CH.

#2 BASICS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEM THEORY

Generally, the electric power systems specialist is more concerned with electric power in the
circuit rather than the currents.
The value of instantaneous power flowing into an element is the product of voltage across and
current through it.
p(t ) v(t ) * i(t ) Instantaneous power

T2
1
p(t ) dt Average power

T2 T1 T1

In treating sinusoidal steady-state behavior of circuits, some further definitions are necessary.

w 2f

2
1
Radian
: Angular Frequency
, f : Frequency Hz, T
Period s

T
F
s

v(t ) VM cos ( wt ) Sinusoidal voltage

VM : Magnitude V
: Phase angle Radian
V RMS Veff

1
T

t T

v(t ) dt
t

VM
2

Effective value or RMS value

To illustrate the power concepts, we use a cosine representation of the waveforms. Consider the
impedance element Z = Z<.
v(t ) VM cos ( wt )
i(t ) I M cos ( wt ) ,

The instantaneous power will be,

V I
p(t ) v(t ) * i(t ) VM I M cos(wt ) * cos(wt ) M M cos cos(2wt )
2

pav

1
T

p(t ) dt

VM I M
V
I
cos VRMS I RMS cos ; VRMS M , I RMS M
2
2
2

The power entering any network is the product of the effective values of terminal voltage and
current and the cosine of the phase angle , which is, called the power factor (PF). This applies
to sinusoidal voltages and currents only.

Phasors:
Phasors are used to represent sinusoids of the same frequency. They simplify the calculations. Let
A(t) be sinusoidal signal, either a voltage or a current.

A(t ) AM cos ( wt ) Re al AM e j ( wt ) Re al AM e j e jwt Re al A e jwt

A : Phasor of A(t ) AM e j AM
Generally, RMS values are used in the Phasors instead of the magnitudes.
The value of the average power consumed in an alternating circuit is called active power, and the
power that supplies the stored energy in reactive elements is called reactive power. Active power
is P, and the reactive power, designated Q, are thus
P p av VRMS I RMS cos VI cos ; VRMS V , I RMS I
Q VRMS I RMS sin VI sin

In both equations, V and I are rms values of terminal voltage and current, and is the phase angle
by which the current lags the voltage. To emphasize that the Q represents the nonactive power, it
is measured in reactive voltampere units (Var).
If phasors are used

v(t ) VM cos ( wt ) , V V 0
*
V I V 0 * I VI VI cos jVI sin P jQ

i (t ) I M cos ( wt ) , I I

Assume that V, V*cos , and V*sin all shown in the following figure, are each multiplied by I,
the rms values of current. When the components of voltage V*cos and V*sin are multiplied
by current, they become P and Q, respectively. Similarly, if I, I*cos , and I*sin are each
multiplied by V, they become Vl, P , and Q, respectively. This defines a power triangle. We now
define a quantity called the complex or apparent power, designated S, of which P and Q are
components. By definition,

S P jQ VI (cos j sin ) VI e j VI VI *
S VI , P S cos , Q S sin

If V ZI or I YV is used, then
S VI * ZII * Z I

VYV * Y V

Definitions:
P : Active Power [W, kW, MW]
Q : Reactive Power [VAr, kVAr, MVAr]
S = P+jQ : Complex (Appparent) Power [VA, kVA, MVA]
: Power Angle, The angle between the voltage and the power
Cos : Power Factor, pf
Leading pf: is negative (Current leads voltage)
Lagging pf: is positive (current lags voltage)
Example
A load draws 100 kW with leading pf of 0.85. Determine power angle, Q and S.
cos 0.85 cos1 (0.85) 31.8 0
P S cos S

P
117 .6 kVA
cos

Q S sin 62.0 kVAr

Example
Consider the circuit composed of a series R-L branch in parallel with capacitance with the
parameters R = 0.5 ohms , XL = 0.8 ohms , BC. = 0.6 Siemens. Assume that the voltage is V =
200<00 V. Calculate the input current and the active, reactive, and apparent power into the circuit.
I
0

V=200<0 V

I1
R

I2

I1

YC

XL

V
200

212 58.0 0 A
R jX L 0.5 j 0.8

I 2 VYC 200 * j 0.6 120 90 0 A

I I1 I 2 212 58.0 0 120 90 0 127.28 28.010 A

The power factor (PF) of the system (supply) is,

PF Cos Cos 28.010 0.88

S VI * 200 0 0 * 127 .28 28.010 25456 28.010 VA 22472 j11955 VA
P 22472 W , Q 11955 W

Note that the total active and reactive powers of the circuit elements will be equal to the source
active and reactive power.
Resistors only consume real power
2

Resistors only consume active power S R PR R I R

Inductors only consume reactive power S L Q L X L I L

Capacitors only produce reactive power S C QC X C I C

VR
2

/R

VL
2

VC

Power Factor Correction (Reactive power compensation) Example

/ X L ; X L wL
2

/ XC ; XC

1
wC

Assume we have a 100 kVA load with pf=0.8 lagging and we want to increase pf to 0.95 for the
same active load. Determine the value of the capacitance that should be installed to the system if
the system voltage is 220 V.
P S Cos 100 * 0.8 80 kW
Q S Sin S 1 Cos 2 100 1 0.82 60 kVAr
pf new 0.95 new cos1 0.95 18.20
Q
tg new new Qnew P * tg new 26.3kVAr
P
QC Q Qnew 33.7 kVAr
QC YC VC

YC

YC wC C

QC
VC

33700

0.696 S
220 2

Q
QC

Qnew
new
P

YC
0.696

2216 F
2f 100

Reactive compensation is used extensively by utilities

Capacitors are used to correct the power factor
This allows reactive power to be supplied locally
Supplying reactive power locally leads to decreased line current, which results in
Decrease line losses
Ability to use smaller wires
Less voltage drop across the line

The major portion of all electric power presently used in generation, transmission, and distribution
uses balanced three-phase systems. Three-phase operation makes more efficient use of generator
copper and iron. However, the complications of additional phases are not compensated for by the
slight increase of operating efficiency when polyphase systems other than three-phase are used.
A balanced three-phase voltage system consists of three single-phase voltages with the same
magnitude and frequency but time-displaced from one another by 1200. The following figure
shows a schematic representation where the three single-phase voltage sources appear in a Y
connection. A phasor diagram showing each of the phase voltages is also given below.

Synchronous generators (commonly referred to as alternators) are three-phase machines and are
generally three phase systems. To produce a set of three voltages phase-displaced by 120 electrical

degrees in time, it follows that we must use a minimum of three coils phase-displaced 120 electrical
degrees in space. It is convenient to consider representing each coil as a separate generator.

An immediate extension of the single-phase circuits discussed above would be to carry the power
from the three generators along six wires. However, instead of having a return wire from each load
to each generator, a single wire is used for the return of all three. The current in the return wire
will be Ia + Ib + Ic and for a balanced load, these will cancel out. If the load is unbalanced, the
value of the return current will still be small compared to either Ia , Ib or Ic. This connection is
known as a four-wire three-phase system. It is desirable for safety and system protection to have
a connection from the electrical system to the ground (equipotential surface at zero potential). A
logical point for grounding is the generator neutral point.
Balanced three-phase systems can be studied using techniques developed for single-phase circuits.
The arrangement of the three single-phase voltages into a Y or a configuration requires some
modification in dealing with the overall system.

Y Connection
With reference to the following figure, the common terminal n is called the neutral or star (Y)
point. The set of voltages Vab, Vbc and Vca are called the line voltages (phase to phase voltages),
and the set of voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn are referred to as the phase voltages.
Va Van V p 0o , Vb Vbn V p 120 o , Vc Vcn V p 120 o

Van Vbn Vcn V p

Vab = Va-Vb = Vp (1-1<-1200) =

3 Vp<300 ,

Vbc = Vb-Vc = Vp (1<-1200 - 1<1200) =

Vbc = Vc-Va = Vp (1<1200 - 1<00) =

3 Vp<-90

3 Vp<1500

Vab Vbc Vca VL 3VP

On the other hand, for a Y-connected balanced three phase source, the line current equals the
phase current. Thus,

IL IP

Connection
Consider the case when the three single-phase sources are rearranged to form a three-phase
connection as shown below.

The line and phase voltages have the same magnitude: VL VP

The phase and line currents, however, are not identical.
Iab I P 00 , I bc I P 120 0 , Ica I P 120 0
I aa' I ca I ab 3I P 150 0 , I bb' I ab I bc 3I P 30 0 , I cc' I bc I ca 3I P 90 0
IL 3 IP

Power Relationships
Assume that the three-phase generator is supplying a balanced load with the following three
sinusoidal phase voltages and currents.

where is the phase angle between the current and voltage in each phase. The total power flowing
into the load is

Average power Active power p 3 P3 3V p I p Cos 3VL I L Cos

Rective power Q3 3V p I p Sin 3VL I L Sin

Complex power S 3 P3 jQ3 3V p I *P 3VL I L*

In specifying rated values for power system apparatus and equipment such as generators,
transformers, circuit breakers, etc., we use the magnitude of the apparent power S3 as well as line
voltage for specification values.
Example
A Y-connected, balanced three-phase load consisting of three impedances of 20<300 ohms each
as shown in the following figure with the balanced line to-neutral voltages:

Z = 20 < 300 ohms

Calculate the phase currents in each line, the line-to-line phasor voltages and the total active and
reactive power supplied to the load.

P3 3V L I L Cos 3 * 220 3 *11Cos 30 0 6287 .35 W

Q3 3V L I L Sin 3 * 220 3 *11 Sin 30 0 3630 .00 Var
S 3 P3 jQ3 6287 .35 3630 .00 VA

THE PER UNIT SYSTEM

The per unit (p.u.) value representation of electrical variables in power system problems is favored
in electric power systems. The numerical per unit value of any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base
quantity of the same dimension. Thus a per unit quantity is a normalized quantity with respect to
the chosen base value. The per unit value of a quantity is thus defined as

Five quantities are involved in the calculations. These are the current I, the voltage V, the complex
power S, the impedance Z, and the phase angles.
The angles are dimensionless; the other four quantities are completely described by knowledge of
only two of them. An arbitrary choice of two base quantities will fix the other base quantities.
Rated voltage of lines and equipment is almost always known as well as the apparent (complex)
power in megavoltamperes, so these two quantities are usually chosen for base value calculation.
Let

Sb and Vb

Current base

Ib

be the base (complex) power (MVA) and base voltage (kV), respectively.

Sb
Vb

Zb

kA and impedance (resistance) base:

Vb
Ib

Vb

Sb

Ohms

Given impedance in per unit on a given base S b1 and Vb1 It is sometimes required to obtain the
per unit value referred to a new base set S b 2 and Vb 2 The conversion expression is obtained as:
2

Z p.u.1

S b1
Sb2
S b1 Vb1 S b 2
Vb1 S b 2
Z
Z

Z
,
Z

Z
p
.
u
.
2
p
.
u
.
1
2
2
2
2
Z b1
Z b2
Vb 2 S b1
Vb1
Vb 2
Vb1 S b1 Vb 2

Example
Consider a transmission line with Z = 3.346 + j77.299 . Assume that
Vb 735 kV
p.u. impedance wrt 100 MVA and 735 kV
S b1
Z
100
Z p . u.
Z
3.346 j 77.299
0.000619 j 0.0143 p.u.
2
Z b1
735 2
Vb1

S b 100 MVA

and

ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY

CONVERSION
An electromechanical energy conversion device transfers energy between an input side and an
output side, as shown in the following figure. Within an electric motor, the input is electrical
energy drawn from the supply and the output is the mechanical energy supplied to the load, which
may be a pump, fan, hoist, or any other mechanical load. An electric generator converts mechanical
energy supplied by a prime mover to electrical form at the output side. The operation of
electromechanical energy conversion devices is based on fundamental principles resulting from
experimental work.

The presence of stationary electric charges is associated with electric fields. On the other hand, a
magnetic field is associated with moving charges and as a result we conclude that electric currents
are sources of magnetic fields.
called the magnetic flux density. The unit of = |
|
A magnetic field is identified by a vector
is the Tesla (T). The magnetic flux through a cross section is the scalar product of magnetic flux
= . The unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb =
density and the cross section; =
Vs).
in a magnetic field of flux density
, is found
A charged particle q, moving at a velocity
experimentally to experience a Lorentz force expressed as
= (

) ,

| = q|
|x|
| = qVB Sin
= |

surface. A differential moving charge

Note that the Lorentz force is perpendicular to
experiences a differential force
;

)
= (
On the other hand moving charges over a line constitute a line current and thus:

x
) = I
;
= (
x
is the displacement over the line.
The current element I
cannot exist by itself and must be a part of a complete circuit. The force
on an entire loop can be obtained by integrating the current element,

 = I

The Biot-Savart law is based on Amperes work showing that electric currents exert forces on each
other and that a magnet could be replaced by an equivalent current. Consider a long straight wire
carrying a current I as shown in the figure. Application of the Biot-Savart law allows us to find the
total field at P as:
= 0
| = = 0 ; 0 : Magnetic permeability of free space = 4107

; |
2
2

The Biot-Savart law provides a relation between current and the resulting magnetic flux density

. An alternative to this relation is Ampere's circuital law, which says that the line integral of

about any closed path in free space is equal to the current enclosed by that path times o
= {

0 ,
0 ,

if path C encloses
if path C does not enclose

is a vector defined by the relation

=
. It is
The magnetic field intensity denoted by
as
measured in A/m. We can write the statement of Amperes circuital law in terms of
= {

,
0 ,

if path C encloses
if path C does not enclose

PERMEABILITY AND MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

In general, permeability, is not a constant but is dependent on H and, strictly speaking, one
should state this dependence in the form

From a B-I ~H variation point of view we divide materials into two classes:
1. Nonmagnetic materials such as all dielectrics and metals with permeability equal to o,
for all practical purposes. B-H relation is almost linear.
2. Magnetic materials such as the iron group, where a given current produces a much larger
B field than in free space. The permeability in this case is much higher than that of free
space and varies with current in a nonlinear manner over a wide range. Ferromagnetic
material can be further categorized into two classes:

a) Soft ferromagnetic materials for which a linearization of the B-I variation in a region
is possible. The source of B in the case of soft ferromagnetic material can be modeled
as due to the current I.
b) Hard ferromagnetic materials for which it is difficult to give a meaning to the term
permeability. Material in this group is suitable for permanent magnets.
The B-H characteristics of soft ferromagnetic material, often called the magnetization curve,
follow the typical pattern as displayed below ( right)
B-H characteristic of a
nonmagnetic material

B-H characteristic of a
ferromagnetic material

The permeability at low values of H is called the initial permeability and is much lower than the
permeability at higher values of H. The maximum value of occurs at the knee of the B-H
characteristic. The permeability of soft ferromagnetic material is much larger than o and we
define the relative permeability r as:
r = / 0
For practical electromechanical energy conversion devices, a linear approximation to the
magnetization curve provides satisfactory answers in the normal region of operation. The main
idea is to fit a straight line passing through the origin of the B-H curve that best fits the data points
which is drawn and taken to represent the characteristics of the material considered. Within the
acceptable range of H values, one may then use the following relation to model the ferromagnetic
material:
B = orH
It should be noted that r is in the order of thousands for magnetic materials used in
electromechanical energy conversion devices (2000 to 80,000, typically).

FLUX LINKAGES, INDUCED VOLTAGES, INDUCTANCE, AND ENERGY

Faraday's experiments established that a change in a magnetic field causes an induced voltage,
which is expressed by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Consider a toroidal coil with N turns through which a current i flows
producing a total flux . Each turn encloses or links the total flux and we
also note that the total flux links each of the N turns. The flux linkages is
defined as the product of the number of turns N and the flux linking each
turn.


The flux linkages can be related to the current i in the coil by the definition of inductance L as,
Li

; For linear systems

Inductance is the passive circuit element that is related to the geometry and material properties of
the structure. The inductance L is related to the reluctance R as
L

N2 N2A
l

0 r ; R
R
l
0 r A

The unit of inductance is the Henry [H] or weber-turns per ampere [Wt/A]. In terms of flux
linkages, Faraday's law is stated as
e

d
d d ( Li)
di dL
N

L i
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Power and energy relationships in a magnetic circuit are important in evaluating performance of
electromechanical energy conversion devices.
p(t ) e(t ) * i (t ) i (t )

d
dt

On the other hand, power is the time derivative of energy, p(t )

dW (t )
dt

dW (t ) p(t )dt i(t )d i(t )d ( NAB) i(t ) * NA dB (l * A)H dB

Consider the case of a magnetic structure that experiences a change in state between the time
instants tl and t2. Then, change in energy into the system is denoted by W and is given by

W W (t 2 ) W (t1 ) l * A

B2

B1

H dB

For a linear system = Li and H = B/

B2

1 2
L
B2
H 2
(2 12 ) (i22 i12 ) lA *
lA *
2L
2
2
2

B2

B1
B1

HYSTERESIS LOOP
Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by nonlinear and multi-valued B-H characteristics,
known as a hysteresis characteristic. Net energy per unit volume supplied by the source is the
area enclosed by the hysteresis loop. This energy is expended in the magnetizationdemagnetization process and is dissipated as heat loss. The area of the loop depends on the
maximum flux density and we assert that the power dissipated through hysteresis Ph is given by
Ph k h f ( Bm ) n

Here kh is a constant, f is the frequency, and Bm is the maximum value of the flux density. The
exponent n is determined from experimental results and ranges between 1.5 and 2.5.

There is another loss mechanism that arises in connection with the application of the-varying
magnetic field, called eddy-current loss. The induced currents tend to establish a flux that opposes
the original change imposed by the source. The induced currents, which are essentially the eddy
currents, will result in power loss due to heating of the core material. To minimize eddy current
losses, the magnetic core is made of stacking of sheet steel laminations, ideally separated by highly
resistive material. The eddy-current power loss per unit volume can be expressed by the empirical
formula
Pe ke ( fBmtl ) 2

W / m3

The eddy-current power loss per unit volume varies with the square of frequency f ; maximum
flux density Bm, and the lamination thickness tl. Ke is a proportionality constant.
Core Losses Hysteresis Losses Eddy current losses

In practice, manufacturer-supplied data are used to estimate the core loss P, for given frequencies
and flux densities for a particular type of material.

ENERGY FLOWAPPROACH
From an energy flow point of view consider an electromechanical energy conversion device
operating as a motor. Energy flow is illustrated below. We assume that an incremental change in
electric energy supply dW, has taken place
Mechanical Energy
Output, Wm

Electrical Energy
Input, We

Energy lost as
heat, Wl

Energy stored in
the magnetic field,
Wf

Winding ohmic losses

Iron losses
Friction losses

We W f Wl Wm
dWe dW f dWl dWm

To simplify the model, assume that loss changes are negligible.

dWe dW f dWm

F f dx For linear motion

dWe Pe dt e(t )i(t ) dt i(t )d dW f

T f d For rotational motion

id F f dx For linear motion
dW f dWe dWm
id T f d For rotational motion
On the other hand, field energy is a function of two states of the system. The first is the
displacement variable x (or for rotational motion), and the second is either the flux linkages or
the current i. Then
W f W f ( , x) dW f ( , x)
W f W f ( , ) dW f ( , )

W f

W f

W f

W f

x
W f

dx For linear motion

d For rotational motion

W f
W f
W f

d
dx For linear motion i
; Ff
id F f dx

x
dW f
id T d W f d W f d For rotational motion i W f ; T W f
f
f

In order to determine the field force (or torque) we need an expression for the field energy
Wf(p,xp) or Wf(p, p) at a given state p and xp (or p). This can be obtained by the following
integrals:

W f ( p , x p ) p i( p , x p ) d or W f ( p , p ) p i( p , p ) d
0
0

If the -i characteristic is linear in i then

W f ( p , x p )

2p
2L

or W f ( p , p )

2p
2L

Note that L can be a function of x or . Using Faraday's law, we have

d d ( Li)
di
dL
di
dL dx
di
dL
dx

L i
L i
; v
L iv
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dx dt
dt
dx
dt
di
dL
d
For rotational motion e(t ) L iw
; w
dt
d
dt

e(t )

DOUBLY EXCITED SYSTEMS

Rotating electric machines are characterized by more than one exciting winding. In the following
system, a coil on the stator is fed by a electric energy source 1 and a second coil is mounted on the
rotor and fed by source 2.

Doubly Excited Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device

For this doubly excited system, we write the relation between flux linkages and currents as

1 L11 ( )i1 M ( )i2 ; 2 M ( )i1 L22 ( )i2

The self-inductances L11 and L22 and the mutual inductance M are given as functions of as
follows:

L11 ( ) L1 L1 cos(2 ) ; L1
L22 ( ) L2 L2 cos(2 )

1
Lmax Lmin , L1 1 Lmax Lmin
2
2

M ( ) M 0 cos
In many applications L2 considerably less than L2 and therefore we may conclude that L22 is
independent of the rotor position.

T f (i12 L1 i22 L2 ) sin( 2 ) i1i2 M 0 sin

SALIENT-POLE MACHINES
The majority of electromechanical energy conversion devices used today are rotating electric
machines category with symmetrical stator structure. From a broad geometric configuration point
of view, such machines can be classified as being either of the salient-pole type, as this class is a
simple extension of the discussion of the preceding section, or round-rotor.
In a salient-pole machine, one member (the rotor in our discussion) has protruding or salient poles
and thus the air gap between stator and rotor is not uniform, as shown below. We can write the
previous equations with subscript 1 is replaced by s to represent stator quantities and subscript 2
is replaced by r to represent rotor quantities.

T f is ir M 0 sin is2 Ls sin( 2 ) T1 T2

T1 is ir M 0 sin : Primary Torque
T2 is2 Ls sin( 2 ) : Reluctance Torque
Let us assume that the source currents are sinusoidal and the rotor is rotating at an angular speed
wm,

is (t ) I s sin ws t ; ir (t ) I r sin wr t ; (t ) wmt 0

Then

I I M
T1 is ir M 0 sin s r 0
4

T2

is2 Ls sin 2

I s2 Ls

Sin( wm ws wr )t 0 Sin( wm ws wr )t 0

Sin( wm ws wr )t 0 Sin( wm ws wr )t 0

2Sin(2wmt 2 0 ) Sin 2( wm ws )t 2 0

Sin 2( wm ws )t 2 0

An important characteristic of an electric machine is the average torque developed. Note that T1 is
made of four sinusoidal components each of zero average value if the coefficient of t is different
from zero. It thus follows that as a condition for non-zero average of T1, we must satisfy one of
the following:

w s w r
w w
s
r
wm w s wr
w s w r
w s w r

If

I I M
w m w s w r T 1 s R 0 Sin 0
4

On the other hand, the reluctance Torque will have a nonzero average torque if w m w s

wm w s

I 2 L
T 2 s S Sin (2 0 )
4

ROUND OR SMOOTH AIR-GAP MACHINES

A round-rotor machine is a special case of the salient-pole machine where the air gap between the
stator and rotor is (relatively) uniform. The term smooth air gap is an idealization of the situation
illustrated in the following figure. It is clear that for the case of a smooth air-gap machine the term
Ls, is zero, as the reluctance does not vary with the angular displacement .

The torque will have a nonzero average torque if

wm w s wr

If w m w s w r

I I M
Tf s R 0
4

Sin 0 Sin( wm ws wr )t 0 Sin( wm ws wr )t 0

Sin( wm ws wr )t 0

I I M
T f s R 0 Sin 0
4
Although sinusoidal terms are of zero average value, they can cause speed pulsations and
vibrations that may be harmful to the machines operation and life. The alternating torques can
be eliminated by adding additional windings to the stator and rotor.

MACHINE-TYPE CLASSIFICATION
There are basically two types of AC machines with respect to the above discussion. In addition
there are DC machines which operate with direct currents.
Synchronous Machines:
The synchronous machine is the main source of electric energy in modem power systems acting
as a generator. There are also high-power applications of synchronous motors. The rotor of a
synchronous machine is excited with direct current (wr = 0).,

I I M
T1 s R 0 Sin( wm ws )t 0 Sin( wm ws )t 0
4
Sin( wm ws )t 0 Sin( wm ws )t 0
I s2 LS
2 Sin (2w m t 2 0 ) Sin2(w m w s )t 2 0 Sin2(w m w s )t 2 0
T2
4
Therefore nonzero average torque (both for the main torque as well as reluctance torque) condition
is

wm w s
Thus, the rotor of the machine should be running at the single value defined by the stator sources.
This mode of operation yields a synchronous machine which is so named because it can
convert average power only at one mechanical speed - the synchronous speed.
Induction Machines
Single-frequency alternating currents are fed into the stator circuits and the rotor circuits are all
short circuited in a conventional induction machine. There are also high power three-phase
applications and 3 phase induction generators. The rotor currents will have a frequency of
w r w s w m which satisfies the condition of nonzero average torque production.

P-POLE MACHINES
The configuration of the magnetic field resulting from coil placement in the magnetic structure
determines the number of poles in an electric machine. The following figure shows a two-pole
stator and four-pole stator windings in a machine.

A four-pole machine results from the combination of the stator and rotor is given below to illustrate
the orientation of the magnetic axes of rotor and stator.

It is clear that any arbitrary even number of poles can be achieved by placing the coils of a given
phase in symmetry around the periphery of stator and rotor of a given machine. The number of
poles is simply the number encountered in one round trip around the periphery of the air gap. It is
necessary for successful operation of the machine to have the same number of poles on the stator
and rotor. Consider the four-pole, single-phase machine of the figure above. Because of the
symmetries involved, the mutual inductance can be seen to be

for a P-pole machine

where P is the number of poles. The other equations for a P-pole machine can be derived as

For sinusoidal excitation

I I M
T1 s R 0
4

Pw m
P 0
P 0
Pw m
w s w r )t
Sin(
w s w r )t
Sin(

2
2
2
2
P 0
P 0
Pw m
Pw m
Sin(
w s w r )t
Sin(
w s w r )t

2
2
2
2

For non-zero average of TI

wm

2
w s w r
P

All statements, including for a two-pole machine apply to any P-pole machine with P/2.

Consider the synchronous machine case where wr=0 and w m w s for a nonzero torque. For a Ppole machine this nonzero torque condition changes to be,

wm

2
ws
P

On the other hand

w S 2f S , w m 2

n
n 2
n 2
nP
2
2f S
fS fS
60
60 P
60 P
120

POWER SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

A major portion of the modem power system utilizes three-phase ac circuits and devices. A
detailed representation of each of the three phases in the system is cumbersome and can also
obscure information about the system. A balanced three-phase system is solved as a single-phase
circuit made of one line and the neutral return; thus a simpler representation would involve
retaining one line to represent the three phases and omitting the neutral. Standard symbols are used
to indicate the various components. A transmission line is represented by a single line between
two ends. The simplified diagram is called the single-line diagram.
The one-line diagram summarizes the relevant information about the system for the particular
problem studied. For example, relays and circuit breakers are not important when dealing with a
normal state problem. However, when fault conditions are considered, the location of relays and
circuit breakers is important and is thus included in the single-line diagram. The International
Electro technical Commission (IEC), Turkish National Standards Institute (TSE), and the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) have published a set of standard symbols for
electrical diagrams.