Culverts can be concrete box culverts,
reinforced concrete pipe culverts, or corrugated metal culverts.
Length and Slope
The culvert length and slope should be chosen to approximate existing topography, and to
the degree practicable:
101
2010
the culvert invert shall normally be aligned with the channel bottom and
the skew angle of the stream, and
the culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the roadway.
Design Features
Culvert Sizes and Shapethe culvert size and shape selected is to be based on
engineering and economic criteria related to site conditions. In evaluating the suitability
of alternate materials, the selection process shall be based on a comparison of the total
cost of alternate materials over the design life of the structure that is dependent upon the
following:
durability (service life),
cost
availability
construction and maintenance ease
structural strength,
traffic delays
abrasion and corrosion resistance, and
water tightness requirements.
Inlet and Outlet Control

Inlet Control
For inlet control, the control section is at the upstream end of the barrel (the inlet). The
flow passes through critical depth near the inlet and becomes shallow, high velocity
(supercritical) flow in the culvert barrel. Depending on the tail water, a hydraulic jump
may occur downstream of the inlet.
102
2010
Typical shapes are rectangular, circular, elliptical, and arch.

NomographsThe inlet control flow versus headwater curves, which are established
using the above procedure, are the basis for constructing the inlet control design
nomographs. Note that in the inlet control nomographs, HW is measured to the total
upstream energy grade line including the approach velocity head.
Outlet Control
Outlet control has depths and velocity that are subcritical. The control of the flow is at the
downstream end of the culvert (the outlet). The tailwater depth is assumed to be critical
depth near the culvert outlet or in the downstream channel, whichever is higher.
In a given culvert, the type of flow is dependent on all of the barrel factors. All of the
inlet control factors also influence culverts in outlet control.
Tailwater Elevationbased on the downstream water surface elevation. Backwater
calculations from a downstream control, a normal depth approximation, or field
observations are used to define the tailwater elevation.
HydraulicsFull flow in the culvert barrel is assumed for the analysis of outlet control
hydraulics. Outlet control flow conditions can be calculated based on an energy balance
from the tailwater pool to the headwater pool.
Design Equations
Equations and Definitions
Losses
HL = HE + Hf+ Hv + Hb + Hj + Hg
Where:
HL = total energy loss, m
HE = entrance loss, m
103
2010
Hf = friction losses, m
Hv = exit loss (velocity head), m
Hb = bend losses, m
Hj = losses at junctions, m
Hg = losses at grates, m
Velocity
V = Q/A Where:
V = average barrel velocity, m/s
Q = flow rate, m3/s
A = cross sectional area of flow with the barrel full, m2
Velocity Head
Hv = V2/2g where g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2
Entrance loss
He = Ke (V2/2g) where Ke = entrance loss coefficient,
Friction Loss
Hf = [(19.63n2L)/R1.33] [V2/2g)
Where:
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
L = length of the culvert barrel, m
R = hydraulic radius of the full culvert barrel = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter of the barrel, m
104
2010
Exit Loss
Ho = 1.0 [(V2/2g) - (Vd2/2g)]
Where: Vd = channel velocity downstream of the culvert, m/s (usually
neglected)
& Ho = Hv = V2/2g
Barrel Losses
H = He + Ho+Hf
H = [1 + Ke + (19.63n2L/R1.33)] [V2/2g]
Energy Grade Linethe energy grade line represents the total energy at any point along
the culvert barrel. Equating the total energy upstream and downstream of the culvert
barrel in the following relationship results:
HWo + ( Vu2/2g) = TW + (Vd2/2g) + HL
Where:
HWo = headwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vu = approach velocity, m/s
TW = tailwater depth above the outlet invert, m
Vd = downstream velocity, m/s
HL = sum of all losses
Hydraulic Grade Linethe hydraulic grade line is the depth to which water would rise in
vertical tubes connected to the sides of the culvert barrel. In full flow, the energy grade
line and the hydraulic grade line are parallel lines separated by the velocity head except at
the inlet and the outlet.
Nomographs (full flow)The nomographs were developed assuming that the culvert
barrel is flowing full and:
105
TW > D, Flow Type IV Outlet Control or
dc > D, Flow Type VI Inlet Control
Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered a part of the
2010
available
headwater (HW) used to convey the flow through the culvert.
Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected.

HW = TW + H - SoL
Where:
HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
H = is the value read from the nomographs, m
SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m
TW should be used if higher than (dc + D)/2.

The following equation should be used:
HW =ho+ H -SoL
Where:
ho = max of(TW ,(dc + D)/2)) m
Adequate results are obtained down to a HW = 0.75D. For lower
headwaters,
backwater calculations are required.

Outlet Velocity
Culvert outlet velocities should be calculated to determine the need for erosion protection
at the culvert exit. Culverts usually give outlet velocities that are higher than the natural
stream velocities. These outlet velocities may require flow readjustment or energy
dissipation to prevent downstream erosion. If outlet erosion protection is necessary, the
flow depths and Freud number may also be needed.
106
2010
In Inlet Control
If water surface profile (drawdown) calculations are necessary, begin at dc at the entrance
and proceed downstream to the exit. Determine at the exit the depth and flow area. Use
normal depth and velocity. This approximation may be used since the water surface
profile converges towards normal depth if the culvert is of adequate length. The outlet
velocity may be slightly higher than the actual velocity at the outlet.
In Outlet Control
The cross sectional area of the flow is defined by the geometry of the outlet and
either critical depth, tailwater depth, or the height of the conduit:
Critical depth is used when the tailwater level is less than critical depth.
Tailwater depth is used when tailwater is greater than critical depth, but below the
top of the barrel.
The total barrel area is used when the tailwater level exceeds the top of the barrel
Roadway Overtopping
Roadway overtopping will begin when the headwater rises to the elevation of the
roadway. The overtopping will usually occur at the low point of a sag vertical curve on
the roadway. The flow will be similar to flow over a broad crested weir.
Qr= Cd L HWr 1.5
Where:
107
2010
Qr = overtopping flow rate, m3/s.

Cd = overtopping discharge coefficient (weir coefficient) = kf Cr.
kt = submergence coefficient.
Cr = discharge coefficient.
L = length of the roadway crest, m.
HWr = the upstream depth, measured above the roadway crest, m.
Total Flowcalculated for a given upstream water surface elevation using equation. In
this equation, roadway overflow plus culvert flow must equal total design flow. A trial
and error process is necessary to determine the flow passing through the culvert and the
amount flowing across the roadway.
Performance Curves
A performance curve is a plot of flow rate versus headwater depth or elevation, velocity,
or outlet scour. The culvert performance curve is made up of the controlling portions of
the individual performance curves for each of the following control sections.
Design Procedure
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
Hydrographic Survey - Data include
topographic, site, and location maps
embankment cross section
roadway profile
Step 2 Determine Hydrology. Minimum data requireddrainage area maps and

discharge-frequency plots
108
2010
Step 3 Designs Downstream Channel. Minimum data are cross section of channel and the
rating curve for channel
Step 4 Summarize Data on Design Form use data from Steps 1-3
Step 5 Select Design Alternative
Step 6 Select Design Discharge Qd
Step 7 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
for a box shape use Q per foot of width
Locate HW/D ratio using a straightedge
extend a straight line from the culvert size through the flow rate
mark the first HW/D scale. Extend a horizontal line to the desired scale, read
HW/D, and note on Charts
Calculate headwater depth (HW)
multiply HW/D by D to obtain HW to energy grade line
neglecting the approach velocity HWi = HW
including the approach velocity HWi = HW - approach velocity head
Step 8 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)

Calculate the tail water depth (TW) using the design flow rate and normal
depth (single
section) or using a water surface profile

Calculate critical depth (dc)
locate flow rate and read dc
dc cannot exceed D
109
2010
Calculate (dc + D)/2

Determine (ho)
ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2)
Determine entrance loss coefficient (KE) from ERA design manual Table7-2
Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H):
- use (L) if Mannings n matches the n value of the culvert and- use (L1) to
adjust
for a different culvert n value

L1 = L(n1/n)2
Where:
L1 = adjusted culvert length, m
L = actual culvert length, m
n1 = desired Manning n value
n = Manning n value on chart
mark point on turning line
- use a straightedge and

- connect size with the length
read (H)
- use a straightedge
- connect Q and turning point and
- Read (H) on Head Loss scale
Calculate outlet control headwater (HW)
110
2010
use equation above, if Vu and Vd are neglected
HWoi = H + ho - SoL
if HWoi is less than 1.2D and control is outlet control
- the barrel may flow partly full
- the approximate method of using the greater tailwater or (dc+ D)/2
may not be
applicable
- backwater calculations should be used to check the result and
- if the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate
- method shall not be used
Step 9 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)
compare HWi and HWoi, use the higher
HWc = HWi, if HWi > HWoi

- the culvert is in inlet control
HWc = HWoi, if HWoi > HWi

- the culvert is in outlet control.
Step 10 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

1. Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr)
HWr = HWc - HWov
HWov = height of road above inlet invert
2. If HWr 0 , Qr = 0
If HWr > 0, determine Qr
111
2010
Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

Qt = Qd + Qr
Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)
If inlet control is the controlling headwater
1. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit
use water surface profile
2. Calculate flow area (A)
3. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A
If outlet control is the controlling headwater
1. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit
weuse (dc) if dc > TW
weuse (TW) if dc < TW< D
weuse (D) if D < TW
2. Calculate flow area (A)

3. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A
Step 13 Review Results
Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any of the
following are exceeded, repeat Steps 5 through 12
Step 14 Plot Performance Curve
Repeat Steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges
Qmax if no overtopping is possible

112
2010
Qmax = largest flood that can be estimated
Step 15 Related Designs

Culverts out let velocities
The high out let velocities observed at the culvert out let may results in excessive scour of
the channel in the vicinity of the outlet. The variety in the soil type of natural channels
and varying flowing characteristics at the culvert outlet enforces the use different
methods to control or protect the channel against potential damaging effects. Some of the
common used techniques to provide protection against scour are:
1. Minor structural element
2. Velocity protection devices
3. Velocity control devices
Minor structural element
Provision of this Minor structural element is done when the culverts exit velocity is 30%
greater than that of the velocity in its natural channel. It minimizes the structural
instabilities. Example Cutoff walls.
Velocity protection devices
For exit velocity greater than 1.3 of velocity in natural channel and less than 2.5 of the
velocity in natural channel.In this case armoring riprap is used. This may be;
Concrete riprap, Vegetation,Synthetic sodding.
Velocity control device
For exit velocity greater than 2.5 of that of natural channels velocity. (In this case energy
dissipater is required.
Nomograph Design
Detail design for channel 4
113
2010
The following steps show the procedures we followed step by Step to design a culvert for
channel-4 for in the project area especially near the station 15+440.
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
a. Site survey project file contains:
roadway profile and
embankment cross section
no sediment or debris problems and
Cross-Section
Design criteria we have used 25yrs return period for our design purpose because our road
to be designed is DS4.
Step 2 Determining Hydrology using
Rational method equations yield
Q25=16.5m3/s,
Q50=17.9m3/s
Step 3 Design Downstream Channel

Point
Station, m
Elevation, m
15+400
1346.3
15+410
1346.5
15+420
1346.7
15+430
1346.9
15+440
1346.9
15+450
1347.1
15+460
1347.2
15+470
1347.3
15+480
1347.4
114
2010
10
15+490
1347.5
11
15+500
1347.6
Table 3-2 down stream station
Culvert Design-Example
X-Section At
Tail Water
Chainage
Dist, m
Level
15+400
1350.50
15+410
10
1350.30
15+420
20
1349.60
15+430
30
1348.00
15+440
40
1346.30
15+450
50
1348.20
15+460
60
1350.20
15+470
70
1352.00
15+480
80
1353.00
15+490
90
1354.20
15+500
100
1355.00
Table 3-3 X-Section At Tail Water
115
2010
Step 3 Design downstream channel
0.00
v:h =1:2
v:h =1:2
b=10m
The stream channel can be approximated to trapezoidal channel

B= 10m
Slope 2:1
H:V
Channel material- clean straight, no rims or deep pools n =0.03

no sediment debris problem
Slope (s)
0.006
Table 3-4 Down stream chanal
The rating curve for the channel calculated by normal depth yields:
116
Width
Depth,m (B), m
2010
Area,m2
P, m
R,m
Q=AV,
V=(1/n)R^2/3S^1/2 m3/s
0.10
10
1.02
12.24
0.08
0.006
0.03
0.49
0.50
0.30
10
3.18
12.24
0.26
0.006
0.03
1.05
3.34
0.50
10
5.50
12.24
0.45
0.006
0.03
1.52
8.33
0.70
10
7.92
12.24
0.65
0.006
0.03
1.93
15.29
0.73
10
8.30
12.24
0.68
0.006
0.03
1.99
16.55
0.76
10
8.70
12.24
0.71
0.006
0.03
2.06
17.91
0.90
10
10.62
12.24
0.87
0.006
0.03
2.35
24.95
1.00
10
12.00
12.24
0.98
0.006
0.03
2.55
30.58
1.05
10
12.71
12.24
1.04
0.006
0.03
2.65
33.64
1.10
10
13.42
12.24
1.10
0.006
0.03
2.75
36.85
1.20
10
14.88
12.24
1.22
0.006
0.03
2.94
43.77
1.50
10
19.50
12.24
1.59
0.006
0.03
3.52
68.69
1.700
10
22.78
12.24
1.86
0.006
0.03
3.91
89.01
Table 3-5 The rating curve for the channel calculated by normal depth yields:
Q (m3/s)
TW (m)
Elev,m asl
Velocity(m/s)
0.5
0.1
1346.3
0.49
3.34
0.3
1346.5
1.05
8.33
0.5
1346.9
1.52
15.29
0.7
1346.9
1.93
16.55
0.73
1347.1
1.99
24.95
0.9
1347.2
2.06
30.58
1.0
1347.3
2.35
36.85
1.05
1347.3
2.55
Downstream
117
Q m3/s
Depth,m
2010
Elev,masl
0.50
0.10
1346.3
3.34
0.30
1346.5
8.33
0.50
1346.7
15.29
0.70
1346.9
16.55
0.73
1346.9
24.95
0.90
1347.1
30.58
1.00
1347.2
33.64
1.05
1347.3
36.85
1.10
1347.3
43.77
1.20
1347.4
68.69
1.50
1347.7
89.01
1.700
1347.9
Table 3-6 down stream rating curve
Step 5 Select Design Alternative

Shape - box Size - 3000 mm by 2000 mm
Material concrete Entrance- Wingwalls, for 30o flare
Step 6 Select Design Discharge
Qd=16.5m3/5
Step 7 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use inlet control nomograph - Chart 7-6
a. D = 2 m
b. Q/B = 16.5/3 = 5.5
118
2010
c. HW/D = 1.2, for 30o flare

d. HWi = (HW/D)*D
= (1.2)(2m)
= 2.4m (Neglect the approach velocity)
Step 8 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)
a. TW =0.73 m for Q50 = 16.5 m3/s
b. dc = 1.43 m from Chart 7-7 (ERA design manual)
Or, by using the formula we obtain the critical depth as follows:
dc=0.467*(QB)2/3
=0.467*(16.53) 2/3
= 1.46m which is similar to the value obtained from the nomogragh in
previous case. So let us take our dc=1.43, so that
(dc + D)/2 = (1.43 + 2)/2 = 1.71 m
And, ho = max(TW , (dc + D/2)),but our Tw=0.73m from step 8 above
ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.71 m =>maximum value of the two.
e. Ke = 0.2 from Table 7-2 ERA mannual
f .Determine (H) - use Chart 7-8 (ERA design manual)
Ke scale = 0.2
culvert length (L) = 80 m
n = 0.012 same as on chart

119
area = 6.0m2
H = 0.67m (from nomogragh 7-8)
2010
g. HWoi = H + ho - SoL = .67 + 1.71 - (0.006)80 = 1.9 m

HWoi is less than 1.2D, but control is inlet control, outlet control
computations are for comparison only
Step 9 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)
HWc = HWi = 2.4 m > HWoi = 1.9
The culvert is in inlet control
Step 10 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

a. Calculate depth above the roadway:
HWr = HWc Hwov
= 2.4 (1352.9-1348)
= -2.5m (This result shows that there is no any water flowing over the road).In
other word the level of water is 2.5m below the roadway.
Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)
In our calculation above we have determined the discharge over the road is (Qt=0)
because it has negative value. So the total discharge (Qt) is calculated
As follows:
Qt = Qd + Qr = 16.5 m3/s + 0 = 16.5 m3/s
Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)
Inlet Control
120
2010
a. Calculate normal depth (dn):

Where we have used trial error method to calculate the normal depth of the flow in the
culvert
Q = (1/n)A* R2/3 S1/2 ,but A=B*dn,
where A=cross sectional area
B=width of the culvert
R=A/Pw, where A=cross sectional area
R=hydraulic radius of the culvert
Pw=wetted perimeter of the clvert
Pw=B+2dn ,B=3
16.5 m3/s= (1/0.012)(3*dn)[(3*dn)/(3+2dn)]2/3(0.05)0.5
= (3*dn)[3*dn/(3+2dn)]2/3 *(0.05)0.5
=>dn=1.08m as it is shown in the following table in order to convey the total
discharge (Qt=16.5). So our trials and their corresponding results are given in the table
below.
dn
1/n
R^2/3
S^1/2
0.2
83.33
0.60
0.3
0.1
2.2
1.3
0.25
83.33
0.75
0.4
0.1
2.5
1.9
0.3
83.33
0.90
0.4
0.1
2.8
2.5
0.4
83.33
1.20
0.5
0.1
3.2
3.9
121
2010
0.50
83.33
1.50
0.5
0.1
3.6
5.4
0.90
83.33
2.70
0.7
0.1
4.8
12.8
1.00
83.33
3.00
0.7
0.1
5.0
14.9
1.05
83.33
3.15
0.7
0.1
5.1
15.9
1.08
83.33
3.24
0.7
0.1
5.1
16.6
1.10
83.33
3.30
0.7
0.1
5.1
17.0
1.15
83.33
3.45
0.8
0.1
5.2
18.1
1.20
83.33
3.60
0.8
0.1
5.3
19.2
1.50
83.33
4.50
0.8
0.1
5.8
25.9
2.00
83.33
6.00
0.9
0.1
6.3
37.7
2.20
83.33
6.60
0.9
0.1
6.5
42.6
2.30
83.33
6.90
0.9
0.1
6.5
45.1
2.50
83.33
7.50
1.0
0.1
6.7
50.1
2.60
83.33
7.80
1.0
0.1
6.7
52.6
3.00
83.33
9.00
1.0
0.1
7.0
62.7
Table 3-7 Discharge trial

From the table above we determined our dn =1.08m.
A = (3)*1.08 = 3.24 m2
Vo = Q/A = 16.5/3.24
= 5.093 m/s >2.5*1.99m/s (down stream velocity).So energy dissipater is required to
the damage of adjacent structure and to protect scouring outlet of culvert.
Step 13 Review Results
This step is the step of comparison of alternative design with constraints and
assumptions, if any of the following are exceeded we repeat, Steps 5 through 12 in order
to have a convenient and safe design.
barrel has:
122
2010
((1352.9-1346.2) m-2.4m) = 2.5m of cover
L = 80m is OK, since inlet control
headwalls and wing walls fit site
allowable headwater (4.9 m) > 2.5 m is ok and
overtopping flood frequency > 25-year

So the design is ok!
3.3.4 Structural Design of Culvert

The following principles are specific to structural design of culverts:
All culverts shall be hydraulically designed.
Overtopping flood selected is generally consistent with the class of highway and the
risk at the site
Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be investigated to avoid sediment
build-up in culvert barrels.
Material selection shall include consideration of materials availability, and the service
life including abrasion and corrosion potentials.
Design Criteria
Listed below by categories are the design criteria that should be considered for all culvert
designs. The type of drainage structure specified for a particular location is often
determined based on economic considerations; Culverts can be concrete box culverts,
reinforced concrete pipe culverts, or corrugated metal culverts; Concrete box culverts are
constructed with a square or rectangular opening, and with wing walls at both ends.
Design Computation
In this project we propose four culverts and one bridge based on the topography and the
flow direction.
123
2010
Culvert 1 is at station =12+592.31m

Bridge 1 is at station =14+089m
For design purpose we took culvert number 4 at station15+471.12m as a sample for the
hydraulics and structural design of the culvert. We choose box culvert for our design
since it is easy to construction, to prevent scouring and settlement due to the soil type of
that area.
Fig 3-3 station of culvert 4

Structural design of box culvert
124
2010
Design data
Geometric data
Internal dimension=h=2
W=3m (From the hydraulics)
Height of fill above the culvert=4.6m (from the profile)
Thickness of the slab=300mm (thickness is normally taken
as 1/10th to 1/15th of
the span)
External dimensions =h=2.3m and w=3.3m

Road width=6.7m
Span=3.3m
Concrete: take C25
Reinforcement
Take steel: S460
Geotechnical data
Unit weight of the soil =18kN/m3 (assumed)
Angle of repose of the soil, =300 (assumed)
Design type
A live load of design truck.
Dead load, live load with water pressure from inside.
Design procedure
1/ Load
125
2010
Dead load= (1*4.6) m*18kN/m3

=82.8KN/m2
2/ Tire contact area calculation:Contact area =L*w
Where w=500mm
L=2.28*10-3**(1+IM/100)*p
Where =load factor for the limit state under consideration
=1.75(ERA, table 3-2)
IM= dynamic load allowance percent
=33% for other limit state
P=72.5KN for design truck
There fore, L= 2.28*10-3*1.75*(1+.33/100)*72.5 =290mm.
Fig 3-4 wheel load distribution

Distribution of wheel load:For height of fill > 0.6m
126
2010
L=L+1.15hf
W=w+1.15hf (ERA section 3.8.6)
There fore, L=0.29+1.15*4.6 =5.58m
W=0.50+1.15*4.6 = 5.79m
But L is greater than the span of the culvert. There fore the intensity of the live loading
needs to be reduced proportionally.
Reduced load= (72.5*3.6)/5.58 =46.77KN
Load with impact factor=1.25*46.77 =58.47KN
Intensity of live load on the slab:
Intensity=load/area
=load/ (culvert span*w)
=58.47/ (3.6*5.79)=2.805KN/m2 =2805N/m2
3/ Load and reaction calculation
Dead load of the top slab:=0.3*1*25000=7500N/m2=75KN/m2
Total load on the culvert=Dead load +Live load
=82.8KN/m2+2.805kN/m2=85.605KN/m2=85605N/2
There fore,
Total design load on the top slab=85605N/2+7,500N/m2
=93,105N/m2
Weight of each wall (side wall) =2.3*0.3*25000=17,250N/m
127
2010
Then, up ward reaction at the base

= [(93,105*3.3) + (2*17250)]/3.3*1
=103,559N/m2
4/ Lateral pressure
Coefficient of active pressure (Ka) =
Ka
1 sin 30 1
1 sin 30 3
Lateral pressure due to dead and live load

=Total vertical load*Ka =85605*1/3 =28535N/m2
Lateral pressure due to the soil at depth of 2.6m:
=Ka**h =1/3*18000*2.6=15600N.m2
There fore,
Lateral intensity at top=28535N/m2
Lateral intensity at the bottom=28535+15600N.m2 =44135N/m2
128
2010
Fig 3-5 Pressure diagram for live and dead load
Fig3-5 Pressure diagram due to water
129
2010
Fig 3-6 Final pressure diagram of the forces or loadings on the components of the culvert.
6/ Moments and shear force calculation
On account of symmetry, it is enough to consider half the frame AEFD for moment
distribution. As all members are of uniform thickness and have the same dimensions,
their moments of inertia are equal.
Relative stiffness of members is:
KAD=1
KAE=KDF=1/2
Distribution factors are:
D AD DDA
1 3
1
2
D AB DDC
1
2
1
1
2
1
3
Fixed end moments are:

MFAB
wl 2 93105 * 2.6 2
52449 N .m 52.499 KN .m
12
12
MFDC
wl 2 103559 * 3.6 2
111843 .7 N .m 111 .843KN .m

12
12
1 * 2.6 *15574 * 2.6

pl 2 wl 28535 * 2.6 2
MFAD

2
19584.06 N .m 19.584 KN .m
12 15
12
15
1 * 2.6 *15574 * 2.6

pl 2 wl
28535 * 2.6 2
MFDA

2
21338.73N .m 21.338KN .m
12 10
12
10
130
Joint member
DF
Fixed E.Mome.(KN.m)
balance
2010
DC DA
AD AB
1/3 2/3
2/3 1/3
111.8 -21.34
19.58 -52.49
-30.15 -60.31
-30.15
balance
carryover
balance
42.04 21.02
21.01
-7. -14.01
carryover
-7.005
balance
carryover
balance
4.67 2.33
2.335
-0.778 -1.557
carryover
-0.778
balance
carryover
balance
0.519 0.259
0.259
-0.86 -0.173
carryover
-0.086
balance
carryover
balance
0.058 0.029
0.029
-0.01 -0.019
carryover
-0.01
balance
0.007 0.003
131

carryover
2010
0.003
balance
-0.001 -0.002
Final end moments(KN.m)
73. -73.
28.85 -28.85
Then the final end moments are:MDC=73.001KN.m;

MDA=-73.77KN.m
MAD=28.83KN.m
MAB=-28.85KN.m
7/ Reactions
For horizontal slab AB, carrying distributed load of 93105N/m2,
Vertical reaction RA=RB is:-,
R A RB
1
* 93105 * 3.6 167589 N
2
For bottom slab DC, carrying distributed load of 103559N/m2,

Vertical reaction RD =RC is:RD RC
1
* 103559 * 3.6 186406.21N
2
For vertical member AD, the horizontal reaction HA at A is found by taking moments
about D. Thus,
132
H A * 2.6 28850 73000
2010
28535 * 2.6 *
2.6 44109 28835 * 2.6 * 2.6

0
2
2.6 * 2
H A 29005.6 N
28535 44109
* 2.6 H A
2
94437.2 29055.6
65431.6 N
HD
Fig3-7Shear force and axial forces

Bending moment calculation
Free bending moment at mid point E
93105 * 3.6 2
150830.10 N.m
8
Then, net bending moment at E,(top slab)=150830.10-28850

133
2010
=121980.10N.m
Again,
Free bending moment at mid point F (bottom slab) =
103559 * 3.6 2
167765.58 N.m
8
Then, net bending moment at F=167765.58-73000

=94765.58N.m
For vertical member AD, which is simply supported bending moment at mid span, is=
28535 * 2.6 2 44109 28535 * 2.6 2
8
16
30692.12 N.m
Then, net bending moment=

73000 28850
30692.12
2
20232.88 N.m
Components of the culvert
Bending moment at the

center(N.m)
Bending moment at ends(N.m)
Top Slab
121980.10
28850.00
Bottom slab
94765.58
73000.00
Side walls
20232.88
73000.00
Table3-8 Summary of bending moments of the culvert components
134
2010
Fig3-8 Bending moment for the components of the culvert

Reinforcement
Overall depth=300mm
Cover=50mm
Effective depth=d=300-50=250mm
Fcd= (0.68*fck)/c= (0.68*25)/1.5=11.33MPa
fyd=fyk/1.15=460/1.15=400MPa
Width (b) =1000mm
Top slab
At span/center
Depth checking
d check
M
0.2952 * b * f cd
135
2010
121980.10 *1000
190mm
0.2952 *1000 *11.33
d check
There fore, the depth is adequate.

Area of steel (Ast,cal)=
2M
Ast ,cal 1
b * d 2 * f cd
f cd
*b * d
f yd
2 * 121980 * 1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
* 1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 * 11.33
400
4641.65mm 2
Spacing(S) =
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 67.68mm
2
4641.65
Provide 20mm diameter bars with minimum c/c spacing 250mm.

Support reinforcement
2 * 28850 *1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
*1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 *11.33
400
6504.25mm 2
Spacing ( S )
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 48.30mm
2
6504.25

136
2010
Bottom slab
At span/center
Depth checking=
M
0.2952 * b * f cd
d check
d check
94765.58 *1000
168.33mm
0.2952 *1000 *11 .33
There fore, the depth required is adequate.

f cd
2M
Ast ,cal 1
*b * d
*
b * d 2 * f cd f yd
2 * 94765.58 *1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
*1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 *11.33
400
5185.94mm 2
Spacing ( S )
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 60.58mm
5185.94

2 * 73000 * 1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
* 1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 * 11.33
400
3865.88mm 2
137
Spacing ( S )
2010
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 81.26mm
3865.88

Side walls
At span/center
Depth checking=
M
0.2952 * b * f cd
d check
d check
20232.88 *1000
77.78mm
0.2952 *1000 *11 .33
There fore, the depth required is adequate.

f cd
2M
Ast ,cal 1
*b * d
*
2
b * d * f cd f yd
2 * 20232.88 *1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
*1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 *11.33
400
5388.48mm 2
Spacing(S) =
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 60.58mm
2
5388.48
138
2010

2 * 73000 * 1000 11.33

Ast ,cal 1
* 1000 * 250
*
1000 * 250 2 * 11.33
400
3865.88mm 2
Spacing ( S )
as * b
As
* 20 4 *1000 81.26mm
2
3865.88
Section-4. Earth Work and Mass Haul Diagram

4.1 Earth Work
Earth work is conversion of natural ground condition to required sections and grades.
Earth work in high way design includes determination of cuts and fills, location of
borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over haul distance determination.
The careful attentions to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass
haul diagram are essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical,
and cross-sectional design. This is especially true when the design includes consideration
of the least cost in relation to earth works. Key terms associated with this process, as
listed in definitions, include:
Borrow - material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts,
flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the
Right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans.
Waste
- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
139
2010
embankment.
Free Haul - the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported
without the added cost above the unit bid price.
Overhaul - excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance.
Economic Limit of Haul - distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow.
Clearing and garbing (m2) - the removal of top soil, trees, bushes and e.t.c
Excavation (m3) - the process of loosing and removal of soil and rocks. It can be done
for three reasons.
In order to maintain the grades for roads and drainage
For structure foundation
For borrow excavation
Embankment /compaction (m3k.hr) - densification of fill section of the road.
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:
End area calculations

Earthwork calculations
Preparation of mass haul diagram.
Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
Purpose of the preparation of earth work quantities and mass haul diagram
To estimate cost of the (to limit the cost of construction)

For the proper distribution of excavated material
To determine amount and location of waste and borrow.
Amount of over haul in kilometer cubic meter can be determined.
To determine direction of haul.
Computation of earthwork
140
2010
There are several ways of calculating earthwork but the most common is the average end
area method. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent
stations and multiplying by the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of
excavation and embankment between the two stations.
End Area Calculations
In this project we took 25 cross section that covers total distance of 500 m (from station
12 + 500 to 13+000 m)
Calculation procedure followed
Area at different cross section along the road with an interval of 20m station
is taken.
Read the elevations of existing profile along the right of way (50 m) from the
contour to plot the points.
Design proposed carriage way by providing a cross fall of 2.5% from the
center to both direction. Then the amount of cut and fill are determined at
each 20m stations (to calculate the end area areas we use AutoCAD software
program)
Preparation of mass haul diagram.
Volume calculation
The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by
different formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial
formula.
Average end Area Method (trapezoidal method)
A1 A2
*L
2
V=
Where :
V= volume in m3
141
2010
A1and A2 is area of successive cross-section in m2

L= distance between successive cross section in m in this case 20 m.
The average end area method is simple and is generally preferred, so we choose this
method for this particular project.
The volume computed by this formula is likely to be higher than the true value in the case
of the section changing rapidly.
Estimation of earth work quantities
Based on:o Estimate of quantities
o Rate of abstract of work
Shrinkage and swelling should be included in estimating the quantities. According to
ERA 2001 there is a recommended shrinkage and swelling factor there fore the following
tables show the recommended values of Shrinkage factors
Type of soil
Shrinkage factor
Light soil (ordinary ground)
10-25%
Light soil(swamp ground)
20-40%
Heavy soil
up to10%
Table 4-1 Soil shrinkage factor

4.2 Mass haul diagram
It is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment involved in
a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved.
The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes
142
2010
negative. At the beginning of the curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated
continuously from the initial station to the end of the project.
Mass haul diagram is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the
cut (+ve) and fill (-ve) volume from some initial station for any succeeding section. The
horizontal axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or stations. The
vertical axis represents the cumulative quantity of earth work in cubic meter (m3).
The mass haul diagram allows determining direction of haul and the quantity of earth
taken from or hauled to any location. It shows balance point the station between which is
the volume of excavation. In this project horizontal axis represents stations from 12+500
to 13+000 and the vertical axis represents the cumulative volume.
Use of mass haul diagram
The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:
Proper distribution of excavated material

Amount and location of waste
Amount and location of borrow
Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
Direction of haul.
In proportion and enabling suitable plant, equipment or machinery.
For our project the mass haul diagram is drawn according to the following data. We use
swelling factor of 0 % and factor shrinkage 85 % because we assume the soil is ordinary
common soil so we consider only swelling.
Calculation of mass ordinates is performed and the results are shown below on the table.
143
End Area(m2)
Station
cut
Fill
12+500
15.64
48.35
12+520
11.95
81.06
12+540
2.98
12+560
2010
Dist
ance(m)
Tot.Adj.cut vol.
fill vol.
Mass
ordinet(m3)
Adj.factor
Adj.cut
0.85
13.29
20
0.85
10.16
234.49
1294.05
-1059.56
89.72
20
0.85
2.53
126.91
1707.81
-2640.46
0.00
125.60
20
0.85
0.00
25.34
2153.18
-4768.30
12+580
0.00
115.74
20
0.85
0.00
0.00
2413.38
-7181.68
12+600
0.24
79.78
20
0.85
0.21
2.08
1955.22
-9134.82
12+620
9.06
36.18
20
0.85
7.70
79.13
1159.64
-10215.34
12+640
2.35
43.15
20
0.85
2.00
97.05
793.37
-10911.67
12+660
60.34
0.86
20
0.85
51.29
532.86
440.18
-10818.99
12+680
95.33
0.00
20
0.85
81.03
1323.19
8.64
-9504.44
12+700
115.38
0.87
20
0.85
98.07
1791.02
8.74
-7722.15
12+720
123.29
6.48
20
0.85
104.80
2028.70
73.58
-5767.03
12+740
111.28
19.05
20
0.85
94.59
1993.91
255.35
-4028.47
12+760
108.40
29.66
20
0.85
92.14
1867.26
487.10
-2648.32
12+780
107.95
45.24
20
0.85
91.76
1838.95
748.97
-1558.34
0.00
144
2010
12+800
151.88
50.51
20
0.85
129.10
2208.56
957.43
-307.21
12+820
99.01
76.88
20
0.85
84.16
2132.54
1273.84
551.49
12+840
104.34
78.86
20
0.85
88.69
1728.42
1557.42
722.49
12+860
95.42
82.83
20
0.85
81.11
1697.94
1616.97
803.47
12+880
82.88
101.51
20
0.85
70.45
1515.58
1843.46
475.59
12+900
72.19
101.21
20
0.85
61.36
1318.07
2027.19
-233.53
12+920
77.90
111.42
20
0.85
66.22
1275.74
2126.26
-1084.05
12+940
72.59
125.25
20
0.85
61.70
1279.14
2366.72
-2171.63
12+960
60.88
128.38
20
0.85
51.75
1134.47
2536.32
-3573.48
12+980
51.63
152.34
20
0.85
43.89
956.37
2807.19
-5424.30
13+000
49.85
165.54
20
0.85
42.37
862.60
3178.82
-7740.53
Table 4-2 mass ordinate
Fig.4-1 Mass haul diagram

The direction of haul:
From station 12+640 to 12+740 to the left.
From station 12+740 to 12+860 to the right.
145
2010
Economical Over Haul Distance

When costing the Earth moving, there are basic costs which are usually included in the
contracts for the project.
Cost of free haul :- any earth moved over distances not greater than the free haul
distance is cost only on the excavation of its volume.
Cost of over haul: - any earth moved over distances greater than the free haul distance is
charged both for its volume and for the distance in excess of the free haul distance over
which it is moved. This charge can be specified either for units of haul or for units of
volume.
Cost of waste: - any surplus or unsuitable material which must be removed from the site
and deposited in a tip is usually charged on units of volume. This charge can vary from
one section of the site to another depending on the nearness of tips.
Cost of borrow: - any extra material which must be brought on to the site to make up the
deficiency is also usually charged on units of volume.
This charge can also vary from one section of the site to another depending on the
nearness of borrow pits.
ELH = FH distance + (Unit Price of Borrow/ Unit Price of Overhaul)
Where: ELH = Economic limit of haul
FH = Free haul distance
Assume that
Ec = cost of excavation per unit volume(m3)
Hard excavation to embankment = 273 birr/m3
Excavation an unsuitable = 62 birr/m3
Bc = cost of borrow per cubic meter per station = 15 birr/m3
OHc = cost of over hauling per unit volume-station = 12 birr /m3
FH = Free haul distance = 120m (6 station)
ELH = FH + (Bc / OHc)
146
2010
= 120/20 + 15/12 = 7.25 station or 145 m

Therefore the economic haul distance is 145 m.
Total free haul volume = VD + FW
= 3500 +1500 =5000 m3 from mass haul diagram
Total borrow =AB + LH = 4000 +7800 = 11800m3
Cost of earth work = cost of borrow +cost of excavation + cost of over haul
Cost of borrow = Total volume of borrow *cost of borrow per meter cubic
=11800m3*15 birr/100m3 = 1770 birr
Cost of excavation = volume of excavation * cost of excavation per meter cubic
Volume of excavation = DJ + FI = 7000 +4900 = 11900m3
Cost of excavation = 11900*273 birr/100m3 =32,487 birr
Cost of over haul = over haul volume *cost of over haul per station meter.
For loop 1
Over haul volume 1 = area CJM + area UEO
= 43,750 + 70,000 = 113750 m3
For loop 2
Over haul volume 2 = area ESP+ area QRG
= 96,250 + 87,500 = 183,750 m3
Total Over haul volume = 113750 + 183,750 = 297,500 m3
Cost of over haul = 297,500 m3 *12 birr/100m3
= 35,700 birr.
147
2010
Total cost of earth work = cost of borrow +cost of excavation + cost of over haul
= 1770 birr + 32,487 birr + 35,700 birr.
= 69,957 birr
Section-5:
Pavement design
Pavement design is the process of developing the most economical combination of

pavement layers (thickness, type) to suit the soil foundation and withstand the load due to
cumulative traffic during the design life or period.
The design standard described here presents the pavement design standard which will be
utilized in the course of the design works all in accordance with ERA Pavement Design
manuals and other internationally recognized Pavement Design Standards. The main
design parameters for the pavement design include:
Estimating the amount of traffic
Assessing and evaluating the strength of sub grade soil
Locally available construction materials
Drainage Conditions
Environment factors
In this standard, traffic volume, Sub grade type, construction materials and local factors
are the main design inputs.
The traffic volume will be determined from the traffic counts in terms of AADT
(Average Annual Daily traffic) we take this value from the given data. We determine the
Sub grade type and strength from the given CBR % (California Bearing Ratio) Values.
The basic idea in building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles is to prepare a
suitable Sub grade, provide necessary drainage and construct a pavement that will:
148
2010
Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic
loads;
Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal
accumulation of moisture, and
Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as
well as reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by weather.
The sub grade ultimately carries all traffic loads.
The basic idea in building a pavement for all weather use by vehicles is:
To prepare a suitable sub grade
Provide necessary drainage and
Construct a pavement that will have sufficient total thickness and internal strength
to carry expected traffic loads, and distribute them over the sub grade soil without
overstressing.
Design inputs
In this pavement design, the design inputs are summarized into two main parameters,
traffic load in terms of cumulative ESA and Subgrade strength interim of CBR. The
overall required strength is read from charts or graphs which preset pavement catalogues
in which each pavement composition is classified based on ranges of traffic loading (T 1T8) and Subgrade strength (S1-S6) maximum CBR value. Therefore we provide flexible
pavement for our road project.
Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements are intended to limit the stress created at the sub grade level by the
traffic traveling on the pavement surface, so that the sub grade is not subject to significant
deformations. In effect, the concentrated loads of the vehicle wheels are spread over a
sufficiently larger area at sub grade level.
149
2010
A flexible pavement is one, which has low (bending) flexural strength, and the load is
largely transmitted to the sub grade soil through the lateral distribution of stresses with
increasing depth.
The pavement thickness is designed such that the stresses on the sub grade soil are kept
with in its bearing capacity and the sub grade is prevented from excessive deformation.
The strength and smoothness of flexible pavement structure depends to a large extent on
the deformation of the sub grade soil.
A flexible pavement must satisfy a number of structural criteria or considerations;
The sub grade should be able to sustain traffic loading without excessive
deformation; this is controlled by the vertical compressive stress or strain at this
level.
Bituminous materials and cement-bound materials used in road base design
should not crack under the influence of traffic; this is controlled by the horizontal
tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the road base.
The road base is often considered the main structural layer of the pavement,
required to distribute the applied traffic loading so that the underlying materials
are not over stressed. It must be able to sustain the stress and strain generated
within it with out excessive or rapid deterioration of any kind.
In pavements containing a considerable thickness of bituminous materials, the
internal deformation of these materials must be limited; their deformation is a
function of their creep characteristics.
The load spreading ability of granular sub base and capping layers must be
adequate to provide a satisfactory construction platform.
Elements of the conventional flexible pavement
Tack coat
150
2010
Is a very light application of asphalt usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water
used to ensure the bond between the surface being paved (surface course) and the
overlying course.
Essential requirements of tack coat
It must be very thin.
It must uniformly cover the entire surface to be paved.
It must be allowed to break or cure before the HMA is laid.
Prime coat
Is an application of low viscosity cut-back asphalt to an absorbent surface, such as
un treated granular base on which an asphalt layer will be placed.
Its purpose is to bind granular base to the asphalt layer.
The prime coat penetrates the underlying layer, plugs the voids, and forms water
tight surface.
Surface course
The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called the
wearing course
It is usually constructed by dense graded hot-mix asphalt
It must be:
Tough to resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-resistant
riding surface.
Waterproof to protect the entire pavement and sub grade from the weakening
effect of water.
Binder course
Sometimes called the asphalt base course is the asphalt layer below the surface
course.
It is placed for two reasons:
First, the HMA is too thick to be compacted one layer, so it must be placed in two
layer.
151
2010
Second the binder course generally consists of larger aggregates and less asphalt
and does not require a high quality as the surface so replacing a part of the
surface course by the binder course results in a more economical design.

Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface course.
It may be composed of well graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular material
mixed with binder, or stabilized materials. It is the main structural part of the
pavement and provides a level surface for laying the surface layer.
Sub base course
Construct using local and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of the
sub grade. It provides additional help to the base and the upper layers in
distributing the load. It facilitates drainage of free water that might get
accumulated below the pavement.
Sub grade
It is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the pavement
layers finally rest. It is an in situ or a layer of selected materials compacted to the
desirable density near the optimum moisture content.
152
2010
Fig 5-1 Road layer

The basic key elements for designing of pavements are:
Traffic class
Sub grade strength
5.1 Traffic volume analysis

Traffic classes are depends on ESAs & vehicle classification;
Where ESAs are based on:
Vehicle classification
Cumulative traffic volume ( T )
Equivalency factor (EF)
Vehicle classification from the give data
Passenger vehicles
Freight vehicles
Cars
Small trucks
4WD
Medium trucks
Small bus
Heavy trucks
Large bus
Articulated trucks
Cumulative traffic volume ( T )

T = AADT1*(p)*(D)*365((1+i)N -1)/i
Where, AADT1 traffic volume when the road is open (2013)
i
N =
growth rate
= 7 %, it is given
design period
= 15, it is given
P = lane distribution factor
=1 (100%) ERA/AASHTO
153
2010
D = directional distribution factor = 0.5 this accounts for any

directional variation in total traffic volume or loading pattern.
Equivalency factor (EF)
EF= (Axle i/8160)n
Where, n is usually 4.5
Axles i = load in kg
The Cumulative number of vehicles are depends on AADT (2013) & Diverted
traffic (2013), then we use the sum of both traffic volume.
To calculate equivalent standard axles (ESAs) by using, Cumulative number of
vehicle (T) and Equivalency factor (EF).
5.2 Axle load survey and equivalent factor computation

From the axle load survey data of each vehicle, the equivalent factor is computed and
summarized in the following table. Refer to annex for the detail computation.
Day 13
Classificatio
n of vehicles
NO.
Day 14
EF
NO.
Day 15
EF
NO.
Day 16
EF
NO.
Day 17
EF
NO.
Day 18
EF
NO.
T0TAL
EF
NO.
EF
EF
car
0.00
4 WD
0.00
S/Bus
10
0.3
10
0.31
10
0.54
10
0.54
10
0.44
10
0.75
60
2.87
0.05
L/Bus
10
8.3
10
8.89
10
3.89
10
10
10
8.90
10
10.9
60
50.86
0.85
S/Truck
0.0
0.02
0.00
M/Truck
10
0.3
10
0.91
10
0.09
10
3.86
10
6.02
10
0.16
60
11.28
0.19
L/Truck
10
83.3
10
55.5
10
46.7
10
49.8
10
91.40
10
58.4
60
385.02
6.42
T/Trailer
10
192.6
10
165
10
117
10
145
10
145.5
10
112
60
878.39
14.64
154
2010
5.3 Traffic class determination

Calculation of ESAs by using the above Axle load survey
EF= (Axle i/8160)^4.5 T = AADT1*(p)*(D)*365((1+i)N -1)/i
i= 7% P= 1 D= 0.5
Day 13
Day 14
Day 15
Day 16
Day 17
Day 18
T0TAL
EF
AADT1
Cumula.
No.
Veh.
car
0.00
0.00
4 WD
0.00
21
96307
0.00
Classification
of vehicles
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
NO.
EF
ESAs
(10^6)
S/Bus
10
0.3
10
0.31
10
0.54
10
0.54
10
0.44
10
0.75
60
2.87
0.05
18
82549
0.00
L/Bus
10
8.3
10
8.89
10
3.89
10
10
10
8.90
10
10.9
60
50.86
0.85
32102
0.03
S/Truck
0.0
0.02
0.00
38
174270
0.00
M/Truck
10
0.3
10
0.91
10
0.09
10
3.86
10
6.02
10
0.16
60
11.28
0.19
31
142167
0.03
L/Truck
10
83.3
10
55.5
10
46.7
10
49.8
10
91.40
10
58.4
60
385.02
6.42
51
233888
1.50
T/Trailer
10
192.6
10
165
10
117
10
145
10
145.5
10
112
60
878.39
14.64
38
174270
2.55
Sum
4.11
Table 5-1 ESAs computation

ESAs = 4.11*10^6
Based on this traffic analysis the main access belongs to the traffic class T5 which is in the
range of (3 to 6)*10^6 ESAs.
CBR test from the given data is 4% from 0 km to 24km and our road project is between
12.5 km to 15.5 km. According to ERA 2002 design manual CBR test (3-4) % fails in to
the soil class sub grade strength S2 .Therefore our road project design is based on traffic
class T5 and sub grade strength S2.
5.4 Selection of economical section

155
2010
By using T5 and S2 the economical pavement selected from the catalog of pavement types
and configuration for design of road section. Chart (1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8) selected for
comparison purpose.
Materials
abbreviation
pric(m3)inbi
rr
Double surface dressing
DSD
1000
Flexible bituminous surface
FBS
2050
Bituminous surface
BS
900
Bituminous road base, RB
BRB
1045
Granular road base, GB1-GB3
GRB(1-3)
560
Granular sub base GS
GSB
250
Granular capping layer, or selected sub grade fill, GC
GCL or SSF
200
Cement or lime stabilized road base1, CS1
C or LSRB1
Cement or lime stabilized road base2, CS2
C or LSRB2
810
Cement or lime stabilized sub base, CS
C or LSSB
860
Table 5-2 Material and price
Chart 1
Chart 2
SD
SD
156
Chart 3
2010
Chart 4
Chart 7
Chart 8
SD
157
2010
158
2010
Price
Price (Birr )
chart8
Birr/m3
chart1
chart2
50
1000
50
50
THICKNESS OF THE CHARTS (mm)

Materials
chart1
chart2
DSD
50
50
FBS
chart3
50
chart4
50
BRB
GRB(1-3)
200
GSB
275
GCLorSSF
200
CorLSRB2
150
175
200
250
CorLSSB
50
2050
125
1045
150
275
200
chart7
200
225
200
chart7
chart8
102.5
102.5
130.63
112
250
68.75
225
200
40
200
810
225
860
Total
chart4
50
102.5
560
225
chart3
84
98
84
68.75
40
40
202.5
56.25
40
40
182.25
45
162
193.5
270.75
376.5
309.25
408.75
329.38
400.5
Table 5-3 Economical section
159
2010
From the above charts, chart 1 is more economical than others but it is not technically
feasible, because mostly it is used for maintenance purpose. Therefore, we choose chart 3
with bituminous surface (HMA). The thickness of each layer summarized as follows:
Materials
Station(km)
12 +500- 15+ 500
Layer
thickness(mm)
FBS
50
GRB(1-3)
175
GSB
275
GCL or SSF
200
Table 5-4 selected section
Section-6: Provision of traffic controls

Signings and Markings
They are directly related to the design of the highway or street and futures of traffic
controls and operation that the designer should consider in the geometric layout of such
facilities. The potential for future operational problems can be significantly reduced if
signing and marking are treated as an integral part of the highway design.
The extent to which signs and markings are used depends on the traffic volume, type of
facility and the extent of traffic control appropriate for save and efficient operation.
Generally highway signs are three types as per AASHTO practice
Regulatory signs: to indicate the rules for traffic movement (prohibitory and
mandatory).
Mandatory signs for stop and yielding.
Prohibitory signs for curve movements, weight and speed limitation etc
160
2010
Warning or danger or cautionary signs: to indicate conditions that may involve

risk to highway users.
Guide or information signs: to direct traffic along a route or towards a distention.
Physical obstructions in or near our road way project should be removed in order to
provide the appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impossible, such objects should be
adequately marked by painting or by use of other highly visible material.
Where the object is in the direct line of traffic, the obstruction and marking there on
preferably should be illuminated at night by flood lighting; where there is not practical,
the object markings should be effectively reflectorized.
Post mounted delineators are another type of marking devises used to guide traffic,
particularly at night. Reflector units are installed at certain height & spacing to delineate
the road way where alignment changes may be confusing & not clearly defined.
The importance of traffic control devices
Give timely warning of hazardous situation when they are not self evident
Regulating traffic by imparting messages to the drivers about the need to

stop, give way or yielding & limit their speed
Give information as to highway routes, directions & point of intersection.
The general guide lines for the provision of traffic signings
It should be installed only by the authority of law with proper enforcement

measures to respecting the signs.
It should be provided only after traffic engineering studies & sound judgments.
Excessive use of signs should not be resorted to.
They should be legible & understood to those who using it (visibility, lettering,
symbols, locations, simplicity, uniformity & standard size).
Location, height & maintenance of traffic signs
The location, reflecting & lighting of signs are important considerations.

161
2010
The signs should be located on the risk side of the road where the drivers will be looking
at them. On hill roads, they should be fixed on the valley side of the road & mounted on
the posts. According to AASHTO practice the signs in rural areas shall be mounted at a
height of at least 1.5m measured from the bottom to the pavement.
The sign posts should be maintained in proper position & legible at all time. Damaged
signs should be replaced immediately. Periodic painting of signs should be a routine part
of maintenance.
Road markings provisions
These markings are used as a means of controlling & guiding traffic of roads & safety.
These are:
Carriage way marking-which includes center line strip, traffic line strip, no over
taking zone, stop lines , pedestrian &cyclist crossings , route directions etc.
Object markings-which should contains Krebs markings, culvert head wall

markings, & other objects adjacent to the carriage way.
The general guide lines of longitudinal pavement markings
Solid lines are restrictive & cannot be crossed.
Broken lines are restrictive in character & vehicle can cross it safely.
Double lines indicate maximum restrictions.
When combination of solid & broken lines are used, and the traffic moves to the
right(left), a vehicle should not cross the continuous line adjacent to the
right(left) of broken lines on the lane which the vehicle moving.
Pavement marking colors shall be white (optional crossing) & yellow (not
crossing).
On rural areas the center line marking of the pavement segment & gaps shall be doubled
in length than an urban location, due to less traffic congestions. In addition the length of
gaps shall be shorter near approaches, intersections & on curves than on straight reaches.
The gap shall be half the value on straight sections.
162
2010
Traffic lane lines

The division of the carriage way in to separate lanes for traffic traveling in the same
directions on either side of the center line or median strip helps to promote travel in
proper lanes by promoting safety & ensuring maximum capacity.
No overtaking zone marking
These markings shall be provided on summit curves, horizontal curves & tangents in two
or three lane highways where overtaking & passing maneuvers must be prohibited,
because of non availability of safe overtaking sight distance or other hazardous
conditions. The marking for No overtaking zone consists of a combination lines along
the center line. The combination lines consist of a double line, the left hand element of
which shall be a solid barrier line & the right hand element also either a normal broken
center line or solid barrier governing the traffic from the opposite direction. Where a olid
barrier line is to the right of the broken line, the overtaking restriction shall apply only to
the opposing the traffic. If both lines are solid lines, No overtaking is permitted in both
directions.
163
2010
Fig 6-1. For areas on which No overtaking is permitted in both directions.
Fig.6-2 a normal broken center line for areas on which passing is permitted safely in both
directions.
164
2010
Fig.6.3 solid barrier line & the right hand element broken center line for areas on which
a solid barrier line is to the right of the broken line, the overtaking restriction in one
direction
Pavement edge lines or strips
These shall be used to indicate the edges of carriageway on which no Krebs are provided.
They serve as a visual guidance for the drivers, indicating to them the limits up to which
the driver can safely venture. They especially are useful during adverse weather & poor
visibility. Where the paved shoulder is of a lesser structural strength than the main
pavement, the edge lines are used to promote travel on the main pavement itself.
Edge lines shall be in the form of single continuous lines placed about 15cm from the
edge & the width of the lines shall be 15-20cm. Based on the above guide lines &
principles as per AASHTO & ERA manuals we recommended that:
On the crest curve, from station (PC)=13+472 to (PT) =

13+672 overtaking is not permitted hence the solid barrier
marking lines along with center line must be provided. In
addition to this post mounted traffic signs that show ascent or
descent summit curve must be provided on the risk side of
the road.
On
horizontal
curves,
from
PC=12+655.43
to
PT=12+774.55, from PC=13+098.59 to PT=13+199.38,

PC=13+263.38 to PT=13+445.38, from PC=13+806.5 to
PT=14+180.50, from PC=14+685.72 to 14+820.57, and from
PC= 15+175.76 to PT=15+274.96 , here also overtaking is
not permitted therefore the solid barrier marking lines along
with center line must be provided. And post mounted traffic
signs that show speed limitation, to the right hand & to the
165
2010
left hand horizontal curve sign must be provided on the risk

side of the road & visible to the traffic.
On the tangent curve, from station (PT) = 12+774.55 to

station (PC) =13+098.59, similar manner as to horizontal
curves.
Section-7: Environmental consideration

Environmental assessment: the identification and evaluation of the likely effects of a
proposed policy, program, or project on the environment; alternatives to the proposal;
measures to be adopted to protect the environment; a standard tool for decision making.
Environmental Issues Include
Noise from all types of equipment and traffic
Air quality / emissions and dust problems from all types of equipment and traffic
Impact on natural and planted vegetation: removal or trimming of only those plants
and trees directly affected by the implementation of the Project will be permitted.
Provisions for pedestrians and non-motorized traffic.
Access to properties /access to the site
Soil stability and earthworks
Effect on watercourses and water quality
Effects on adjacent land.
Material disposal
Equipment operation and disposal
Disposal of waste and reinstatement of land
Therefore the above factors will considered during construction of this project.
Erosion
When natural conditions are modified by the construction of a road, it marks the start of a
race between the appearance of erosion and the growth of vegetation. Disturbance during
construction can upset the often delicate balance between stabilizing factors, such as
166
2010
vegetation, and others which seek to destabilize, such as running water. In some cases
erosion might result in cumulative impacts far beyond the road itself, affecting slopes,
streams, rivers, and dams at some distance from the initial impact.
Side-tipping of spoil materials
Spoil material from road cuttings can kill vegetation and add to erosion and slope
stability problems. Large amounts of spoil can be generated during construction in
mountainous terrain. Sometimes it is difficult to design for balances between cut and fill
volumes of earth at each location, and haulage to disposal sites may be expensive. This
creates a need for environmental management of tipped material.
During construction we shall not interrupt or interfere with the flow of irrigation waters
without making prior arrangements with and obtaining the agreement of the irrigation
authorities. The contractor shall allow in his program for the construction of those works
which might interface with the flow of irrigation waters to be carried out at such times as
will cause the least disturbance to irrigation operations.
The contractor shall comply with the following: Meet the requirements of regulations.
Consult, with the engineer before locating and constructing project offices and sheds and
installing construction plant. Prevent pollution of any kind to adjacent property resulting
from the construction operation. Sites containing cement, line and similar items shall be
suitably protected from rain and flood. Natural streams or channels adjacent to the works
of this contract shall not be disturbed without the approval of the engineer.
Management of Waste Materials
Management of waste materials: all excavated material to be disposed off-site in
locations approved by the local regulatory agency. No material is to be disposed down
slope without specific approval of the site engineer, and will be approved only if existing
drainage, agricultural land, housing, and slope stability is not affected. All waste oils to
be disposed of in accordance with existing environmental regulations.
Remedial Measures
167
2010
Prevention
When planning new roads or changes in width or alignment, sensitive natural
environments should be identified early in the planning process so that alternate routes
and designs may be considered. Wherever possible, road developments should be located
more than one kilometer away from sensitive areas to avoid severe impacts on flora and
fauna. Water crossings should be minimized, and buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation
should be left between roads and after courses. Groundwater recharge areas should be
avoided, and major roads should not be constructed through national parks or other
protected areas. Advantage should be taken of opportunities to twin new road corridors
with previously established transport rights-of-way, such as railway lines.
Animal crossings
As we know Somale region has a lot of camel and goat and other wild animal .Animal
crossings can be used to assist the migration of these animals. At important crossing
points, animal tunnels or bridges have sometimes been used to reduce collision rates,
especially for protected or endangered species. Tunnels are sometimes combined with
culverts or other hydraulic structures. These measures are expensive and used only at a
few locations where they are both justified (by the importance of the animal population
and the crossing route) and affordable (relative to the cost of the project and the funds
available.
168
2010
Annexes
Annexe-1 terrain classification data
station
Elv.diff.(m)
H.distance(m)
Slope (%)
Terrain
classification
12+500
10
64.62
15.48
Rolling
12+520
12
49.09
24.44
Rolling
12+540
12
44.14
27.19
Mountainous
12+560
16
72.95
21.93
Rolling
12+580
16
61.61
25.97
Mountainous
12+600
20
88.62
22.57
Rolling
12+620
22
104.2
21.11
Rolling
12+640
24
109.36
21.95
Rolling
12+660
24
94.49
25.40
Mountainous
12+680
24
96.69
24.82
Rolling
12+700
26
109.72
23.70
Rolling
Remarks
169
2010
12+720
26
115.4
22.53
Rolling
12+740
26
111.19
23.38
Rolling
12+760
26
106.85
24.33
Rolling
12+780
28
106.19
26.37
Mountainous
12+800
30
110.63
27.12
Mountainous
12+820
30
107.58
27.89
Mountainous
12+840
30
108.26
27.71
Mountainous
12+860
28
100.08
27.98
Mountainous
12+880
28
102.46
27.33
Mountainous
12+900
28
107.74
25.99
Mountainous
12+920
26
114.21
22.77
Rolling
12+940
26
95.19
27.31
Mountainous
12+960
24
85.46
28.08
Mountainous
12+980
24
92.68
25.90
Mountainous
13+000
20
76.43
26.17
Mountainous
13+020
22
89.62
24.55
Mountainous
13+040
28
101.46
27.60
Mountainous
13+060
26
92.29
28.17
Mountainous
13+080
26
92.76
28.03
Mountainous
13+100
24
97.52
24.61
Rolling
13+120
26
118.78
21.89
Rolling
13+140
24
104.16
23.04
Rolling
13+160
26
136.26
19.08
Rolling
13+180
26
116.46
22.33
Rolling
13+200
26
104.63
24.85
Rolling
13+220
26
95.84
27.13
Mountainous
13+240
26
103.46
25.13
Mountainous
170
2010
13+260
26
98.53
26.39
Mountainous
13+280
24
91.86
26.13
Mountainous
13+300
20
112.18
17.83
Rolling
13+320
99.49
4.02
Rolling
13+340
115.2
6.94
Rolling
13+360
10
126.58
7.90
Rolling
13+380
12
101.27
11.85
Rolling
13+400
12
100.37
11.96
Rolling
13+420
14
105.34
13.29
Rolling
13+440
16
104.77
15.27
Rolling
13+460
18
99.32
18.12
Rolling
13+480
22
112.79
19.51
Rolling
13+500
22
103.12
21.33
Rolling
13+520
24
100.46
23.89
Rolling
13+540
26
102.99
25.25
Mountainous
13+560
26
93.67
27.76
Mountainous
13+580
26
86.25
30.14
Mountainous
13+600
30
98.06
30.59
Mountainous
13+620
30
92.25
32.52
Mountainous
13+640
28
80.12
34.95
Mountainous
13+660
28
75.52
37.08
Mountainous
13+680
28
72.91
38.40
Mountainous
13+700
30
81.44
36.84
Mountainous
13+720
32
98.29
32.56
Mountainous
13+740
32
103.67
30.87
Mountainous
13+760
32
102.5
31.22
Mountainous
13+780
32
104.98
30.48
Mountainous
171
2010
13+800
32
93.3
34.30
Mountainous
13+820
32
104.76
30.55
Mountainous
13+840
30
128.59
23.33
Rolling
13+860
30
135.71
22.11
Rolling
13+880
30
145.89
20.56
Rolling
13+900
28
145.95
19.18
Rolling
13+920
28
141.63
19.77
Rolling
13+940
26
152.86
17.01
Rolling
13+960
22
153.32
14.35
Rolling
13+980
20
131.94
15.16
Rolling
14+000
16
115.77
13.82
Rolling
14+020
14
107.45
13.03
Rolling
14+040
12
96.56
12.43
Rolling
14+060
45.36
17.64
Rolling
14+080
30.59
26.15
Mountainous
14+100
41.6
9.62
Rolling
14+120
24.73
16.17
Rolling
14+140
42.08
19.01
Rolling
14+160
54.93
14.56
Rolling
14+180
58.2
13.75
Rolling
14+200
10
76.44
13.08
Rolling
14+220
10
67.47
14.82
Rolling
14+240
12
69.23
17.33
Rolling
14+260
12
62.82
19.10
Rolling
14+280
12
63.81
18.81
Rolling
14+300
14
72.11
19.41
Rolling
14+320
14
71.83
19.49
Rolling
172
2010
14+340
14
70.36
19.90
Rolling
14+360
14
72.4
19.34
Rolling
14+380
12
65.94
18.20
Rolling
14+400
12
66.38
18.08
Rolling
14+420
12
65.11
18.43
Rolling
14+440
12
64.56
18.59
Rolling
14+460
12
64.36
18.65
Rolling
14+480
12
66.09
18.16
Rolling
14+500
12
65.26
18.39
Rolling
14+520
12
65.94
18.20
Rolling
14+540
12
68.3
17.57
Rolling
14+560
12
67.52
17.77
Rolling
14+580
12
68.97
17.40
Rolling
14+600
12
69
17.39
Rolling
14+620
12
62.41
19.23
Rolling
14+640
12
61.49
19.52
Rolling
14+660
12
61.43
19.53
Rolling
14+680
12
60.15
19.95
Rolling
14+700
12
58.29
20.59
Rolling
14+720
14
83.74
16.72
Rolling
14+740
14
85.15
16.44
Rolling
14+760
14
101.46
13.80
Rolling
14+780
12
90.01
13.33
Rolling
14+800
12
95.51
12.56
Rolling
14+820
14
110.72
12.64
Rolling
14+840
14
108.07
12.95
Rolling
14+860
14
105.75
13.24
Rolling
173
2010
14+880
14
103.65
13.51
Rolling
14+900
14
100.27
13.96
Rolling
14+920
14
94.31
14.84
Rolling
14+940
14
87.69
15.97
Rolling
14+960
14
81.65
17.15
Rolling
14+980
14
79.81
17.54
Rolling
15+000
16
96.04
16.66
Rolling
15+020
16
93.13
17.18
Rolling
15+040
16
88
18.18
Rolling
15+060
16
85.64
18.68
Rolling
15+080
16
83.05
19.27
Rolling
15+100
16
78.25
20.45
Rolling
15+120
16
76.14
21.01
Rolling
15+140
16
74.54
21.46
Rolling
15+160
16
73.3
21.83
Rolling
15+180
16
71.11
22.50
Rolling
15+200
16
62.19
25.73
Mountainous
15+220
16
61.9
25.85
Mountainous
15+240
16
62.19
25.73
Mountainous
15+260
16
60.52
26.44
Mountainous
15+280
16
60.96
26.25
Mountainous
15+300
12
59.21
20.27
Rolling
15+320
12
67.21
17.85
Rolling
15+340
10
61.63
16.23
Rolling
15+360
55.67
14.37
Rolling
15+380
71.14
11.25
Rolling
15+400
55.63
10.79
Rolling
174
2010
15+420
35.66
11.22
Rolling
15+440
89.63
6.69
Rolling
15+460
99.54
6.03
Rolling
15+480
86.28
9.27
Rolling
15+500
59.36
10.11
Rolling
Annexe-2 Natural ground profile and the finished road grade elevation
175
Grade
Elevation
Station
Natu. Elevation
Highway Design
Senior Project1386.00
12+500
1384.30
13+360
1398.60
2010
1393.60
12+520
1384.50
1386.18
13+380
1398.00
1393.80
12+540
1384.30
1386.36
13+400
1396.70
1393.98
12+560
1384.50
1386.53
13+420
1395.30
1394.16
12+580
1384.30
1386.71
13+440
1394.20
1394.33
12+600
1385.00
1386.89
13+460
1394.00
1394.51
12+620
1386.10
1387.06
13+480
1394.00
1394.67
Station
Natu. Elevation
1387.24
Grade 13+500
Station
Elevation
Elevation 1387.42
1388.40
13+520
Grade
Eleation
12+640 Station1387.30Natural
1393.40
Natural
12+660
Elevation
1393.00
1394.73
Grade
Elevation
1394.68
12+680 14+2201389.501377.60
1375.90 13+540
14+880
1387.60
1367.50
1393.00
1367.20
1394.51
12+700 14+2401390.201378.00
1376.00 13+560
14+900
1387.77
1367.60
1392.50
1366.70
1394.23
12+720 14+2601390.301378.20
1376.10 13+580
14+920
1387.95
1367.00
1391.80
1366.20
1393.84
12+740 14+2801390.301378.10
1376.20 13+600
14+940
1388.13
1366.30
1390.50
1365.70
1393.34
12+760 14+3001390.001378.20
1376.30 13+620
14+960
1388.31
1365.90
1390.00
1365.25
1392.73
12+780 14+3201389.901378.10
1376.35 13+640
14+980
1388.48
1365.70
1389.50
1364.80
1392.00
12+800 14+3401390.101377.80
1376.40 13+660
15+000
1388.66
1365.60
1388.90
1364.30
1391.18
12+820 14+3601389.701377.80
1376.51 13+680
15+020
1388.84
1365.60
1387.70
1363.80
1390.24
12+840 14+3801389.001377.30
1376.56 13+700
15+040
1389.01
1365.60
1386.00
1363.30
1389.28
12+860 14+4001389.001377.20
1376.57 13+720
15+060
1389.19
1365.00
1385.40
1362.80
1388.32
12+880 14+4201388.801378.00
1376.53 13+740
15+080
1389.37
1365.00
1385.00
1362.30
1387.30
12+900 14+4401388.601376.40
1376.45 13+760
15+100
1389.55
1364.90
1385.00
1361.80
1386.40
12+920 14+4601388.901376.10
1376.32 13+780
15+120
1389.72
1365.00
1384.00
1361.30
1385.40
12+940 14+4801388.601375.60
1376.14 13+800
15+140
1389.90
1363.90
1383.50
1360.80
1384.50
12+960 14+5001388.401375.30
1375.91 13+820
15+160
1390.01
1363.70
1384.10
1360.30
1383.59
12+980 14+5201387.701375.00
1375.64 13+840
15+180
1390.26
1363.80
1385.40
1359.85
1382.63
13+000 14+5401387.501374.40
1375.31 13+860
15+200
1390.43
1363.00
1384.50
1359.40
1381.76
13+020 14+5601387.001374.20
1374.94 13+880
15+220
1390.61
1363.00
1384.00
1358.70
1380.96
13+040 14+5801387.001373.60
1374.53 13+900
15+240
1390.79
1362.40
1382.10
1358.40
1380.21
13+060 14+6001387.301373.00
1374.08 13+920
15+260
1390.96
1359.60
1380.23
1357.90
1379.53
13+080
1391.14
1379.00
1378.89
13+100
1387.90
1391.32
13+960
13+120
1389.00
1391.50
13+980
1376.00
1378.34
1374.30
1377.80
13+140
1373.50
1377.34
1387.20
1389.80
1391.67
13+940
14+000
176
2010
14+620
1372.10
1373.60
15+280
1357.80
1357.40
14+640
1371.30
1373.10
15+300
1356.00
1356.90
14+660
1370.80
1372.60
15+320
1354.40
1356.40
14+680
1369.80
1371.10
15+340
1353.80
1355.90
14+700
1369.50
1371.60
15+360
1352.20
1355.40
14+720
1369.40
1371.10
15+380
1351.90
1354.90
14+740
1369.00
1370.64
15+400
1351.90
1354.45
14+760
1369.00
1370.20
15+420
1351.90
1353.96
14+780
1368.50
1369.70
15+440
1349.90
1353.47
14+800
1368.00
1369.20
15+460
1346.00
1353.00
14+820
1368.10
1368.70
15+480
1351.00
1352.59
14+840
1367.90
1368.20
15+500
1353.00
1352.00
14+860
1367.70
1367.70
177
2010
Annexe-3 Nomograph
178
2010
Anexe-4 Axle load survey and EF computation

179
2010
Traffic count for day 13,
Small Bus
axle1
axle2
Axle EF1
Axle EF2
Total EF
SB (25)
3300
3350
0.017
0.018
0.035
SB (14)
1150
1650
0.000
0.001
0.001
SB (25)
1800
2850
0.001
0.009
0.010
SB (25)
2250
3850
0.003
0.034
0.037
SB (25)
2300
3800
0.003
0.032
0.035
SB (25)
2250
4000
0.003
0.040
0.043
SB (25)
2350
3000
0.004
0.011
0.015
SB (25)
2400
3800
0.004
0.032
0.036
SB (25)
2350
3050
0.004
0.012
0.016
SB (25)
2400
4400
0.004
0.062
0.066
Sum
0.295
Large Bus
axle1
axle2
axleEF1
Axle EF2
Total EF
180
2010
LB (45)
3800
6200
0.032
0.291
0.323
LB (45)
4400
6600
0.062
0.385
0.447
LB (45)
3350
5400
0.018
0.156
0.174
LB (60)
6000
7450
0.251
0.664
0.915
LB (45)
3850
7050
0.034
0.518
0.552
LB (45)
4350
6000
0.059
0.251
0.310
LB (62)
7000
9150
0.502
1.674
2.176
LB (62)
5450
9600
0.163
2.078
2.240
LB (45)
4050
7450
0.043
0.664
0.707
LB(45)
3550
6750
0.024
0.426
0.449
Sum
8.292
Medium truck
axle1
axle2
MT
2850
MT
axle3
axleEF1
axleEF2
Axle EF3
Total EF
5400
0.009
0.156
0.000
0.165
1600
1350
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.001
MT
1700
1550
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.001
MT
2200
3300
0.003
0.017
0.000
0.020
MT
1500
1600
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.001
MT
2300
2500
0.003
0.005
0.000
0.008
MT
2450
2250
0.004
0.003
0.000
0.007
MT
2850
3700
0.009
0.028
0.000
0.037
MT
1800
1600
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.002
MT
1600
2700
0.001
0.007
0.000
0.008
Sum
0.250
Large truck
LT
axle1
axle2
6450
15950
axle3
axle4
Axle EF1
Axle EF2
Axle
EF3
0.35
20.41
0.00
Axle
EF4
Total
EF
0.00
20.756
181
2010
LT
4200
5250
0.05
0.14
0.00
0.00
0.188
LT
6050
14200
0.26
12.10
0.00
0.00
12.358
LT
5950
11800
0.24
5.26
0.00
0.00
5.500
LT
6250
14300
0.30
12.49
0.00
0.00
12.787
LT
8250
9900
9850
1.05
2.39
2.33
0.00
5.770
LT
8950
10700
10750
1.52
3.39
3.46
0.00
8.358
LT
4800
8950
0.09
1.52
0.00
0.00
1.607
LT
7000
13000
0.50
8.13
0.00
0.00
8.632
LT
5900
12600
0.23
7.06
0.00
0.00
7.297
Sum
83.253
Truck trailer
axle1 axle2
axle3
axle4
axle5
axle
axle6 EF1
axle EF2
axle
EF3
axle
EF4
axle
EF5
182
axle
EF6
totalEF
2010
TT
6050
15250 11000
11400
0.26
16.68
3.83
4.50
0.00
0.00
25.27
TT
6300
15000 8350
9450
0.31
15.48
1.11
1.94
0.00
0.00
18.84
TT
6350
14600 7950
9150
0.32
13.71
0.89
1.67
0.00
0.00
16.60
TT
5900
14800 8750
9750
0.23
14.57
1.37
2.23
0.00
0.00
18.40
TT
5750
13200 8300
7100
0.21
8.71
1.08
0.53
0.00
0.00
10.53
TT
6150
11400
11300
0.28
4.50
4.87
4.33
8.42
0.00
22.40
TT
6950
15800 7750
9500
0.49
19.56
0.79
1.98
0.00
0.00
22.82
TT
2350
17000 8050
9200
0.00
27.19
0.94
1.72
0.00
0.00
29.85
TT
6850
13600 9150
9150
0.45
9.96
1.67
1.67
0.00
0.00
13.76
TT
6450
11000
10800
0.35
3.83
3.83
3.53
2.61
0.00
14.16
Sum
192.63
11600
11000
13100
10100
Traffic count for day 14,Small Bus
SB (25)
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
2300
3450
0.003
0.021
0.024
183
2010
SB (25)
2250
2500
0.003
0.005
0.008
SB (25)
2350
3700
0.004
0.028
0.032
SB (25)
2250
4400
0.003
0.062
0.065
SB (25)
2200
3950
0.003
0.038
0.041
SB (25)
1750
2800
0.001
0.008
0.009
SB (25)
2200
3250
0.003
0.016
0.019
SB (25)
2300
3500
0.003
0.022
0.026
SB (25)
2550
4300
0.005
0.056
0.061
SB (25)
2150
3550
0.002
0.024
0.026
Sum
0.311
Large Bus
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
LB (45)
2100
5950
0.002
0.241
0.244
LB (45)
4150
7550
0.048
0.705
0.753
LB (62)
4600
7900
0.076
0.864
0.940
LB (62)
6600
9200
0.385
1.716
2.101
LB (62)
6600
9200
0.385
1.716
2.101
LB (62)
4000
6700
0.040
0.412
0.452
LB (45)
3900
5800
0.036
0.215
0.251
LB (45)
3400
6000
0.019
0.251
0.270
LB (62)
5300
8250
0.143
1.051
1.194
LB (45)
4200
7100
0.050
0.535
0.585
Sum
8.890
Medium truck
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
MT
1700
1850
0.001
0.001
0.002
MT
3650
3200
0.027
0.015
0.042
184
2010
MT
3150
2250
0.014
0.003
0.017
MT
3250
3300
0.016
0.017
0.033
MT
2800
6650
0.008
0.398
0.406
MT
3250
2700
0.016
0.007
0.023
MT
1700
1150
0.001
0.000
0.001
MT
1850
1400
0.001
0.000
0.002
MT
2600
5950
0.006
0.241
0.247
MT
2750
5150
0.007
0.126
0.134
Sum
0.906
Large truck
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Total
EF
0.06
0.77
0.75
0.00
0.00
1.58
0.09
1.14
2.33
3.91
4.24
11.72
10950
0.79
3.11
3.76
0.00
0.00
7.66
2950
2900
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.06
7600
11200
11300
0.73
4.16
4.33
0.00
0.00
9.21
LT
7000
12100
9050
0.50
5.89
1.59
0.00
0.00
7.98
LT
5200
5300
0.13
0.14
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.28
LT
4100
3800
0.05
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.08
LT
5750
15250
0.21
16.68
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.88
LT
3650
3550
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.05
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
LT
4350
7700
7650
LT
4800
8400
9850
LT
7750
10500
LT
4100
LT
Axle4
11050
Axle5
11250
Sum
55.50
Truck trailer
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
TT
4100
4550
2700
2550
TT
5350
10850
11050
8900
TT
7800
12950
10050
8150
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Axle6
EF
Total
EF
0.05
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.13
9250
0.15
3.60
3.91
1.48
1.76
0.00
10.90
9400
0.82
7.99
2.55
0.99
1.89
0.00
14.25
Axle5
Axle6
185
TT
6050
14600
9250
9100
TT
8450
11600
11650
11000
7200
TT
6650
10950
11500
10500
13300
TT
6500
15000
8300
TT
5200
16300
TT
5200
TT
7900
2010
0.26
13.71
1.76
1.63
0.00
0.00
17.36
1.17
4.87
4.96
3.83
0.57
0.86
16.27
0.40
3.76
4.68
3.11
9.01
0.00
20.96
8700
0.36
15.48
1.08
1.33
0.00
0.00
18.25
10300
10600
0.13
22.50
2.85
3.25
0.00
0.00
28.73
16000
9700
11000
0.13
20.70
2.18
3.83
0.00
0.00
26.84
13100
9400
6500
0.86
8.42
1.89
0.36
0.00
0.00
11.53
7900
Sum
165.22
Traffic count for day 15,Small Bus

Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
SB (25)
3450
5050
0.021
0.115
0.136
SB (25)
4000
4450
0.040
0.065
0.106
SB (25)
2150
3850
0.002
0.034
0.037
SB (25)
2400
3900
0.004
0.036
0.040
SB (25)
2200
4150
0.003
0.048
0.050
SB (25)
2200
4150
0.003
0.048
0.050
SB (25)
2450
4050
0.004
0.043
0.047
SB (25)
2550
4050
0.005
0.043
0.048
SB (25)
2050
2650
0.002
0.006
0.008
SB (25)
2300
2900
0.003
0.010
0.013
Sum
0.536
Large Bus
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
LB(45)
4400
7100
0.062
0.535
0.597
LB(24)
2300
3350
0.003
0.018
0.022
LB(45)
3600
6850
0.025
0.455
0.480
LB (45)
3750
5100
0.030
0.121
0.151
186
2010
LB (45)
4250
7200
0.053
0.569
0.622
LB (45)
3600
4250
0.025
0.053
0.078
LB (45)
3900
5600
0.036
0.184
0.220
LB (45)
3650
5150
0.027
0.126
0.153
LB (45)
6050
7400
0.260
0.644
0.904
LB (45)
3950
7350
0.038
0.625
0.663
3.890
Medium truck
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
MT
2800
2050
0.008
0.002
0.010
MT
2150
3700
0.002
0.028
0.031
MT
2150
3400
0.002
0.019
0.022
MT
1900
2150
0.001
0.002
0.004
MT
2800
2050
0.008
0.002
0.010
MT
1850
2400
0.001
0.004
0.005
MT
1750
1700
0.001
0.001
0.002
MT
2250
1850
0.003
0.001
0.004
MT
1600
1200
0.001
0.000
0.001
MT
1750
1450
0.001
0.000
0.001
0.0907
Large truck
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Axle6
EF
Total
EF
11800
0.91
5.26
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.17
4400
3800
0.06
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.09
LT
4900
3600
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.15
LT
6200
12300
0.29
6.34
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.63
Axle1
Axle2
LT
8000
LT
Axle3
3650
Axle4
Axle5
Axle6
187

LT
8200
11800
LT
5950
LT
11800
1.02
5.26
5.26
3.76
0.49
0.79
16.57
15100
0.24
15.95
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.19
4800
4750
0.09
0.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.18
LT
5250
5200
0.14
0.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.27
LT
5500
3700
0.17
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.23
LT
4350
4900
0.06
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.16
3500
10950
2010
3000
6950
2100
7750
Sum
46.66
188
2010
Truck trailer
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
Axle5
Axle6
Total
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
Axle5
Axle6
Ef
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
TT
5800
4200
2450
2600
2350
1400
0.22
0.05
0.00
0.01
0.004
0.0004
0.28
TT
6300
14500
8400
8650
0.31
13.29
1.14
1.30
0.00
0.00
16.04
TT
8250
16300
11200
9300
1.05
22.50
4.16
1.80
0.00
0.00
29.51
TT
4150
4850
3100
3100
0.05
0.10
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.17
TT
3750
5250
3100
3150
0.03
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.19
TT
6900
10300
7900
6600
0.47
2.85
0.86
0.38
0.00
0.00
4.57
TT
7900
11950
11900
11300
0.86
5.57
5.46
4.33
0.94
0.84
18.00
TT
4050
5100
2950
3050
0.04
0.12
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.19
TT
5650
15900
9400
10500
0.19
20.12
1.89
3.11
0.00
0.00
25.31
TT
5350
15400
8400
11300
0.15
17.43
1.14
4.33
0.00
0.00
23.04
8050
7850
117.3
189
2010
190
2010
Traffic count for day 16

Small Bus
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Total EF
2850
0.001
0.009
0.000
0.009
2300
3300
0.003
0.017
0.000
0.020
SB
(25)
2250
4250
0.003
0.053
0.000
0.056
SB
(25)
2100
3950
0.002
0.038
0.000
0.040
SB
(25)
2300
3250
0.003
0.016
0.000
0.019
SB
(25)
2250
4050
0.003
0.043
0.000
0.046
SB
(25)
2200
4150
0.003
0.048
0.000
0.050
SB
(25)
4000
5700
0.040
0.199
0.000
0.239
SB
(25)
2450
3550
0.004
0.024
0.000
0.028
SB
(25)
1950
3750
0.002
0.030
0.000
0.032
Axle1
Axle2
SB
(25)
1600
SB
(25)
Axle3
Sum
0.541
191
2010
Large Bus
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
LB (45)
3850
6400
0.034
0.335
0.369
LB (45)
4150
6400
0.048
0.335
0.383
LB (45)
3900
6900
0.036
0.470
0.506
LB (62)
6100
7650
0.270
0.748
1.018
LB (45)
3750
7450
0.030
0.664
0.694
LB (62)
4850
9950
0.096
2.441
2.537
LB (45)
5500
10550
0.169
3.177
3.347
LB (45)
3500
6350
0.022
0.324
0.346
LB (45)
4300
6500
0.056
0.359
0.415
LB (45)
2850
6700
0.009
0.412
0.421
10.036
Medium truck
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3 EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Total EF
1600
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
2750
5550
0.007
0.176
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.184
MT
1950
2300
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.005
MT
4600
10200
0.076
2.730
0.032
0.017
0.021
2.875
MT
2200
3550
0.003
0.024
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.026
MT
4450
6800
0.065
0.440
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.506
MT
3000
4500
0.011
0.069
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.080
Axle1
Axle2
MT
1850
MT
Axle3
3800
Axle4
3300
Axle5
3450
192

MT
1850
5150
MT
2550
MT
2250
2010
2800
0.001
0.126
0.008
0.000
0.000
0.135
4000
0.005
0.040
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.046
1850
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.004
3.863
Large truck
Axle1
Axle2
LT
4150
5250
LT
7300
10850
LT
6000
LT
Axle3
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Axle3 EF
Total EF
0.048
0.137
0.000
0.185
0.606
3.604
3.530
7.740
13600
0.251
9.961
0.000
10.212
7700
16300
0.770
22.503
0.000
23.273
LT
4350
4250
0.059
0.053
0.000
0.112
LT
4350
4300
0.059
0.056
0.000
0.115
LT
5950
7600
0.241
0.726
0.726
1.694
LT
4400
4600
0.062
0.076
0.000
0.138
LT
7800
11750
0.816
5.159
0.000
5.975
LT
4850
6150
0.096
0.280
0.000
0.376
10800
7600
49.821
Truck trailer
Axle1
EF
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Axle6
EF
Total
EF
0.13
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.00
0.22
0.24
9.80
2.03
1.40
0.00
0.00
13.47
0.75
5.46
5.46
4.50
0.50
1.02
17.70
0.84
15.48
2.33
2.44
0.00
0.00
21.10
0.68
5.46
5.26
4.16
0.38
1.23
17.18
11500
0.18
8.86
2.08
4.68
0.00
0.00
15.80
10300
0.14
19.56
1.89
2.85
0.00
0.00
24.44
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
Axle5
TT
5150
3450
3700
3500
3650
TT
5950
13550
9550
8800
TT
7650
11900
11900
11400
TT
7850
15000
9850
9950
TT
7500
11900
11800
11200
TT
5550
13250
9600
TT
5300
15800
9400
7000
6600
Axle6
8200
8550
193
2010
TT
5850
14700
8850
9350
0.22
14.14
1.44
1.85
0.00
0.00
17.65
TT
5300
4350
3100
3300
0.14
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.23
TT
6200
14800
7950
9250
0.29
14.57
0.89
1.76
0.00
0.00
17.51
145.30
Traffic count for day 17 ; Small Bus

Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
SB (25)
2250
3800
0.003
0.032
0.035
SB (25)
2500
4800
0.005
0.092
0.097
SB (25)
2550
4150
0.005
0.048
0.053
SB (25)
2550
4400
0.005
0.062
0.067
SB (25)
2200
4100
0.003
0.045
0.048
SB (25)
2600
3750
0.006
0.030
0.036
SB (25)
2250
4250
0.003
0.053
0.056
SB (25)
1500
2750
0.000
0.007
0.008
SB (25)
2450
3600
0.004
0.025
0.030
SB (25)
2250
2700
0.003
0.007
0.010
0.440
Large Bus
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
LB (45)
2350
3550
0.0037
0.0236
0.0273
LB (45)
4050
6700
0.0428
0.4118
0.4546
LB (60)
4250
7550
0.0531
0.7049
0.7581
LB (45)
3800
4800
0.0321
0.0918
0.1239
LB (45)
3850
7400
0.0340
0.6441
0.6781
LB (62)
5750
10000
0.2070
2.4969
2.7038
LB (45)
3650
7400
0.0268
0.6441
0.6708
LB (45)
3850
5700
0.0340
0.1990
0.2330
LB (45)
4400
6900
0.0621
0.4701
0.5322
194
LB (62)
7250
2010
9650
0.5874
2.1270
2.7144
8.8963
Medium truck
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
MT
2750
9600
0.007
2.078
2.085
MT
2250
1800
0.003
0.001
0.004
MT
2200
1850
0.003
0.001
0.004
MT
2650
3700
0.006
0.028
0.035
MT
2550
4700
0.005
0.084
0.089
MT
2700
2100
0.007
0.002
0.009
MT
3650
9700
0.027
2.177
2.204
MT
3900
8850
0.036
1.441
1.477
MT
3400
4700
0.019
0.084
0.103
MT
2100
2350
0.002
0.004
0.006
6.016
Large truck
Axle1
Axle2
LT
2650
LT
Axle3
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Axle3 EF
Total EF
2050
0.006
0.002
0.000
0.008
6400
14350
0.335
12.683
0.000
13.018
LT
5800
17050
0.215
27.552
0.000
27.767
LT
6200
15750
0.291
19.282
0.000
19.573
LT
5600
3450
0.184
0.021
0.024
0.228
LT
6150
14400
0.280
12.883
0.000
13.163
LT
7000
8350
0.502
1.109
1.674
3.285
3550
9150
195

LT
7450
12500
LT
5600
LT
4900
2010
12350
0.664
6.815
6.455
13.934
4700
0.184
0.084
0.000
0.267
4250
0.101
0.053
0.000
0.154
Sum
91.3984
Truck trailer
Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3 EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Total
EF
0.04
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.14
0.13
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.22
11000
1.37
12.88
2.61
3.83
0.00
20.70
8800
9400
0.37
11.53
1.40
1.89
0.00
15.20
4350
2350
2450
0.07
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.14
6150
15400
8000
8900
0.28
17.43
0.91
1.48
0.00
20.10
TT
6600
13750
8550
9400
0.38
10.47
1.23
1.89
0.00
13.97
TT
6950
12300
11700
11800
11400
0.49
6.34
5.06
5.26
4.50
21.65
TT
6850
12350
11800
10450
10700
0.45
6.45
5.26
3.04
3.39
18.60
TT
7700
16200
10500
13300
0.77
21.89
3.11
9.01
0.00
34.78
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
TT
4050
4650
2650
2650
TT
5150
3650
3750
3250
TT
8750
14400
10100
TT
6550
14050
TT
4500
TT
Axle5
3400
145.48
Traffic count for day 18; Small Bus

Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
SB (25)
2150
4250
0.002
0.053
0.056
SB (25)
2450
4000
0.004
0.040
0.045
SB (25)
2250
4050
0.003
0.043
0.046
SB (25)
2150
3500
0.002
0.022
0.025
SB (25)
3350
6000
0.018
0.251
0.269
SB (25)
2050
3900
0.002
0.036
0.038
SB (25)
3350
5450
0.018
0.163
0.181
196
2010
SB (25)
2200
3900
0.003
0.036
0.039
SB (25)
1500
2750
0.000
0.007
0.008
SB (25)
2400
4000
0.004
0.040
0.044
Sum
0.750
Large Bus
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
LB (62)
6000
7450
0.251
0.664
0.915
LB (45)
4350
6450
0.059
0.347
0.406
LB (45)
3850
5900
0.034
0.232
0.266
LB (45)
4000
7650
0.040
0.748
0.788
LB (45)
4050
6150
0.043
0.280
0.323
LB (62)
5850
5800
0.224
0.215
0.439
LB (45)
5750
10750
0.207
3.457
3.664
LB (45)
5000
9450
0.110
1.936
2.046
LB (45
5150
8350
0.126
1.109
1.235
LB (62)
3800
7700
0.032
0.770
0.802
Sum
10.885
Medium truck
Axle1
Axle2
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Total EF
MT
1300
1350
0.0003
0.0003
0.001
MT
2500
4800
0.0049
0.0918
0.097
MT
1850
1750
0.0013
0.0010
0.002
MT
1850
1850
0.0013
0.0013
0.003
MT
2400
1650
0.0041
0.0008
0.005
MT
2300
3150
0.0034
0.0138
0.017
MT
2400
2450
0.0041
0.0045
0.009
MT
1950
1350
0.0016
0.0003
0.002
197
2010
MT
2350
3250
0.0037
0.0159
0.020
MT
1750
1400
0.0010
0.0004
0.001
Sum
0.155
Large truck
Axle1
Axle2
LT
6450
LT
Axle3
Axle1 Ef
Axle2 EF
Axle3 EF
Total EF
14500
0.347
13.291
0.000
13.638
7300
13300
0.606
9.010
0.000
9.616
LT
5000
8700
0.110
1.334
1.334
2.779
LT
3300
2900
0.017
0.010
0.000
0.027
LT
4350
4280
0.059
0.055
0.000
0.114
LT
6300
14600
0.312
13.708
0.000
14.020
LT
6700
1000
0.412
0.000
3.110
3.522
LT
7850
12000
0.840
5.672
0.000
6.512
LT
7200
11700
0.569
5.061
0.000
5.630
LT
4350
8550
0.059
1.234
1.234
2.527
8700
10500
8550
Sum
58.384
Truck trailer (TT)

Axle1
Ef
Axle2
EF
Axle3
EF
Axle4
EF
Axle5
EF
Axle6
EF
Total
EF
9150
0.66
13.50
1.89
1.67
0.00
0.00
17.73
2200
2200
0.05
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
4050
2950
3200
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.14
7200
13300
9100
9850
0.57
9.01
1.63
2.33
0.00
0.00
13.55
TT
4150
4800
2800
2950
0.05
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.16
TT
7600
13200
8600
8550
0.73
8.71
1.27
1.23
0.00
0.00
11.94
TT
6350
16200
10800
10800
0.32
21.89
3.53
3.53
0.00
0.00
29.27
Axle1
Axle2
Axle3
Axle4
TT
7450
14550
9400
TT
4150
4250
TT
4050
TT
Axle5
2800
Axle6
3450
198
2010
TT
4250
4250
2300
2250
0.05
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
TT
5550
15050
10300
10800
0.18
15.71
2.85
3.53
0.00
0.00
22.27
TT
4600
10750
10650
11800
0.08
3.46
3.31
5.26
5.06
0.00
17.17
11700
Sum
112.44
Part II
Drawings
199

Highway Design and Geometric Layout

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Highway Design and Geometric Layout

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Highway Design Senior Project

ECSC, IUDS, Urban Engineering Department (UE)

Highway Design Senior Project

Brief Description of The Project Area

Fig. 1.1 Project Location Map

Highway Design Senior Project

Location of the Project

Digitized Proposed Project Alternative Alignments

Highway Design Senior Project

The wettest Months

And in the remaining months

The driest months.

1.4 Scope of the project

2.1 Geometric design Control and Criteria

Highway Design Senior Project

2.1.1 Terrain classification

Table 2-2 Terrain Classification

Highway Design Senior Project

Fig 2-1 Generated contour.

2.1.2 Design traffic volume

Highway Design Senior Project

2.1.2.1 Traffic data analysis

Table 2-3 Traffic data analysis

o Traffic volume at the end of the project life =323 veh/day

Highway Design Senior Project

2.1.3 Road functional classification

2.2 Geometric Design Standard

Highway Design Senior Project

Design speed = 70km/hr for rolling

2.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

Table 2-4 Horizontal curves and their terrain classification

Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment

Min. Stopping Sight Distance

Min. Passing Sight Distance

Min. Horizontal Curve Radius

ECSC, IUDS, Urban Engineering Department (UE)

Highway Design Senior Project

Transition Curves Required

Max. Gradient (desirable)

Max. Gradient (absolute)

Maximum Super elevation

Crest Vertical Curve

Sag Vertical Curve

Normal Cross fall

Shoulder Cross fall

2.2.1.1 Horizontal curve elements

Where, Rmin=minimum radius

Highway Design Senior Project

f) Point of curvature (PC)

h) Point of tangency (P.T)

Highway Design Senior Project

j) Middle ordinate (M)

k) Chord (Chord from P.C to P.T)

Fig.2.2 elements 0f curve-1

Highway Design Senior Project

Curve-2 Design computation

Where, Rmin=minimum radius

f) Point of curvature (PC)

Highway Design Senior Project

h) Point of tangency (P.T)

j) Middle ordinate (M)

k) Chord (Chord from P.C to P.T)

Highway Design Senior Project