Fallacies from Love is a Fallacy (and additional fallacy handout)

Fallacy: A mistaken or illogical idea; error in reason

Logic: The science of thinking
Dicto Simpliciter: an argument based on an unqualified generalization. Exercise
is good. Therefore, everyone should exercise. (Heart patients shouldnt exercise)
Hasty Generalization: too few instances to support the conclusion. (Nobody on
camopus speaks French.)
Post Hoc: Lets not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we take him it rains. Bill
has no connection to the weather.
Contradictory Premesis: If God can do anything, can he make a stone so heavy
he cant lift it? there can be no argument when the premises contradict each
other..
Ad Misericordian: Appeal to someones sympathy or pity to avoid the question.
(My wife is aripple, the children are hungry)
False Analogy: Comparing two different situations and making an analogy. The
situations must be camparable.
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact: Starting with a false hypotheses and drawing
conclusions. Madam Curies discovery of radium would not have happened if
she hadnt left the photographic plate with pitch blende out.
Poisoning the Well: Tainting an argument before it has begun.. (First man calls a
second man a liar before he gets to say anything.)
Begging the Question: Assuming the premise is true without evidence. Have
your parents quit making all of your decisions for you?
Slippery Slope: Arguing that one event will lead to another which will lead to
another. If I dont study Ill fail the class, have to drop out of high school and get
married young!
Ad Populum: Appeal to the crowd. Using popular opinion to support an argument.
Ad Homein: Attacking the person instead of attacking the argument the person is
making.
Ignoring the Question: Arguing something else (Changing the subject.)

Non Sequitar: Does not necessarily follow. (A man is a good husband because he
does not beat his wife.)
--Dicto Simpliciter "The Bible says, 'Thou shalt not kill." Therefore, I could never
serve in the military and I believe that the death sentence is wrong."
The logical fallacy here is that the Bible is referring to murder and there are
exceptions, two of them being the death penalty for certain crimes and serving in
the military.
--- Hasty Generalization: My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since
age fourteen and lived until age sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really cant be
that bad for you.
Explanation: It is extremely unreasonable (and dangerous) to draw a universal
conclusion about the health risks of smoking by the case study of one man.
--Post Hoc: The rooster crows before sunrise, therefore the crowing rooster
causes the sun to rise.
=Post Hoc Example: Lets not use PowerPoint for our next presentation. Every
time we use PowerPoint, the audience gets bored.
PowerPoint doesnt cause boredom. Not even close. Audience boredom is often
caused by bad design, poor storytelling, a monotonous voice, insufferable
presentation skills, lack of audience research, or any number of other factors.
Those who blame the software tool for boredom are guilty of the fallacy of Post
Hoc.
--Contradictory Premises Example: The human brain ignores boring
presentations. Therefore, a boring presentation was created by a human without
a brain.
This sounds good. Heck, it even sounds right! But when the premises of an
argument contradict each other, there can be no argument. If there is an
irresistible force, there can be no immovable object. People with functioning
brains create boring presentations. And they do so consciously, with rabid
attention to boring, minute detail.
--Ad Misericordian: Oh, Officer, There's no reason to give me a traffic ticket for
going too fast because I was just on my way to the hospital to see my wife who is
in serious condition to tell her I just lost my job and the car will be repossessed.
--False Analogy: The private school down the street has better teachers and
children get a better education because 100% of their seniors get into a college.
(Reality: The private school only has to accept some students, not all.)

--Hypothesis Contrary to Fact: "In this country citizens are permitted to own
guns. If guns were outlawed, citizens would be unable to protect themselves and
there would be an uncontrollable crime wave."
--Poisoning the Well: Frank is pompous, arrogant, and thinks he knows
everything. So, let's hear what Frank has to say about the subject.
=Poisoning the Well Example: Imagine Im in a debate. My opponent gets up first
and says, Laura is a known fool. She doesnt have a lick of sense, and you
cannot believe a word she is going to say.
Of course this isnt fair. I dont stand a chance if Im called an idiot before I even
begin my presentation. The audience is cheated out of the opportunity of finding
that out for themselves! My opponent has poisoned the well before the
audience had an opportunity to drink from it.

Emotional expression. For many employees, their work group is a primary source
for social interaction.
a)
Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which
members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction.
b)
Communication provides an avenue for expression of emotions and
fulfillment of social needs.
===
Role of Language in Verbal Communication
Because of the various functions it can perform, language has a great role in
communication. Whatever codes we use to convey our message within a fixed
frame of reference in a given language, they serve different functions. The basic
functions of language can be grouped into three categories: descriptive,
expressive and social.
Descriptive Function: Under descriptive function, we can include travel writing
(description of places), biography, autobiography and writing about other people,
diary and personal letters, technical and scientific works. We can also include the
verbal description of people, places and things under this head. While attempting
descriptive writing or speaking, it is essential that the writer or speaker has
obtained all necessary information about the object of writing or speaking.
Expressive Function: Under expressive function, we have interjections,
exclamations, use of special words and phrases for emphasis. Using
interjections, we can express satisfaction, excitement, surprise, pain, hurt and
disgust. In order to lay emphasis, we either use a word with a stress or use an
extra word/phrase to add emphasis(You have never been fair to us at all). We also
use question tags, rhetorical questions, auxiliary do, fronted negation ( Starting
a sentence with a negative word: Never have I seen a fool like you) to put
emphasis on a statement or a particular idea.
Social Function: Under social function of language we can include functions like
greeting people, bidding farewell to people, giving a command or order, asking a
question, making a request, advising, offering a suggestion, expressing
agreement or disagreement, accepting or declining an invitation, expressing
wishes, thanks, apologies, regrets, condolences, sending seasonal greetings,
offering help, giving instructions, expressing obligation, expressing the necessity
for doing something, expressing certainty. Under each function, we have multiple
sub-functions. For example, under the function request, we have request for
permission, request for help, formal request, informal request etc. When we
choose a particular language function, we need to use the code that is
appropriate for that function. The words, structures and sentences used to
perform a particular function do differ from the words, structures and sentences
used to perform a different function. While expressing a polite request, for

instance, we use could or would whereas for formal requests we use may and
for making informal requests we use either can or will.
The word order in an assertive sentence is different from an interrogative or an
imperative sentence. In an assertive sentence we follow the normal sentence
pattern (Rahim is a sincere boy) but in an interrogative sentence we have an
inverse order (Is Rahim a sincere boy?) and in an imperative sentence we do not
have a visible subject (Do this work at this moment). Likewise, for sentences
expressing suggestions we have quite different structures (Why dont you go to
the police station? How about joining a new party next week? Lets have picnic at
this weekend. You had better consult a doctor).
One more important point to be noted in regard to the use of language for
communication. The language we use should be simple enough for the receiver
to understand the message intended but at the same time it should not be jerky.
Too many small sentences in a passage also spoil its beauty. If we use long and
complex sentences with a lot of ideas packed into one sentence, the
receiver/addressee will be confused and the message will not be properly
transmitted. Therefore the best way is to maintain a balance between the two.
Small sentences connected with suitable connectors impart clarity, conciseness
and grace to a passage and make it worth reading/listening.
While performing a particular language function, we actually have a purpose in
our mind. In order to see the purpose translating into action, we need to use the
words, structures and sentences that are grammatically correct, socially
acceptable and meaningful. Moreover, we must try to understand whether the
receiver has the same competence as us to receive the message, process it,
understand the import inherent in it and wherever possible, provide the
necessary feedback to the sender regarding the effectiveness of the message
being transmitted.
==
1) Fear Its a state of preparing to run away from imagined or actual warning or
danger.
Eyebrows tensely get curled, shoulders fall down, neck gets stiff, gaze get
focused or redirected, eyes get widely open to let more light pass to retina, mouth
opens wide to let more air pass to lungs, vocal tone trembles, respiration soars,
heartbeats goes up, face faints, throat dries and salivas swallowed, torso lowers,
stomach gets pulled inside, whole body starts sweating and shivering, hands
appear muffling mouth to suppress scream, body hides itself behind something
and feet gets ready to flee.

2) Anger Its a state of preparing to threaten, retaliate or punish somebody.

Whole body is provoked, tightened or bluffed to appear bigger and hostile.
Eyes get wide open signaling to target of being caught and to warn inhibiting its
activities, body temperature starts rising, gaze gets more fixated and short darts
move all over target, eyelids bat faster, neck gets stiff or tilts either side, face and
eyes turn red, shoulders become broad, torso elevates, chest puffs, nostrils
balloon, respiration soars, pulse jumps, lips get tightly closed or opened, teeth
get exhibited, vocal tone gets fierce, arms get crossed over chest or rest on hips
and feet get firmly grounded and separated apart to prepare for attack.
3) Disgust Its a state of exhibiting loathe or lack of interest about person,
situation or object.
Torso and face gets disoriented, eyes faint, heartbeat drops, gaze becomes more
fleeting than fixated, mouth gets opened on either side with displaying teeth, lips
curl down, lower lips push out, tongue protrudes, nostrils pull upward, breath
exhales briskly, throat clearing sound generates, sounds like Yuck, Whack,
Ooom expel from mouth, vocal tone gets dull, hands push or hold disgusting
thing away.
4) Sadness Its a state of disapproval or exhaustion to make person appear in
demand of others' attention and support.
Posture loosens, back hunches, responses dampen, neck hangs or tilts side way
down, hands support neck or cover face, shoulders lower, respiration rate drops,
gaze gets hovering around own body, eyes barely open, lower lips rides over
upper, edges of mouth curl down, palms clamp together and rest on lap or hid in
pocket, vocal tone get dull - heavy and sluggish, sounds like Hmm, Whoosh
expel from mouth.
5) Surprise - Its a state of curiosity and great attention being paid to object,
person, situation or phenomenon that is unexpected, inexperienced or takes
place suddenly.
Eyes get wide open to let more light pass to retina, eyebrows raise, neck remains
straight or tilts backward, mouth gets wide open and lips get rounded, hair raise,
jaw drops, vocal tone accentuates, sounds like Wow, Ohh expel from mouth,
torso gets raised, hands are kept in ready position, whole body faces and points
partially or fully towards the source of surprise.
6) Happiness - Its a state of expressing and enjoying some kind of achievement,
benefit, fulfillment or victory. Whole body starts sending messages of excitement,
friendliness, open and outgoing - sharing temperament.

Posture elevates, footsteps appear flying, movements become energetic - wavy swiveling, facial muscles get relaxed, mouth opens, edges of mouth curl upward,
teeth get partially or fully exhibited, eyes glitter, gaze remains more upward or
ahead and away from body, palms gets open and held upward, hands get
separated and raised shoulder high or above, vocal tone gets crunchy - chirpy sweet, sound like HaHa...Ha..., Hurray Ho...Ho, Hey...Hey..., Yeah,
Yippee, Yee Haw expels from mouth.
7) Contempt - It's an expression of superiority or utter dislike. Unlike other six
basic expressions, contempt is expressed consciously - thoughtfully and mostly
on face.
Narrowed eyes, lips tightly press together and either edge of mouth gets pulled
upward appearing like an asymmetrical smile. Often, sound like "Hhhhh" rapidly
expels from mouth. Both edges of mouth deeply pinched inside cheeks is also an
expression of contempt.
==
Emotional expressions in psychology are observable verbal and nonverbal
behaviors that communicate an internal emotional or affective state. Examples of
emotional expression are facial movements such as smiling or scowling, or
behaviors like crying or laughing. Emotional expressions can occur with or
without self-awareness. Presumably, individuals have conscious control of their
emotional expressions;[1] however, they need not have conscious awareness of
their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion.
Over the last 200 years, researchers have proposed different and often competing
models explaining emotion and emotional expression, going all the way back to
Charles Darwin.[2] However, all theorists in emotion agree that all normal,
functioning humans experience and express emotions with their voices, faces,
and bodies.[citation needed] The expression of romantic feelings are shaped by
cultural and social factors
Paralangauage--the nonlexical component of communication by speech, for
example intonation, pitch and speed of speaking, hesitation noises, gesture, and
facial expression.