Poverty Tribal Women Self Help Group Livestock

POVERTY TRIBAL WOMEN SELF HELP GROUP LIVESTOCK
First published 2016

@ Das Kornel 2016
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the author and the publisher.
ISBN- 978-93-5265-846-6
Published by Das Kornel, 2016
kornel_das@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91 94374311576
Authors
Das Kornel and Helge Brunse
Design Layout
Arjun Ojha
Photos
Das Kornel
DEDICATED
This work is dedicated to Prof. M.S.Swaminathan, eminent scientist and father of Indias
Green Revolution for his contribution to Koraput district by carving out an Institute, M. S.
Swaminathan
Research Foundation, Center for research on sustainable agriculture and rural
development. His love and sympathy for the people of United Koraput and especially the Tribals
who immensely contributed to the plant and animal biodiversity notably their contribution to the
World of Rice germplasam is most admired.
ABBREVIATION
ADRI
AH
AH&VS
AHD
ARD
BAIF
BET
BPL
BQ
BYP
CAHWS
CARI
CB
CFSB&TI
CGRI
CLW
CRRI
CSWRI
DANIDA
ET
F&ARD
F1
-`
F2
F3
FAO
FMD
GALVMED GDP
GMR
GO
GOI
GoO
HS
ICAR
ICMR
IGA
ILDP
ILRI
KBK
KVK
LAC
LFA
LI
LMR
-
Animal Disease Research Institute

Animal Husbandry
Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services
Animal Husbandry Department
Animal Resource Department
Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation
Block Extension Team
Below Poverty Line
Black Quarter
Backyard Poultry
Community Animal Health Workers
Central Avian Research Institute
Cross Bred
Central Frozen Semen Bank &Training Institute
Central Goat Research Institute
Community Link Worker
Central Rice Research Institute
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
Danish International Development Agency
Enterotoxaemia
Fisheries & Animal Resources Department
First Filial Generation
Second Filial Generation
Third Filial Generation
Food Agriculture Organization
Foot & Mouth Disease
Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicines
Gross Development Product
Gold Mortgage Recovery
Government Order
Government of India
Government of Odisha
Haemorrhagic Septicemia
Indian Council of Agriculture Research
Indian Council of Medical Research
Income Generation Activity
Integrated Livestock Development Project
International Livestock Research Institute
Koraput-Bolangir-Kalahandi Districts
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Livestock Assistance Centre
Logical Frame Application
Livestock Inspector
Land Mortgage Recovery
LP
MPC
MSG
MYRADA
ND
NDDB
NDRI
NGO
NIRD
NOS
NSDC
OUAT
PD
PLCC
PMU
PPR
PRA
PRADAN
RD
RDE
RDV
SHG
SLSC
SPEECH
UNDP
VAS
VC
VO
VRF
WID
XIMB
Land Purchase
Milk Producers Co-operative
Management Services Group
Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency
New Castle Disease
National Dairy Development Board
National Dairy Research Institute
Non-Government Organisation
National Institute of Rural Development
National Occupational Standards
National Skill Development Corporation
Orissa University of Agricultural Technology
Project Director
Project Level Co-ordination Committee
Project Management Unit
Peste des Petites Ruminants
Participatory Rural Appraisal
Professional Assistance for Development Action, NGO
Ranikhet Disease
Royal Danish Embassy
Ranikhet Disease Virus
Self Help Group
State Level Steering Committee
Society for Peoples Education and Economical Change, NGO
United Nation Development Plan
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon
Village Committee
Veterinary Officer
Village Reviewing Fund
Women in Development
Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... i
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... iv
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1
Organisation and Strategy of Danida Integrated Livestock Development Project, Koraput, Odisha
................................................................................................................................................... 19
Impact: Integrated Livestock Development Project, Koraput....................................................... 28
Exclusive Knowledge: Integrated Livestock Development Project, Koraput................................ 44
Poor People and Livestock ......................................................................................................... 75
Livestock Diseases And Poor ..................................................................................................... 87
Village Revolving Fund Through Self Help Groups .................................................................. 115
Village Poultry Development to Alleviate Poverty And Malnutrition ........................................ 182
Duck Development in Tribal Homes in Odisha ......................................................................... 240
Small Ruminants (Sheep and Goat) in ILDP, Koraput............................................................... 248
Sheep Production in Smallholder Setup .................................................................................... 248
Small Holder Goat Development .............................................................................................. 295
Pig Development in Small Holder Ildp Tribal Villages Of Koraput ........................................... 318
Fodder and Feeding Interventions ............................................................................................. 354
Livestock Service Delivery - Community Link Workers, ILDP, Koraput .................................. 370
Community Animal Health Worker Institution in 2015 ............................................................. 406
Livestock Ladder and Success Stories in ILDP ......................................................................... 427
Village Committee ................................................................................................................... 435
Skill Development & Training for Staff Members, Farmers and Community Link Workers in
ILDP, Koraput.......................................................................................................................... 460
Poverty Tribal Women Self Help Group Livestock

(ILDP, DANIDA, Koraput)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our grateful thanks are due to The Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA),
New Delhi, Government of India, Government of Orissa,Bhubaneswar for instituting
Integrated Livestock Development Project (ILDP), Koraput in Orissa for improving the
living standard of tribal in 4 blocks and 100 villages as a pilot.
Our grateful thanks are due to Mr. Jens Rasmussen, Mrs. Yeti Lund, Second Secretary,
Royal Danish Embassy, New Delhi, Mr. Christian Peterson, First Secretary, Royal Danish
Embassy, New Delhi for their personnel interest in developing the ILDP in Koraput.
The District Collector of Koraput was the Chairperson of the Integrated Livestock
Development Project, Koraput District Co-ordination Committee and played very
significant role in augmenting the development of the infrastructure of the project and
coordination with other line departments. Shri Sanjiv Chopra,Shri Nikunja Bihari Dhal,
Ms Aparajita Sarangi, Dr. Arabinda Kumar Padhee, Ms. Usha Padhee, the District
Collectors, Koraput actively supported the project implementation, notably Ms. Aprajita
Sarangi up scaled the Self Help Group concept of the ILDP throughout the district and
Mrs. Usha Padhee improved the function of the SHGs developed by the State
government assistance. This is highly acknowledged.
Our grateful thanks are also due to Sri R.C.Chudhury and Sri Govind R. Patwardhan, Joint
Secretary, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal
Husbandry and Dairying for their active support and advise in implementing the project.
They were always there in the State Level co-ordination Meetings in Bhubaneswar.
Our heartfelt thanks are also due to Dr. U. Sarat Chandran, Sri Sanjiv Hota, Sri Madan
Mohan Mohanty, Sri Abhay Rath Principal Secretaries to Fisheries and Animal Resource
Development Department (F&ARD) Government of Orissa. Most grateful thanks are also
due to Sri Ashok Kumar Tripathy, Sri H.S.Sarkar, Sri Taradatt Commissioner cum
Secretaries to F & ARD, Government of Orissa. The dignitaries of F &ARD, Government
of Orissa were the Chairperson of the State Level Steering Committee (SLSC) for the
ILDP, Koraput where all crucial decisions on action plan was taken after verification by
the Expatriate Review teams. The SLSC played very important role where the ILDP
achievement and failures were frankly discussed and new directions were set on which the
ILDP developed to a successful project in Orissa. The Government of Orissa Principal
Secretaries and Secretaries took personnel interest in ILDP development and gave all
possible cooperation for which the project attained successes notably the induction of Self
Help Group model In Orissa as whole.
Prof. Frands Dolberg, University of Arhans contributed to the development of Backyard
poultry in ILDP, Koraput, and and Mr. Hans Askov Jensen, poultry consultant from
Denmark for their contribution to the ILDP. We are indebted to Mr. Ces de Haan, World
Bank as we had utilized his thoughts in this publication. He has contributed immensely to
the development of rural livestock sector to alleviate poverty.Thanks are due to Ms.
Sanne Chipeta, Danish Agriculture service foe documenting ILDP, Koraput.
We are most grateful to Prof. S.P.Das, Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar for
imparting preliminary introductory trainings to the staff members of ILDP.Thanks are also
i

due to Prof. S.K.Ranjan, former HoD Nutrition, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, and
Bareli and FAO expert for acting as Consultant to the ILDP and giving trainers training to
the staff members in enriching fodder and preparation of mineral mixture for farmers.
We are very thankful to Prof. M.K.Sethuraman and Prof. Dwarikanath, Former Vice
Chancellor, Karnataka for impacting training to all new recruitees in the field for
extension approaches, methods and management. It was most useful.
Our grateful thanks are due to MYRADA, Bangalore and consultant Ms. Yasmin Master,
Programme Officer and Ms. V. Ramachandran, Programme Officer for their valuable
assistance to train and visit the project area SHGs twice and giving feedback to improve its
performance. This has great impact on Orissa SHG formation. Our special thanks are due
to Dr. K.G.Rama, W.I.D Advisor to RDE for her contribution to the sphere of gender
Thanks are also due to Dr. S.C. Mohapatra. Former Director, Central Avian Research
Institute, Bareli for giving advice to improve the Backyard Poultry sector in the project.
Dr. B.C. Patanaik, Fmr. Director, Central Sheep Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan
for advice to improve the sheep sector of the project.
Our grateful thanks are due to Mr. Eyvind Christensen, Consultant DANIDA for his
constant appraisal of the project in implementation. Mr. Peter Lund, consultant, Denmark
gave very valuable advice to the ILDP development especially in livestock sector.
There were two expatriate evaluations of the ILDP and we are most thankful to the teams
for giving new direction in implementing the project without which the project could not
have succeed.
I most indebted to Dr. Mamta Dhawan, GALVmed, New Delhi for having very fruitful
discussions in the sphere of Service Delivery in Livestock sector. I thank Mr. Peter
Jeffery, CEO, GALVmed and Dr. Abdallah Said Twahir, Nairobi and Dr. Peetambar
Khuswaha, GALVmed, New Delhi for giving the opportunity to be a Consultant for Orissa
Project and that gave me more insight into the Community Animal Health Worker
institution and building its sustainability.
Dr. K. Annie Nirmala and Prof.G.Parthasarathy of Institute of Development and planning
Studies, Visakhapatnam to study the SHGs of ILDP, Koraput and giving their valuable
suggestions.
Thanks are also due to Sri B.M. Samantroy and Sri Simanchal Hota, Agriculture
Consultant for their assistance to the ILDP.
We are indebted to National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Anand, Nordic
Agriculture College, Denmark, National Dairy Research Institute( NDRI), Karnal, BAIF,
Pune, Central Cattle Breeding Farm( CCBF), Sunabeda,Central Institute on Buffalo,
(ICAR), Hissar, Chief Conservator Office of Forest Department, Karnataka,
Bangalore,OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) (ICAR), Cuttack
, Government Pig Farms, Vizianagram and Visakhapatnam, SPEECH, Madurai, Tamil
Nadu, Regional Station for Forage production and demonstration, Hyderabad, XIM,
Bhubaneswar, Tribal Harijan Research and Training Institute, Bhubaneswar, NIRD,
Hyderabad, ADRI, Phulnakhora, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand,CFSP& TI,
Hesserghatta, Bangalore, Maharashtra goat and sheep Research and development Institute,
ii

Phaltan, KVK, Semiliguda, Institute of Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar,OCAC,

Bhubaneswar, Remote Sensing Department, Bhubaneswar for providing facilities in
training and assistance to ILDP in various ways.
Dr. Binayak Mishra and Dr. Akulanand Das, Project Directors contributed richly to the
project development. Dr.M.Appa Rao, Dr. D.K. Kabiraj, Dr.B.Das, Dr. Jadunath
Parida,Dr.Girish
Chandra Kar, Dr.Anirudha Biswal,Dr. A. Khuntia,Dr. (Ms.)
Sangeetarani Bhupati, Jayant Kumar Pati,Sudhansu Sekhar Rajguru, Ms. Susmita
Samantray, Satyanarayana Nanda,Amya Ranjan Parida,Ms. Shymasrhree Mohanty,
Ms.Pallishree Kanungo,Ms.Saktirani Padhi, Ms. Sanjeeta Rout, Ms. Shymasri
Mohanty,B.C.Sahu,Debendra Nath Giri.Prabhat Kumar Majhi,K.C.Bholo,B.Nayak,Khirod
Kumar
.Biswal,Asish
Kumar
Das,Arun
Kumar
Sahu,
R.K.Ekka,P.C.Sethi,S.K.Chakraborty, Ms.U.Pradhan, B.Mishra, M.Mohanty,M.Behera,
U.Moharana,D.Mohanty,
A.K.Mohanty,Ms.
Bandana
Das,Aurobinda
Rautroy,Dr.Neelakantha Panigrahy,J.Meher,M.K.Padhy,S.C.Dakua,Bhabani Shankar
Nayak,Khirodh Kumar Biswal were the staff members of ILDP and have contributed to
the people of the project and we are thankful to them.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Graham C, Calley, Former Chief Veterinary Officer, Northern
Territories, Australia with whom I was working in the early part of my carrier and it is his
teaching that made me knowledgeable in concept and approach to connect people and the
livestock sector.
Most grateful thanks are due to Ms. Lucy M. Maarse, Deputy Coordinator, Swiss Agency
for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Delegate, Intercooperation (IC), New Delhi,
India. We had several hours of discussion of Livestock development and poverty
alleviation in India villages since 2002 and I gained my knowledge and sight of the subject
due to her and she was the one along with Prof. Dolberg who made me the Back yard
Poultry advisor. I am also indebted to Dr. Gopal Krushna Tripathy for going through the
script.
The first author was the Lead Consultant to prepare Livestock Policy and Action Plan for
the government of Chhattisgarh in 2006. The concept of ILDP, Koraput with focus on
small animal mortality control and improvement of productivity was incorporated in it. Dr.
Sarjius Minj, Principal Secretary cum Agriculture Production Commissioner, Chhattisgarh
had directed the implementation of the total action plan. It gave very significant output to
improve the income of the rural poor. Similarly, Sri Bisnupada Sethi, Secretary cum
Commissioner F&ARD, Government of Odisha had also encouraged administration of
anthelmintic to all small ruminants of the state through Department of AHD and it gave
very fruitful and encouraging results. Thus it can be concluded that the ILDP, Koraput
model stands tested on state level.
My earnest thanks are due to Ministry Agriculture,GOI for according me deputation to
work in the Integrated Livestock development Project, Koraput as Danida Advisor.
Das Kornel, Former Danida Advisor

Bhubaneswar, 15th August, 2016
iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
India has already achieved the target of reducing poverty by half, with 21.9% of its 1.2
billion people living below the poverty line or having income of less than $1.25 a day, the
U.N. report said. India had set a target of 23.9% to be achieved by 2015.
Still, India remains home to one-fourth of the worlds poor and more than one-third of all
malnourished children. On the hunger front, the report pointed out that India should
achieve its target of halving hunger just after the 2015 deadline.
Integrated Livestock Development Project (DANIDA assisted), Koraput, Orissa
An integrated programme of livestock development was designed and implemented in four
selected blocks (Koraput, Laxmipur, Jeypore and Kundra) of the two Sub-divisions of
Koraput and Jeypore in Koraput district of Orissa by Government of Orissa and assistance
from DANIDA. The project was implemented in 100 poor and chronic poor villages of
Koraput district in Orissa. It had 5000 tribal families. The project period was from 1993 to
2002.
The objective of the project was to eradicate poverty and hunger in the project area and
influence the policy of the state.
The project was operating through an integrated approach that is now providing
impressive results in asset generation, human capital development, expansion of choice,
livelihood and women empowerment.
As discussed, poverty has many faces but it is our claim that poverty and deprivation can
be significantly reduced in a cost effective manner by applying the integrated approach
to agricultural, livestock and community development and by using specially trained lay
persons from the villages as Lead Farmers or Village Link Workers to perform the
livestock delivery system for improved animal health.
The benefits of ILDP to participants was presented including the following indicators:
Increased food production.
Higher Per capita consumption:
Higher net family incomes.
Higher incremental income.
Higher Economic Rate of Return.
Increased employment.
Higher rates of saving.
Higher income due to SHG.
Acquisition of new skills through training.
Building of rural community infrastructure at low-cost.
Strengthening of rural institutions.
Women Empowerment.
Capacity building and promotion of enabling environment.
iv

Replicable milestones developed by ILDP were Community Link Workers, ILDP Model
Self Help Groups (SHGs), SHG Apex Bodies, Village Committee,
Livestock
Development and Agricultural Activities.
The project was made up of inter-linked phases of activities like development of fodder,
improved livestock management practices, ensuring AHD service delivery at the village
level and continuous motivation, extension and training of the target population. It also
strengthened the support activities like training of farmers, staff and village workers. It
was learned from the project that
For poverty alleviation the emphasis would include the following:
Establishment of an effective veterinary delivery system through community link
workers (CLWs/facilitators/ CAHWs) for small animals viz. poultry, sheep and goat
and pig to control common diseases and administration of veterinary first aid in
villages.
Introduction of highly prolific indigenous and hardy sheep, goat, pigs and poultry
breeds/ strains in villages will improve productivity and reduce vulnerability from
animal loss to the poor.
Low cost skills within the small animal and village poultry production system.
Promotion of dual purpose mixed cropping systems with maximum nutrient recycling
Logistic support to Mission Shakti for the formation of Self Helps Groups and apex
bodies of SHGs and their linkages into Line Department.
Extension and training activities with Livestock Service Delivery System.
Creation of Village Development Funds (VDF) through Village Committees and
Village Revolving Funds (VRF) through Self Help groups (SHGs) as safety net to the
communities. Women SHGs have brought new freedom to the poor from the shackle of
century old exploitation from Money lenders in Koraput district.
Poverty reduction in rural population through Veterinary intervention has been tried in
this study. Poor keep small animals viz. sheep, goat and smallholder pigs and
Backyard poultry at home. Control of common infectious diseases and control of
gastro-intestinal parasites forms the core of the veterinary intervention. These diseases
cause most of the losses to the livestock owners through repeated out-breaks of the
disease leading to high morbidity and mortality of livestock in villages.
In general the vaccines of poultry and small animals like sheep, goat and pigs is
manufactured and supplied by Government owned Biological Units equally the Private
sector also plays important role in this sphere. However, the later targets the large bulk of
the market with the private sector livestock and poultry industry in India. The interest of
the poor farmers is thus laid with the Government sector.
The main constraint in the Preventive Medicine sector of the livestock is that it is not well
geared to meet the requirement of the poor farming community and to meet the new
challenges. The Commercial sector has the capability to meet new challenges but it is
underutilized due to low market penetration in the rural sector.
All most all Livestock vaccines produced are Cold Chain dependent, and Indian rural
section is not geared to meet this demand, the cold chain is not well distributed like human
medicine. Robust vaccines, with the current search for tropical environments focusing on
vaccine development for thermo-stable vaccines that can be used with a minimum of
v

infrastructure by nonprofessional staff is the future. Now in India Thermostable Ranikhet

Disease Vaccine named La Sota is marketed by Hester Biosciences Limited, Ahmedabad,
and Gujarat. This is bringing revolution to the field. This new technology should be
extended to all available livestock and poultry vaccines in the country.
Small scale livestock farming should be highly beneficial if the technologies of production
by the masses and mass of production can be integrated in a suitable manner. This is what
the ILDP had achieved.
The following common infectious diseases and gastro intestinal parasites in rural India
needs to be controlled through vaccination, bio-security measures and administration of
anthelmintic.
Backyard Poultry
Ranikhet Disease (Newcastle Disease) vaccination
Fowl pox Vaccination
Anthelmintic (for Helminthes and Cestodes) administration 10 days prior to vaccinations
Sheep and Goat
Pestis des Petites in ruminants (PPR) vaccination once in 3 years
Sheep and Goat Pox vaccines yearly once
Enterotoxaemia vaccination with booster dose
Anthelmintic for Helminthes and Trematodes (Flukes)
Pigs
Classical Swine Fever Vaccination yearly once
Anthelmintic for Helminthes and Cestodes (Tapeworm)
Introduction of highly prolific indigenous and hardy sheep, goat, pigs and poultry
breeds/ strains in villages will improve productivity and reduce vulnerability from animal
loss to the poor.
India is rich in bio-diversity of sheep, goat, pigs and indigenous poultry. It is also
rich source of prolific breeds of sheep, goat and the pigs. There are local poultry that are
very prolific in reproduction traits. The prolificacy of pigs is well documented. The
prolificness assists the families for recouping the loss of animals due to disease out-breaks,
draught and flood or even cyclone. The prolificacy of small animals is associated with
assured profit in the face of threats from animal losses due to various reasons. The
hardiness of the animals helps to secure animal in the face of repeated draught and disease
resistance so far has helped the local breeds to live and produce in the environment where
endo-parasite infestation is high. Superior breeds/strain of small animals from India can be
used in rural set up to enhance productivity of the local animals. This was achieved and
demonstrated in this study report.
The prolificacy in small animals and poultry is genetically related but they can be
manipulated to advantage by drug regimes. This has been shown in the present study. If
the diseases are controlled the small animals and backyard poultry can give relief to a
family in terms of meeting 60 to 70 percent of the annual budget of a family. The
backyard poultry with 5 hen units per family provides 12 kg of meat per annum to each
member of 4 member family unit that means no malnutrition to the family.
vi

Promotion of dual purpose mixed cropping systems with maximum nutrient

recycling
Integrated farming systems with technologies for low-input farming systems, with
maximum nutrient recycling, including improving low-quality fodder and energy
recycling has been tried in ILDP. Many of these techniques are also beneficial from an
environmental management point of view, and is, of course, highly desirable. Dual
purpose crops with grain for human food and the increased biomass production for animal
feeding was introduced in ILDP, Koraput viz. Finger millets and pigeon pea and was very
successful. It is advisable to improve the productivity of the traditional crop varieties with
available farmer friendly technologies and introduction of improved and productive
varieties gives the best results in assuring food security of the poor families. This attracts
them to adapt new technologies. This hold promise in land scarcity situation. The fodder
crops in goachar land was successful but not sustainable was the conclusion. The fodder
trees have future in feeding small ruminants.
Low cost skills within the small animal and village poultry production system.
Low cost skills like immunization of small animals and poultry was very effective in
reducing the out-break of common diseases. The use of low cost and wide spectrum
anthelmintic were very effective in enhancing productivity of animals and farmers fully
adapted the skill and is highly sustainable. The feeding of poultry with local feed resources
like white ants and protein from fishmeal and oil cakes is popular with the women
farmers. Now a days the Azola feeding to the poultry is picking up. Low cost housing
from local resources is very much followed by the rural community. The farmers are
adapting semi-scavenging systems for small animals. Feeding of salt and mineral mixture
a new skill is accepted. The farmers are knowledgeable of the flora suitable for feeding
small ruminants and are adapting Soobabul (Lucena lucocephala) leaves for feeding small
ruminants at home.
Village Revolving Funds (VRF) through Self Help groups (SHGs) as safety net to the
communities. Women SHGs have brought new freedom to the poor from the shackle of
century old exploitation from Money lenders in Koraput district.
A women focus is working. Women are now transforming the community. Women in
tribal societies are equal at marriage, divorce but are second to inherit property after
men in the family. Women play very important and responsible role in livelihood and
raising of family in tribal rural India thus a women focus approach improves the overall
impact in terms of poverty reduction. Livestock are particular important for poor
women for whom farm animals represent one of the most widely held and important
assets. Small farm animals particularly income from backyard poultry goes to women
and which is being used for the benefit of the family like education of children, health
bills etc.
It was our experience that Self Help Groups by women members are highly sustainable
and successful than the men groups. The poor face two type of exploitation that stops their
growth and increases the misery to the family. The traditional money lenders exploit the
villagers by charging 120 percent interest rate per annum even it goes up to 240 percent
rates with compound interest that breaks the back bone of the family for ever existed till
1993 in the Koraput district of Orissa. Now, the Self Help Groups have liberated the
people from the clutches of the Moneylenders which they suffered for centuries. The
vii

political nexus between money lenders and politician is broken. People feel a sense of full
freedom and happiness of their SHGs and the financial freedom. They now bank. The
women are raising their voice on irresponsible drinking of alcohol of men in the society.
They ascertain their rights for justified issues and use the protest mode to place their
legitimate demands even with District Administration. They are now free to choose their
democratic representative. They are now thinking in SHG forum instead of worrying.
They are availing medical care and they have finances and loan provision at hand. They
are using their savings in productive loans. The children are going to school, a new future
is at their hand. There is a new freedom to the people.
Figure - I
IMPROVED LIVING STANDARD

OF
POOR
Livestock Service Delivery
Sheep, goat & pig

production improvement
&
Reduction of inbreading
Vaccination
&
De Worming of
Sheep, Goat, Pigs &
Poultry
Community link workers
Safety Net
Self Help Groups

SHG Apex body
viii
Agriculture:
Dual purpose mixed
cropping,
Vegetable cultivations

The second exploitation that is the exploitation in the market place by the Middlemen. The
ILDP had taught the farmers to level the price of their livestock and are getting the right
price but the middleman takes up to 100 to 120 percent profit in the market. It is vital that
the people are to be price makers than price takers. In north Orissa the farmers are
selling poultry by weight. The cooperatives in future can play important role here.
ILDP, Koraput had introduced a concept of Village Development through Village
Committee (VC) in 25 percent of its villages. It is sustainable. The villages came out with
a saving of 25,000/ and a matching grant of Rs 25,000/ was allocated to them. The VCs
stored chemical fertilizer, insecticides, and seeds for sale to its members. The VC fund
was spent by the community in Government contracts of civil work, in brick kilns etc that
produced employments. They were conserving bio-diversity of crops in the village. First
Aid Human medicine Village deworming of people under medical supervision was carried
out. The VC kept the villages clean by sweeping the village twice in a month, all garbage
were disposed systematically in a pit and villages introduced duck to control the larvae of
mosquitos, the village water pump sanitation and functionality was maintained. This VC
concept can be introduced in improving the quality of livestock wealth of the villages.
ix

INTRODUCTION
Traditional Livestock sector has been playing important role in the socio-economic as well
as the food security of rural poor from centuries. The Livestock in rural India contributes
to food and nutritional security, provide draught power, transport and manure, and also
serve in traditional social functions to many communities. It is also a form of storing
wealth. Livestock is known to directly contribute to the livelihoods of more than twothirds of the Indias rural poor and to a significant minority of the peri-urban poor.
The Indian livestock sector is changing fast due to emerging new driving forces. With a
strong and growing demand that has appeared due to strong GDP growth, the middle class
Indians food habit is changing towards more livestock products in their menu that is
attributed to Growth oriented planning resulting to rapid institutional and
macroeconomic policy changes, and a fundamental shift in the functions of livestock, thus
there is a significant danger of the poor being left out impacting their food security and
safety compromised is the opinion of one school of thought.
Livestock Sector contributes about 4.1 percent to the Gross Domestic Product (2012-13).
Over the last two decades, livestock sector has grown at an annual rate of 4.5 percent,
which is higher than the growth of agricultural sector (percent) despite the fact that
investment in this sector was not substantial. During 2013-14, milk production peaked at
137.69 MT, thus becoming an important secondary source of income for 70 million rural
households engaged in dairying. The average year on-year growth rate of milk, at 4.18 per
cent vis- -vis the world average of 2.2 per cent, shows sustained growth in availability of
milk and milk products for the growing population. Egg production was around 73.89
billion in 2013-14, while poultry meat production was estimated at 2.68 MT. The Sector
growth has mostly came from the Commercial farming sector like Broiler and layer
poultry and some from the Dairy sector. As per 2009-10 estimates 20.5 million workers
are engaged in the livestock sector.
Untapped potential of Livestock Sector and poverty alleviation
India has still 836 million people who are living on less than 1.25 dollar a day in 2015.
The millennium goal is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger from the Globe. The
livestock sector is known to have great but untapped potential to contribute to poverty
alleviation. Livestock production can produce results with in short period, it can benefit
many people, promote food security and nutrition, and income to the poor families. This
demand growth can provide significant opportunities for many rural and peri-urban poor
to increase returns from their livestock. This can be achieved under the umbrella of a
consistent development policy targeted to the poor directly and appropriate changes are
placed at both institutional and technical constraints with linkage to supply of inputs and
market. In the rural market system, especially of the livestock the middleman plays the
vital role and is dominant player who dictate the price and the farmer is a price taker.

Livestock component reduces vulnerability of Agriculture production failure

The opportunity in the sector to the poor can be attained with the concept of livestock
ladder where the poor progress from modest livestock holdings such as few Desi poultry
to start with and gradually acquiring sheep, goat and pigs and later bullocks for labour
earning and then at the end dairy cows. Livestock is well known for providing constant
flow of income and reduces the vulnerability of agriculture production. This has been well
documented in recent years draught related suicide rates in Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra and at the same time studies have shown that the families having Livestock
component had reduced vulnerability of agriculture production failure.
This opportunity can be extended to the poorest of the poor who do not have livestock, but
if they can acquire initially small animals, that can help them along a pathway out of
poverty.
Livestock as a tool for poverty alleviation not well understood
Ashley et al., 1999 made a comprehensive review of 800 Livestock Projects worldwide
with regard to livestocks contribution to poverty alleviation and livelihood. They found
serious and significant problems in creating positive impact among the poor. It was argued
in the review that livestock development professionals and governments were biased
towards large animals and with their owners, who typically are not among the poorest and
certainly not women. It can be thus concluded that livestock development, has had a very
mixed record with regard to poverty alleviation and livestock as a tool for poverty
alleviation is not well understood.
Technology and People centered ---- new paradigm of Livestock Development
Consequently, it is apparent that livestock development in rural and poor context is now at
a crossroads; although more and more evidence is available to illustrate the importance of
livestock in poverty alleviation. Given the problems of the poor, there is an urgent need for
a shift to new paradigm of livestock development that can incorporate both technology and
people- centered and it can meet the specific needs of the poor livestock keepers.
Early Public sector projects tended to be top-down, technology-driven interventions and
were mostly gift packages; while in recent years the focus in rural context has been on
holistic, participatory and community-based projects and programmes.
People
Services
Technology
In the other hand the Large scale projects and programmes with the objective of improving
productivity from livestock and thus growth as the goal had a significant impact in
creating the commercial sector that ultimately resulted to the present Industrial farming
sector notably the poultry sector and the small holder sector of dairy and broiler
production. In the process the rural livestock sector community were left out and
continued neglected until the new definition of poverty began to refocus the consequences
of deprivation and vulnerability in absence of food and livelihood security and
rediscovered the new role of livestock sector. It is now established that poverty is a multidimensional phenomena and has differing implications both at the individual and
community levels. Further, at the community level, the poor are deprived of services and
face the political and institutional structures that are not geared to address their needs.
2

Consequently, support for livestock was included as part of integrated rural development
approach justified on the grounds that livestock could enhance life and living and decrease
a households vulnerability to shocks and disaster. So many experts are of the belief that
problems of the poor can be considerably aided by technological solutions. On the other
hand many technologies are viewed as lacking relevance to the wider problems of the poor
and as such have doomed to failure as said above. So the technologies should be need
based and farmer friendly.
Tribal communities and Poverty
Tribal groups in different stages of development
On the top of it, the Tribal target groups are in different stages of development; of them
primitive tribal group are in the primary stage in transition and other groups are in various
stages of development. So the scope of planning is definitely different and the aspirations
are also varied to each of the groups concerned. They have their strengths and on which a
positive development can be expected. But the general opinion on Tribal development so
far from the experiences is mixed. The policy makers and planers blame the implementers
and the implementers blame the target group tribals. This blame game is continuing for
about half century and the economic condition has not improved rather people have fallen
into poverty trap.
Tribal development has remained an enigmatic issue, an unsolved problem. In spite of
more than fifty years of efforts the goals of development have not been achieved was the
opinion of Prof. Nayak an eminent Anthropologist of Orissa. He further says that the
development schemes fall short of the felt needs of the people.
On the other hand the general perception on tribals, in local environment is very negative.
Tribes are denounced as beef eaters, people with low I.Q. and low perception, unclean and
drunkards also irresponsible and the non tribals blame them for the poverty. So at the end
the alcohol is targeted to all failures. These are opinions that we met with, when we
initiated the Integrated Livestock Development Project in Koraput during 1993.
Current tribal World points to widespread unrest and dissatisfaction
The reality is that the tribal communities on hills and plains have experienced different
levels of influence on their life and living from the neighbours. They are in different stages
of development. The literacy rate is very low, poverty rate is high and on hills chronic
poverty is a major issue. Child and mother mortality is high and awareness as well as
access to health services is poor. They are being exploited by village money lenders and
forest employees. They are not skilled to interact with the administration and political
leadership and ask for their rights as per the Law of the land and the Indian Constitution.
The current tribal scene is characterised by widespread unrest and dissatisfaction among
the tribals and the cause effect analysis is pointing to exploitation both at economic and
socio-political levels, displacements and denudation of forests leading to loss of livelihood
resources and displeasure.
Development based on Small Animal focus
Basing on the above facts, a development strategy based on small animal (a small flock
of poultry, sheep and goat and pigs) was developed jointly by Government of India and
3

DANIDA (Danish International Assistance) and formulated in Integrated Livestock

Development Projects (ILDPs) in the states of Orissa (Koraput district), Tamil Nadu
(Pudukotai district) and Chhattisgarh (Bastar district) targeting the poorest segment and
women of the rural/ Tribal village population. This study report is limited to ILDP in
Koraput district of Orissa. The broad objective was same for all the projects but in Orissa,
a concept in which the process of participating is a learning process that started from Self
Help Groups, as a small group activity to initiate other income generating activities where
choosing livelihood option was of free choice to the group members. The small animal or
livestock are as such primary initiative on hills where communities are resource poor
compared to the plains. The project gave a basket full of knowledge options ranging from
livestock to agriculture and other low cost activities to the farmers, with freedom to
choose. This was through training and exposure visits. The knowledge of farmers in this
region is limited to 30 Kms radius except those left for labour earnings to other states.

Fig.- I
LFA --PROBLEM TREE FOR THE KORAPUT TRIBAL VILLAGE

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY (A.H.) SECTOR
LOSS OF
CONFIDENCE
AMONG PEOPLE
LOW A.H INCOME
EFFECTS
LOW OUTPUT
FROM LIVESTOCK
AND POULTRY
LOW ANIMAL
PRODUCTIVITY
POOR EXTENSION
SERVICE DELIVERY
SYSTEM
LOW ACCEPTANCE OF
TECHNOLOGY
HIGH ANIMAL
MORTALITY AND
MORBIDITY
POOR
NUTRITIONAL
STATUS
PREDATORS
TRIBAL VILLAGERS
LACK INFORMATION
SYSTEM
POOR ANIMAL
HEALTH
CAUSE
LOW
OUTPUT OF
CROP
RESIDUE
INAPPROPRIATE
TRAINING OF
EXTENSION STAFF
INSUFFICIENT
FODDER
AVAILABLE
LACK OF DISEASE
CONTROL
LACK OF
ORGANISED
HERDING
SYSTEM
EXTENSION STAFF
LACK KNOWLEDGE OF
TRADITIONAL
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
LACK OF
VETERINARY
LOGISTICS
OVER
STOCKING
RATE
DEFFICIENT MINERAL
NUTRITION
POOR LIVESTOCK
MANAGEMENT

Fig. - II
LFA ---SOLUTION TREE FOR THE KORAPUT TRIBAL VILLAGE

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY (A.H.) SECTOR
IMPROVED & HIGH

A.H INCOME
CONFIDENCE
AMONG PEOPLE
REGAINED
DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVE
OUTPUT
FROM LIVESTOCK
AND POULTRY
IMPROVED
FUNCTIONAL
EXTENSION
SERVICE DELIVERY
STYSTEM ESTABLISHED
STANDARD ANIMAL
PRODUCTIVITY
GAINED
IMPROVED
ACCEPTANCE
OF TECHNOLOGY
LOW ANIMAL
MORTALITY AND
MORBIDITY
PREDATORS
CONTROLLED
STANDARD
NUTRITIONAL
STATUS ACHIEVED
TRIBAL VILLAGERS
INFORMATION
SYSTEM IMPROVED
ANIMAL HEALTH
IMPROVED
HIGH
OUTPUT OF
CROP
RESIDUE
APPROPRIATE
TRAINING OF
EXTENSION STAFF
SUFFICIENT
FODDER
AVAILABLE
FUNCTIONAL DISEASE
CONTROL SYSTEM
ESTABLISHED
ORGANISED
HERDING
SYSTEM
INSTALLED
EXTENSION STAFF
KNOWLEDGE IN
TRADITIONAL
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
IMPROVED
STRENGTHENED
VETERINARY
LOGISTICS
PREVENTED
OVER
STOCKING
RATE
DEFFICIENT MINERAL
NUTRITION
CORRECTED
LIVESTOCK
MANAGEMENT &
HOUSING IMPROVED
IMMEDIATE
OBJECTIVE

Tribal livestock sector in Subsistence Farming economy

This paper analyses the development process of livestock sector in ILDP, Koraput in terms of
Tribal farmers need and aspirations of Koraput district in Orissa. The livestock sector in
subsistence economy backdrop as a viable livelihood option on one hand; and the role of
livestock sector in reducing rural poverty on the other in a mixed economy set up was
inducted through an integrated Livestock Development approach. The challenge within was
resource poor and chronic poverty of the communities.

Livestock Development Approach

The ILDP approach (LFA Fig I and II) was marked deviations from the government
programme where large ruminants are priority, especially dairy for poverty alleviation
programmes.
Dairy farming, poor and very poor
Dairy has been traditional practice in many States in India, however still officially it is
promoted as an economic option for landless farmers. The achievement in the field of
smallholder dairying has been on the foreground in India. The dairy success is largely due to
community-based organization, which as platform for further development initiatives is linked
to livestock, establishment of extension and veterinary service systems, community based
savings and credit schemes, joint marketing channels and input supply business centers. The
dairy farmer groups, networks, co-operatives etc. especially, women in forefront have
strengthened institutional development, infrastructure promotion and both forward and
backward linkages have brought the spectacular changes.
A dairy cow for a small farmer is an asset of considerable value. Relatively high costs are
known to be involved in investment and managing a dairy unit. The dairy projects are
criticized on the ground that investment and running costs exclude resource-poor households
from taking up dairy husbandry a part of the livelihood. It has some truth. It is seen that those
households that already keep cattle and market some milk find it much easier to upgrade the
business through acquiring an improved dairy cattle than non-cattle keeping households.
Often these households have a better resource base than non-cattle keeping households.
Felix said that although dairy husbandry may not be one option for the poorest of the poor, it
is a real economic option for many small farmers, provided they have the resources to manage
the first hurdle of entry into the sector. His remarks are based from experiences gained in
India.
It is also well known fact that land, labour and cash are the critical resources required for
smallholder families to acquire dairy cattle.
Planted fodder production on farm land competes with crop production; so farmers decide the
option on their family requirement priority.
Again, the smallholder dairy producers need daily cash to meet the expenditure for their
animals, and also in times when the cows go dry and there is no income from milk, then it is
crucial to have sufficient cash to be able to bridge such gaps. Most newly inducted small
farms abandon dairy at this stage; even some new medium size farms. Dairy farm owner run
into problems when dairy animals are not inducted in phased manner, leading to drying of all
cows near to each other; so the farmer fail to meet the running cost of the herd. However,
there are numerous examples of landless farmers, who by keeping dairy animals have
succeeded in escaping from poverty.
On the other hand, Dairy farmers receive regular, daily cash income from the sale of milk as
important element in the better management of their household budget and thus become
8

economically less vulnerable. Regular income reduces the risk of getting caught in the debt
trap and of falling into absolute poverty. Again, dairy animals themselves provide security to
the household. Farmers, in agriculture terms see milk more as a cash commodity than a food
commodity. In general, the home consumption of milk and nutritional status of dairy
household increase while the sale of milk is a good source of cash as said above.
Dairy farming has not become viable for many other farms, because for them costs are simply
too high and not covered by the revenue from the dairy unit. Lack of proper milk marketing
opportunities and market support has driven farmers out of the dairy as livelihood; to the
extent that milk holidays in some co-operatives had such disastrous consequences.
Under Indian pretext, different community in different states have specific social traditions as
on food habits and some known as vegetarians solely depend on milk thus on dairy and some
do not milk cows and buffaloes especially central Indian tribal. Thus economics did not play
significant role to decide on the option in traditional dairy farming regions. Punjab, Haryana,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and adjacent areas of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh has the age old
tradition to keep milch buffaloes and dairy products formed their major food item; so also in
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu milk products forms an essential part of diet to
many. On the contrary eastern states and states with sea coast lines rather lived on fish as
major food item and dairy products as sweet dish. Certain central Indian tribal population as
well the north-eastern tribes were never known to consume milk and its products, like some
Austro-asiatic societies who are known to lack lactose digesting enzymes in their body.
Challenge in states like Punjab and Haryana was to persuade the society to market milk, as
was a taboo of strong significance since centuries.
Societies and regions where people are not aware of milking cows are the most challenging
societies for dairy development. Most Central Indian states particularly the tribal population
concentrate regions come into this category.
Experience goes with the fact that dairy and irrigated crop systems go together; recent
developed irrigation potentials in hydroelectricity zones in India/Orissa have the required
potential to adopt dairy in livelihood system, however for the present, the low demand milk
market in these regions limits such endeavour but the option to breed dairy animals and be a
supply line to high milk market zones is open with great economic potential through
utilization of unutilized farm crop residues.
It is general experience that like lack of technical and entrepreneurial know-how, regular input
supplies hinder farmers to be successful in dairy husbandry. Thus establishment of sustainable
dairy development system is the priority. The future of Indian Dairy lies with economic milk
production and to be most cost effective such that the farmers can compete effectively in the
market. So a rural base system of dairy production on agriculture bi-products and fodder will
sustain in the market before the present day concentrate base peri-urban dairies.
In many instances when farmers need is examined in order to find out suitable livestock
species of interest to their livelihood, they end up with dairy cow. They look at the total
amount that shall be offered to them in terms of subsidy or gift by government agencies due to
9

dairy cow than a goat or few chickens. Keeping in mind the experiences of livestock sector in
total; it was decided that breeding of cattle and sale of heifers be taken up as livelihood
option, especially in irrigated block like Jeypore and more emphasis to be laid on small
animal production and development aspects in Koraput tribal villages. More ever they do
not have tradition of milking cows and only few are beginning to adopt it after 30 years of
efforts in the project area.
The second most vital activity was to increase the employment opportunities for poor
families. Small scale livestock farming should be highly beneficial if the technologies of
production by the masses and mass of production can be integrated in a suitable manner. This
is best achieved through creation and development of large sector, in turn it creates demand
for labour and services. This is true to agriculture sector, where India has witnessed such
opportunities during green revolution period. This is what the ILDP had achieved.
The Indian livestock sector is substantial in its own right, contributing to about 27% of the
agriculture GDP in developing countries (2001-2002, India GDP was 27.7% of agriculture). It
is also seen to be fastest growing sector in developing countries.
During 2001-2002 in India, the contribution of Livestock and Fisheries sector to countrys
GDP was 6.8 percent (5.59 percent from Livestock and 1.21 from Fisheries) at current prices
of 2002-03. The contribution of milk alone (Rs 1, 03,804 crore) was higher than paddy (Rs.
73,965 crore), wheat (Rs. 43,816 crore) and sugar cane (Rs 28,592 crore).
The Livestock sector has provided regular employment to about 11 million in principal status
and 8 million to subsidy status.
Women constituted 69 percent of the labour force in Livestock sector as against 35 percent in
crop farming.
Such growth inevitably creates new employment opportunities in the livestock sector.
However, the spillover effects from such growth is likely to be more limited to the livestock
sector than agriculture crop and vegetable production sector. This is explained on the ground
that large-scale livestock production tends to be capital and energy intensive as opposed to be
labour intensive (Udo, 1997), and livestock-processing and support industries associated with
this large scale commercial sector are often concentrated in large urban and peri-urban centers
(Sansoucy, 1995). Growth in the large-scale livestock commercial sector is therefore unlikely
to generate significant additional employment opportunities for the rural poor. (Ashley op
cit.).
In contrast, the livestock development in small holder farming farms are labor-intensive
innovations which makes use of surplus family labour as well to a lesser extent it creates some
labour opportunities to non-farming members. So it was approved in the project that more
focus directed for poor farm families as are attracted to raise livestock thus creating more
opportunities for themselves. This approach is called, livestock as means of promoting
sustainable improvements to the livelihoods of the poor.
10

The Biased Farmers

It is the general observation by all those who have done the need analysis of the farmers that
they tend to ask supply of milch cows and buffaloes in buffaloes dominant tracts. In poverty
dominant areas also they demand supply of milch cows, if they know that it is Government
survey questionnaires. They place the preference and demand on the relative value of the
species of animals and the gain from Government subsidies or gift. Thus in the planning
exercise the most valuable species like small animals are left out and development suffers
chronic failure. This biased ness is due to farmers greed.
1.
A livelihood based approach works directly with the poor
The development of this approach is based on finding solutions to constraints in livestockraising by the poor.
These small holders are likely to lose out in the market, since they no longer be able to
compete with the large units: inability to deliver a constant quality, difficult to deliver a
standard product in terms of quality to the markets is one opinion (Schneider, 2002). The
Small holders thus need to be very cost effective and competitive in terms of quality of the
products to sustain before the commercial sector.
In the other hand, the small holder livestock rural producers have the opportunity before them
to meet the emerging trends in demand and consumption for livestock products (Delgado et
al.1999a). In recent years the poultry sector notably the poultry for meat in India has shown
consistent high demand and market. But this demand actually in turn is often being produced
in large industrial units in the surroundings of large urban dwellings or per-urban areas where
large market potential is close by. This has thus little or no impact on rural smallholder
producers and their market. Again, both the sectors have different format and objective so
they refrain from competition. The Back yard poultry has its niche market; there are no
commercial segment of sheep and goat in India and is limited to rural base production system
only. The pig sector is neglected in the policy thus it is with the rural poor under smallholder
set up and the commercial sector has not yet evolved.
2.
Constraints to earn livelihood from livestock by poor
Poor livestock farmers fail to understand the constraints to livestock rearing, because they
tend to take the losses from diseases to be natural and also in absence of awareness and
solutions at the doorstep they remain confused thus continue to be poor. The age old tradition
knowledge of the rural poor in the ever expanding world is not nicking well. This is a
complex subject itself. The constraints at livestock keeping cycle in three stages can be well
defined (LID, 1999). They are
-
Acquiring livestock
An appropriate Service Delivery System at place
Maintaining and retaining livestock
Selling livestock and their products

11

a. Acquiring livestock:
Poor households face difficulties to obtain credit to purchase livestock and even a hen. The
credit to poor has been an area of concern to development people. The money lenders high
interest rates (up to 120 percent per annum), bankers cumbersome process have discouraged
poor taking credit. However, micro-finance has come up as a good alternate and ILDP also
demonstrated its beneficial effects on poor. A landless woman purchasing a chicken hoping to
save for a goat then a buffalo or purchasing a piglet hoping for acquiring land we have seen
dream coming true to many poor families. In ILDP, Koraput poor tribal people on hill
invested most in livestock purchases from credits of Self Help Groups. This is called
Livestock ladder.
b. An appropriate service Delivery System at place
The Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services is the sole provider of
livestock services in the state. It has establishments up to Panchayats and there is no presence
in villages unlike the agriculture and health services. Thus Community Link workers/
Community Animal Health Workers are essential as a critical link in the overall animal health
system and provide an effective model for extending the outreach of animal health service
delivery to the poor in the villages. Poor mostly live in marginalizes areas. It is estimated that
animal diseases like - haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS), black quarter (BQ), Peste des Petits
Ruminants (PPR), enterotoxaemia (ET), goat and sheep pox, Classical swine fever and
Newcastle disease (ND) are identified as priority diseases for poor livestock keepers along
with ecto and endo-parsites. A village-based livestock service delivery mechanism,
community-driven but services paid by the community since inception would be the first step
in development effort. The supply chain should be set up in sustainable footing along with
efficient supply of cold chain dependent vaccines is the priority for successful intervention
that will reduce production losses, drastically cut down the mortality rate of livestock,
increase output, protect farmer investments and will help to appreciably increase household
incomes
c. Maintaining and rearing livestock
The poor families in most cases do not have the required resources at home to feed a good calf
until it becomes a milch cow. It means, a female calf under optimum conditions takes about
36-48 months to give birth to a calf and simply the poor families cannot put their resources to
wait so long under risk threat environment to produce a milch cow and initiate a livelihood.
Rearing a heifer or a cow at home means the families have to allocate one member at home to
take care of the animal and forego the earning from daily wage. At present, if the income
from dairy is not more than the daily wage earned per person, he or she will not invest time
and resources in such venture. ILDP, therefore, initially focused on small animals in the
project area.
Livestock keeping by poor are highly vulnerable to diseases especially in poverty stricken
areas. Poor generally tend to purchase sick and weak animals from markets for food due to
cheaper price and thus expose the village animal population to various diseases and
epidemics. Moreover, animal health services and inputs are inadequate, and in most cases they
have poor access if at all. Most vaccines are cold-chain dependent and appropriate facilities
and infrastructure is hardly developed in backward regions where poor live. They have very
12

poor purchasing ability. There are several instances where poor due to no empowerment, even
do not know how to demand and exercise their right for assistance from government
institutions to save their livestock from diseases and epidemics. Feed and feeding constraints
are chronic problems to all poor living in draught prone areas; again gradually common
natural resource is dwindling and fast resulting in severe feed scarcity to livestock.
d. Selling livestock and their products

Poor livestock owners do find a limited market at doorstep or in the nearby weekly markets.
Generally, their remoteness forms a barrier for good marketing of livestock. They are price
takers and are not price makers. However the ILDP Koraput villages find ready market for
poultry, sheep and goat also pigs. The women take the poultry to weekly markets and sale.
The sheep and goat are taken by the men to the weekly market for sale and purchase. Mostly
the butchers from nearby towns come to these markets to buy small animals. They are sold as
piece and assumed body weight forms the sale price. The middleman gains 80 to 100 percent
earning from such purchases, especially in the small ruminants. The pigs and piglets are sold
with in community. The cattle and buffalo are sold in weekly markets.
The large animals sale is by men but a group of schedule caste members act as intermediate
price makers or purchasers. They act forcefully in group.
ILDP interventions were not directed to market but farmers were given knowledge of costing
sheep and goat sale price in the training sessions. However emphasized without a strong
market linkage and value addition to the livestock products the farmers will not get their due.
This has its limitation, more especially with the poor livestock owners.
Livestock Development tools
Animal Health measures, Breeding and Feeding
The animal development has three major technical tools, which are often used. They are
animal health measures, breeding and feeding.
The ILDP chose the choice to administer anthelmintic to eradicate helminthes parasites at the
first instance followed by control of important infectious diseases in small animals including
backyard poultry. Improvement of productivity of the small animals was followed in the later
period of the project that has been described in detail in the following.
Animal Health
The animal health problems do exist in serious proportion, sometimes with solution and many
a times with no solution at hand. In most developing projects on livestock this tool though is
known is taken for granted because a special department already exists and thus it is excluded
and does not get addressed suitably by either of the party. The animal diseases inflict losses of
livestock and production. The farmers show concern for it and express in terms of worry.
Many a times they are not aware of the available solutions and even do not know the process
to avail it. They prefer to blame the evil spirits, ancestors and to their bad luck. The livestock
service delivery is the major area of concern and it requires solution. This is a major constraint
13

of great importance to the livestock farmers. In ILDP, Koraput animal health problems were
identified jointly by farmers and experts and classified on priority basis to address them
suitably. This was the core of the intervention and it gave the desired results.
Once disease control is achieved it improves the confidence level of the poor. This opens up
the society to be more receptive and acceptance for more knowledge. This is a good entry
point. There after the society is ready to enter in to partial risk or experiment stage with the
project.
Livestock Improvement through Breeding

Most development agencies have adapted breeding as the first tool of choice to initiate
livestock development. But in reality, it has been the introduction of exotic animals for
improvement of the indigenous non-descript animals. These improver breeds come from
temperate regions to tropical world. Each species has its special difficulty in the sphere of
breeding, feeding and health. Much research has gone into the field. Many even pronounced
pure breeding temperate animals in tropical climate is not worth trying. These efforts in
developing world through donor projects have been often named as Livestock Project
failures.
The other side of the story is that still there are countries that have come over fully or partially
such constraints. Israel is breeding Holstein in very high ambient temperature and about 2.5
kg. green fodder per day (not fully on green fodder), Thailand is breeding Holstein under high
temperature and high humidity conditions so also Saudi Arabia is breeding very high
producing Holsteins in very high ambient temperature climate and are successful. Scientists
have proposed stratifications of breeds in to tropics with both simple and complex parameters
and scales. There are also encouraging stories where crossbreds have proven superiority
over local animals and survived and produced effectively. The crossbred cattle in India,
Africa, Jamaica hope breed and Australian Milking Zebu (AMZ) and Karan Swiss of India;
Droper sheep breed which is a cross between German Merino and Black head Persian sheep
are some of the success stories. The Boer breed goat of South Africa is performing well in
Australian tropics and elsewhere in the World map and is appearing fast as one stall fed
mutton goat with prolificacy and high milk traits of promise.
Indian Dairy breeds as pure bred are still popular in Malaysia, Kenya, Thailand, Brazil,
Argentina, Australia and elsewhere.
The project initiated sheep and goat development, under two principles. It used local Indian
improver hardy breeds. The first principle is to reduce inbreeding in the village flock. The
second principle is to improve the milking capability of progeny, such that she can support
multiple kidding and lambing as well as support the growth of kids and lambs to attain
optimum growth before marketing. This strategy was very successful.
14

Livestock as spring board to good life and Living

It has been the general finding that the Livestock Development Projects impact and success is
low. There are special reasons to different Programmes, the level of poverty, the specie of
livestock that was given priority, infrastructure, Service delivery system and market linkage
etc. There are indeed many success stories particularly in Dairy sector with special reference
to Co-operative organization based Smallholder long term development programmes. There
are some spectacular impact from Dairy development, but then after few years there is no
trace of Dairy in the area or pocket. This was one case recorded in Chamrajpet of Bangalore
during 1972. The dairy development project was due to DANIDA and Government of
Karnataka. The development of crossbreds was initiated first due to Jersey crossbreds and
later the Red Dane and Holstein made the significant difference in the life of the farmers. It
was seen that during 2000s there was no trace of Dairy animals seen in Chamrajpet and even
the villages of Heserghatta in Bangalore. One of the farmers remarked the children of the
Dairy farmers are now engineers and professionals in USA and Europe. They are sending
Dollars, then what is the need of Dairying to their parents now The Dairy development thus
acted as spring board to jump for further assured development This is the case in most
Livestock Projects. In small holder commercial poultry a different trend is seen; most of the
farmers leave the programme and few successful once go for large scale commercial farming
system gradually, measuring the risks, credit components, land cost and the genetics at door
and the market at the end. In dairy and poultry it is the Feed Conversion Rate that plays the
major role for sustainability of farmers, in particular the large industrial units.
There are two kinds of views seen among the Livestock Professionals. One group of
professionals advocate and focus large animals like cattle and buffalo in development policy;
of that one group is biased for local breeds and another advocate exotics and crossbreds. Of
course the small animals like sheep and goat are neglected. The worst sufferer is the Pig
Sector. The Village poultry is neglected due to lack of awareness.
But what is important is to take an unbiased and balanced decision based on facts and
observations and also keep in view the opportunities in short and long term basis in the
interest of the farming community and the nation at large.
The people in ILDP area keep small ruminants for meat but not for milk. The project
screened Indian breeds of sheep and goat for high milk and prolificacy, then with the help of
climographs breeds suitable for Koraput were identified. The hardy large size breeds were the
choice with above traits. Initially, it is advisable to use Indian breeds as improver breeds with
data and information and intelligence on diseases which otherwise not known to the project
area is essential for decision. The new animals were quarantined for 3 to 4 weeks with couple
of disease tests by qualified scientists.
Improvement of smallholder animals through breeding with improver breeds is a challenge.
The village flock at grazing are bred by rams or bucks with the consent of the village. The
village committee agrees to remove all the breeding males and the male kids and lambs
through sale or transfer or are castrated. It requires one or two breeding season to obtain
desired result. It is best to keep 50 percent crossbred and then inter se breeding with selection.
15

The animal breeding should initially aim at Corrective breeding but not breed change
ambition. The corrective breeding means addition of some most desirable characters to the
population but with care not to reduce the already existing naturally selected traits. This is
hard.
The project in the corrective breeding as said above introduced measures to reduce the
inbreeding in village animals and flocks.
The project worked and promoted the local variety of pigs in the villages. There was no scope
to introduce exotic pigs in the area as the tribal farmers being very poor they couldnt afford
to feed the exotics with grains and raise.
Similarly, it was agreed in principle not to introduce any exotic chicken variety as it will
reduce the broodiness of the local chicken thus the valuable auto generating trait shall be lost
and the poor shall suffer. Instead improved Vezaguda breed of Kundra block and Vizianagram
Aseel cocks were introduced for breeding the low yielding Koraput block village chicken.
This worked satisfactorily.
Feed and Feeding

Simultaneously, various types of improved varieties of fodder species like grass, legumes and
fodder trees were tested for its adoption and performance in the Randapalli Farm, Jeypore.
The project initiated fodder development in village gochar land the next monsoon. It is felt
need, a need in reality to have fodder for animals. But, under practical conditions most serious
efforts have shown least adoption rate after project period. This was even the case with urea
treated paddy straw. Low output animals is that farmers believe not fit for stall feeding, thus
fodder cultivation suffers set back.
As said above the selected sheep and goat breed and individual male animals for ILDP were
from harsh climatic condition and well acclimatizing to scarcity of seasonal feed availability
of Rajasthan. The said animals performed excellent because yet Koraput district has not
reached to Rajasthan dry climate area feed scarcity situation. The local available feeding is
superior to Rajasthan. The crossbreeds born showed remarkable growth under the existing
plane of nutrition. However, this is the level where 15 to 35 percent households are keeping
small ruminants under small holder system. The process due to 70 percent household keeping
small ruminants and venture for commercial husbandry will not meet the demand of fodder
from the existing natural grazing.
Fodder growing to feed animals for production is well known as a vital factor to farmers,
scientists, extension specialists and planners. This is a tropical country problem. The existing
natural resource is dwindling. Many developed country specialists, field functionaries are
working on this issue and several instances of co-operation have appeared from last 50 years.
The results are good but ends up due to poor sustainability after project period, in other
words the adoption rate is very minimal. Scientists are looking at each layer of the problem
area very carefully allover. Now, the whole sphere of fodder and feeding livestock is
classified in to three major areas, i.e. planted fodder, tree fodder and feed from agriculture-biproducts. The process of extension and outcome of adoption rate in fodder skills and
16

technology is perceived from the new tools of extension, like Participatory learning,
Participatory resource identification and Participatory technology development (PTD). They
are the future hope to break through the barrier - the indigenous knowledge base technology
development is more valued in such situation is advocated by many thinkers and scientists.
Efforts will bring results.
However, the ILDP introduced dual purpose tradition crops where it can give appreciable
amount of biomass that can go for feeding animals and the high yield of grains for family
consumption. So tall and improved varieties of paddy, ragi, sorghum and maize the best
source for the same and was successful.
Access to Credit
The Project had the provision of Village Revolving Fund (VRF) of rupees one lakh for each
project village. Initially it was meant to be given to Village Committees and in turn they shall
give credit to households. But without a proper account management in the village it will
hardly succeed was the majority opinion. It was thus felt that an alternate model be placed.
Thus the concept of Self Help Group appeared in 1995. During inception of the project it was
noted that the money landers charged 120 % interest rate to the tribals in Koraput. It was too
high and exploitation from which hardly people could escape. The SHG model was adopted
by the support of MYRADA, a NGO from Bangalore. The women led SHGs were very
successful. It was the game changer for Orissa state as a whole. It sustained and still
functioning perfectly after the closure of ILDP in 2002. The SHGs work as Safety net to the
people.
17

References
Ashley S, Holden S and Bazeley, P. (1999) Livestock in Poverty Focused Development.
Livestock in Development. Crewkerne. United Kingdom
Bachmann, Felix. (2004) Livelihood and livestock. Lessons from Swiss livestock and dairy
development programmes in India and Tanzania. IC series no. 4. Intercooperation (IC). Bern,
Switzerland. 40 pp.
Danida (1997) Livestock Sector Policies Danida, Copenhagen
de Haan, C.,Schillhorn van veen,T.,Brandenburg., Gauthier,J., Gall Le,F.,Mearns,R., and
Simeon,M.(2001) Livestock Development implications for Rural Poverty, the Environment
and Global Food Security. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Delgado, C., M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfeld, S. Ehui, and C. Courbois. (1999a.) Livestock to
2020: The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 28.
Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Economic Survey 2001-2002: Ministry of Finance.
Economic Survey-Vol. II (All Chapters)-Union Budget

Fritz Schneider (2002) Livestock Environment and Development in India (An Overview)
www.docstoc.com/docs/4103550/environmental-issues-in-india
indiabudget.nic.in/es2001-02/welcome.html
indiabudget.nic.in/es2014-15/echapter-vol2.pdf p82-83
LID (1999). Livestock in Poverty-Focused Development, Crewkerne, Somerset: Livestock in
Development.
Redefining poverty lines and survey of BPL families Ministry of Rural Development, GoI
conducts BPL. www. pbplanning.gov.in/pdf/bplproposal.pdf
Sansoucy, R. (1995) Livestock a driving force for food security and sustainable
development, World Animal Review, 84/85, 34.
Udo, H. M. J. (1997) Myths in livestock development, Equator, 9, May/June, 510. pp. 517
18

ORGANISATION AND STRATEGY OF DANIDA INTEGRATED

LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROJECT, KORAPUT, ODISHA
An integrated programme of livestock development was designed and implemented in four
selected blocks (Koraput, Laxmipur, Jeypore and Kundra) of the two Sub-divisions of
Koraput and Jeypore in Koraput district of Orissa. The project period was from 1993 to 2002.
The project was made up of inter-linked phases of activities like development of fodder,
improved livestock management practices, ensuring AHD service delivery at the village level
and continuous motivation, extension and training of the target population. It also
strengthened the support activities like training of farmers, staff and village workers.
Poverty Reduction and Food Security by Providing Support to the Livestock sector- was
the focus
The U.N. report takes a closer look at the progress made by India during the past 14 years.
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger
India has already achieved the target of reducing poverty by half, with 21.9% of its 1.2 billion
people living below the poverty line or having income of less than $1.25 a day, the U.N.
report said. India had set a target of 23.9% to be achieved by 2015.
Still, India remains home to one-fourth of the worlds poor and more than one-third of all
malnourished children. On the hunger front, the report pointed out that India should achieve
its target of halving hunger just after the 2015 deadline.
The policy on livestock development is related to Government of Orissa and Danidas policy
on support to livestock development is related to the general policy: Reduction of poverty is
the fundamental principle of Danish development assistance.
Here it describes how the endeavors of the Danida livestock projects fit into the more
theoretical background of poverty alleviation. It is maintained that in a national context the
government subsidies and support for less effective anti-poverty programmes should instead
be relocated into community development interventions in the form of Women Self Help
Groups and Village Committees and to introduce proven agricultural and livestock
technologies in poverty stricken areas. The traditional crops and species of livestock of the
local region should be the thrust in initial years.
Further, Danida 1997, Livestock sector policy states that because livestock is an effective
conduit for intervention in rural systems, it is a useful sector through which to pursue this
fundamental objective. In this context the ultimate target groups for Danida are:
-
The poorer category of livestock owners usually found among small scale farmers and of
themselves.
19

Women the main tenders of most livestock categories and a disadvantaged group in and
of themselves.
The strategy is to target these selected groups with appropriate gender sensitive initiatives
designed around integrated livestock systems and so make an impact on rural poverty.
Objectives
The objectives set were to,
- Provide an effective extension approach aimed primarily at selected villages,
which will raise awareness and receptiveness of new and improved methods of
fodder production and livestock management.
- Develop, test and disseminate an appropriate fodder production package for the
various conditions faced in the project area
- Implement an integrated approach to village based livestock development
- Co-operate project activities with soil and water conservation efforts made by
other agencies such as the Forestry Department and Department of Soil
Conservation.
Target Groups
The project plan envisaged the following,
While the project is indirectly benefiting the entire population of the selected blocks the main
target groups will be the scheduled tribes belonging to poor, small and marginal farm families
as well as landless. The project, therefore, made attempts to address livestock production in all
its aspects in so far as they coincided with the priorities of the target groups. To achieve this
the project paid close attention to the farming system of which livestock forms a part.
As women, particularly among the target groups have the main responsibility for tending
livestock they participated equally in all project activities.
Project Area
The project activities were implemented in four blocks Koraput and Laxmipur in Koraput
Sub-division and Jeypore and Kundra in Jeypore Sub-division. In each of these blocks 25
villages with 1250 families were selected for intensive village activities.
Background of Project area is given in Annexure I
Implementation Assumptions
A successful planning and implementation of this integrated livestock development project
was resting on the following assumptions:
-
Target population is sufficiently motivated to adopt improved techniques of

fodder/livestock management
The services of the trained Community Link Workers (CLWs) is available to
the community on a sustainable basis
20

All positions in the project is filled

The finance flow is regular and timely.
Project Strategy
The project had focus entirely on in-situ development. The basic approach was to exploit local
resource potential, develop fodder resources, and integrate education, training and extension
for integrated development of livestock in the project area. However, as envisaged the process
was gradual for enduring results. It was spread over ten years of time and was implemented in
several phases. The strategy and the specific activities for the first phase were redefined based
on Expatriate Reviews as agreed.
Main emphasis was initially on utilization of cultivation of cultivable waste lands through
reclamation measures including planting of drought resistant fodder trees, grasses and
legumes were redefined based on peoples participatory evaluation.
Training and extension activities placed emphasis on need-based and skill-based training with
focus on practical demonstration of skills. Training and demonstration was to further promote
better utilization of existing services
The strategies to achieve this were on
-
Two village youths (preferably one male and one female) selected and trained to function
as CLWs (Community Link Workers) from each target village.
Village-based training of groups of farm men and women in basic livestock and fodder
cultivation.
Provision of village revolving fund (VRF) for initiating livestock or other related
economic activities on a selective basis in the 4th year of the project and management
thereof by the village community with the help of Block Extension Team (BET). The VRF
through Self Help Group (women) formed the core.
Extension service through Block Extension Team (BET).
Pre-service orientation, training of the existing extension and other staff with the objective
of involving them in the project extension and training efforts.
The project to follow an area (cluster of villages) approach based on the resource available
in each cluster. The various policies for improvement of animal husbandry were
implemented in a phased manner depending on existing knowledge, resources and on
prospect for growth within each cluster of villages.
Women are to a large extent responsible for the management of livestock. Therefore, in
implementation and in working with the villagers, the project placed equal importance on
women participation.
The Phasing out strategy formulated on the basis of ownership and empowered community
with appropriate forward and backward linkages.
ILDP had a component of Project Committees one being State Level Steering Committee
(SLSC) and the other Project Level Co-ordination Committee.
21

The SLSC was headed by the Principal Secretary/ Commissioner cum-Secretary of Fisheries
and Animal Resources Development. The other members of the committee are, Secretary
Finance, Secretary Planning and Coordination, Secretary Harijan and Tribal Welfare and
Director AH&VS, Government of Orissa, representative from Royal Danish Embassy, Danida
Advisory Unit and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. The Project Director was
the Member Secretary of the committee. The CDVO, Koraput was a permanent
member/invitee. The committee, besides being exercising overall supervision and control over
the implementation of the project, had the following specific responsibilities:
Take decisions on policy issues with in the overall frame of the project
Approve the annual work plan for implementation and a budget
Ensure proper monitoring and evaluation, review project budget, reports and related
matters
Consider/recommend/approve deviations from PoP
The committee meets twice a year. This committee played very significant role in shaping the
ILDP project, Koraput. Many new ideas and decisions were incorporated from time to time
and that enriched the target group and their aspirations. Significant contribution to the
management of VRF through SHGs and institution of grants a new GO made all that
differences to the project and Orissa at large.
The Project Level Co-ordination Committee (PLCC)
This committee was headed by the Koraput District Collector with the Project Director as
Member Secretary. The district level officers from agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry
line department and district rural development and integrated tribal development agencies and
the Danida Advisory Unit were the members of the committee. The main function of the
committee as envisaged was to promote and foster inter-departmental cooperation and
coordination of mutual interest and benefits. Thus this was as a part of the establishment of a
decentralized decision making mechanism.
22

Fig.I
ORGANOGRAM OF THE PROJECT OF DANIDA-ILDP, KORAPUT
DANIDA ADVISORY
UNIT
DIRECTOR
AHVS, CUTTACK
STATE LEVEL STEERING

COMMITTEE
PROJECT DIRECTOR
PROJECT LEVEL
COORDINATION COMMITTEE
PROJECT MANAGEMENT UNIT
AND & VILLAGE

SERVICE UNIT
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
UNIT
PASTURE & FODDER

DEVELOPMENT UNIT
MONITORING
UNIT
ADMINISTRATION &
ACCOUNTING UNIT
EXTENSION & TRAINING

UNIT
RONDAPALLI
FODDER FARM
BLOCK EXTENSION
TEAM
KORAPUT (4)
BLOCK EXTENSION
TEAM
LAXMIPUR (4)
Each Block Extension Team (BET

has four staff
1) Veterinary Officer
2) Team Leader
BLOCK EXTENSION
TEAM
JEYPORE (4)
BLOCK EXTENSION
TEAM
KUNDRA (4)
100 VILLAGES
COMMUNITY LINK WORKER (CLW)

(200)
One male and one female CLW

from each village
VILLAGE COMMITTEE (100) *

TARGET GROUP FARMER (5000)
SELF HELP GROUP (150)
* Village Committees
being revised
3) Community Organiser (Women)

4) Fodder Supervisor
23

The PLCC had the following responsibilities:

Review the progress of the project on quarterly basis and take/suggest remedial
measures to overcome the problem
Identify the areas of possible technical and other cooperation between the
project and other line departments and arrange their support to the project and
vice-versa
Examine the annual work plan and the budget and recommend to SLSC for
consideration/approval
Approve financial transitions above Rs. 20,000 limit and review budget
expenditures
The committee was meeting every two months.
Danida Advisory Unit
It was located in Jeypore and was headed by one Expatriate Chief Advisor and he was
assisted by one locally appointed Danida Advisor. The office had support staff. This unit
was advising the Project Director and government of Orissa in implementing the project as
per PoP. The Unit was assisting in training of the staff in India and abroad so also the
target group training including assistance in preparing training materials. The Unit was
also arranging reviews, consultancy procurements and report writings. It was also
coordinating with RDE, New Delhi, Government of Orissa and assisting in audits of the
organizations.
The Project Components Comprise:
-
Pasture and fodder plantation activities in 700 acres of the gochar village community land
in 95 villages of the project.
Alternate feed resources for livestock was through exploiting high grain as well as
biomass from tradition crops in the project area with a strategy to mix and cultivate both
cereal and legume crops.
Livestock, especially small animal development with, as the two principal approaches,
animal health and a production improvement programme.
Extension, research and development and training
Credit, through group saving of members to benefit the small holders

-
Promotion of womens activities.

Institution strengthening, to include the setting up of a project management unit (PMU)
this included Monitoring, Evaluation and Extension, Train unit.
At block level a Block Extension Team (BET) consisting of Team Leader, Veterinary
Officer, Fodder Supervisor, Community Organizer (lady) was in place to coordinate and
organize the activities of the project with Target groups.
The project was under the responsibility of the Department of Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Services and executed by the Director of AH & VS (Animal Husbandry&
24

Veterinary Services), in accordance with the project defined and coordination by an

independent PMU.
-
A Danida Advisory unit extended technical support and to liaison with implementing
agency was functional at project headquarters.
Capacity building of the staff, AHD officers, Farmers and the Community Link
Workers of ILDP
The ILDP Advisory was the lead institution to plan the capacity building of the newly
recruited staff members, farmers and the CLWs. It was done by need analysis and mutual
consultation with government and the PMU. A detail of the Skill training and exposure visits
to the stakeholders of ILDP is given Annexure II to VI. The skill training was instituted from
1993 to 2000. Couple of training was in abroad, some were in premium institutes of India and
many were in the project area. Bulk of the training was due to trainings of AHD and ILDP
staff members (Annexure II, there were total of 56 trainings and workshops. The Line
department training constituted in total 7 and is given in the Annexure III. Farmers of the
ILDP block were exposed to the farming systems of other tribal and the Displaces Persons of
Dandakaranya Project. It is given in Annexure V. The Training of the farmers and the CLWs
in various skills was the vital force in the project and it is given in the Annexure IV. There
were 25 trainings from 1995 to 2000. The ILDP played lead role in replicating the SHG
models in Koraput, Malkangiri, Nuapada and Nabrangpur districts of the state. It was through
the cooperation of the respective District Administration and it is given in the Annexure VI.
Livestock Sector and Poor:
It is well established fact that poverty has many dimensions so to poverty alleviation; there is
this general agreement that for many of the poor the immediate route out of their poverty shall
be through measures that target the poor themselves (UNDP, 1997). The UNDP (1997) has
identified the following way through which poverty can be reduced:
-
Increasing production of staple foods, which to increase food production and or reduce
expenditure through food.
The growth of economy should stimulate and create demand for labour and services of the
poor
Improve the livelihoods of poor and promote sustainability. The sustainable livelihood is
defined as the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living (Carney,
1998).
Scope and Structure:

The livestock development was to contribute to poverty reduction thus it was structured to
result in
-
a reduction in cost of food and improve family income through sale
an increase in employment to the poor families
an improvement in the livelihoods of the poor

25

It is common that the poor purchase minimal quantities of relatively expensive livestock
products, rely instead, on home production. This means the price in the market for livestock
product should fall so that poor has means to purchase, but under practical environment such
price falls are unlikely.
Secondly, the livestock product prices are predicted to rise. Despite increase in domestic
production the purchase power of poor will not allow the elasticity to consume livestock
products from market. This is because, demand for livestock products rises rapidly with
relatively small increases in per capita income (Peters, 1996).
It is important to bear in mind that although higher livestock prices are bad news for
consumers who in the case of livestock products are likely to be relatively wealthy and higher
prices are likely to be good news for livestock-producers including those who are poor
(Ashley et al. 1999). Thus market demand-price based livestock production approach for poor
is more beneficial, than the approach that aims to address the needs of poor consumers by
increasing national livestock-products supplies from large-scale farms.
Thus the present ILDP programme was directed to increase the ownership of livestock among
the poor, which is likely to have greater impact first on consumption followed by sale in the
market. This thus was going to enhance the total production initially though may be small but
can still support the family requirement of poor.
The project had identified through various forums including the target groups and arrived at
the conclusion that small animals are the most priority to the poor. The first priority is village
poultry, followed by village pigs wherever available, equally goat. The sheep come to the last.
However, village pig has caste and tribe specificity.
26

References
1985 DANIDA Pre-appraisal Mission, September
1988 Project proposal from Goo
1989 DANIDA Appraisal Mission, April
1989 DANIDA Reformulation Mission. July
1991 DANIDA Supplementary Mission, Plan of Operation Team, December
1992 DANIDA Plan of Operation, September
1996 First Review, April
1997 DANIDA Project Action Plan March- April 1996
1998 Second Review, November
1999 Project Action Plan, March-April 2000 and March 2000-April 2002
2000 Phasing out Plan, August 2000
Ashley S, Holden S and Bazeley, P. (1999) Livestock in Poverty Focused Development.
Livestock in Development. Crewkerne. United Kingdom
Carney, D. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: what contribution can we make?
London, Department for International Development
Danida 1997 Livestock Sector Policies Danida, Copenhagen
Peters, K. (1996) Trends in Development of Livestock Production Systems in Tropical
Countries, in Livestock Production and Diseases in the Tropics: Livestock Production
and Human Welfare. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference of Institutions of
Tropical Veterinary Medicine held 2529 September 1995. AITVM: Berlin
Plan of Operation- Integrated Livestock Development Project in Koraput District, Orissa,
India Ref, No. 104. Ind.130. September 1992.
UN Report: India tops world hunger list with 194 million people (2015).
http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-india-tops-world-hunger-list-with-194Million-people-un-report-2090037
UNDP (1998), Human Development Report 1997, Oxford University Press, New
York/Oxford.
27

IMPACT: INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROJECT,

KORAPUT
The impact assessment on poverty reduction is mainly based on findings from the Integrate
Livestock Development Project, Koraput. The project is operating through an integrated
approach that is now providing impressive results in asset generation, human capital
development, expansion of choice, livelihood and women empowerment.
As discussed, poverty has many faces but it is our claim that poverty and deprivation can be
significantly reduced in a cost effective manner by applying the integrated approach to
agricultural, livestock and community development and by using specially trained lay persons
from the villages as Lead Farmers or Village Link Workers to perform the livestock delivery
system for improved animal health.
The major achievements of ILDP, Koraput (Orissa) is presented as follows:
Trained 200 Community Link Workers (100 women and 100 men).
Formed 150 Self-Help Groups (SHG) comprising of 2,700 villagers.

Formed 19 SHG Apex Bodies comprising of 231 SHGs (DRDA 96+135 ILDP).
Formed 25 Village Committees (VCs).
Disbursed Rs. 2.3 million through the Village Revolving Funds to the SHGs.
Trained about 2,800 farmers (males and females) on livestock and allied extension
practices including animal husbandry, agricultural and horticultural production.
Conducted over 300 on-farm trials and demonstrations on various cropping patterns
that not only provide an increase in grain yield, but also provide a larger amount of
residual by-products as livestock feed.
The project supported a local farm owned by AHD at Randapalli where various
grasses and legumes were grown and tested. The seeds and cuttings from these were
distributed to the farmers.
The project ran a goat and sheep upgrading programme, where indigenous breeds
were introduced to selected villages.
Impact : Self Help Groups (SHGs)
The SHGs were formed to give safety net to the people of ILDP villages. The SHG model was
due to MYRADA, international NGO from Bangalore. The model was modified to suit the
illiteracy level of women the project. The project experienced high drop out from the male
SHGs thus shifted to Women SHGs. It is found that the women act more responsibly in SHGs
and the sustainability is very high. The project introduced SHGs instead of Village Revolving
Funds through Village Committees in 1995-6.
28

Formation of SHGs has increased the villagers' (particularly tribal women) confidence
and supported them in initiating income-generating (particularly livestock and
agriculture) activities. They perform bank transactions on their own. They gained
social awareness and are able to discuss community problems in the SHG meetings.
Formation of the SHG apex bodies provides sustainable support strength to the village
SHGs.
Formation of Village Committees has created a platform for the villagers to plan and
implement activities for the entire village.
Provision of VRFs (Village Revolving Fund) has helped initiate planned activities as
the project is supplementing the SHG's savings with matching amount (max. Rs. 2,000
per member).
A review of the SHGs in the ILDP villages and credit and indebtedness in ILDP and nonILDP households indicate that the SHGs have stopped the hold of money lenders in the
project area. Interest rates have declined. Distress selling of farm produce and small animals
to repay the debts has reduced. The SHG is considered a safety net for the whole family.
2.
Impact on credit and indebt ness poverty
Nirmala (2001) had studied the borrowing pattern of sample households in both ILDP and
non-ILDP villages. She found that the borrowers as percentage of total sample are the least in
the non-ILDP villages; where as in the ILDP villages the access to credit is higher. SHGs
accounted for more than 80 percent of the loans in all the villages. The non-ILDP villages
recorded a higher percentage of loans from moneylenders. They also record a significant
percentage of loans from banks and co-operatives. Among the ILDP villages the role of
money lenders is found to be minimal and equal to nothing. She also noted that in non- ILDP
village loans from the banks are much higher as compared to ILDP villages in which SHGs
have taken over the functions of the banks and moneylenders. It is now thus essential that all
villages should have women SHGs.
Villages borrowed on an average 2.3 number of loans from moneylenders in ILDP villages
and the non-ILDP villages borrowed 26.81 number of loans from moneylenders. The ILDP
villages borrowed 81.75 percent loans from SHGs and the non-ILDP villages nil. This figures
were due to last 5 years (2000AD).
The saving of interest that the SHG households made as a result of borrowing from SHGs is
found to be Rs. 1,227 per household for the year 1999-2000, apart from invisible benefits
which cannot be easily quantified.
After four years of intervention (2000 AD) the number of households below poverty is 64
percent in project villages against 85 percent in non-project villages. If, the share of SHG
savings and grant is considered the percentage of BPL shall fall below 40-45% level.
The annual household income in an average project village is Rs.16.500/- against Rs.12, 500/in non-project villages (2000AD). Additionally, during October 2002, on an average each
SHG family had Rs. 2,918/- share and during April 2003 they had Rs. 3805/-. This was not
included for calculating the reduction in number of families Below Poverty Line.
The number of girls attending school is over 50% in project villages against less than 10% in
non-project villages. Some SHGs have made it mandatory for members to send both boys and
29

girls to school. In 2014 all most all children including girls are going to school. This is due to
the Government Orissa efforts.
The per capita cereal consumption are better in the project area. The ILDP cereal
consumption in per capita terms exceeds by nine per cent the corresponding non-ILDP
Table 1. showing common fund, ILDP grant received, loan issued, interest received and
money lender interest if to be paid - for four blocks of SHGs during 1997- October 2002
No. of SHG total Total
ILDP Total
SHGs
common
grant received loan
fund in Rs. upto 15.11.02 issued to
members
in Rs,
in Rs.
Total Interest
paid
by
members to
SHG @ 24%
in Rs.
Money
Lender
Interest @
60% if paid
in Rs.
Jeypore
46
1554797
1604980
7175247
886422
4305148
Koraput
36
689680
981510
1380360
334286
828216
Laxmipur
34
490997
969150
954490
52278
572664
Kundra
34
593180
784736
2393976
574554
1436386
Total
150
3328654
4340376
11904073
1844540
7142414
Box 3.14 : Self-help groups in the ILDP intervention area in Koraput, Orissa
In the light of the critical role that credit plays in the lives of poor people in the project area, a
key intervention has been in the formation of self-help groups among women and, to a lesser
extent, among men. The self-help groups make credit available through the small weekly savings
of members and, more recently, a grant from the ILDP. From the total available amount, group
members can take out loans at 24 % interest per month. The loans are often used for livestock
investments. The members of the self-help groups are very poor, and the women have benefited
from the credit schemes by raising their standards of living, improving their social status and
enhancing their self-confidence.
However, the poorest among these poor remain excluded from the system because they cannot
save money. Furthermore, there are variations in the use of the loans in terms of both frequency
and amounts. A few members tend to borrow larger amounts more often. In several groups,
community- link workers and large land holders have taken out of the largest loans.
Loan patterns in the villages in the study indicate that members who are further above the poverty
threshold tend to have a better chance of making further investments successful. However,
although it seems that the better-off have benefited the most from the available capital, they have
not necessarily done so at the direct expense of the poorer members. It is probably truer to say
that the poorest members of the group are more afraid of the taking out of loans.
An important question is: How long can this continue without the intervention of an external
supervisory body or more formal system of the collateral? There are now no regulations fixing a
correspondence between the amount contributed by a member in the form of savings and the size
of the loan that is available to the member. The system appears to be successful because the grant
from the ILDP represents an important incentive to repay loans. The system has not yet been
30

tested because of defaults, and, since no safeguards are in place, the sustainability is in doubt.
Source: Orissa case study In Livestock Services and the Poor- A global initiative (2004)
Status of SHGs in ILDP, Koraput district Blocks in 2014
The SHGs in Koraput ILDP villages survived all along till 2014 and grew strong, contrary to
the opinions that it will perish away once the ILDP activities seize from 2002. The SHGs
received patronization from Mission Shakti, Government of Orissa and M.S. Swaminathan
Foundation, Jeypore. These institutions supported further the SHGs which were already
prepared by ILDP towards the road of sustainability at the project phasing out period. This
strategy worked. Women played very pivot role in this sphere to keep the SHGs healthy and
growing. The SHGs in Koraput block, that was the poorest of all and people had lost all hope
on government initiated programmes showed renewed hopes to the effect that they are now
owners of Rs. 200,000/ per group of 15-18 women. These are the same groups who found
great difficulty in saving Rs. 0.50 per member per week and could not save during rainy
season. The Kundra and Jeypore SHGs have now more than Rs. 2, 50,000 to 3, 00,000 per
group. Laxmipur block SHGs are also performing well. The SHGs are functional in the sense
that the loan disbursement and recovery is continuing and people are now self-confident than
ever. This new economic independence has a different meaning to their lives. Women are
playing very important role in raising families, giving education to their children equally
including the girl child. There are now three medical students from Jeypore and one from
Kundra ILDP villages. Many more are in Universities.
The other side the SHG concept in practical ground has grown huge and making change in life
like that of ILDP. The ILDP SHGs has shown the way that it can work in an illiterate
environment by the women. The ILDP SHGs influenced the SHG formation in Malkangiri,
Koraput, Nowrangpur and Nuapada districts of KBK in Orissa. The credit goes to the District
Collectors of the respective districts. There were 2.73 lakhs SHGS in the Orissa during 200809, it was 4.38 lakhs SHGs in 2013 and 5.36 lakhs in June 2014 with 64.37 lakhs women
members. The ILDP-DANIDA, Koraput has shown the path.
ILDP-DANID argued with Orissa State authorities to issue GO for institution of Grants to the
SHGs. This was approved as a Policy. Mr. Abhay Rath, Special Commissioner to ARD,
Govt. of Orissa issued the orders and said a revolution is starting; indeed in the last 15 years
SHGs in Orissa have turned to be a Great Revolution by women. So much so an illiterate
tribal lady Ms Kamala Khora from Padmpur village of Koraput block-ILDP Danida SHG was
awarded President of Indias Award for her leadership in organizing women in 2003.
31

SHG meeting in a tribal village, Koraput
SHG doing value addition to Tamarind pods
The per capita income of Koraput, Nabrangpur and Malkangiri districts of Odisha is
respectively Rs. 25,161/,Rs.14,700/ and Rs. 15,688/ at 2004-05 price. The higher per captia in
Koraput district is due to government initiatives, recent introduction of irrigation to Jeypore,
Borigumma and Kotpad blocks and industries located in the district.
In Koraput district the income level of many families is more than the per capita income of the
district but it is necessary to keep them protected for one generation as BPL families to make
them more sustainable in coming out of poverty.
On the whole the Women SHGs have broken the age old chain of exploitation of Money
landers.
Community Link Workers training session in ILDP
32

3.
Impact: Livestock health and Service Delivery in the villages
Introduction of an animal health delivery system through the Animal Husbandry

Department:
The project had trained two Community Link Workers (CLWs) in each project village
(one woman and one man). Their main function was to provide animal health services
such as vaccination, administration of anthelmintic (deworming) and first aid to farm
animals, especially small animals like poultry, sheep, goats and pigs. The development of
the CLW institution has proved important and has improved the position of livestock in
the project villages. The CLWs are under the supervision of the Animal Husbandry
Department and are now also providing health services to neighbouring villages and
thereby earning a small income.
Livestock farmers
The following findings are based on discussions with 119 livestock farmers (58 male and 61
female) and the study was due to Management Services Group, New Delhi, 1999:
Almost all the farmers met had utilised the services of the CLWs and considered them
as very useful
A majority of the farmers indicated that the project has had a significant impact in
terms of reduction of poultry mortality and increased income due to increased weight of
livestock
Of the 30 livestock farmers who had been imparted training by ILDP, 21 said they
implemented the training received, and of these 19 said that they found the training
useful
76% of the male farmers, and 80% of the female farmers felt that the male CLW was
more skilled than the female CLW, and approximately the same percentage felt that the
female CLW was only assisting the male CLW
Main suggestions from the farmers were that the CLWs should be provided training on
castration of small and large animals, and vaccination of large animals
During the last three years the livestock population has increased in all project villages
(2002AD). The percentage of households rearing livestock is significantly higher in project
villages than in non-project villages. The animal health service provided by CLWs has
dramatically reduced the livestock mortality. In particular this is noticed in the survivability
of poultry.
Introduction of CLWs and initiation of a regular poultry vaccination programme in the
villages has resulted in a substantial reduction in poultry mortality (mainly due to
Ranikhet Disease/ Newcastle Disease), registered 300 to 600 percent growth resulting
in an increase in household income and protein food for the family. GALVmed has
recorded 600 to 1500 percent increase in poultry population due to Ranikhet
Disease/ND control in Mayurbhanj district of Orissa during 2015.
33

In the specific context of discussion on impact of livestock development under ILDP it was
stated that
The project has introduced improved breeds of sheep and goats in the villages and has
emphasized the importance of selection of superior breeding animals and to reduce inbreeding. The number of households rearing livestock in ILDP villages is higher
compared to non-ILDP households. There was an increase of 104 percent in sheep
population from 1995 to 2001-02. This is after births, sale and mortality in the
population.
During the last three years (before 2002), the livestock population in all the ILDP
villages has increased.
The percentage of households rearing livestock is higher in ILDP villages compared to
non-ILDP villages.
Per household possession of goats, sheep, pigs and poultry and sale of these animals is
higher in the project villages.
Edeka Sheep breed with triplet birth
Prolific Sheep breed of Koraput
34

Fig - 1: Year wise Goat population of ILDP

ILDP - GOAT POPULATION YEAR WISE
3500
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
The crossbred varieties of goat and sheep introduced by ILDP are fetching higher
income through sale. At 6 month age the crossbred sheep weigh 9.73 Kgs heavier than
the local breed sheep.
Table 2: Sheep population - Year wise in ILDP blocks
Year
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
1995
1136
853
609
463
1998
1683
1110
1044
663
2001
2471
1805
1309
650
Malkangiri Breed of Goat
Raighar breed of Goat with triplets
35

Fig.2.showing sheep population -year wise
The upgraded breed sheep and goats attain marketable size within eight month as
against one year or more in the traditional breeds. The sheep registered 10Kgs more
body weight in adults than the local village sheep population. This led to more income
per sheep for the family.
Due to administration of anthelmintic sheep at 2 teeth, 4 teeth and 6 teeth age gained
2.6Kgs, 1.04Kgs and 0.6 Kgs body weight respectively than the controls.
Fig 3. Showing popultry population in ILDP at Vaccination point year wise
ILDP - POULTRY POPULATION AT VACCINATION

POINT YEAR WISE
14000
1995
1996
12000
10000
8000
1997
1998
6000
4000
1999
2001
2000
0
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
36
Laxmipur

Fig-4. Showing Poultry population year wise

ILDP - POULTRY POPULATION YEAR WISE
16000
14000
12000
1995
1998
10000
8000
6000
2001
4000
2000
0
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
Increase in number of households keeping poultry

Comparison of benchmark study of 1995 with evaluation study of 1998 showed the following
growth trend in village poultry in 4 blocks of ILDP.
Table 3. showing increase in number of household keeping poultry after control of

Ranikhet disease
Increase in percent of household
Keeping poultry
Name of the Blocks

Jeypore
+22.9
Kundra Laxmipur
+ 41.4
+8.2
Koraput
+7.7
From these results it was concluded that ILDP created a positive impact in building
confidence and demonstrating the positive aspects of poultry farming which helped in
motivating families not keeping poultry before the project period to keep poultry.
Many families had discontinued poultry rearing due to fear of loss from Ranikhet
disease epidemic and heavy mortality. The number of birds kept per family has
increased after reduction of mortality due to periodic RD/ND vaccination in villages.
37

Family feeding poultry with white

ants
Broody hen on eggs
Ranikhet Vaccinationn of
poultry
Income in Rupees and Number of hens per house hold as indicators of village
poultry development:
A research scholar from Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bhubaneswar evaluated the impact of poultry development in ILDP villages of Kundra
block. The study was carried out in the year 2000. The results were as follows:Table-4. Average number of poultry consumed at family level, number of poultry sold
and percent survivability of the birds of ILDP villages in Kundra block
Name of
block and
No. of
villages at
home
Kundra, 25
villages
No.of
families
surveyed
318
Average No. of
poultry Consumed
by the family
Before
After
ILDP
ILDP
12.39
19.85
Average No. of
poultry sold by the
family
Before
After
ILDP
ILDP
11.65
41.96
Survivability
percentage in poultry
Before
ILDP
After
ILDP
40.52
61.99
It is evident from the above table that families consume about 20 chicken per family in a year
(2002AD). But in 2015 it was seen to be 40 chicken per family and in Mayurbhanj and
Kenjhore districts it is more than 54 chicken per family per annum. This is around 12 kg of
meat consumption per family member in a year. The poultry in village is preventing
malnutrition to families.
38

Table-5: Average income from poultry in rupees and threshold value/Hen unit of
Kundra block ILDP village
Name of block
and No. of villages
Kundra, 25 villages
*
No.of families
surveyed
318
Income from
Poultry (in Rs.)
Threshold value as
hen unit *
Before
ILDP
After
ILDP
Before
ILDP
After
ILDP
441.54
2209.29
2.79
4.01
On hill blocks it is about 2 hen unit per family
The average income from poultry per household was Rs.441.54 before ILDP
intervention and the average income level after ILDP interventions reached to
Rs.2209.29, which was an increase of Rs.1754.75 per household. This is about 400
percent increase in income to the families. The increase in income level was due to
improved survivability of poultry at home due to effective disease control regime by
Community Link Workers in the ILDP villages.
In Mayurbhanj villages due to GALVmed intervention (2015) and control of Ranikhet
or ND it is seen that the families sale chicken worth Rs. 5,000 to Rs 25,000 per year. It
is excluding consumption of 54+ chicken per family per year as mentioned above.
4.
Impact: Pig production in villages

Table-6. showing number of pigs and household keeping for 1995, 1998 and 2001
Pig small
holder
Kundra
Jeypore
Laxmipur
Koraput
Total
1995
Number
No. of
household
65
44
64
30
1344
691
284
525
1998
1049
1998
Number
No. of
household
144
110
6
2
1592
680
729
266
2471
1058
2001
Number Household
704
0
1225
1072
3001
156
0
346
268
770
It is concluded that
The pigs are totally eliminated from Jeypore project villages by 2001. There were total
30 families keeping pig during 1995. It registered 0 growth.
The induction of Kolab dam irrigation facilities to the farmers of Jeypore block has opened up
new awareness in agriculture, thus pigs are fast replaced from the farming system.
39

Rayagada Jhinga or Pondi pig breed
Koraput Burudi Breed of pig
In Kundra block, among the project villages there are four Sano Poroja tribe villages
who are keeping pigs. They have registered very high rise of population during
2001 (983 Percent growth) as well as number of households (255 percent increase)
keeping pigs compared to inception of the project activities.
This is attributed to intensive pig deworming programme carried out since 1996.
They were vaccinated twice with swine fever vaccines, as one outbreak was
witnessed during the project period. The pig farmers also received training on pig
husbandry and feeding. The confidence level of the farmers has considerably
improved, thus the production.
The Koraput block has two fold increase of pig population (104 percent increase)
as compared to 1995, though the number of farmers keeping pig has remained nearly
equal --6 percent decrease). This was one of the poorest as well as resource poor
project blocks inhabited by Sano Poroja tribe.
The improvement in pig production in Koraput block is significant. The farmers
here had undergone training in pig husbandry. Selected pig farmers were trained for
3 days in intensive pig farming system at Andhra Pradesh
Government
Pig
farm, Vizianagaram. An efficient service delivery system remained functional in the
villages. These efforts have contributed to improving the confidence and faith over
technology, thus production.
The Laxmipur block had witnessed an outbreak of swine fever during 2001; this had
reduced the pig population. It is now slowly picking up.
A survey on pig production was taken up by Block Extension Team, Koraput block
during Sept 2002. They have surveyed 70 households spread over 7 villages. The
farmers in the said block reduce the pig population during July due to backyard
agriculture interest, still the result reported are most encouraging.
40

Though one sow per family is the general norm and finding, now there are 14% families
who own 2 sow units and one family (1.42%) with 3 sow unit. The increase is
significant.
These farmers during inception of the project were found selling away piglets from month
one, but now no one is selling piglets before 2 month of age.
Now there are 19% of farmers who are selling piglets at 4 months of age where as 81% of the
farmers are selling piglets between 3 to 4 months of age group.
This change of practice is fetching more money to the family. This is because now, they can
afford to feed the sows and piglets for 3 to 4 months.
5. Impact: from agricultural interventions

Area under commercial crops especially pulses and legumes, oil seeds like Niger,
cashew and turmeric is higher in the ILDP villages compared to non-ILDP villages.
Current cropping pattern shows that these legumes and pulses caught well with the
farmers
Considering the total agricultural produce, both ILDP plains and hill villages have
higher percentage of marketable surplus compared to non-ILDP plains and hill
villages.
Proud farmer in Ragi pigeon pea crop
41
Nursery for grafting fruit trees

Introduction of improved high yielding and tall varieties of finger millet under rainfed
condition have shown that these varieties were not only superior to local varieties in
respect of grain yield, but they also produced more crop residues, which may be used as
fodder. The improved varieties matured 15 days earlier than the local varieties an
advantage to escape a late drought situation. Use of improved varieties of finger millet
is now widespread both in the project area and outside the project area. The trails
(demonstrations at farmers fields) took place over three years and showed that the
local Koraput varieties yielded 970 kg/ha and the tall improved varieties in average
yielded 2400 kg/ha. It is about 155 percent higher yield than the local varieties.
Trials of intercropping tall finger millet and tall maize inter-planted with legumespigeon pea - showed increases in by-product production ranging from 69-240%
percent. The cost-benefit ratio of any of the tested mixed cropped crops was higher
than the respective sole crop. Inter planting of legumes (pigeon pea) is now wide
spread in the project area.
In the specific context of fodder development to save environmental degradation, the
success of mixed cropping programme introduced by ILDP may reduce the pressure
on grazing lands with the availability of crop residues and also contribute to soil
improvement.
On-farm demonstration plots and provision of mini-kits have shown farmers, how agricultural
productivity can be improved and several farmers have adopted the new production methods,
reporting they are having higher yields both in grain and straw. This was focused to
traditional crops like finger millets (Ragi) Eleusine coracana and reintroduction of Arhar
(pigeon pea or Cajanus cajan).
Conclusion
A large proportion of people in Koraput in rural set up keep small animals i.e. sheep, goat,
goats pigs and backyard poultry. The income derived from livestock sector is very high in
small animal and pig sector. The total livestock income for the households is close to 40
percent. The actual income in backyard poultry is at about 25 percent. The backyard poultry
has the highest return on investment because of the low feed cost and absence of other costs.
It is interesting to note that the pig production provides the high level of income per
household as compared to sheep, goat and backyard poultry. Between small ruminants and pig
production the later has a significant higher rate of return at 75 percent on investment.
After control of mortality the poultry and pig are showing 30 percent increase and the sheep
and goat are showing 20 percent increase in income to the family.
In 2014, a single unit of sow (female pig) is giving Rs 28 to 30,000 income to a family in a
year. The Backyard poultry is sold from Rs5, 000 to Rs 25,000 per family apart from
consumption of 54+ chicken at home. The sheep and goat income varies from 5,000 to 25,000
per annum per family. This is the estimate in north Odisha tribal villages. But however it is
more than half of that in the south districts.
42

References
Evaluation and Recommendation of Community Link Workers, ILDP, Koraput by
Management Services Group, New Delhi, 1999.
Livestock Services and the Poor: A Global initiative www.ifad.org/lrkm/book/english.pdf
Nirmala Annie, K (2001) Evaluation of Self Help Groups of Integrated Livestock
Development Project (ILDP) in Koraput district, Orissa. Institute of Development and
Planning Studies, MVP Colony, Visakhapatnam 17
Per
Capita
Income
08/chapt2008/chap12.pdf
and
Consumption
http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2007-
Press Note on Advance Estimates of National Income 2013-14, Central Statstical Office,
Government of India, New Delhi
http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/nad_pr_7feb14.pdf
Subrahmanyam, S and Murthy, C.S, (2006) Economics of Small ruminants, pigs and
backyard poultry production in Orissa. www.fao.org/docrep/013/al674e/al674e00.pdf
43

EXCLUSIVE KNOWLEDGE: INTEGRATED LIVESTOCK

DEVELOPMENT PROJECT, KORAPUT
Das Kornel
Small animal keepers are poor
It is a fact that the poor tend to keep small animals viz. sheep and goat, backyard poultry and
pigs at home. In the way round it is also observed that the people of Orissa participating in the
small ruminant, poultry and pig sector show high incidence of poverty at more than 75
percent. The house hold with small ruminant production suffer from the highest incidence of
88.8 percent. The poultry keeping households are in a slightly better position with the
incidence of poverty at 75.3 percent have recorded. Pig keeping households have an incidence
of 80 percent poverty. This report is due to Subrahamanyam and Murthy (2006). It is clear
and established fact that poor people keep small animals at home.
Table 1. Showing contribution of Different Sectors to Household Income in Orissa
Source
Sheep goat
Poultry
Pig-rearing
Agriculture
23.1
26.9
17.8
Wage
22.4
26.6
34.6
Main Livestock
19.5
16.1
36.9
Other Livestock
17.3
6.3
2.3
Total Livestock
36.8
22.4
39.2
Others
17.7
24.1
10.0
All
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source: Subrahamanyam and Murthy (2006)

It is seen from the Table 1 that the income derived from the livestock sector is very high in
small ruminant (sheep &goat) and pig production. The total livestock income for these
households is close to 40 percent. But the two categories differ in terms of the share of
incomes from the main livestock activity. In pig production all most all the livestock income
come from the main livestock activity. But in sheep &goat production nearly one half of the
livestock income come from other livestock. Thus, pig production appears to be an activity
with high potential for pork production and income generation for the poor. In the case of
backyard poultry production livestock income is relatively lower at 22.4 percent. This may be
due the fact the families consume a large proportion of poultry at home and sale surplus
poultry in the market and the households are deriving substantial income from other activity
like business, salaried employment besides agriculture and casual labour.
44

It was also seen that 40 percent of the households in pig production are landless the
corresponding proportion for sheep goat is only 12.7 percent. The proportion of economically
weaker sections in these activities range from 85.3 to 90.0 percent.
The highest effect of poverty reduction measures appeared when they are targeted directly
at the poor themselves
The Danida livestock projects has focused on and encouraged through their
mainstream programmes to increase the number of animals produced by each family
especially with regard to small farm animals such as sheep, goats and poultry (and in
certain areas also pigs). Emphasis by the extension training service of the projects is
moored to economics of the different interventions in livestock production. It is
recognized and survey of the projects clearly show that an increase in the ownership of
livestock of poor living in rural areas also resulted in an increased home consumption
of livestock protein.
With regard to reducing expenditure through increased production of staple foods, an
example is mentioned; The Dual Purpose Mixed Cropping Scheme of Koraput
Livestock development Project, where improved and tall varieties of finger millet,
maize and sorghum (cover crops) are interplant with pigeon pea and where the latter is
reaching maturity a few month after the cover crop increases the production of pigeon
pea are in addition to the production of the cover crop, increases the intake of staple
food with almost no cost involved. It is also an added source of food security in
scarcity periods.
As described above the livelihood of poor people have improved by enhancing their
capacity to cope with and recover from variations in production and income. Livestock
contributes to this and farm animals are one of the few capital assets owned by poor
households. Livestock keeping provides security by diversifying risk and provide
buffer to crop losses due to floods, drought, pest or disease attacks. In the Danida
livestock projects our main concern was small farm animals, but also large farm
animals (Cattle and buffaloes) are important in the different farming systems practiced
by poor farmers, they provide essential drought power and manure.
In ILDP, Koraput it was evident that livestock keeping and the outcome from that endeavour
plays a decisive role for people as most landless are keeping a few farm animals.
A women focus is working. Women for the benefit of the family often keep earnings from
sale of poultry and poultry products
Women play very important role in livelihood and raising of family in rural India thus a
women focus approach improves the overall impact in terms of poverty reduction. Livestock
are particular important for poor women for whom farm animals represent one of the most
widely held and important assets. Small farm animals particularly income from backyard
poultry goes to women and which is being used for the benefit of the family like education of
children, health bills etc.
45

It was our experience that Self Help Groups by women members are highly sustainable and
successful than the men groups.
Minimise vulnerability of poor to risks
The Livestock diseases contribute to economic losses to the poor and this continues from time
immeriable and this maximizes the vulnerability of the poor, thus poor people finding no
tangible option often resort to satisfy the evils to reduce the risks but land up with additional
loans and with no remedy. The second risk is from moneylenders who charge interest rate of
120 percent per year and the third risk is from market. Nirmala (2001) has indicated that the
money lenders in Koraput charge between 60 to 240 percent interest rate to tribals. The price
fluctuation and exploitation by middleman continue to denigrate the profit thus attribute to
economic losses and further vulnerability. So the primary approach is to mitigate risks like
animal diseases, reduce the hold of moneylenders and markets in order to reduce poverty. But
in some area cyclone, flood and other natural calamity also act as risk factors to the living of
poor.
Introduce appropriate farmer friendly Technologies
In order to increase livestock productivity, application of technologies to reduce animal
diseases of importance particularly the infectious diseases causing significant losses to
livestock and poultry should be taken up on priority. The most effective is administration of
anthelmintic to control endoparsites in livestock and poultry. The farmers should be aware of
these technology applications and sourcing.
Delivery of services particularly the animal health services and information through efficient
extension services holds the key. The animal health service is delivered by government
agencies and it is largely confined to curative treatment and preventive measures have
remained largely neglected. Frequent occurrence of couple of infectious diseases is a normal
phenomenon. Marginal investment in prophylactic services with improved mobility will yield
higher dividends.
In recent years the science of vaccine production has witnessed great changes like greater
payloads of vaccine antigens, effective immunization, improved adjuvants and use of alternate
routes of immunization other than injection and thermo stability etc. There is scope and
opportunity to develop new vaccines that can have longer efficacy and can have thermostable
characteristics so that it can be taken into far flung backward areas where poor dwell.
Availability of Ranikhet Disease (Newcastle Disease) Thermostable (Lasota) vaccine in India
is one example. More research is needed to produce perfect multiple animal disease vaccines
in single dose for rural India.
Administration of vaccines to control Ranikhet Disease, Fowl pox in village poultry; Peste des
petits ruminant(PPR) in sheep and goat, Swine Fever vaccine in village pigs in ILDP, Koraput
gave very encouraging results. This holds the key to improve living standard of poor.
Animal genetic improvement technologies to improve the local indigenous livestock should
be made available with appropriate low cost strategies that can be applied in village
conditions. Initially reduction of inbreeding effects works well.
Feed insecurity in rain fed and arid area is a concern. The fodder crops grown in food crop
fields is not well accepted by the farming community, so in future the animal feeds shall still
46

come from agriculture bi-product, dual purpose crops ( food for human and feed for animals),
fodder trees and common grazing goachar and forest lands. The field grown fodder crops
lack economic competitiveness to the food crops. This sector is most important and in future
appropriate technology in low cost feed formulation from local feed resources will contribute
to livestock production thus to reduce poverty. Technologies like growing white ants, azola,
feeding of cheap fishmeal for protein will gain importance especially in village poultry that is
very common with poor. Those states closer to sea or have coast lines will have the better
opportunity to utilize fishmeal in animal feeding.
Most of the available technologies are from Industrial farming of livestock and poultry, thus
they have least relevance to traditional farming systems. The traditional farming itself is a
separate identity, this many researchers fail to understand; thus there is research gap. For
example the village poultry, that itself is a different subject than the commercial layers or the
broiler system. So appropriate technologies on need base to be developed but after some years
intermediate technologies will take the upper hand in rural India.
Institutional Innovations
Dairy co-operatives of Amul, Gujarat and NDDB made milk revolution in India. PRADAN an
NGO applied the same co-operative concept to alleviate poverty through small scale broiler
farming. But the same cannot be applied in an integrated livestock development project under
traditional farming set up with over 75 % of the people in BPL category. ILDP, Koraput
applied Women Self Help Group (SHG) approach for administering Village Revolving Fund
(VRF), and 25 % Villages had Village Committee also. The PRI approach of government of
Orissa appeared later.
The project was working directly with Animal Husbandry Department, government of Orissa
of which there was no institution at the village level where as the last segment of the
department the Livestock Center was located in the Gram Panchayat level. Thus a new
institution of Community Link Worker (CLW) was created at the village level to meet the
requirement of service delivery in livestock sector to the community.
The Women SHGs institution developed by ILDP became popular, successful and found after
12 years to be sustainable and ever growing. Women SHGs replicated fast throughout the
KBK districts of Orissa in the line of ILDP SHG model.
Public Policy
Livestock sector in India is growing fast due to sustained growth of income and the urban
population is fueling rapid growth for animal products. The smallholders are constrained by
lack of access to output markets, quality inputs, appropriate technologies, credit, insurance,
services and their delivery including extension and it is feared that this may not aid them to
compete with the upcoming commercial large scale producers. The poor smallholders can thus
avail the opportunities in the new market if policies, institutions and technologies address
their needs. However the Livestock sector has not received appropriate policy attention that it
deserves and even it is reflected in the budget allocations.
At present the livestock policies as well as the budget allocations are skewed towards large
ruminants like cattle and buffaloes. In order to maxmise the benefit to the poor small holders
the renewed focus should be to enhance the productivity from small animals i.e. sheep, goat,
pigs and backyard poultry. Apart from improving the feed and fodder resources locally,
47

improving the delivery of veterinary preventive care like immunization for all infectious
diseases striking in the region and expansion of the domestic markets is most vital for the
economic growth of the poor.
Paucity of capital and higher production risks prevent expansion of the smallholder livestock
production. Presently, the credit and insurance support to the livestock production sector is
meager. The banks are not in position to allocate small livestock loans to small farmers. In the
ILDP, Koraput the women started taking small credits for creating assets of livestock by
taking credit from respective SHGs. It has been also recorded that the farmers need running
capital for their animal farms and this is not available from banks.
The poor farmers have small marketable surpluses and sale in local weekly markets and in
some place particularly the sheep and goat traders come to the village periodically and buy
them. It is emphasized that the poor consume bulk of the poultry grown at home and a small
surplus goes to market for sale. The women take the surplus poultry to weekly markets and
sale. They are aware of the current price of poultry that depends on age, sex and body weight.
The value addition of livestock products is an essential component in expanding market to
wider region in favour of both producer and the manufacturing firms. But as in the present
case very meager amount of milk is produced in the Koraput district, especially from the
urban and peri-urban areas and the fluid milk is marketed after pasteurization locally. The
unorganized milk market is proportionally large. The scope of value addition of meat is poor,
even in Indian scenario it is about 2 to 3 percent.
Small holder poor farming families earn Rs. 40,000 to 60,000 from small animal component
per annum and it constitute to be 60 percent of the family expenditure. Very poor
communities in KBK incur family expenditure of Rs. 40,000 to 50,000 per annum and the
poor in the northern districts of Orissa spend Rs. 80,000 to 1, 00,000 per annum. This
opportunity should be exploited.
The per capita income of Koraput, Nabrangpur and Malkangiri districts of Odisha is
respectively Rs. 25,161/,Rs.14,700/ and Rs. 15,688/ at 2004-05 price.
The government of Orissa had given the approval of instituting grants to SHGs from ILDP,
Koraput account in 1997 and this has boosted the institution set up in Orissa state and they are
about 4.36 lakh SHGs in the state and functioning effectively. The lesson learnt is that once
government policy endorsement is received the institution function sustainably. In future the
Community Link Workers providing animal health services to the poor in villages needs
policy endorsement and it will boost animal production and will reduce poverty (2002).
In 2015, the government of Orissa has endorsed the establishment of Poultry Vaccinator in the
state in their new Poultry Development Policy paper. From 1st December2015, NSDC
(National Skill Development Corporation, India) have declared National Occupational
Standards (NOS) for various categories of veterinary para-professionals in India
( : http://www.nsdcindia.org/nos See under Agriculture Sector). This will be very helpful in
48

forwarding the livelihood pursuits of poor farmers in rural India and is most welcome
endorsement.
Livestock Advisory Services
An Advisory Unit in the Integrated Livestock Project was one of the essential elements in
implementing the activities. An Expatriate Advisor with ample of experience in the third
world development project was heading the unit supported by local experienced DANIDA
Advisor. The advisory gave support in implementation of the project infrastructure, delivery
of low cost technologies, development of husbandry and management skills, supply of
information in livestock service delivery such that the poor can improve their living standard.
The livestock advisory for the poor thus shaped from the scratch. A focus on knowledge and
learning systems that was used to strengthen the capacity of the livestock keepers was the
central objective of the unit. The Advisory unit out sourced information and arranged services
from efficient sources both nationally and internationally in the sphere of activity planning,
training and extension, periodical review, exposure visits and training of farmers, staff
members of the project. Farmer to farmer systems and integrated crop-livestock system was
tested and disseminated to project villages.
Strategy of Livestock Production to alleviate poverty
The current global Policy in livestock sector favours large scale industrial production system.
This holds good for meeting the immediate demand of the growing populations. However, in
developing countries a policy based on mass production by masses along with industrial
farming system side by side is giving better result, because it carries along the aspirations of
the poor too. The enhancement of livestock sector development has been targeted to reduce
poverty, but in reality livestock alone cannot necessarily contribute to poverty reduction. The
root causes of poverty along with health, education in livestock-based communities must be
addressed, if the livestock interventions to produce visible substantial results in reducing the
poverty. Thus livestock services contribute the majority to empower the communities and
increase income. Additionally, without better safety nets in place, interventions aimed to
reduce poverty do not succeed. This was the basis on which ILDP, Koraput was built.
The objective and focus is that the family produces its own food and is sufficient for the year
round. They overcome the seasonal food scarcity. The food is well balanced and there is no
malnutrition to its members. If they are in shortage of food they have enough resources at
hand and home to buy the family food. They do not see hunger. It means the family has
attained self-sufficiency in food production and requirement of the family.
Technologies for Poor
The technologies for alleviating poverty are basis of recent years development initiatives and
are a global phenomenon. The technologies should be poor farmer focus and appropriate
technologies are to be generated in the livestock development and productivity enhancement
initiatives. Most available technologies have been developed for commercial or industrial
farming sector; as it is this is not appropriate for traditional farming sector. So technologies
built on problems and issues of the traditional farming and to explore new opportunities to
49

enhance productivity be the focus. Here the traditional knowledge and if possible the skills
can be made use of.
The technologies should focus to reduce those risks that what prevents the farmers from
adopting further. Scientists and development person need to note the various risk factors in a
particular species or sector and prioritize on the basis of its importance and find solution with
the farmers in a technology development mode. The problems that need solution by
scientists in a laboratory or forum be left to them. The technologies developed should use
appropriate equipment and require minimal capital, preferably made locally from the natural
resources. The objective should be to keep the cost of production from livestock as low as
possible. Increase in cost of production will reduce the profit under the poor farmers situation
and this will discourage him to adept new technologies.
There is need to continue with local resilient breeds of animals and the search should be
superior productive stocks and known for disease resistance. They are available under natural
set up in India. There are many strains of animals that have never witnessed deworming and
still continue to survive and such genetics can profitably be used.
Care should be exercised to stick to the central theme of animal production that the poor of the
locality are following and it will be damaging if wishful thinking is placed on them. The
backyard poultry in Indian rural villages is kept for meat production and mostly for
consumption. If the development personals try to place layer type bird it into the households it
will not work because this is simply a culture change and it will take at least two decades to
get changes accepted. Many trails to induct high yielding broiler chicks from machine hatch
ventures have been initiated and they suffer from non-acceptance. As said earlier, the BYP of
rural poor is based on regular chick hatch due to brooding hens and if this is replaced with
machine hatches the supply and cost of chick as well as the production cost goes high
resulting in loss to the family. The aim should be to keep the local technologies in situ and try
to improve the productivity by reducing contagious disease risks, improved hatchability in
summer and reduction in chick mortality from diseases, predators and the net meat production
from chick out of 3 and more hatches from a hen in a given year.
The farmers are reluctant to utilize those additional technologies at home if the income from
them does not exceed the daily wages per person. They will not allocate manpower from the
family for such new technologies. But they will allocate family labour where the family food
earning is the only option that is the livelihood.
It is vital to address the scarcity of feed resources for feeding livestock. There is little option
to be successful in fodder production and derive benefit feeding small animals. There is need
to do research in drought resistant fodder species. In future, the small animals will require
more of protein in their feed, particularly the BYP and pigs. The states that have coast lines
are in a better position to utilize the cheap protein from Fishmeal or else protein from white
ants and azola etc. The next best option is the protein rich fodder from trees. Technologies in
feed and resource development will be priority area.
50

Protectecting Livestock---Saving Human life, logo theme of GALVmed

Animal diseases and Human disease are highly associated to poor and thus adding to the
suffering from poverty. They bring worry without tangible solutions thus most sorrowfully
enjoy the deaths of the fellow villager with drinking parties. These expenditures add to more
misery. But simple solutions of protecting livestock through immunization right at the door
step makes the magic, the life changes for good and happiness and hope set in. This is the
game changer to a meaningful life and living.
Poverty reduction in rural population through veterinary intervention has been advocated.
However the immunization, de worming along with administration of bio-security measures is
giving very positive and encouraging result under village conditions. This has been achieved
in ILDP, Koraput and in Mayurbhanj by GALVmed.
Government facilities producing
vaccines target large ruminants and thus the small animal immunization has a chronic setback
in the present set up where Private vaccine manufacture look at the bulk of the market in the
commercial animal production sector. The rural focus has been ruled out by the private sector
and it has low penetration in rural areas in India. There are many diseases for which there are
no vaccine yet produced in India .But this phenomenon is not limited to India but is a Global
concern. The GALVmed has made great stride in doing advance research on many livestock
and poultry diseases in Africa and Asia that has ameliorated the situation to a greater extent.
All most all livestock vaccine produced are cold chain dependent, and the Indian rural sector
is not geared to handle them with the required facilities and infrastructure. This is a major
constraint in reaching the poor.
The ILDP, Koraput applied the following disease control measures and administration of
anthelmintic to the Backyard poultry, sheep and Goat and village pigs in its adopted villages.
The project adopted the strategy from 1993 to 2002. It was very successful in terms of disease
control and improved productivity to the families.
Backyard Poultry
Ranikhet Disease (Newcastle Disease) vaccination
Fowl pox Vaccination
Anthelmintic (for Helminthes and Cestodes) administration 10 days prior to vaccinations
Sheep and Goat
Pestis des Petites in ruminants (PPR) vaccination once in 3 years
Sheep and Goat Pox vaccines yearly once
Enterotoxaemia vaccination with booster dose
Anthelmintic for Helminthes and Trematodes
Village Pigs
Classical Swine Fever Vaccination yearly once
Anthelmintic for Helminthes and Cestodes
51

Access to Animal Health Services foremost

The public sector provides the animal health services in India. This is inadequate to reach the
poor in the backward regions of the country. Resource crunch has been attributed to the poor
livestock service delivery as in most states the livestock department budget has been mostly
spent on salary component and little is left for medicines and vaccines (World Bank 1996).
But since last 5 year there is hardly any resource crunch as the budget allocations have
substantially improved throughout the country. Some new problems are encountered as most
of the Livestock staff members try to be closer to cities and least interested for rural postings,
especially the lady members and where couples are posted together, one of the members
remains dormant. This requires study and solution as man power has to be utilized for the
benefit of the nation. The other side it is also seen that the Gomitras are now the prominent
player in livestock practice in rural set up. The public sector main focus is curative treatment
of animals presented in the hospital or Livestock Centers. The mobility of the Veterinary
department is a constraint to reach out larger population, if marginal investment in
prophylactic measures with improvement in mobility of staff could be attained it could yield
higher dividends. Of recent, in 2013 some state governments have introduced Mobile
Veterinary clinic concept and are reaching to the rural population and providing services.
However, the public livestock services are skewed towards large ruminants and consequently
the small animals especially the back yard poultry and village pigs that belongs to the poor are
totally neglected. This needs reversal with adequate policy support.
The private sector can play important role in providing animal health services and they have
the potential to serve the poor livestock keepers in villages. In the marginal areas the public
veterinary services are not economically viable, it is necessary that alternate low cost system
be adapted. Community Animal Health Workers/ Community Link Workers as adopted in
ILDP, Koraput is a viable option. This was implemented by Heifer Project, Indo-Swiss
Project, GALVmed, Orissa, DIFID Western Orissa Livelihood Project and many others.
Preventive medicine and vaccine systems can be implemented within community set up for
the benefit of the poor, especially in backward regions. Now, the governments have adapted
the AI worker concept and have trained and supported Gopal/ Gomitrs etc and they are
functional. But the reluctance on the part of the government is that no sooner these support
units are created they jump for government employment and salary, and this fear stops further
development. This needs suitable agreement and judiciary clearance before taking the
assignment by the concern.
The Minor Veterinary Services Act of Andhra Pradesh legalizes village animal health workers
allowing them to offer selected animal health services on a competitive basis. The Act is
expected to sustain the supply side of a market for minor veterinary services in rural areas,
which is largely underdeveloped, and hence to potentially benefit about 6 million rural
households depending on livestock for their livelihoods (Ahuja et al. 2006). This act needs
approval with detail list of the Minor Veterinary Services and the qualification prescription for
the practioners by the Veterinary Council of India for being applied across the country. As
said above recently Paravet concept of Veterinary service delivery has been instituted by
Government of India.
52

In the other hand, the community animal Health Workers (CAHWs) though effective are
found to be non-sustainable after the project period. Various models have been developed,
like government model, private model, NGO support model, and mixed model; still the
sustainability has not improved. They are able to deliver the livestock services effectively but
the supply chain part of the vaccine has been the most important constraint. As most of the
animal and poultry vaccines are cold chain dependent the CAHWs need suitable refrigerators
to store vaccines and cold boxed with ice to carry the vaccines to the household. The vaccines
needs to be maintained at -2 to 8*C. In several instances the erratic supply of electricity
hampers the quality of the vaccines thus efficiency. The vaccine supplied by the government
department is not demand driven, hardly Ranikhet (ND) vaccine and Fowl pox vaccine is
supplied. There is inadequacy in manufacturing and procurement of vaccines and it is seen in
Classical Swine Fever Vaccine, Fowl Cholera, Duck hepatitis, Duck plague etc and even PPR
vaccine had this problem but now supply of PPR in the free market is satisfactory. The private
vaccine manufactures in India are commercial market oriented; they look for the bulk of the
market demand. Thus most vaccines are packed for large commercial use and are above 500
dose packs, whereas the smallholder villagers need small packs like 50 to 100 vaccine dose
which the manufacture consider to be not cost effective.
There is also research gap to produce combined vaccine, thermostable vaccines, easily
administrable vaccine like eye, nose, and oral routes or through food and water etc. Some of
the public sector vaccine production methods are obsolete and they need to adapt new
technologies.
The science of vaccine production needs to be given top priority and more research and
collaboration research and Global leading firms to be invited so that this gap is closed and
simultaneously vaccine producer need to target the great potential smallholder market of rural
India.
Of recent GALVmed, with research partner Hester Biosciences Limited, Ahmadabad has
come up with a Thermostable Ranikhet Disease (Newcastle Disease) Vaccine for poultry most
suitable for Backyard Poultry in India (La Sota strain) that can stand 37* C for 9 days and can
be used 24 hrs. after reconstitution (http://www.galvmed.org/ activities/newcastle-disease/),
whereas the conventional vaccines need to be used with in 2 hrs. of reconstitution. This is a
very significant step forward in meeting the vaccine demands of the poor in far flung villages
in India and it will revolutionaries the Backyard poultry sector if such Fowl pox vaccine is
also developed. There is need to have a Ranikhet and Fowl pox combined vaccine for
Backyard poultry in India.
Since 2002, government of Orissa had started charging service fees in livestock/ veterinary
services. Ahuja et al. (2000) were of the opinion that poor are ready to pay service charges for
veterinary services, but the first author recorded people in chronic poverty blocks like Banspal
in Keonjhre and 5 percent of the farmers in comparatively well off blocks like Patna in the
same district of Orissa are not able to pay the service charges to the CAHWs. The very poor in
chronic poverty regions like KBK district in Orissa need attention so that they are not devoid
of receiving basic services under their chronic poverty condition.
The Government of India has instituted a welfare scheme called Jan Aushadi Scheme under
the Department of Pharmaceuticals. Under the scheme human generic medicine is supplied
through special out let to people to buy cheaper generic medicine http://janaushadhi. gov.in
53

/index.htm). It is urged that the scheme be extended to the Veterinary sector of India and the
veterinary vaccine should be included in it. In recent year, the government of Rajasthan
started giving veterinary medicine free of cost through AHD and it is claimed to be very
successful
(www.thehealthsite.com/../rajasthan-governments-free-livestock-medicinescheme-a-huge-hit/ ). We believe in institution of service charges to clients, this is improving
the quality of service but the very poor at the same time should also avail the services to their
benefit.
Genetic technologies and Breeding strategies for poor
Poor are the custodians of valuable livestock resources of livestock and poultry in India. They
are the originators of all almost all the valuable breed/ population in this country. This
experience is centuries old. This has resulted into very valuable hardiness and disease
resistance, highly prolific and multi-purpose use animals that are most valued for poor. In the
present condition where markets are changing, climate change has become a reality; there is
scope and need for the development of alternative breeding strategies targeted to meet the
need of the poor livestock farmers. The approach thus demands the participation of farmer
community in the determination of priorities and the formulation of strategies as well as the
planning and implementation of the breeding programmes. Thus community led breeding
system combined with nucleus elite herd/ flock formation through cluster village approach is
the best that has worked in the ILDP, Koraput is advocated.
Breeding strategies based on use of exotic breeds from industrial farming system and
temperate climate to tropics has been tried by many countries. Theses animal and their crosses
require better management, animal health care and access to substantial inputs to be
productive. In most cases they produce or express half the genetic productivity in tropics than
their place of origin. Thus exotic animals have no or limited utility for the poor. Exotic
poultry though highly specialised and productive in laying eggs and producing meat in short
period have no place in the home of a poor farmer as they require high inputs, sophisticated
health care measures and as they do not have the crucial broodiness, thus they are not suitable
in the low input backyard system. In the past introduction of exotic cocks exchange
programme in villages have failed in India and Africa. The exotic temperate sheep imported
suffer from reproduction problems in the hot summer of the tropics and they suffer from
heavy lamb losses in the tropics and equally highly susceptible to the tropical diseases. The
goat in western countries is developed for milk and Indian use of goat is for meat and milk,
thus imports have not succeeded. The Boer goats do a good breed of choice in the future but
the kids require good nutrition, especially the protein. As regards the exotic pigs, they cannot
sustain under scavenging (no input) system of villages, of course some good results at 50
percent of crossbred have been recorded where the household give some feeding. The most
vital factor that has been seen is that the Indian livestock and poultry are low input animals
and have high resistance to various diseases and parasites and this is highly evident when
Indian breeds run along with exotic imported animals.
The prevailing traditional breeding strategies by the farmers has been focusing the external or
phenotypic traits like skin colour, horns etc. and thus the production characters have been left
out. The farmers did not maintain any records of performance. It is now essential that modern
methods of breeding need to be applied in improvement of the local breeds of livestock
54

without sacrificing the important characters that is vital to the poor. This can be achieved
through upgrading, selection, reduction of inbreeding and also crossbreeding of local breeds.
Crossbreeding attains improvement in short time period in livestock. Crossbreds in dairy have
been instrumental in improving milk yield of non-descript cattle in India in short period. This
technique is used usefully in favour of poor when the forward and backward linkages are
efficient. It thus requires good institutional set up with effective service delivery and driven
by market.
An effort to select local breeds of sheep and goats with traits of high milk characteristics with
high prolificacy was the objective of development in ILDP, Koraput. A study of breeds with
possible identical climographs was sought. The hardy large size breeds were the choice with
above traits. Initially, it is advisable to use Indian breeds as improver breeds with data and
information intelligence on diseases which otherwise not known to the project area is essential
for decision. The new animals were quarantined for 3 to 4 weeks with several disease tests by
qualified scientists.
The flock or village animal breeding is most appropriate here. The whole village need to be
explained the importance to improve the animals of village.
The animal breeding should initially aim at Corrective breeding but not breed change
ambition. The corrective breeding means addition of some most desirable characters to the
population but with care not to reduce the already existing naturally selected traits. This is
difficult.
The project in the corrective breeding as said above introduced measures to reduce the
inbreeding in village animals and flocks as said above.
The sheep and goats in ILDP villages were smallholder and small flock sizes thus there was
little opportunity that selective breeding can work. There was inadequate capacity of the
villagers to record the performance and control the mating in uncontrolled situation. So
Community based breeding is the best to address the system.
Once the genetic breeding strategy built and even tested on pilot, the practical issues of how
breeding systems can be organised to deliver the required genotype must be addressed. The
following approaches are identified:
Nucleus breeding: Genetically superior animals (Breeding male) called improver animals are
brought together from different herds/flocks of different places to form a nucleus herd of elite
animals. They are then distributed to one village in a cluster of village. The local males from
herd/flock is castrated or removed from the village where elite animals are placed. The
breeding of the village animals start. The males are checked for mating performance and
health and changed after 2 years of breeding to another new village. The upgraded/ crossbred
50 percent inheritance male thus get transferred to new villages in the cluster and thus the
progeny receive 25 percent inheritance.
During 2014 after 15 years of breeding sheep and goat by improver Indian breeds in ILDP,
Koraput villages, the first author found that the genes have been well distributed in the local
population, the milk yield, size and body weight as well as the vigour of the population has
55

increased significantly and mostly the coat colour and appearance of the local breed is
dominant but in the new born the improver breed coat colour is witnessed that changes as the
age grows. They adapt well to local village management and feeding conditions.
The project worked and promoted the local variety of pigs in the villages. There was no scope
to introduce exotic pigs in the area as the tribal farmers being very poor they couldnt afford
to feed the exotics with grain and raise.
Similarly, it was agreed in principle not to introduce any exotic chicken variety as it will
reduce the broodiness thus the valuable auto generating trait shall be lost and the poor shall
suffer. Instead improved Vezaguda breed of Kundra block and Vizianagram Aseel cocks were
introduced for breeding the low yielding Koraput block village chicken. This worked
satisfactorily.
It is important to note that in the breeding and development of livestock there are two kinds of
biased ness seen among the Livestock Professionals. One is the biasedness of Species of
livestock and the other is the Breed biased ness . The general biasedness is to dairy
cattle and buffaloes and in course the small animals are neglected. The worst sufferer is the
Pig Sector. The Village poultry is neglected due to lack of awareness so also the small
ruminants.
In the same forum, now-a day you can see a group supporting the traditional Indian breeds as
the best choice and want to discard the Exotic milch Breeds. Another group has the reverse
opinion. But what is important is to take an unbiased and balanced decision based on facts and
observation and also keep in view the opportunities in short and long term basis in the interest
of the farming community and the Nation at large.
Feed and Fodder growing on sustainable ground for livestock--- hard nut to break
Fodder growing to feed animals for production is well known as a vital factor to farmers,
scientists, extension specialists and planners. This is a tropical country problem. The existing
natural resource is dwindling. Many developed country specialists, field functionaries are
working on this issue and several instances of co-operation have appeared from last 50 years.
The results are good but ends up due to poor sustainability after project period, in other
words the adoption rate is very minimal. Scientists are looking at each layer of the problem
area very carefully allover. Now, the whole sphere of fodder and feeding livestock is
classified in to three major areas, i.e. planted fodder, tree fodder and feed from agriculture-biproducts. The process of extension and outcome of adoption rate in fodder skills and
technology is perceived from the new tools of extension, like Participatory learning,
Participatory resource identification and Participatory technology development (PTD). They
are the future hope to break through the barrier - the indigenous knowledge base technology
development is more valued in such situation is advocated by many thinkers and scientists.
Efforts will bring results.
The selected Sheep and Goat breed and individual male animals for ILDP were from harsh
climatic condition and well acclimatizing to scarcity of seasonal feed availability of
Rajasthan. The said animals performed excellent because yet Koraput district has not reached
to Rajasthan dry climate area feed scarcity situation. The local available feeding is superior to
Rajasthan. The crossbreeds born showed remarkable growth under the existing plane of
56

nutrition. However, this is the level where 15 to 35 percent households are keeping small
ruminants under small holder system. The process due to 70 percent household keeping small
ruminants and venture for commercial husbandry will not meet the demand of fodder from the
existing natural grazing. The pressure shall be on the environment. Future, feed and fodder
improvement first as a bio mass unit followed by quality feed shall appear. The ILDP was
confident that under such futuristic situation, the project farmers shall meet the challenge; as
they are already knowledgeable on skills and fodder cultivation. It can be concluded that
adoption of fodder production and feeding skills shall appear once the demand is at the door.
The statement is due to Jeypore block village experiences which showed during 2001 that the
village common land fodder production reappeared in 20 percent villages after project
discontinued fund support in the direction from 1998 onwards. It was observed during 2009
that the farmers in Jeypore block have developed restricted grazing and the herds/flocks are
penned outside the village during noon and is being followed in most villages. This is
remarkable step proceeding towards improved animal husbandry system with due care to
crops and environment.
Farmers will grow fodder for livestock if the returns in terms of economy is balanced was the
lesson learned. The Koraput farmer was of the opinion that our animals are not productive so
what is the value of producing fodder in the field and adopt stable feeding? The ILDP was
successful in some of the blocks like Jeypore in producing improved varieties of grasses but
the farmers were looking at the wages that they will earn from the fodder cultivation in their
villages than generating income from feeding the livestock at home.
It is felt need, a need in reality to have fodder for animals. But, under practical conditions
most serious efforts have shown least adoption rate after project period. This was even the
case with urea treated paddy straw.
Increase access to Financial Services
Savings and credit facilities that target the poor are important tools for increasing production
of poor livestock farmers. Poor in rural set up often do not have access to small loans to buy
livestock even poultry, to meet the medical bills, education expenses of their children, the
loans required to meet social functions from the conventional banks so they go to the Village
money lenders and fall in the debt trap forever. Banks are oriented towards bigger loans and
productive loans and even require collaterals that the poor cannot offer. Livestock wealth is
not considered as collateral, but in the other hand poor use livestock as a sort of investment
bank or ATM and use it in crisis. Investment in livestock to increase the productivity always
demands capital for input and access to credit and this has been amply demonstrated in the
Livestock ladder chapter.
Banks in India have forwarded different schemes to distribute credits to farmers, especially in
the crop production sphere. Somehow the influential and powerful sections of the farmers are
in forefront to avail such loans. The overall repayments have been low and often the
governments have waived it off.
The poor farmer needs very small amount of credit as they are fearful of the consequence of
non-remittance, thus are not a party to this short of credit; this is well realized by all section.
57

The banks are not ready to disperse these small credits. Equally the fear is very real as the
poor have no resource to draw as a buffer or for collateral. Credit also draws the poor to
situation of debt from which they are unable to recover. This has been seen in most dairy
cattle credits to the poor farmers as mortality is high in rural set up because of poor health
service or the farmer is not able to feed the animals after dry off. Moreover if the income from
single dairy cow if does not exceed to the daily wage sum the farmer falls in great worry and
loan amount thus becomes quick burden to his livelihood. It is essential that the credit to the
poor should be manageable and it should be in response to the needs of the family in question.
At the same time risk mitigating mechanisms such as insurance of the animals and access to
technical support like animal health care, breeding services at the door and management tips
along with linkage to market should be perquisite for such an endeavour. ILDP, Koraput had
developed Self Help Groups (SHGs) in all project villages with sustainable credit system at
the hand of the poor. It was easily accessible, accessible to most women, the interest rate was
fixed by the groups, and they were supported with revolving fund proportionate to their
savings. It had freedom to invest and SHG members had a bucket full of technologies at hand.
The transition in the SHG was transparent, accountable users; repayment was 100 percent,
linked to appropriate technical services and linked to banks.
Livestock loans-in kind
Heifer International and Indo-Swiss Programmee in Orissa, especially in poverty prone area
instituted livestock loans-in-kind through distribution of breeding stock of goats to farmers on
contract. The farmers repay the programme loans through offering of female progeny of the
goat loan. This works satisfactory in small animals but in cattle as the calves are born late the
process is slow.
Social Scenario after ILDP in Koraput
The Jeypore block got the new Kolab irrigation project functional during ILDP period. Thus
started the influx of Andhra Pradesh farmers into Koraput to buy irrigated lands at very cheap
price from the local tribals. The local farmers were ignorant of their land value at this point of
time. The farmers were only knowledgeable to produce 10 to 12 bags of paddy per acre. So it
was decided to train the farmers of Koraput in Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI),
Cuttack on advance methods of rice farming. Thus about 500 farmers both men and women
travelled to Cuttack for a week days training in small groups of 25 farmers each. They
received theory training in Air-conditioned rooms and in the evening training in the field.
After return the farmers applied new technologies and the yield of paddy improved to 28 to 30
bags per acre and the farmers realized the future prospectus and the land selling came to halt.
On the other hand it was seen that the farm women made it mandatory for all children to go to
school and they instituted tuition to the children in the evening by employing a teacher. This
impact was due to their exposure of CRRI, Cuttack. Now all most all children in the district
are going to schools and many of them are going to colleges for higher study. This was due to
the recent Education policy of the Government of Orissa.
During the project period the Panchayatraj system was introduced and now most the elected
functionaries in Panchayatraj grass root democracy in the district are from the SHGs. They get
58

well trained in account management, bank transition and meet officials and know the
technique of conducting meeting and well aware of development aspects. They are very
successful. The ILDP members were the leaders of the PRI in their respective blocks and
earned good name for themselves.
The Koraput district people admire the success of the present sitting Member of Parliament
Sri Jhina Hikaka of village Dumripada in Laxmipur block. This village was adopted by ILDP,
Koraput since 1993 and the project functionaries were intimately connected to Sri Hikaka. Sri
Hikaka admires the initiatives of ILDP in Laxmipur block and even he remembers all the staff
members in Laxmipur by name.
Undivided Koraput is well known for it to be a disturbed area in India. The blocks Viz,
Koraput, Jeypore are still peaceful. The Kundra block is peaceful except for Asna forest
regions where the ILDP did not function. The Laxmipur is also peaceful. It can be concluded
safely that the ILDP blocks/ villages where awareness was developed and people were cared
for through improvement of livelihood and mainstreamed through SHGs have remained
peaceful under the threat of disturbances of extremism.
People have been liberated from the clutches of the Moneylenders which they suffered with
120 percent interest rate per annum for centuries. The political nexus between money lenders
and politician is broken. People feel a sense of full freedom and happiness of their SHGs and
the financial freedom. They now bank. The women are raising their voice on irresponsible
drunkardness of men in the society. They ascertain their rights for justified issues and use the
protest mode to place their legitimate demands. They are now free to choose their democratic
representative. They are now thinking in SHG forum instead of worrying. They are availing
medical care and they have finances and loan provision at hand. The children are going to
school, a new future is at their hand.
Based on the lessons and benefits from ILDP the Replication Strategy of ILDP was
suggested in the following line
1. Through expansion of project activities in adjacent areas.
Replication of essential elements would take place both within the Koraput district as well as
in adjacent districts. Those elements are as follows:
The veterinary delivery system through community link workers (CLWs/facilitators)
for poultry, sheep and goat and pig disease control and veterinary first aid.
Extension and training activities
Low cost skills within the small animal and village poultry production system. Support
to the development of poultry and other small animals including sheep, goat and pig.
Promotion of dual purpose mixed cropping systems
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Logistic support to Mission Shakti for the formation of self helps groups and apex
bodies of SHGs and their linkages into Line Department.
Village Revolving Funds (VRF) through Self Help groups (SHGs).
Replicable milestones developed by ILDP, which are Community Link Workers, ILDP
Model Self Help Groups (SHGs), SHG Apex Bodies, Village Committee, Livestock
Development and Agricultural Activities.
Geographical area to be covered/ Coverage: After successful testing the sustainability
of the interventions of ILDP one by one it is proposed that the model be replicated in
Orissa tribal dominant backward vulnerable districts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh and
Jharkhand where it will fit well.
It was suggested to adopt most vulnerable districts of Orissa where vulnerability to
food stress and seasonality exits. The districts fitting to these criteria, as suggested, are
KBK districts(Koraput, Nabarangpur, Malkangiri, Rayagada,Sonepur, Balangir,
Kalahandi and Nuapada districts), Kondhmal, Gajapati, Sundargarh, Keonjhar and
Mayurbhanj.
Convergence: As desired earlier the convergence of SHGs has taken place in Orissa
as Mission Shakti. This is the largest forum uniting women throughout Orissa in a
single platform.
Government of Orissa, Department of Animal Husbandry is de worming the total
sheep and goat of the state. It needs to include pigs and poultry along with cattle and
buffalo of the state. The farmers should pay the cost of the anthelmintic that is
administered to the animals and to increase the sustainability awareness has to be
created so that they can buy the anthelmintic from local market and administer to their
animals themselves. They should be knowledgeable of the frequency of
administration.
Breeding of sheep and goat needs to be taken up to reduce the inbreeding. Local South
Orissa Undivided Koraput breeds to be used in north Orissa (Keonjhar and
Mayurbhanj districts) to improve the size and weight of their breeds for productivity
retaining the prolificacy of their native breeds.
Government of India should collaborate with state governments to arrange the supply
of animal vaccines at the door step of the farming community. The vaccines should be
effective, immunity should stay long, least cost. The new generation vaccines like
thermostable vaccines that has come to the market should be patronized by
government sector and the farmers should get the best vaccines.
The vaccines like Classical Swine Fever, Duck vaccines should be available in the
open market.
Effective cold chain along with supply chain should be available and the government
has to work in this direction. The supply of vaccines to the rural population is the main
constraint.
There is paucity of staff to meet the demand of the farmers in rural areas and it is
going to stay in future also. Thus the model of Community Link Workers/Community
Animal Health Workers be adopted for the state so that people will get Veterinary
First Aid and Vaccination so also the de worming care for their livestock at door step.
60

This will work out economical from all angles. There were certain weakness in the
model and most of them solved in the GALVmed Model of Mayurbhanj district. This
can safely be employed. The government has to introduce private and NGO
partnership in delivery of the products to the people.
Recently government of India has approved the Para Vet Model under the Agricultural
Skills and the Government of Orissa has given its approval for Poultry Vaccinator as a
Policy and it will facilitate the Livestock delivery system effectively.
61

References
Ahuja V., Joseph A., Gustafson D., Otte J. (2006) Promoting Livestock Service
Reform in Andhra Pradesh. PPLPI Research Report, FAO, Rome.
Ahuja, Vinod et al. 2000. Agricultural Services and the Poor: Case of Livestock
Health and Breeding Services in India, IIM, Ahmedabad; The World Bank,
Washington DC; and SDC, Bern.
GALVmed, UK http://www.galvmed.org/activities/newcastle-disease/),
Janaushadi Scheme, Government of India (http://janaushadhi.gov.in/index.htm).
National Skill Development Corporation, India have declared National
Occupational Standards (NOS) for various categories of veterinary paraprofessionals in India ( : http://www.nsdcindia.org/nos See under Agriculture
Sector.
Rajasthan Government www.thehealthsite.com/.../rajasthan-governments-freelivestock-medicinescheme-a-huge-hit/.
Subrahmanyam, S and Murthy, C.S, (2006) Economics of Small ruminants, pigs
and
backyard
poultry
production
in
Orissa.
www.fao.org/docrep/013/al674e/al674e00.pdf
World Bank 1996 India Livestock Review: Enhancing Growth and Development.
Washington DC.
62

LOW INPUT AND LOW OUTPUT ANIMALS AND POOR

Das Kornel
The low input and low output animals are those that give low or no milk, few eggs mostly
hatched for chicks and produce marginal amount of wool, hair and meat. They are mostly the
indigenous breeds or non-descript population of livestock mostly found in the tropical
climates. The cattle and buffaloes serve the purpose of draft power to agriculture for couple of
days in the year and mostly used for production of dung manure in agriculture.
Increase in population size of small animals has increased production so far
They are often referred as slow growing animals. They are late maturing in most cases except
for some inclement weather conditions like flood prone and heavy rain regions where specific
prolific genes have been evolved. So they are mostly non-prolific in nature. As they grow
slow and gain a low body weight, large animal number of animals in a flock or herd forms the
basics of the husbandry business. So large number of animals in a unit forms the source of
production and required output is thus regulated from the flock or herd and this is the regular
traditional practice. So far, in India the production output gain in sheep and goat is from the
indigenous animal base and that the output of meat and wool is due to increase in number of
animals from the existing large population but not from improvement of productivity from
individual animals. This is the low input and low output classical production system.
Mixed species animal husbandry in subsistence farming provides food security
Under the subsistence traditional models the farming family opts for few animals from each of
the species of livestock and that forms the family unit. The grouping of multi species in one
unit is to get relief from major losses due to disease out breaks in a given period. This
production system provides assured food to the families and few surpluses is sold or battered
in the market. This system is still valid in regions where there is no or low animal husbandry
services are available and the market is not developed and can be called as backward areas.
There are two elements in such regions, one is the primitive or backward societies in terms of
modern development and the other is the backward region with low or no infrastructure
including road, transport, health services and education. The low input animal forms the basis
of food supply thus food securities to these families. This thus forms the most important
linkage in food security chain and needs attention to conserve and improve the social security
until such time the societies receive the development inputs in a sustainable manner and they
are also in a position to receive and utlise them; until then it will be wise to improve the low
input animal marginally still to be valuable in situ. Any wishful scientific intervention without
serious thinking will harm the available sustainable food security to these societies.
Lower metabolism and low nutrition level in low input and output animals
Nutrition is one of the most important factors that is essential for growth and production of
livestock. Modern day animals have been designed to produce at optimum level and the
nutrition plays the most important and vital role in its expression. These animals are high
metabolic in character, that means they have the capacity to utilize optimum plane of nutrition
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in a balanced form, but cannot perform satisfactorily in low nutrition plane. The low input
animals do perform to their optimum in low plane of nutrition, but in most case fail to respond
to high level of nutrition proportionately. This is too due to their metabolic response and low
plane of hormonal profile compared to modern animals of high performance.
Low input animals are hardy and in future the low input animals of the North-west
region of India will gain importance
The low input animals are managed solely in extensive grazing system worldwide. They thus
have natural stamina to compete grazing and walk long distance and the total water
requirement per animal is also low. This characteristic often pronounced as hardy. Some
population and breeds have capacity to survive long period under low feeding or scarce
feeding like famine condition and regain body weight once feed resource is available. There
are several breeds of cattle and small ruminants that are well documented for such extra
ordinary ability to survive the draught on periodic basis and even the chronic droughts. The
animals and breeds of desert and draught prone areas like Gir, Tharparkar, and Kankrej cattle
have these valuable attributes and have been observed in recent year draughts in Rajasthan
and Gujarat states. So the genetic resources of small and large ruminants of North-west
draught prone regions are the most valuable genetic resources of future to mitigate long dry
and high temperature to be experienced under climate change. They have the ability to lose
body fat reservoir very slowly under feed scarcity regime and also have the ability to regain
the body weight soon after the feed resource is available. This quality is not found among the
temperate region animals. Therefore, in future the low input animals of the North-west region
of India will gain importance under the upcoming Climate change scenario and shall play
important role. The improvement of North-west animal resources in production trait will be
the most utilized genetic component of future in India and elsewhere. Simultaneously, there is
the need to identify those high producing individuals, strains and breeds under such extreme
climatic conditions of tropics in other countries more especially in the Africa and use the
resources for mitigating climate change phenomena in livestock sector in India.
Low input animals utilize roughages most efficiently
Further low input animals does not mean they produce under scarcity of feed, but it also
means that they have the extra ordinary ability to utilize roughages otherwise not utilized for
high performing animals. They can convert the roughages feed efficiently. Their digestive
system has the ability. They thus have limitation to production both genetically and on
nutrition plane. The buffaloes as well as the potbellied village pigs have these attributes to
utilise roughages efficiently.
Low input animals have evolved from survival of the fittest in Nature
Low input animals carry low intensity disease burden more often the parasitic burden both
external and internal. It is well observed during the introduction of exotic herds or flocks into
tropics that all of a sudden many diseases appear in them but the local stocks do not show any
form of symptoms of the same diseases. They are carriers and do not show disease symptoms.
This is the happening continuing from centuries in absence of knowledge and opportunity
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from the Veterinary Science. This has given rise to some kind of resistance to many diseases
and many diseases have remained in dormant form in the animal body under natural
condition. It is the same form of evolution where the fittest only survive. It is well known that
the low input animals have lesser health problems than those of the high plane nutrition base
high performing animals. So once the productivity increases proportionately the production
and reproduction diseases also increases, it is general observation. This is often seen with the
high producing exotic and crossbred animals. In other words, optimization of production also
optimizes the animal disease and reproduction problems. Optimizing production from low
input animals keeping intact the disease resistance may be a future challenge for the research
community Worldwide and that will be the most desirable combination sought for.
Low input animals do not suffer from production diseases but do suffer from some
reproduction problems
The low input animals do not suffer from production diseases like mastitis, metabolic
disorders, but certainly have some form of reproduction diseases like anoestrus, seasonal
breeding pattern, late maturity, and long calving intervals. They have on regional basis some
kind of adjustment to toxic elements in feed and water and even with stand the macro and
micro-nutrient deficiency by adjusting the growth and production performance to a greater
extent.
Low input animals act as high output animals due to high prolific traits
Chronic calamity regions at the end of the time do influence the genetic makeup of the
livestock with proper adjustment at molecular level. The Eastern region of India has periodic
floods and experience heavy rainfall. The sheep and goat are primarily the animals of dry
region and there are always doubts of its performance in heavy rainfall conditions. This is
general noting. But it has been seen that these eastern region is the store house of dwarf and
highly prolific Black Bengal Goat and the Garole, Edeka and Kuzi breeds of highly prolific
sheep. These animals adapt to heavy rain fall, graze in water and survive as Grass grazers.
After the floods, the cultivable lands usually get covered with sand and soil and usually it
takes about 6 months to rehabilitate the land for cultivation. During this lag period the farming
community and other poor live and survive on the sales of these small animals that are at
home. These breeds have unique feature of early maturity even six months and get pregnant
with in two month of the lambing and kidding. Their short gestation length with early
maturity and short inter- kidding and lambing period makes them the most prolific breed of
India. Even some of the ewes can lamb 3 to 4 lambs in a lambing with average of twins.
These unique genetic resources of small animals does give the hope that prolific base breeders
are most efficient genetic resources under the low input system delivering the high output and
there is scope to improve the production of the low input animals through research and search.
Poultry and pigs
The poultry generally constitute of chickens and ducks. The chicks are exclusively for meat
production and they are broody hens, which hatches her won eggs and thus are called auto
generating in contrast to the modern machine hatching of eggs by all commercial chicken
65

units. The ducks are for eggs and meat; they do not hatch eggs instead under the rural set up
the villagers use a broody hen to hatch the ducklings. They are mostly the backyard type, seen
under the rural and to some extent in the peri-urban set up. The management system
constitutes extensive and scavenging system for both. The ducks are grown in medium to
heavy rainfall regions and hardly in dry regions of the country. The poultry in backyard in
villages is an age old practice and if there is less space around the house and less feed for
scavenging is available then they are supported with some grains or rice bran supplement and
the system thus becomes one of the semi- scavenging type. The hens lay eggs in batches
called hatch or clutch and it can be two to four hatches in a year, in general it is 2to 3 hatches
a year. A hen lays 6 to 22 eggs per clutch and the hatching percentage is about 70 percent on
annual basis because the summer hatches are generally poor compared to 100 percent winter
hatches. At the weaning generally 6 to 8 chicks survive as for replacement of the stock or for
food and sale. There are more than 25 breeds of indigenous breeds of chicken recorded in
India and there are several varieties developed for good meat and poultry as a game, that is the
cultural and heritage of several societies in India. The feed of the backyard poultry is several
insects, greens and grains including the agricultural bi-products .The household wastes,
animal dung are generally collected in backyard of all families to be used in agriculture
operation as manure, and there grows a host of insects and unicellular elements and that forms
the bulk of the feed materials for the backyard poultry. The biomass is high and productive in
wet seasons and winter, when most of the hens hatch the chickens. The poultry losses are due
to predators and sometime thefts and the major killer of this system is infectious diseases like
Ranikhet Diseases (Newcastle Disease) and fowl pox, leaving aside some specific disease
problems in regional basic. It can be concluded that the backyard poultry is basically a low
input chicken and the output is very high. The commercial system supports have been citing
the total number of eggs produced by their birds as the criteria to the egg produced by the
indigenous bird under backyard scavenging system. The commercial birds lay 300-305 eggs
per annum. But, in terms of meat produced and its niche market throughout the country, the
indigenous single hen produces Rs 6300 in a year(@ Rs 300 per bird) and a commercial hen
egg produced in per annum costs Rs 1525 ( @Rs 5/ per egg) only, where the feed costs 70
percent of the production cost.
The ducks under Indian backyard farming set up is also the best egg producer and the meat is
valued. The ducks are found in eastern region; it is mostly under small holder system and in
states like Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh in some pockets are
under extensive system. They go well with rice farming in Kerala. The duck keeping is mostly
the scavenging system and the ducks are thus low input poultry and medium profit sharing
poultry compared to chickens. The duck survival rate is higher under the backyard system. In
south-east Asia, the duck is prominent specie of animal and there are several commercial
varieties under use in intensive system. In future, India may adopt such system, but looking at
the present thrust that is given by the policy makers the duck potential for poor communities
still needs strong policy support as a low input traditional system for food security. Research
for improvement and development of ducks as a whole is a low priority in the country.
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The lesser known but valuable to many groups of societies as food producing poultry are the
Geese and Muscovy ducks and are fairly distributed in the central part of the country and
elsewhere. They hatch their won eggs and the meat is consumed at home. Some tribes produce
hybrids or mule ducks by crossing the ducks with Muscovy ducks. There is least or no thrust
from neither the husbandry personals nor the policy makers on improving and promoting
these low input but valuable poultry for the communities. This needs attention and promotion
in food security endeavors, especially in tribal belts of central India, e.g. Chhattisgarh, Odisha
and Madhya Pradesh.
Village pigs are common in India and are the darling animal of the tribals, Schedule castes
and some others. The pig is the most favored animal in North-east states and in the Central
India tribal belt, though they are equally well distributes all through the country. They are
maintained mostly on scavenging and some well to do farmers supplement some home grown
food or the leftover food of the family. There are several breeds of the village pigs in India
that includes the potbellied varieties, but many still require study and documentation. Some
communities maintain the pigs in flocks thus travel from place to place with family in search
of food material. It is mostly under extensive and scavenging system in most part of the
country but in North-east they are in the intensive and semi-scavenging smallholder system
where some feed is provided to the pigs. The potbellied pigs with long gut has the advantage
of digesting roughages. Village pigs are highly prolific; the litter size varies from 6 to 15
piglets. Most of the indigenous pigs have black color coat and is the preference of
communities for ceremonies and religious functions. The pig meat (pork) is the cheapest
protein to many and many like it for its taste. They grow faster and reproduce faster like
having minimum two litters a year and that adds to the profit. In general terms, the pigs
compete with human being for food; this is how the policy makers look at it. But the village
pigs live on scanty feed from scavenging and grow; and the farming community sale or
consume most of the piglets when they are still taking milk from the mother. They retain one
piglet to grow as adult. So this system gives the scope that if marginal plant protein
supplementation with some critical micronutrients the pig production shall be enhanced
substantially. More so they need regular anthelmintic to eliminate the internal parasite load
thus reduce the incidences of zoonotic diseases caused from parasites. There are couples of
studies on the economics of village pigs, which indicate that single sow unit per household
yields the highest dividends to the family of all small animals like sheep, goat, and backyard
poultry. The village pigs are one of the most important specie of small animals in the families
that contribute to the food security, nutrition of the family members and it requires strong
policy support from the planers. The greatest drawback is the general hate redness to the
village pigs for no reason. Village pigs are the food production factories for the North-east
and there is great scope to build the food security and economy from pig husbandry. This
needs a constitution of body that can organize and work with small holders, import good
breeds of pigs from Europe and North America and supply feed and offer extension and
veterinary services at the door step of the farmers on sustainable basis; this will make the
difference. In future hostels and hotel leftover food base will boost the pig production in cities
and this recycling of food will give good nutritious protein to poor.
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The low input animals, particularly the small animals are as said number based and that is
dependent on prolificacy but the high input animals are based on small number base but on
feed conversion efficiency basis. The low input animals on the whole are natural selection
product but the high output are mainly due to selection by farmers and followed by scientific
basis of development process. So the low input animals are having better adaptation to local
climate and inherent capacity to adopt for harsh climate changes. This can be termed as
genetics available based on adoption to climates and multi objective production profile. There
is vast scope in the future for exploitation of such traits by selection through scientific tools.
Climate change and role of low input animals
The climate change is now a reality and its impact on rain, draught, and high ambient
temperature is well realized by all. Severe draught will have serious effect on feed and fodder
resources so also the water availability to livestock, particularly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. So populations and breeds of livestock that stands to long
spell of draught are most sought animals of the future world. The past experience shows that
the livestock from Rajasthan and Gujarat are the most suitable animals that have been tested
in the past sever draught. Most low input animals in India graze in direct sun under 43 C and
some population does continue up to 45 C. Therefore, these animals for their unique quality to
stand such high ambient temperature will do well in coming climate changes.
Commercial sector of livestock for growth and Low input animals for food security of
the poor?
In the past 130 years, research have been directed to produce commercial animals, the
prominent are the poultry, the dairy and beef cattle, pigs for pork and sheep for wool and
mutton and to some extent the goats for milk. Asian countries have boosted the milk and fat
production capacity of the riverine buffaloes but not yet to be truly called the commercial
buffaloes. It needs further research and serious work. On the other hand the research on low
input animals is a neglected branch as the total objective in the research of the livestock sector
was directed to commercial animal venture. This was in the west and also in the developing
countries. So the profit was the sole motive for the producer and the commercial
establishments. This was the pulling force behind the development.
The low input animals have met the family consumption requirements and surplus for sale.
They thus lacked the market and linkages. The inputs were limited from the public services
and this was not the thrust area of the public services. It is in the recent years that have come
to the light that the poor have the right for food and there by the animal sector has become
prominent as an important element in the subsistence farming system and the inbuilt security
of food that has been built with it for a strong sustainable food supply to the poor. So it can
clearly be demarcated that the commercial livestock sector is important for growth to meet the
increased demand of food for the growing population and the quality of food to the upcoming
middle class and the low input animal sector to meet the food security of all those in the
subsistence farming and the rural and peri-urban poor.
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Low input animals and energy research of draft animals

The livestock as a form of energy in the life of farmers is well known. The cattle, buffaloes,
donkey, mule, horses, camel, yaks as animals for draft power and are well documented in
India. They are most valuable assets for the wellbeing of the rural economy. They are mostly
the low input animals except for the larger breeds. Their longitivity is longer thus is the
service period. Many people earn their livelihood by working as agriculture labour in some
ones field by ploughing the land. Various species of livestock play vital role as pack animals
to many of the Indian societies so also contribute to the agriculture power requirements. The
male animals are mostly used as animals for draft purpose throughout the country. The cattle
are the most important draft animal followed by buffaloes and camel and donkey. They are
used in agriculture purpose like ploughing the land, paddling of wet mud paddy fields,
leveling of lands, carting and other agriculture operations like thrashing crops as paddy and
wheat etc. The camel in agriculture is used in the north-west states of the country. The mules
are used as pack animals in the northern hill states. In high altitude, the yaks are mostly used
as pack animals. The role of livestock as draft animal is progressively declining due to the
varied demands in irrigated land operations and the tractor is replacing fast the animal power.
This means more fossil fuel requirement in the Indian agriculture sector. However, the trend
of utilizing draft animal still continues in most states and as the land holing is declining, in
future it may not be economically feasible for families to maintain draft animals for
agriculture operations. Moreover, the draft animals requirement in agriculture operation is
not more than 120 days a year; therefore it becomes a burden on the farmers families to feed
the draft animals during idle days. In some regions the traditional draft animals were very
large in size, this was essential to meet some of the soil conditions and the type of operation;
but feeding such large animals under the present day context is most uneconomical. Thus
famous Haryana cows have been replaced by Murrah buffaloes cows for milk and the
bullocks have been replaced by tractors. The breed has lost its glory and place in its mother
tract. Similar story is with many of the former famous draft cattle in other parts of the country,
including in the south. But, the lesson and opportunity is still there to promote small to
medium type cattle as powerful draft animals of the future. There is scanty or no research in
draft animal development, except couple of studies in crossbred bullock utility and the
agriculture implement use. This is an Asian problem and no solution available from the West
research forums. Therefore it needs original research to attain the objectives. This is most
neglected branch. It requires engineering skill, anatomy and physiological studies and the
application of modeling to develop and breed suitable draft or dual purpose cattle and
buffaloes for future India. This is the challenge. It is feared that before the challenge is well
understood most of the draft Indian cattle will get into crossbreeding or shall be replaced by
other species of livestock like the buffaloes.
Communities evolved various low input breeds in India
The low input livestock and poultry are in a state of breed structure and have been
documented to a greater extent but still there is scope of new genetics emerging as has been
noted in recent years. There is also a large number of animal out of the classified breed
structure or multiple breed crosses classified as non-descript. On the whole, the livestock
69

and poultry populations have come through natural selection process. Most of the breeds are
due to hard work laid by farming community through selection of phenotypic traits like horn,
hornless, size of the ears, shape and size, coat colour etc. The uniform breeding of livestock
by tribes, communities have evolved the present breed and breed structure. These were due to
years of selection and breeding for which there is scanty of records and information is
available. Mostly, those where the past rulers were associated with breed improvement the
records as history is available. The selection in most of these cases was on visual scores. It is
still the knowledge at the farming community level in the sphere of animal development and
breeding is indigenous knowledge base. However, they were knowledgeable that the selection
of the bull is most vital in improving the milk yield of the daughters and that had great amount
of influence in the north to select buffalo and cattle for higher milk yield. This used to be
village decision process. In the other hand, in the south the focus was more on the draft cattle
breeding. This was aided by principality and Zamindars.
In the 30s Indian cattle development was initiated from Government owned farms, the small
herd concept. This gave some impetus to few of the milch cattle breed and they came under
Indian Dairy breed classification of which Sahiwal and Haryana were some leading breeds
and later in the five year plans some more breeds like Red Sindhi. Tharparkar were brought
into the arena of future dairy breeds of importance. Simultaneously, the state agencies laid
stress on local potential dairy cattle like Kankrej, Gir, Rathi and many other. But somehow
due to smaller herd size and non-availability of superior bulls to reduce the impact of
inbreeding in these organized herds the impact was less felt and thus the focus slowly weaned
out. In some of the farms, accepting exotic dairy breeds for crossbreeding to improve the milk
production and evolve suitable crossbreds forced these herds to be experimental herds and
most of the superior germplasm was lost, classical example is the Sahiwal herd of the Pusa,
New Delhi. Ofcource, it became oblivious that the crossbreeding is superior in cattle to
improve milk production from indigenous cattle in short period and that it can match the
growth requirement of the nation and it became the policy that gave the best results, though it
was not short of criticism.
Farmers need be at the centre of development.
The main constraint to rapid cattle improvement is the policy that prohibits cattle slaughter in
India. The selection and improvement of milk production is basically the retention of superior
animals for future breeding and culling and disposal of the inferior animals, and the later is
impossible under the Indian law. Therefore the improvement of cattle is basically through use
of superior bulls and without culling of the inferior stock from the population is the
challenge in the cattle development of India.
In future, the production improvement in low input livestock shall come from the participation
of the farmers with scientific community and Extension agents and application of new
knowledge and skills on their stock. It thus needs that the sociologists prepare the ground
through documentation of traditional knowledge of the farming community in detail and the
scientific community then improve upon the same and give the back ground of the principles
in understandable terms to the farmers and motivate them to apply and see the results to
70

themselves. This can be the first successful intervention and later with appreciation they can
join in large scale recording of production data to improve the productivity. There is thus
need to improve the traditional breeds of livestock in situ. This needs suitable organization
structure with appropriate objectives and the application in project modes in different parts of
the states will give the required impact. The farmers need be at the centre of development.
Unfortunately, the NGOs are taking the centre stage at the cost of peoples direct participation
that is hampering the farmers interest.
Classification and improvement of Low input livestock in future
The question appears what is basis of classification for low input animals. The measure in
terms of low productivity or output is generally the thought that comes out. But then it
requires a measurable standard. The indigenous cows with maximum average 5 kg milk yield
per day can be placed under low output low input cattle. This will accommodate all most all
the breeds of indigenous cattle and buffaloes in India. Similarly, the sheep and goat average
30 kg body weight should be classified under the system. Poultry not laying more than 100
eggs per annum should be a low output chicken in the system. Pigs yielding not more than 50
kgs body weight should be in the category.
In recent years, the Indian Council for Agriculture Research (Central Avian Research
Institute, Bareli) has introduced exotic bird synthesis as Low input birds for the Back yard
poultry sector. This is mis- nomenclature as the bird requires high input of feed and
vaccinations in order to survive and reproduce in the Back yard environment. The feed
requirement is close to that of the commercial broilers, but lesser than that. These birds unlike
the traditional breeds cannot live on total scavenging alone. These birds are byproducts of
research to develop birds equivalent or better than Commercial sector broilers and layers but
could not achieve the objective; then have been declared as birds for Back yard sector.
Moreover, they have not undergone vigorous testing at the farmers backyard. It is highly
imminent that the Indian research should focus research to improve the productivity of the
indigenous poultry resources that constitutes the 30 % of the Indian poultry population and
nearly 100 % of the rural poultry population rather than offering exotic birds to replace the
auto generating sustainable indigenous poultry population.
The other vital utility that the low input and low output animals have served to the Nation is
the total dung they produce and all that goes to manure the cultivable fields and some amount
is used as fuel in the rural kitchen. This has maintained the Indian soil fertility sine 5000
years.
Finally the question appears as to how these low input animals can be used in future India?
Can these animals continue to remain low input animals but can function as high output
animals so far as the productivity is concerned, the answer is yes it can be. There is scope to
select such populations that are in India and are high output animals. There are poultry
populations that lay 20 to 22 eggs per clutch and such 3 clutches per annum and can hatch
more than 90 percent eggs on an average. The challenge is to improve their clutch size to
25eggs and hatching 4 clutches per annum. This is the challenge to the scientific community.
But, other way this can also be achieved at the Farmers place with Participatory research?
71

Goat in India as per 2011-12 censuses indicates that the average yield per animal is 14 Kgs
and this is 4 kg higher than reported for the last 4 years. This is good trend. Goat population
from Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Nagaland are showing promise as the average yield per
animal is between 19 to 21 Kgs. They can be used as improver breed for the rest of the nation.
Goats in Eastern part of the country are prolific, dwarf and smaller in size and low body
weight. These Goats are grass grazing type and can withstand heavy rains and can stand in
water logging soil, which otherwise goats do not. The body weight and prolificacy traits are
negatively correlated, therefore scientist can apply different tools to overcome this constraint,
which means a population of Goat that can be 25 Kgs in 6 months and can produce triplets
after first kidding, such 3 kidding in 21 to 24 months period.
Average yield of meat per sheep during 2008-12 as reported in the censuses report of India is
13Kgs. The trend thus has remained stagnated for last several years. The states such as
Haryana, Himachal and Nagaland have shown sheep average yield per animal to be 20 Kgs
and they can be used as improver breed for other sheep population. So far the productivity
from sheep and goat has come from increase in numbers rather than the increase in quality.
Similar to goats there are prolific sheep populations in eastern India, and there is scope to
develop a triple purpose Sheep population with mutton and higher number of lambs as well as
milk. These type genetics are available and the Farmers have developed it. A breed of sheep
called Edeka with hairy coat is most prolific type gives twins and produces 3 lambing in 24 to
30 months is already available in Coastal Odisha. Edeka means sheep in Sanskrit. They
produce triplets in about 3to5 percent cases. They are mutton type sheep. There is scope to
synthesize sheep population that can produce triplets, 3 lambing in 24months and enough of
milk for the triplets to grow. An adult at one year should be at least between 30 to 35 kgs body
weight.
The local pig population in India yields on average 39 Kgs of pork per animal (2011-12
censuses). Pig population in Mizoram yield 86 Kgs pork per animal and it is 75 Kgs in Kerala
and 72 Kgs in Nagaland. But it is not clear whether these pigs reported are native breeds or
crossbreds.
A local pig population selected for two farrowing per annum and 15 piglets per farrowing
having 80 kg body weight at one year and age at slaughter under semi-scavenging condition
will be the future requirement. This should be having 60Kgs body weight at one year age
suitable for village scavenging should be produced by the scientists for the poor farmers, may
be out of the indigenous breeds of pigs. For the upcoming intensive pig farming in India more
specific to NE states CBs and pure bred exotic commercial pigs in the line of Industrial
chicken farming will be the future. So pigs suitable for different farming system should be the
aim in the development.
Dual purpose cattle population e.g. Milk and draft will be the most sought cattle in rural India.
The improved indigenous breeds of cattle have yield potential of 1800-2000 kg per lactation.
They should weigh between 250 kg to 380 kgs and produce 2000kgs of milk per lactation.
The males are to be efficient draft purpose animals. This needs to be an Indian Zebu synthetic.
They are to be reared under semi-grazing system. The Indian Zebu cattle have very long age
72

at first maturity (3 to 4 years) and first calving and burden the time and resource of the
farmers. It needs to be at least one year like Danish Jersey. I had a long years of working
experience and breeding purebred Jersey in India from different countries of origin and my
experience goes with the fact that Danish Jersey are the most prolific breeders and the trait is
controlled by a major dominant gene. So there is scope in future to transgress this gene into
Indian Zebus and synthesize suitable early maturing cattle for tropics. This will ensure Indian
cattle synthesis will stand to market competition and sustain from disuse. At the end the
economics that will have the final say.
The Indian Crossbreds with exotic is producing 6.97 Kgs of milk on average (2011-12) that
implies 2091kgs of milk for 300 day lactation length. This needs to be 3500 Kgs of milk per
lactation of 300 days in CBs, on an average. The buffaloes produce on an average of 4.71 Kgs
of milk per day and it is about 942 Kgs of milk for 200 day lactation. This should be at least
1800 Kgs of milk per lactation.
In future special livestock plans with focus to develop the existing high concentration of cattle
in the east region should be laid. They are mostly indiscrete cattle, suffer from heavy load of
parasitism, micro and macro-nutrient deficiency so also deficiency of protein. Buffaloes in
India have large concentration in northern irrigated plains with sufficient feed resources.
Sheep are concentrated mostly in the southern peninsula and western part where as the goats
are having large population in the eastern region of India. The eastern region is deficit of
protein in the feed, livestock keepers suffer from poverty, there is heavy rainfall, and the soil
is deficit in macro and micro-nutrient as said above. Due to dampness the ecto and endo
parasitism is also high. This needs attention before improving the productivity of the
livestock.
Feed conversion Ratio (FCR)
In coming 30-40 year India will try to reduce the farmers number from the present 68 % to 40 %. In
western world it is about 5-8 percent. In future commercial sector in India will evolve in livestock
sector, now the poultry sector as layers and broilers are using the breeds of birds produced and
marketed by International Poultry breeders in India. The pure bred exotic dairy cattle are being used to
produce crossbred cows for higher milk yield. The pig sector for production of pork and ham has not
yet taken off and is waiting for policy approval so that it can lead in the north east states of the
country. The commercial sector success is due to the assured profit that comes out of feed conversion
ratio (FCR) In USA FCR for pork is 3.0 to 3.2 kg feed for 1 kg pork and FCR for poultry for meat is 2
kg feed for 1 kg meat. Modern broilers weigh 2.5 kg at 39 days, with a live feed conversion ratio of 1.6
kg of feed per kg of body weight gain. Layer hens in commercial flocks typically produce about 330
eggs per year with FCR of 2 kg of feed per 1 kg of egg produced. In India due to tropical climate and
feed it is 305 to 307 eggs per year.
In dairy 2 to3 liters of milk is produced from kg of concentrate. In India 2.5 kg of concentrate is fed to
produce 5 kg of milk. The low input and high output livestock will be screened out and identified for
future use throughout the tropical world due to climate change and there of high ambient temperature.
The commercial sector will be selected for environmental interaction in tropics for efficient use. Most
breeds/strains of animals without unique traits in low input sector shall be economically non-viable or
competitive shall perish.
73

References
Animal Husbandry Statistics, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics 2014.
http://dahd.nic.in/dahd/statistics/animal-husbandry-statistics.aspx
74

POOR PEOPLE AND LIVESTOCK

Das Kornel
Poor Livestock Keepers
Poverty has many faces, but despite this diversity, there are commonalities that are mostly
characterized by limited access to a number of rights, assets, and services:
The poor have:
No voice in the formulation of policy and structure of services
Limited access to education a high frequency of illiteracy
Health constraints and limited access to health services
Limited access to land and water or insecure resource rights
Limited access to assets
Low household income
Limited access to credit, extension, and other agricultural services
Limited access to markets
Poor livestock keepers are those who are economically and/or socially at risk, politically
marginalized, and whose animals, at most, provide subsistence and/or the minimum
augmentation of daily nutritional requirements (ibid.). (Heffernan and Sidahmed, 1998,;
World Bank, 2000).They are the Pastoralists and small holders of rural and peri-urban areas
and mostly come from Schedule tribe, Schedule castes and other backward class of people In
India.
The livestock production systems of the poor
Poor livestock farmers often live with very minimum resources. As defined above, they have
too little indigenous livestock and resources to sustain production. The livestock production
system is mostly the traditional type with pastoral, transhaunt and smallholders systems.
75

Table-1 Typology of poor livestock Keepers

Producer
Main
Characteristi
c
Pastoralist
More
restricted
access to
natural
resources
such as
grazing and
water. Lack
of access to
markets.
Non-viable
herd sizes
and suboptimal
age/sex ratio
of the
herd/flock
Smallholder Smaller land
farmer in
sizes, land
crop/livesto rental, lack of
ck (mixed) resources
systems
(labour and
land)
Urban
Landless,
less access to
services
Herding/husba
Main
producti ndry patterns
on
service
Milk,
Migratory
fiber
Locatio
n
Livestoc
k species
Rural
Cattle,
goats,
sheep,
camelids,
yaks
Periurban
Mainly
goats,
sheep
Meat
Rural
Cattle,
buffalo,
goats,
sheep,
pigs,
poultry
Power,
Tether, cutfertiliser and-carry,
, meat,
range
eggs
Periurban
Diary
cattle,
poultry,
pigs
Poultry,
goats,
sheep,
buffalo,
cattle,
pigs
Milk,
meat,
eggs
Stall fed, cutand-carry,

roadside
Meat,
milk,
eggs
Roadside,
rubbish
foraging,
purchased
fodder
Urban
slums
Source: Heffernan et al, 2004
76
Absentee
owners,
herding by
relatives, hired
labour
Vulnerabiliti
es
Drought,
terms of
trade
political
instability,
poor access
to markets,
technologies
and
innovations.
Lack of
access to
productive
resources of
animals,
theft
Drought,
cost of
inputs,
access to
services,
population
pressures
Cost of
inputs
Space for
animals,
legal
framework

How the poor use Livestock

Each of the common livestock species is kept by the poor i.e. cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs
and poultry. The principal species are listed in Table 2.
Table 2 -Animal species kept by the poor and their contribution to household assets
Species
Cattle,
Buffalo,
Yaks
Financial
Sales of milk,
meat, hides,
animals, draught
power services,
transport
Saving instrument
Camels
Sales of milk,
meat, hides,
animal, transport
services
Savings
instrument
Donkeys, Sales of animals,
Horses
drought services,
transport (esp.
water)
Goats,
Sheep
Poultry
Sales of milk,
meat, hides,
animals
Saving instrument
Sales of eggs,
meat, fowl
Social
Physical
Natural
Networking Draught power Manure for
maintaining
mechanism for crop
soil fertility
cultivation
Social
status
indicator
Networking
mechanism
Drought
power for
transport
Draught power
for transport
Human
Household
consumption of
milk, meat
Household
consumption of
milk, meat
Social
status
indicator
Drought
power for crop
cultivation
Drought
power for
transport
(esp. Water)
Manure for Provision of

maintaining household
water supplies
soils
fertility
Networking
mechanism
Manure for Household

maintaining consumption of
soil fertility meat
Networking
mechanism
Manure for Household

maintaining consumption of
soil fertility eggs, meat
Source: Perry et al, 2002

The key points characterize the role of livestock for the poor
The poor usually keep more than one species of livestock. Poor households in some
region specialize in a particular species like pastoralists, preferring to diversify into
more than one to take advantage of the different types of roles each species can play,
77

as well as to spread risk, including the risk of disease. Thus, the ability of the poor
to acquire livestock is constrained by the market value by species, which increases as
one moves up the livestock ladder, as roughly approximated by the order of the
species from bottom to top in Table 2.
Each specie has service roles for the house hold and forms assets. From the
development perspective, it typically focuses on livestock keeping in terms of
generating income for the household. Obliviously, poor households often have
multiple objectives in keeping livestock, and some of the most common have been
highlighted in the Table.2
Table -3. Some reproduction traits of Livestock

Character
Indian
Cattle(Bos
indicus)
Temperate
Cattle
(Bos
tarus)
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Horse
Donkey
Camel
Rabbit
10-24
8-12
12-30
4-12
4-12
4-7
12-15
14-16
24-36
2-3
12-15
10-12
15-24
5-10
5-10
5-8
18-24
18-24
36-48
3-4
2.5-4.5
(years)
2-3
(years)
3-4
(years)
12-17
(months)
12-17
(months)
10-14
(months)
4
(years)
4
(years)
4
(years)
4
(months)
Average number of
young per birth
1-2
1-3
4-16
4-12
Average gestation
period(days)
284-288
273-289
301-343
140-160
140-160
110-117
345
365
360369
30
Age at puberty
(female)in months
Age at puberty
(male)in months
Age at first
parturition/ birth
Inerparturition
period(months)
Average live
weight(males)(kgs)
15-24
12-18
15-30
6-12
6-12
6-9
12-18
15-24
18-24
3-4
300-900
700-1000
500-800
25-90
25-90
100-200
500700
150300
450700
2-5
Average live
weight(females)(kgs)
250-500
400-700
300-500
20-60
20-60
100-200
400600
150250
500800
2-4
Dressing out
percentage (carcass)
40-55
50-60
40-47
40-45
40-45
70-80
---
---
40-45
40-45
Source: Agricultural Compendium For Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics
(1989)
78

What should be the species focus of animal?

Give the highest priority to providing small farm families with opportunities for assured and
remunerative market to their livestock produce; small farmers are more concerned with
present trading than future trading (M.S.Swaminathan, The Hindu, June 2-Global food crisis
and Indian Response).
The statement as it is implies to the poor farmers; eventually they lack the purchasing power
and access to mortgage free loans, thus the best option they look for is goods for present
trading.
The livestock and poultry is the best answer. The quick returns from livestock species
particularly from the small animals i.e. sheep, gats, pigs and poultry including rabbits.
There is another concept Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising
Economic Future (1991), National Academies Press, USA in more lucidly follows the same
principle of benefit as that of small animals to small holders. Their list of micro livestock
includes additional of rabbits, Muscovy ducks, guinea fowls, gunny pigs even rats. Some of
the very poor societies as primitive communities those face periodic food security already
have accommodated to such food resources like Muscovy ducks, rats etc.
The strategy is--- small animals with the following traits as highlighted in the table 3 are the
choice for earning family food and income. They are
Age at Puberty: The species of livestock which attains early puberty i.e. poultry, pigs
followed by goat and sheep are vital as they will give rise to next generation offspring in short
period. The trait is highly associated with breed thus attention should be given to breeds of
sheep and goats for the early maturity trait during selection of such species for poor to
improve living standard.
Average gestational length:
The species of livestock that have short
gestation/pregnancy period. The pigs have the shortest followed by sheep and goat. This trait
reduces the waiting period for families and in short period more offspring per female animal is
available at home.
Number of young per birth: The species of livestock that have more young born per
pregnancy or year is most vital trait of all. The pigs give 4-16 piglets per birth that is called
farrowing. There are two farrowings per year. Milk breeds of goat give single kid and mutton
type goats give birth to two to three kids per kidding. Similarly the sheep have some specific
prolific breeds that like goats give 2to 4 lambs per lambing but generally sheep give birth to
single lambs. The goats kid thrice in two years but breeds like Black Bengal kid twice in 14
months also. The pig is the most prolific breeder than others.
Short inter parturition period: The species of livestock that have short inter
parturition period. Many breeds of pigs, goats and few sheep have this trait. This increases the
birth rate in a short period. More frequent is the birth rate and it is coupled with better
survibility more is the income to the family.
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Indigenous poultry mature early, lay two to three clutches of eggs per year and hatch 10-20
chicks per hatch are the most perfect genetics for poor since centuries. They are low input
birds, suitable for backyard free system with auto generating capacity. The profit is high due
to its niche market in most parts of the country. The present rate of Deshi poultry meat costs
about 300 rupees as against broiler meat at Rs.140 per Kg in the market.
On the other hand, in similar footing the broilers as smallholder intensive farming system suits
well to those group of per-urban farmers who have access to market and technical and
financial support. The minimum batch size of birds need to be 2000 and the profit linearly
increases with the increase in number of birds per cycle and maximum of 6 cycles per annum
with birds sold off at 30-40 days of age.
Prolificacy Genetics of Small animals and Poverty reduction
The coastal Orissa is chronic flood prone and faces periodic cyclone. This factor destroys
development as well as normal life of people. Poor are more vulnerable under such situation.
During flood years, the sand and soil of rivers cover the cultivable lands at least for 6 months
to a year until reclamation. Under such situation, historically the small animals for example
the prolific Kuzi and Edega breed of sheep so also the Black Bengal goats (Baigani) of coastal
Orissa from time immemorial have bailed out the small holder families from abject poverty by
proving ready cash in a short period than in other way what so ever and the family recovers
soon from the after effects of the calamities.
The prolificacy in small ruminants is very efficient and effective in regions where feed
availability is assured, in other wards in heavy to moderate rain fall areas. It has limitation in
draught prone areas and dry regions, where the sheep and goat breed are single kidding or
lambing.
A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small animal species than from large
ruminants because of many factors.
The small animals are less expensive to buy.
They are less of a financial risk to the family.
They give a faster return on investment because of higher reproductive capacity and a
fast turn over.
The farmers have flexibility in rotation of species as per his/her livelihood option at
hand.
They provide steady source of income and liquid cash.
They can easily be transported to distant places.
Over all they are efficient scavengers and have the capacity to convert roughages to
human food. On the whole they are zero input animals.
In the past control of diseases of ruminant livestock, particularly cattle were the focus. The
question is this the most appropriate species for impact on the livelihoods of the very poor? In
recent years there has been considerable discussion of the merits of investment in cattle
80

diseases, and the merit of diversifying into other species that are more closely associated with
the poor, such as poultry and small ruminants. The arguments include:
In the more receptive market environments of India, pigs and poultry are much more
important in terms of protein of animal origin for human consumption by the rural
poor, and as a cash crop for local marketing and trade but the pigs have taboo.
The very poor only keep poultry; the less poor also keep small ruminants and
sometimes pigs, and only the better off, in relative terms, keep cattle and buffalo. This
hierarchy of wealth distribution is called livestock wealth ladder.
Furthermore, the poor communities maintain a range of species at home i.e. poultry,
goats, pigs, cattle and buffalo, it is the poultry and small ruminants that provide the
major contribution to cash flow on a weekly basis, but the sale of cattle and buffalo
contribute to the families only under special circumstances.
The poultry industries (and in future the pig industries) in India are changing and
intensifying fast, and present a much better opportunity than ruminants for rapidly
enhancing food production to feed the fast growing human population.
Poultry are the most widely kept species by poor smallholder farmers and thus could
play a much broader role in poverty alleviation than cattle.
Large ruminants serve multiple functions, and make a significant contribution to crop
production for the poor in India through manure, nutrient cycling, traction, as social
status and security etc.
Large ruminants can survive and thrive under difficult circumstances on diets that do
not compete with human food, such as natural resources, pastures and cultivated
forages.
Ruminants in the tropics suffer from specific diseases for which little research is
carried out.
Poultry health related technologies are advance in developed world; this knowledge
has percolated to developing countries.
The livestock as a group play a very important role in the livelihoods of the poor. Also, the
poor tend to keep diverse species of livestock and poultry, thus so spreading their risk, and
optimizing their options both in terms of family nutritional requirements, and in terms of local
market opportunities. The livestock specie distribution with regards to production systemassociated differences as ruminant the dairy cattle in grassland and irrigated land; pigs and
poultry dominant in the peri-urban systems. The mixed farming system is wide spread where
livestock and crops together support family food and livelihood. In it the widest range of
livestock species are found, with different priorities given in different agro-ecology, culture
and the staple diet of the community.
In the mixed farming systems, cattle are important but they have on multiple roles that include
agriculture operations like ploughing, transporting crops, and providing manure as fertilizer to
farmlands and in some cases they provide fuel for cooking.
81

Buffalo are extremely important to the mixed farming systems in India, and are closely linked
to the poor. Sometimes buffaloes are associated with religious ceremonies of various tribal
communities. They are central to rice cultivating communities. In India buffaloes are
emerging as dairy animals of choice.
Goats and sheep are very important component of life to the poor. They are similar to the role
of a cash crop and provide an easily liquidated resource that is used for raising cash. These
species of ruminants are mostly sold in local weekly markets or traders visiting villages. Goats
have a reputation for environmental damage, as they forage on shrubs and small bushes, but
the very positive role they play in recycling and fertilizing ingested seeds is grossly
undervalued (Reid and Ellis, 1995).
Poultry, especially chickens, are the most widely kept species by the poor in the world, and
also the most numerous. They act as a cash crop, easily disposable in village markets. Ducks
also play an important role in east and coastal India.
The role of livestock for the poor
The development of the Sustainable Livelihoods approach has led to an increased interest in
the role and impact of livestock in the livelihoods of the poor. In this approach, livestock are
viewed as a form of financial, social, and natural capital (McLeod and Wilsmore, 2001).
Livestock can furthermore enhance human capital and play a critical role in reducing
malnutrition. These forms and roles are detailed below
Forms of Capital
Financial capital is defined as the financial resources that are available to people
savings, credits, insurance, and pensions, and which provide them with different
livelihood options (Carney, 1998).
Social capital is defined as the features of social organization, such as trust, norms
and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by coordinated actions
(Putnam, 1993).
Enhancement of human capital is here defined as enlarging peoples choices
(Martinussen, 1996) through increased knowledge, income, and empowerment in
terms of decision making.
Livestock are first and foremost financial capital
The livestock forms the primary savings, especially for poor households. It is also an
investment and a means of unique capital growth. The poor generate quick cash through sale
of animals during need.
At the same time besides benefits, livestock rearing is also risky for the poor as because poor
have limited disposable income to purchase inputs and, production risks are greater for the
poorer, especially under the environment where they have no means to control mortality.
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Livestock are also social capital

Livestock are important to social life of communities. Livestock loans and gifts contribute to
social capital relationships.
A study by Woodcock and Narayan (2000) classifies social capital into three types bonding,
bridging, and linking. Bonding social capital is ties between immediate family members,
while bridging social capital refers to weaker relations between persons of differing
geographic, ethnicity or occupations. Linking social capital describes the relationships
between poor people and formal institutions such as NGOs or governments. For example, in
many poor households, livestock may be shared or loaned between relatives and friends or
reared for absentee owners (Beck, 1994; Heffernan and Misturelli, 2000). These arrangements
can vary widely from straightforward rental agreements to more complex loan arrangements
whose duration of payback may be inter-generational. Animals may also be given as gifts, and
in this manner, livestock can help cement social networks and community-level obligations
for the involved households (Lesorogol, 2002)
The dowry and bride price in many societies of Orissa are paid in livestock and livestock are
often given in direct response to the emergency needs of friends and relatives.
Livestock can maintain the natural capital
Integration of livestock with crop production in mixed farming enhance the sustainability of
the farming system as because it provides drought power, improves soil fertility through
application of animal manure , and increases the productivity and income possibilities for the
poor household, along with the ability to purchase farming inputs through sale of small
ruminants.
The efforts in the past in India to alleviate poverty were through 20 point programme where
asset building in livestock farmers was one of the popular strategies. The whole programme
was built on milch cattle distribution followed by working bullock gifts. There is now general
agreement that measures targeted directly at the poor are those most likely to impact poverty
alleviation (Randhawa and Sundaram, 1990; UNDP, 1997), although this view is not
universally held. Recently the World Bank (2001) contributed to this process by
recommending action in three areas.
The building of assets of poor and thereby increase their economic opportunities is the central
theme advocated by many thinkers. This will connect them to market and non-market actions.
A structured approach in National Dairy Development with targeting of the Smallholder
women farmers in the foot prints of Amul dairy Gujarat was initially envisaged, but in due
course it became a top down approach with in the organizational structure of the co-operatives
in India with limited but some results is opined by many The success of co-operatives requires
sustained efforts due to its inherent social behavior embed in it.
Facilitating empowerment: making state institutions more accountable and responsive
to poor people. The concept was initiated with small likeminded groups of people to
come together and think at a forum to improve living standard. Thus came
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Self Help Groups that started taking shape since 80s in South India and then it got its root in
North India in particular from Rajasthan state and by 2000 it got its up scaling almost in all
states. These institutions are working in sustainable form especially led by women. Small
ruminants rearing, piggery etc are core to SHGs in many states as a livelihood initiative.
Enhancing security: reducing poor peoples vulnerability to ill health of livestock,
economic shocks, crop failures etc.
Poor and very poor are to be seen in locations with high illiteracy, isolated belts in forests, on
hills and places where periodic natural calamities strike. The economic exploitation became
unbearable and highest number of farmers suicide appeared from Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra states where they witnessed high growth and industrialization. These are the
states where GDP was superior to others.
In recent years, the policies and strategies are directed directly at the poor like Food Right
Bills with sustainable food and financial assistances in poverty zones have been initiated by
the Indian government.
Traditionally, Livestock form a component of the livelihoods. The animal diseases are of daily
concern to these people, as the animals of the poor are highly vulnerable to disease. Poor and
very poor are tempted to buy sick animals from market at least price especially during distress
sale of livestock in the face of out-breaks and bring home to eat it. These sick and infected
animals do contribute to spread of infectious diseases. It is common in Newcastles disease in
poultry and also the PPR in small ruminants. It may be due to many reasons, including
illiteracy, lack of knowledge to modern farming, and lack of access to-and resources foranimal health and production inputs and services as well as the market. The markets if they
operate are middlemen market where farmer is the price taker but not price maker.
Furthermore, poor farmers usually have few animals, so the loss of an individual animal has
proportionally greater significance but due to their broad specie base at home they still save
themselves from total losses and shock. This is with the sedentary Traditional farmers but the
pastoralists who generally have single specie farming are the worst suffers from disease
outbreaks. They also have few reserves on which to survive during lean times, and that they
use for recovery.
Most poor especially the tribals in central India keep poultry and small ruminants in bed room
during night that is what they value them in their life- a most valuable asset?
These do provide a picture of the relative importance of livestock to poor people.
The above do give a clear picture about the importance of livestock to the poor. It is well
established that livestock is very important in the life of the poor. The focus should be on
opportunity to enhance security from the high risk diseases of livestock, that impact
livestock productivity and human health ; and will have direct and major impacts on poverty
alleviation of the poor. The small animals including backyard poultry should be the focus to
alleviate poverty. The next issue is to improve the productivity of small animals. The women
are the most vulnerable in poor communities and they should be focused in the pursuance of
alleviating poverty and safety net should be in their hand.
84

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Heffernan and Sidahmed, 1998 Heffernan C. 2000. The socio-economic impact of
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of Reading, Reading, UK. 62 pp.
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Preliminary findings from Kenya. Report for DFIDs (Department for International
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and Economics Research Unit), The University of Reading, Reading, UK. 81 pp.
Heffernan C. and Sidahmed A. 1998. The delivery of veterinary services to the rural
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Livestock Services, 12 June 1998, University of Reading, Reading, UK. 19 pp.
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86

LIVESTOCK DISEASES AND POOR

Das Kornel
Diseases are highly associated to both animals and poor under poverty setup throughout the
globe and India is no exception. Livestock contribute in very wide ways to the livelihoods of
rural poor thus healthy livestock offer an important pathway out of poverty to the poor. A
policy with livestock as livelihood focus is most essential to build a happy society.
Animal diseases continue to constrain livestock productivity, and poverty alleviation in many
regions of India. There are some diseases of livestock that impact poor communities. Equally,
there are many common diseases that affect the particular species of livestock and thus are of
special importance to poor with regards to security, as financial and social capital as well as
important segment in earning livelihood for the family is associated.
Small animal focus for poor
It is imperative that in future there shall be increased focus on small livestock including
Backyard poultry that is owned by majority of rural poor in India. However, there should also
be increased focus in products and processes adapted to the delivery and marketing system of
the poor in order to relive them from the exploitation in market place. The long shelf-life
products such as dried meat, household processing of milk like butter and ghee, curd, and
chenna should be promoted and supported in the form of cottage industry.
Livestock as an important asset to the poor is well established. The focus to promote enhanced
security on priority from the high risk diseases of livestock that impact livestock productivity
and human health of poor has direct and major impacts on poverty alleviation. This has been
observed in ILDP, Koraput and many other studies.
The priority-setting in livestock health research specifically to target the diseases that impact
poor livestock producer in order to alleviate poverty is a recent concept and many are not thus
aware of it. In the past, Governments had priority in controlling disease as routine welfare
measure through Veterinary Departments; but in recent years ,in order to improve the
livelihood of poor more specifically through targeting the diseases that causes heavy losses to
the poor is being tried on pilot projects is most welcome.
There is inadequate reporting and recording of data on disease occurrence in the country as
the superiors discourage disease and out-break recording as inefficiency of the concerned area
in-charge. So far mostly the media reporting has been the monitoring tool in controlling
disease out breaks. For example, New Castle Disease is endemic in rural India where
backyard poultry exists but the government reports indicates only couple of disease outbreak
in a given year. The diseases in isolated areas and where poor live did not gain attention of
media and the inadequate reporting could not give a clear view of the problem and its
dimension.
The public sector is well developed for the detection and monitoring of diseases under
national policy surveillances for example the Rinderpest disease eradication from India. The
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private sector dominant poultry development has its own disease monitoring and control
system that is robust and is efficient in using the public sector for their development; for
example the recent Bird-flu in India. So on the whole the disease reporting system for poor
livestock owners need to be the future priority and the process of data collection and disease
diagnosis need to be modernized.
In order to improve the living standard of rural poor, as said above in future the focus should
be on small ruminants (sheep and goat) and smallholder pigs and backyard poultry sector.
Within these areas the focus should be on disease control that is by using simple new
technologies as new vaccines and broad spectrum cheap anthemintics to control internal
parasites.
Livestock Services and Poor
Livestock Services at the door step
The Livestock Services should reach the doorstep of the farmers. This role has been played by
the public sector so long and the right time has come to redefine the duties and responsibilities
of the new coming private sector and the public sector for an efficient service delivery system.
It is vital that the community institutions, small private enterprises, and producer
organizations need to be empowered as they shall play most important role in the service
delivery and they will be vital tools in the poverty alleviation process.
Easily accessible animal health services
The NGOs and Cooperatives in India can play important role in providing animal health
services to serve poor livestock keepers along with the public service. The conventional
veterinary services of the public sector are not economically viable in marginal areas, it is
necessary to further strengthen low-cost systems. Community Animal Health Workers
(CAHWs) or Community Link Workers (CLWs) systems are examples of such and are
presently being implemented in many areas more especially in Donor aided programmees. As
of now more learning are available for establishment of future sustainable institution building.
Preventive medicine and vaccine systems can play very vital role in the community setting for
the poor livestock keepers.
With regard to animal health and impact of specific diseases on poor households has come to
light from the works of ILRI, Africa and DANID Livestock projects in India. GALVmed has
played very crucial role to fix chronic problems of poor livestock keepers in Africa and SouthEast Asia through sustained efforts in new research in animal health and project
implementation in the sphere in recent years.
Bottlenecks in Livestock Health Services and Technologies
Poor livestock farmers in rural and backward areas have their inability to contain livestock
and poultry diseases in sustainable mode. They lack awareness. Secondly, services not
readily available in villages. Appropriate products not available as there is also research gap
and needed appropriate technologies yet to be developed. As most of the livestock vaccines
are cold chain dependent, inability to provide equipments for cold chain along with electricity
supply has been the major constraint in supply chain maintenance and so the service to the
poor. On summing up, there are two type of constraint observed in the service delivery i.e.
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supply chain constraint and cold chain constraint. This is very pronounced under rural poor
environment. Major medicine and vaccine supply is affected through a large chain of medical
stores in India. The Human medicine and veterinary medicine are sold by the same medical
shop. The medical shops are privately owned and are extended up to block and sometimes to
large village level where doctors are available and prescribe medicines. But in backward
districts and in area where majority are poor the medicine shops limit up to block level and
they do not sale veterinary medicines and vaccines. This constrains the supply chain.
Moreover, it is very cumbersome process to obtain license to start a medical shop. This
constrains the supply chain.
Research opportunities and Livestock health
Research to play vital role in containing livestock diseases benefiting the poor can be
achieved through breakthrough in basic science as that of making oral, eye drops or
thermostable vaccine preparation or that of generating new technologies or using the existing
technologies. There is opportunity to do research in preparing single dose multiple livestock
and poultry diseases vaccines in order to reduce frequent visit to farmers door and thus save
time and resources and become efficient.
Village and Community perspective of Livestock Disease research priorities
The following elements are vital from the point of containing livestock diseases in rural poor.
Vaccines and Cold chain
Vaccine and pharmaceuticals supply chain
Diagnostics and Laboratories
Therapy and Veterinary Institutions
Service Delivery and technologies.
Others (Such as vector control, genetics of disease resistance etc.)
Epidemiology and economics, monitoring & evaluation(impact assessment)
Research
The research priority of the sector is as following:
Role of Disease experts in setting research priorities
It is essential that research needs are to be evaluated through consultation with
international/national level leading experts and thus fix the research priorities for a given
disease. These can be done through electronic media. The information required on the
prioritised disease identity about the cost, time frame, probability of success and constrains in
technology.
Ranking livestock and poultry diseases constraints by their impact on the poor is sufficient to
identify animal health research priorities for alleviating poverty. It is very essential that the
diseases that impact the poor and have constraints in containing it to be priortised so that
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potential opportunities for research to contain the disease can be built on. The following
approach can be used to collect the information
Disease resistance
Genetics of disease resistance has been going on in particular in mastitis and external and
internal parasites and diseases. It has been reported and observed by the present authors that
small ruminants in undivided Koraput districts even in most of the Tribal dominant districts of
Orissa and Chhattisgarh have never been dewormed by anthelmintic so it is concluded that
they are registrant to most worm infestations. A specific review of the role of research into the
genetics of resistance to disease was commissioned from J. Gibson, ILRI (Gibson, 2002).
Diseases
Types of diseases
The diseases in livestock and poultry are classified in four general groups of diseases: the
endemic, the epidemic (or transboundary), the zoonotic and the food-borne (Perry et al.,
2001).
Endemic diseases including the vector-borne blood parasitic diseases like babesiosis,
theileriasis, anoplasma, the gastro-intestinal parasitic diseases, and the bacterial and viral
among many others. They are further into those that are tropical and those that are
temperate. Most of the endemic diseases that still occur today in the tropical regions of
the world represent one of significance to improving production efficiency there, and as a
result many effective control technologies are not available or under development through
support from the public sectors of the developing world like India . The available
technologies from temperate world are not widely applied in much of the developing
world as the diseases differ.
Much less attention has been invested in the tropical group of endemic diseases, for
which effective control technologies appropriate for the majority of poor livestock farmers
in the developing world are still lacking.
Endemic diseases tend to exert greatest effect at the family farm, village level, and at the
end this is felt at the national-level losses.
Epidemic diseases occur at a frequency, are highly infectious and influence at both family
farm and national level on local marketing and international trade. This group includes the
virus infections of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), Classical Swine Fever,
Newcastle/Ranikhet disease (ND), Bird Flu and Petis de Pestis in ruminants (PPR), among
others. Most epidemic diseases cause devastating to the poor, by wiping out their entire
livestock of one or many species of animals. They are potentially explosive in nature, and
tend to cross large geographical area and the need arises to protect valuable commercial
livestock production systems and/or markets, thus public sector involvement in their
control is common. This is particularly the case where lucrative export markets exist, like
poultry in India and the country is trying to protect an existing or potential market. This
was witnessed in recent Bird-Flu epidemic in some states of India.
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Zoonotic diseases does cause significant productivity losses in livestock, but they impact
human health causing diseases and suffering. They can be characterised as endemic, like
many of the meat-borne helminth zoonoses, brucellosis and tuberculosis, and some are
epidemic in nature, such as rabies and anthrax. This has never been on priority list of
diseases of importance, and neglect has appeared. But due to their adverse impact to poor
livestock farmers there is a strong argument that better zoonotic disease control should be
considered on a research agenda. And that includes Brucellosis in cattle, buffaloes and
small ruminants, meat borne helminth zoonoses (cysticercosis), anthrax etc.
Food-borne diseases such as cysticercosis, tape worms in GI tract due to pork and beef
and trichinellosis are particular problems to the poor due to their ignorance and short of
knowledge, poor hygiene and sanitation, and inadequate cooking of animal products. In
addition, infections caused by Escherichia coli and Salmonella species, are particular
problems in more commercialized systems of the world and India, and thus their incidence
is likely to increase. Food- borne diseases affect the whole lot of food chain like
consumers, food processing workers and livestock producers.
Animal Diseases and Rural India
Livestock and poultry diseases in endemic state are present in many communities and can
only be eliminated with very intensive efforts and appropriate plans. India has achieved the
total eradication of Rinderpest from the country through EU support. This requires
National/State plans and fund with research support. Thus the target initially is the control of
the disease than eradication.
Gastro intestinal (GI) parasites and some of the viral diseases in small livestock and
poultry are found in endemic state in India.
The most common epidemic diseases are infectious in nature. They are mostly inflicting
losses in sheep and goat. They are Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), Contagious Pleuro
Pneumonia, Sheep and Goat pox, contagious ecthyma and Enter toxemia (ET).
In the Backyard chicken they are Ranikhet Disease or New Castle Disease and Fowl Pox
also Fowl cholera
In ducks they are Duck cholera and Duck plague.
In pigs they are Classical Swine fever, the most serious viral infectious disease
The animals of the poor are particularly vulnerable to disease so they are of daily concern to
these communities. Poor and very poor are always tempted to buy sick animals from the
market during distress sale in the face of out-breaks because of least price during the period
and bring home for food. These sick and infected animals in turn contribute to the spread of
infectious diseases in the villages. This is commonly observed during out breaks of PPR and
Ranikhet Disease.
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Disease and Its impacts

Livestock diseases generate a wide range of socio-economic impacts that may be both direct
and indirect. In recent years Bird-Flu and in the past the Rinderpest has shown the vast socioeconomic impacts in India is worth remembering.
Impact of disease
The disease impacts are due to morbidity rate and the final mortality. The morbidity leads to
the production loss and morbidity rate is the total losses from a given disease.
Loss of Livestock productivity
The measurable direct effects of diseases are manifest by losses in productivity that includes
the loss from death, illness leading to elimination of the animal, poor body weight gain,
poor milk and egg yield, poor feed conversion, poor reproductive performance and poor
work capacity for ploughing or transport. Recovering losses of productivity from diseases
is difficult and long-term at the smallholder, with its limited resources it is extremely
difficult and worrysome.Some of the causes of poor productivity in the livestock of the
poor are like after recovery from FMD, chronic diarrhea in calves, ketosis and acute
mastitis affected cows etc.
Treatment costs. Under an ideal situation if appropriate veterinary technology is available to
the farmers the treatment cost to sick livestock is very high under the prevailing market.
The treatment costs and subsequent production loss from sick livestock burdens the poor
farmers. But often animal health care services are of poor quality and the treatment is not
applied correctly.
Loss of Farm productivity. The diseases of livestock have indirect impact on farm
productivity. This impact is often highly under-estimated. In mixed farming systems in
which cattle and buffalo are used for ploughing and other traction or transport functions,
diseases that cause lameness, such as FMD, have a major impact particularly in peak
agriculture seasons, whereas in pastoralist systems diseases causing lameness have
serious consequence and valuable animals are culled and sold.
Reduced market opportunities for Poor. Outbreaks of infectious diseases in a
community or a region results in local market disruptions. They face drastically depressed
prices. This often happens due to ND, PPR and goat scabies. The mere occurrence of
certain diseases can also severely constrain cross-border and other international trade, and
is most commonly associated with the highly infectious diseases such as FMD, PPR, and
Bird-Flu etc. The restriction of international trade, market restrictions and Mass-culling of
livestock and poultry affect both the larger-scale commercial sector, the smallholders,
employment sector and other allied sectors.
Impact of Zoonotic diseases. Illness in people associated with zoonotic and food-borne
diseases leads to losses of life, human productivity days as well as costs incurred for
treatment. This has serious consequence on livestock production due to panic behaviour
of the consumers in the market, middleman exploit the market. Sometimes it takes
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political toll like out-break of anthrax and contaminated milk (recent milk processing
failures in China) and international markets etc. brucellosis and Cysticercosis in human
being have significant effect on health.
Livestock Diseases and Human welfare. Diseases of livestock have many additional
direct and indirect impacts on human nutrition, community development and sociocultural values (e.g. Curry et al., 1996). Livestock disease do significantly reduce farm
income, contributing to food insecurity and poor nutrition. In recent years some states in
India like Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and some others have experienced Japanese
Encephalitis in human beings in epidemic proportion; the pigs are considered to be the
reservoir host to the infection. Under the situation Andhra Pradesh resorted to destruction
of urban pig population to control the Japanese encephalitis thus the state adopted anti-pig
development policy. The lesson learned is that zoonotic diseases can in future be very
important and it may harm significantly some species of livestock and consequently there
can loss of some valuable food resources and security. This will mostly be the species of
livestock reared by poor due to their lack of voice in political arena. Outbreaks of
classical swine fever is very common in India and the poor farming community face the
burn frequently and express their inability to combat it very sadly.
Livestock Diseases and Its Impact
The threat of the diseases in a given locality or community induces significant impact. The
cost for disease preventive measures in order to reduce economic losses adds to higher
production costs and this also increase the public expenditures. These are prophylactic
control strategies and monitoring and surveillance programs.
The fear of disease risk, impact the changes in behaviour or management that lead to suboptimal production systems. At the extreme, disease risk may limit the use of susceptible
species or high-productivity breeds. The commercial sector of poultry or livestock is the most
affected under the circumstance as the loss is heavy and burden on the producer. Similarly, the
impact of FMD is high on exotic dairy cattle than the local cattle and buffaloes. This
economic losses thus occurring in the face of the risk is often referred to as 'lost potential'
since farmers get discouraged from keeping exotic cattle or trying dairy production, that
which might have offered substantial financial rewards.
Disease control measures and Its Impact
Disease control efforts are undertaken to reduce the various impacts of diseases. In doing so,
disease control may bring about other unintended impacts. Under zero disease control
measures at place, especially in areas with primitive tribal societies where modern knowledge
has made no impact, families tend to keep few animals from each of the species. This is to
reduce the total losses from any single or two diseases outbreak in a given period. Under ND
threat environment 50-60% of households keep poultry at home and once the threat perception
is reduced through effective vaccination the household keeping poultry touches 90% and
above in a village (Kornel, 2006). It should be stressed, however, that Newcastle disease and
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PPR also in former years the Rinderpest are

the diseases that so clearly limited the
geographical extent of livestock production, and also generate identifiable negative impacts.
The localized negative impact in livestock and poultry is attributed to poor implementation of
disease control measures. Improper use of antibiotics and anthelmintics to control infection
and parasites may lead to drug resistance and environmental pollution; this has amply been
demonstrated in Australia and elsewhere. Ivermectin, an effective anti-parasitic drug in
livestock has shown long duration of activity even in the excreta of treated animals.
Poor People
Poor and the risk from Livestock Diseases
The various types of livestock disease and their impact as discussed above are all most likely
to be greater for the poor. This calls for attention and focus. The poor face more livestock
disease risk and have proportionally less capacity mechanism to cope with that risk than the
better-off, and this phenomena yet further reduces their chances of escaping poverty.
Sources of risk
The sources of risk are mostly related to short-term shocks and epidemic and zoonotic
diseases but they fail to reflect the impact due to chronic long-term risk because of endemic
diseases. There are also certain trends, such as increasing movement of livestock due to
weaker section strengthening programmes, rising of livestock population in peri-urban areas,
and the decline as well as inadequate public veterinary services.
The Risk and degree of Exposure
The poor in the India face high risk from livestock disease. It is due to incidences of many
type of diseases in the livestock population. Much of the India states come under tropical and
subtropical regions, where climates and soil favour a wide range of parasitic infections and
infestations, many of which do not occur in dry climate zones so also the temperate regions.
The parasitic disease incidence is very high in humid areas of heavy rainfall zones and even in
the irrigated belts.
Unrestricted movement of livestock for marketing, along with social reasons between
many regions, promotes and enhances the spread of certain diseases. The PPR, in the
past the Rinderpest and poultry diseases like New Castle disease get the boost to spread
and increase the risk to poor under unrestricted movement of animal marketing.
Livestock production systems of the poor further enhance the risk of disease through
factors as poor housing, multiple species and poor nutrition. Most of the poor tribal
communities in Central India keep their poultry and also goat inside their bed room.
This implies how much they care their livestock assets in their life. This thus warns of
risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases so also the increased risk of Bird Flu virus
94

transmission to people. However multiple species husbandry system reduces the impact
from epidemic diseases in many traditional farming systems.
Does the poor have lesser disease control opportunity? In many cases, appropriate
control technologies do not exist, in part because Governments do not even consider
funding research into the control of livestock diseases affecting poor at the same time
the Research institute does not have special focus on animal diseases impacting poor.
Research is somehow focusing the commercial sector.
Even if the appropriate technology exists, animal health services in many states
particularly the backward states and even the backward districts in better-off states due
to infrastructural, logistic restrictions, often do not permit the optimal delivery and
adoption of known disease control measures. The Veterinary institutions in poor
localities lie vacant due to unwilling staff and high vacancy.
Bulk of the poor delivery is by the fact that markets for livestock health inputs like
vaccines and pharmaceuticals are cold chain dependent and expensive given the low
incomes of the majority of the populations. This is of particular significance for the very
poor, who live Below Poverty Line, and whose purchasing power is considered
insignificant by the pharmaceutical industries. This has two dimensions; one is to reach
the poor, thus make an efficient service delivery system that can reach out to make
available products for the control of priority diseases and the poor can afford it. And
second issue is to persuade the public research system and pharmaceutical companies to
invest in the development of new products whose major clients are the poor. Under
Indian condition the market for vaccines and pharmaceuticals is very vast but the poor
supply chain along with ineffective cold chain is the main constraint. About 95 % of the
poor farmer pay service charge when charged by government. Even the packs of
vaccines for poultry like Fowl pox and ND are designed for Commercial farms where as
the small hamlets in rural India require small doses of vaccines like 50 and 100 dose
packs. Of recent the vaccine manufactures in India have introduced small packs 25
doses, 50 doses and 100 doses of PPR vaccine. This is most useful and loss from unused
vaccine is totally reduced.
The traditional system of livestock production is fast evolving to new commercial
systems because of rapid human population growth and changes in the demands for
livestock products. The peri-urban dairies have emerged out as major producers of milk
in many states along with the growth and demand of the market; so also the peri-urban
broiler production units. Now the need is to consider how best the endemic livestock
diseases can be controlled with an effective service delivery system that is mostly
controlled by smallholders.
Less Risk bearing capacity
Poor are exposed to multiple risks in livestock production and livelihood pursuits and life; but
they have less capacity to cope. In due course poor tend to be more risk-averse and thus less
likely to adapt preventive disease technologies of livestock. Poor have fewer options to
mange crisis due to poor income and less asset to use, thus they are less resilient to shocks and
95

recover very slow. Livestock diseases are particularly hard for the poor since they are
challenged with less option of assets at hand to deal with other shocks. But in recent years
Self Help Groups are acting as efficient safety net to the poor in India and this risk bearing
capacity is increasing.
Poor have much lower capacity to impress Governments to attend to their critical needslow
political empowerment of the poor.
Frameworks for understanding disease impacts on the poor
Vulnerability context
The risks from livestock diseases to the poor are both direct and indirect. The vulnerability
context represents the environment in which the poor live, and the risk that they face.
Household assets
Within the livelihoods framework, the impact of animal disease can threaten each of the five
types of household assets.
Financial capital: Livestock mortality and morbidity reduce both income flows by cutting
output, and the loss from the assets. The diseases like ND cause total loss of poultry in a
given village and this profoundly affects the food resource to the family and income to
the women. PPR in sheep and goat has similar consequences so also the Swine fever in
pigs.
Human capital: Zoonoses and food-borne diseases affect the poor, mostly the sheep and
goat farmers. This impact is profoundly seen in regions of north India where brucellosis is
common. Poor suffer chronically from the pathology of brucellosis and it hampers their
life and living. Periodical anthrax outbreak in certain part of India like Orissa is witnessed
causing livestock mortality so also some human loss. These communities are so poor that
they consume the beef from the dead animals. During ND out breaks in poultry many
poor tribal community dry the strips of poultry meat in the open and it is so badly
unhygienic that one cannot imagine how these are consumed. These are the compulsion
of poverty and animal disease consequences.
Physical capital: As said above the FMD and Black Quarter and HS have profound affect on
poor livelihood. If the FMD outbreak occurs in agriculture season then the lameness among
bullocks prevents the use of bullock in the field. This affects the livelihood seriously.
If the following diseases are controlled in small animals i.e. Backyard poultry, sheep, goats
and pigs the poor people will be highly benefit from it and their family income will rise. It is
estimated in this study that 60% of the total family expenditure can be met from the small
animal income endeavor. This will reduce the poverty level significantly.
96

Back yard Poultry

Ranikhet Disease (Newcastle Disease)
Fowl pox
Anthelmintics (Deworming medicines) for Helminthes and Cestodes Ducks
Duck plague ,
Duck Cholera
Duck Hepatitis
Anthelmintic (Deworming medicines) for Helminthes Sheep and Goat
Peste des petits in ruminants (PPR) Sheep & Goat Pox Enterotoxaemia
Anthelmintic (Deworming medicines) for Helminthes and Trematodes
Pigs
Classical Swine Fever
Anthelmintic (Deworming medicines) for Helminthes and Cestodes
97

References
Gibson, J.P. (2002) Appendix 13, Role of genetically determined resistance of
livestock disease in the developing world: Potential impacts and researchable
issues. In Perry et al. Ibid.
Perry, B.D., Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. and Thornton, P.K.
(2002) Investing in Animal Health Research to Alleviate Poverty. International
Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
98

POVERTY LIVESTOCK REVOLUTION AND INDIA

Das Kornel
India is a growing economy and in recent years it has registered good growth as evident from
the GDP (6.9% in 2010-14). It was postulated that good growth will also influence the life of
poor through creating market and employment opportunities. This is partly true but in
practical it is seen that the majority of the poor living in backward areas are left untouched
with serious proportion of poverty.
People living in poverty have been identified with different criteria. The Suresh Tendulkar
Committee(2009-2010) set up by the Planning Commission has shown that about 37 per cent
of Indians live in poverty as compared with the officially estimates of 27.5 per cent.
The 1992-97 report, indicated income up to Rs 11,000/ per annum per family to be the
criterion for identification of Below Poverty Line (BPL) families; however during 1997-2000
it was raised to Rs 20,000 (not having more than 2 hac. of land, TV, Fridge, Motorcycle
etc).The 2005 report indicates, a sum of Rs. 36,000/ as consumption per annum per family to
be the upper limit for identification of BPL families. This is as per the Government of India,
Rural Ministry notification. There are other estimates based on caloric intake to identify
families with Below Poverty Line. However, the fact that the nominal expenditure of those
who were seen as being at or below the poverty line was low in the rural areas, where it stood
at Rs.356.30 per month or around Rs. 12 per day in 2004-05.
Estimates of Poverty line for 2011-12
For 2011-12, for rural areas the national poverty line using the Tendulkar methodology is
estimated at Rs. 816 per capita per month and Rs. 1,000 per capita per month in urban areas.
These figures for Orissa are Rs 695 and Rs 861 respectively for the same period against rural
and urban area.
Thus, for a family of five, the all India poverty line in terms of consumption expenditure
would amount to about Rs. 4,080 per month in rural areas and Rs. 5,000 per month in urban
areas.
These poverty lines would vary from State to State because of inter-state price differentials.
The national level poverty ratio based on comparable methodology (Tendulkar Method) for
1993-94, 2004-05 and 2011-12 estimated from Large Sample Survey of Household
Consumer.
Expenditure data of 50th, 61st and 68th round respectively are given below.
Poverty ratio in percentage for 1993-94: It was 50.1 % in rural areas, 31.8% in urban areas
and 45.3 % for the country.
The above figures for 2004-05: It was 41.8% and 25% for rural and urban areas, respectively
and 37.2% for the country.
99

Poverty ratio in percentage for 2011-12 was: It was 25.7% in rural areas, 13.7% in urban area
and 21.9% for the country as whole, where as in Orissa it was 35.69% for rural area and
17.29% in urban and 32.59% for total.
In 2011-12, India had 270 million persons below the Tendulkar Poverty Line as compared to
407 million in 2004-05, that is a reduction of 137 million persons over the seven year period.
During the 11-year period 1993-94 to 2004-05, the average decline in the poverty ratio was
0.74 percentage points per year. It accelerated to 2.18 percentage points per year during the 7year period 2004-05 to 2011-12.
Table-1 Estimates of Poverty in the ILDProject, Koraput villages during 1992-96
&1997-2000
BPL
Non_project
Sl.
Year
BPL limits Project Estimated BPL
familie
No.
aver.
Family familie Village
s(%) in
income/Expenditure s(%) in Family
Nonincome
ILDP
ILDP
villages estimate
villages
1.
1992-1976
Rs 11,000
1997-2000
Rs 20,000
2005
Rs. 36,000
85%
Rs.16.500+Rs.
2,918/- (2000-2002)
64%
85%
Rs.12,500
85%
A study was undertaken by Nirmala et al. (2000) in sample villages of ILD Project in Koraput
to estimate family income / expenditure. The non-ILDP villages served as control in the study.
This study was after 4 years of inception of the project in the villages. It was found that the
number of households below poverty was 64 percent in project villages against 85 percent in
non-project villages. If, the share of SHG savings and grant is considered the percentage of
BPL shall fall below 40-45% level in project villages.
The annual household income in an average project village is Rs.16.500/- against
Rs.12,500/- in non-project villages (2000AD). Additionally, during October 2002, on an
average each SHG family had Rs. 2,918/- share and during April 2003 they had
Rs.
3805/-. This was not included for calculating the reduction in number of families Below
Poverty Line.
Livestock Revolution
Delgado et al. (1999) first advocated the theory of Livestock Revolution in their publication
Livestock to 2020The next Food Revolution They advocated that the population growth,
urbanization and income growth especially the middle income level are fueling massive
increase in demand for food of livestock and poultry origin. This present trend in livestock
production worldwide is called Livestock Revolution and is driven by demand unlike the
agriculture revolution driven by supply. It is a revolution caused not by new science but by
market demand.
100

Livestock Sector in India

Livestock sector in India is one of the largest in World. It has 56.7% of Worlds buffaloes,
12.5% cattle, 20.4% small ruminants, 2.4% camel,1.5% pigs and 3.1 % poultry.
In 2010-11 livestock generated Rs. 2075 billion (at 2004-05 prices) which was 4% of the GDP
and 26% of the Agriculture GDP. The total output worth was higher than the value of food
grains.
Livestock sector grew at an annual rate of 5.3% during 1980s, 3.9% during 1990s and 3.6%
during 2000s.
The livestock distribution is more equitable compared to land in India. In 2003, the marginal
farm households having less than one hectare of land were 48% of the total rural households
having more than half of the Countrys cattle and buffaloes, two-thirds of small ruminants(
goat and sheep) and pigs as well as poultry as against their share of 24 % in land holdings.
Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households as against an average of
14% for all rural households. This figure does vary from state to state. Livestock meets about
40-60 % of the total income in tribal belts of Orissa.
Milk production increased from around 20 million tons in 1960s to 127.9 million tons in
2011-12. It grew at an annual rate of 4.4% for 1990s and 3.8% during 2000s. The per capita
availability of milk has increased from 128 g/day in 1980-81 to 290g/day in 1990-01 and
299g/day in 2012. This is comparable with the World per capita given availability of milk at
289.31 g/day for 2011. In the dairy sector India tops the milk producer list globally; during
2012-13 India produced 132.43 million tones (MT) of milk. This trend in the livestock sector
is known as Livestock Revolution that India is experiencing from last decade (Economy
Survey of India 2014).
Small animals provide livelihood support to the landless and poor sections and hold much
needed potentiality of commercialization. The sheep population has remained stable and
has40 million kgs wool annually. Goats have grown faster than any of the livestock spices i.e.
14.52 % for 1997-2007 period. They are the major source for meat supply in India.
During 2007, there were 140.54 million goats in India and 71.56 million sheep.
The Back Yard Poultry has grown at the rate of 2 % annually. This is mostly due to infectious
diseases losses in rural India. Per capita availability of eggs in 2000 AD was 28 numbers and
is around 55 per year during 2011-12. This is below the ICMR recommendations.
Indian poultry is growing at the rate of 11% for commercial broilers and 7% for layers and
this is the highest growth rate reported in any of the development sectors in India. India is the
second largest egg producer in the World with an estimate of 65,000 million eggs per year,
equally it is the third largest broiler chicken producer in the World with 3.8 million of tone of
chicken meat per year.( www. Icra.in/Files/ticker/SH-2013-ICRA_poultry pdf)
101

Livestock Revolution and India

During 2000-2001 the contribution of animal husbandry and dairying to total gross domestic
product (GDP) was 5.9 percent. The overall growth rate in the livestock sector was around 4.5
percent. During 2000-01, besides 81 million tones of milk, the livestock sector contributed
32.4 billion eggs, 47.6 million kgs of wool, and 4.7 million tones of meat. An important
feature of meat production in the country is that, in recent years, poultry production ranging
between 5.8 to 7.0 million tones has exceeded goat meat production ranging between 4.7 o 6.0
million tones. It is estimated that about 18 million people are employed in the livestock sector
in principal or subsidiary status. (indiabudget.nic.in/survey.asp) (Union Budget and Economic
Survey of India Reports).
The livestock sector achieved an average growth rate of 4.8 per cent during the Eleventh Five
Year Plan. In 2011-12, the production of milk was estimated at 127.9 million tones, eggs at
66.45billion numbers, wool at 44.73 million kg, and meat at 5.51 million tones. The Livestock
Census (2007) has placed total livestock population at 529.7 million and poultry birds at 648.8
million. India ranks first in the world in milk production, which has gone up from 53.9 million
tons in 1990-1 to 127.9 million tons in 2011-12.
However the poverty in India is still a burning serious issue, more especially in some states
and in specific pockets. The food security of these poor is an important issue to be reckon
with. They are deprived and suffer from malnutrition and misery. The above statistics does
not fit to them.
Is Indian Livestock Revolution reaching the Poor?
Delgado et al. (loc.cit) further argued that the livestock revolution might be good for the poor.
The projection is based on the assumption that it will be easier for the poor to improve their
income when the overall pie is growing in a sector where they already have a major stake,
intensification might provide economically viable alternatives for their labour other than just
crops.
The livestock revolution is beneficial to people above middle income level as they have better
purchasing power in the market than poor.
There is the popular opinion that this new market demand shall be an opportunity in favour of
large commercial farmers who can meet the demand by supply of uniform products and with
value addition along with competitive price tags gainfully. The strategy to meet the new
demand thus created through the commercial farming sector alone shall be very harmful to the
livelihood of large section of the small holder farming families. It will increase environmental
pressure, competition with human food and excessive use of energy and water resources and
finally it will end up with social inequality.
There is also opinion that the poor can take up this opportunity and improve their livelihood
equally. However, this demand can well be met by both commercial farming system and small
102

holder farming families, on balanced format. In other words the Mass production by the
Masses is appropriate in this context with space to commercial production.
The livestock revolution can provide tremendous opportunities to relive poverty and hunger
and could increase the ability of millions of poor people to move out of subsistence and to join
the market economy. This has been amply demonstrated in this study that the poor farmers do
benefit from the livestock revolution as the price tag of small animal products has risen
proportionately and lucrative niche market exists (Table-2). The small ruminants are
exclusively with the poor and they face no completion with commercial farming sector in
India as the former is total absent in the scenario.
In recent years, the prices of livestock products have shot up steeply. There is also a demand
rise for the live stock products that are from indigenous populations like native chicken and
eggs etc. The consumer is paying two to three times the price that is paid for commercial
farming system products like broiler meat and improved poultry eggs in the market. This
phenomenon is seen throughout the country.
A study of market price of live animals in the ILDP project area showed that the price 199394, 2010, and 2014 per kg live body weight for different species of livestock varied and was
as following.
Table -2 showing meat price of livestock and poultry including indigenous chicken and
broilers in Koraput & Price increase in percentage for 1993-94, 2010 & 2014
1993-94 2010
Price Increase 2014 market Price Increase
Type
market
retail
price
Sheep meat
Rs. 38
in
Percent(2010)
retail price
in
Percent(2014)
Rs. 220
479
Rs 350
820
Goat chevron
Rs. 40
Rs. 220
450
Rs 400
900
Indigenous
Chicken
Rs. 50
Rs. 300
500
Rs 350
600
Indigenous Pig
Rs. 10
Rs 140
1300
Culled Cattle &

Buffalo
Rs. 5
Rs. 65
1200*
Rs 120
2300
Broiler Chicken
Rs. 25
Rs. 120
380
Rs 140
460
* Buffalo meat is Rs.90 per Kg live body weight in the open market is due to its recent export
potential.
The variation in meat and milk consumption patterns among people in rural and urban set is
dependent on purchasing capacity as well as the cultural practices. It also depends on
availability and opportunity costs of different types of resources in the area, and thus attention
to consumption patterns is important for tailoring policies to specific region characteristics
and needs.
103

Koraput stands out as a meat producing region and 94 percent of production is for domestic
consumption. Most livestock types are found throughout the region, but small ruminants are
particularly important where pasture/forest resources are abundant, and pork on hills where
pasture resources are scarce. The poultry is most loved by all throughout the district, but is a
seasonal affair. Cattle are prominent as work animal, major manure producer and are not
milked in most villages.
Economic models of livestock production have been developed to provide insight into
producer responses to changing economic environments, especially price changes, and
guidelines for government policy. Economic theory indicates that an individual animal should
be retained by the producer so long as its production (capital) value exceeds its slaughter
value (Jarvis, 1974). Deciding whether to retain, sell or slaughter an animal is a major
production decision and, aggregated across producers; it affects both the short- and long-term
supply of livestock products.
On the positive side, increased consumption of meat and milk under the Livestock Revolution
has improved the incomes of poor farmers and food processors in developing countries.
Considerable evidence from in-depth field studies of rural households in Africa and Asia
shows that the rural poor and landless presently get a higher share of their income from
livestock than do better-off rural people .The exception tends to be in Latin America, where
relative rural wealth correlates more clearly with cattle holdings. In most of the developing
world, a goat, a pig, some chickens or a milking cow can provide a key income supplement for
the landless and otherwise asset-poor (Von Braun et al.1991).
Economics of Small ruminant, pigs and Backyard Poultry production in Orissa
The rural poor keep livestock and poultry in their backyard, mostly on scavenging or semiscavenging management system in India. There is scanty information as to what is the income
that a family derives from such farming system and even the risk and constraint that is with
the system is not well analyzed and documented; so the solution is far off.
Economics of Small ruminants, Pigs and Backyard Poultry in Orissa during 2006
In Orissa, a study was undertaken to find the economics of small ruminants, pigs and
backyard poultry production and reported in 2006( Subrahmanyam and Murthy,2006)The
study found that among small ruminants goats are more important than sheep with four out
of every five animal being goats. The most common and vital constraint in production is
mortality for all four species.
Income derived from the livestock sector is high in small ruminant and pig production. The
total livestock income for these households is close to 40 percent.
It is significant that pig production provides a higher level of income per households as
compared to small ruminants and backyard poultry. The annual income for pig sector is
Rs.7, 942 where as income from small ruminant is Rs 3,827 and income from poultry is Rs.
2,199 to a family. Though actual income in the backyard poultry sector is at 22.4 percent it
has the highest return on investment because of the low feed cost and absence of other costs.
In pig production all most all the livestock income comes from the main activity whereas
small ruminant production nearly one half of the livestock income comes from other
104

livestock. Between small ruminant and pig production the later has a significant higher rate
of return at 74.12 percent of investment.
If the mortality rate is arrested the income will be about 20 percent higher in all these three
cases. As a result of this improvement a significant proportion of the marginally poor
households will cross the poverty line.
In total the small ruminant, pigs and Backyard poultry under the traditional subsistence
farming system is yielding a sum of Rs. 13,968 to a family in a year and there is opportunity
to reduce mortality and thus increase 20 percent more income over it that is gain of Rs.2, 740
and in total Rs. 16,708.
Economics of Small ruminants, Pigs and Backyard Poultry in Orissa during 2014
The livestock economy has drastically changed from year 1993-94 to 2014. Inflation and GDP
have played important role.
Comparatively a White leghorn layer hen lays 307 eggs per annum, thus @ Rs. 5/ egg the
income from sale of eggs is Rs1535/. This includes 70% feed cost to produce the eggs as an
adult layer consumes 120 gms of balanced feed per day. The net income from one egg
production in commercial farming system is Rs.0.20. Thus, total income from sale of hatched
chicks from an indigenous hen unit is Rs 7500/ per annum is advantageous. The indigenous
poultry is more economical as the input expenditure is very small and the profit is thus very
high. However the indigenous poultry cannot be reared under industrial system and it fits well
for backyard auto generating system of traditional system only.
It has been observed that in southern part of Orissa particularly in the KBK districts the hen
unit per family varies from 2 to 5 units (average of 3 hens), where as in northern Orissa tribal
villages it is 5 to 15 hen units (average 6 hen) Backyard poultry due to indigenous fowls of 56 hen units is producing an income of Rs 45,000 per annum. A hen unit is defined as single
hen in the production environment with its followers. This is based on the fact that an
indigenous hen produces 12 chicks per hatch and such 3 clutches per annum and with a
mortality of 30 % (under disease control condition) it produces 25 marketable chicks. So at
the rate of Rs. 300 per bird the total sale value of the total bird isRs.7500/ per one hen unit.
For 6 hen units it is Rs.45, 000/ But it has been estimated that every family requires minimum
25 chicken (in South Orissa) to 50 in North Orissa) chicken for ceremonial, festival and
family consumption as well as guest treatment in a year. Thus, it is how most of the chicken
that is produced at home goes first for family food. For a family of 5 members 38 kg to 75 kgs
of poultry meat is consumed per year. It comes to 7.2 kgs to 15 kgs meat per person that
includes 2 children in the family. That is a good amount of protein to keep malnutrition away.
The present National per-capita availability of chicken meat consumption is 2.2 kg whereas
the ICMR recommendation is the consumption 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum.
However a family sales surplus poultry worth Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 20,000/ per annum. It is
reported in Odisha Economic Survey Report of 2013-14 that Orissa has 206.0 lakhs poultry of
which 70 percent are local backyard breeds. During 2011-12 the per capita poultry meat
availability is 3 kgs per annum in the state.
105

Of recent years many donors have refocused goat rearing to reduce poverty in rural setup.
Goat sector had remained totally neglected since independence by the policy makers. They
had isolated goats in favour of forest development but to the surprise the goat sector
developed faster than any of the livestock components uptill recent years when poultry
especially the broiler sector took the lead in growth rate. Poor rated the goat as most valuable
species of interest in their livelihood. After accepting this argument some focus is being
devoted to the goats as ICAR initiated a Goat Research Institute in UP etc.
In the south Orissa families keep 3-4 Female goats (Does) each where as in north Orissa it is
8-15 female goats per family along with its followers. In Orissa except for Ganjam breeds of
goat all goats produce 3 kidding in two years and in each kidding the number of kids born on
an average is 2 number. In south Orissa they castrate 50 % of all the males born, but in north
and coastal Orissa they castrate all most all male kids. The castration of male kids produces
good chevron and is the taste liked by all and is in demand. The castrated males grow heavy
due to fat deposit and fetches higher price and is devoid of goatish smell. One year old
castrated males are sold at Rs. 3000/ per piece. Many times they keep castrated males for 3 to
3.6 years age and are sold at Rs. 7 to 8,000/ each. In general, it is Rs. 200/ for one kg live
weight in the market. Annually a family keeping goat flock at home earns Rs. 5000 to
20,000/ from goat sale. The mortality in goats varies from 15% to 30% and is very high when
PPR strikes. A family earns between Rs 45 to 50,000 per annum from 4 doe unit in tribal belts
of south Madhya Pradesh. The income from goat is improved when the families use
regularly anthelmentics to reduce the worm load.
The sheep are popular in south Orissa but comparatively the price intake in sheep is lower
than goats in the market.
Pigs as said in the following chapter are tribe and caste specific. Families keep one adult
female (Sow) pig unit at home. A sow gives two farrowings per year and about 8-10 piglets
per farrowing. The piglets born per farrowing is between 8 to 12 in southern Orissa and it is 815 in northern Orissa villages. In the southern Orissa it is mostly the indigenous Koraput
breed and in Northern part is pure indigenous or crossbreds from exotic breeds. The general
practice is to sale the piglets at 5kg body weight or at one month to one and half month of age.
The current price of indigenous piglets is Rs. 800 and the crossbred is Rs.1400. So if the mid
value is taken then the income per sow per annum is Rs17, 600 and the family rears a grower
that is sold at Rs. 8 -10,000. Thus the income from a sow is about Rs. 28-30,000 in a year.
Nutrition, food security and poor

India has gone through successfully Green Revolution of crops like wheat, rice, maize and it
demonstrated its capability to feed its growing population of 125 crores and also in a position
to export. This could happen due to scientific agriculture, Indian leadership and international
support to solve the India food deficit of 60s. In recent years developing countries are in
Livestock Revolution where the trends strongly suggest that livestock consumption patterns in
developing countries are rapidly converging with those in developed countries, particularly
for the middle class. There is concerned that in developing countries where there are large
106

populations of poor who need cereals for their subsistence may lose it to animal feed for
livestock products. (Brown and Kane, 1994; Goodland 1997; Pimentel 1997). But instead the
developing countries are importing animal feeds like maize and soya beans from countries
like Brazil and others for commercial poultry industry.
Food security means the availability of enough food for the family including poor on regular
basis for good living. The poverty alleviation issues with regards to livestock sector mean the
production of more livestock for home consumption and sale of surplus livestock that might
lead to improvement of livelihood.
Table- 3 Per capita availability of Chicken meat, Eggs and milk in India
Year
2000
2010
2011
2012
meat
0.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
Eggs (numbers)
28
53
55
58
Milk (g/day)
217
281
290
299
Chicken
(Kgs)
It was estimated that during 1993-94 that almost 18 million people were employed in the
livestock sector in India, of which there were 9.8 million in the principal livestock sector and
8.6 million in the subsidiary sector. During the same period the women constituted 70 percent
of the labour force in the livestock farming sector. There is thus evidence that the rural poor
more especially the women in the developing world are getting larger share of their income
from livestock sources. Some do question the increase in livestock sector to environment
issues and it is for both traditional and commercial sector of the livestock farming. This has
been extensively studied by FAO in 90s and has come up with suggestions to improve the
environment and the livestock productivity.
The Livestock Revolution and Nutrition
Poor people first need cereal base food to satisfy hunger. They consume animal products like
egg, meat, milk and their byproducts when available at home and this has impact on human
nutrition. However the consumption of animal products depends on the demographics like,
hills, plain lands and temperate or tropical climates as well as the income level of the
communities and the commodities cheaply available at hand.
It has been recorded in Orissa that under an environment where Newcastle disease/ Ranikhet
disease, Fowl pox is controlled along with internal parasites of back yard poultry in poverty
stricken villages as said above the number of chicken consumption per family varies from
25 to 50 + numbers each. Besides the family does consume 2 to 3 ducks in winter and sheep
and goat in ceremonies and marriage feasts and pork in those communities they keep pigs.
This is addition. This level of consumption is due to Livestock revolution where poor are
getting opportunities to improve productivity from livestock and poultry.
The consumption of poultry is a religious ceremonial dictate among central rural India people
where they have to sacrifice certain number of chicken in different ceremonies and festivals.
They do prepare chicken dishes at home when relatives and friends visit.
107

The back yard poultry egg is to produce chick. I am of the opinion that the back yard poultry
in poor homes first serves the food or meat requirement of the family followed by cash sale of
the surplus birds whose income goes to the women and they spend most of it for children
education and in emergency expenditures. Backyard poultry thus serves to protect the family
members from the ill effects of malnutrition.
Reliable literature on human nutrition in the developing world suggests of widespread
prevalence of mild to moderate protein-energy malnutrition affecting up to one-third of all
children and perhaps a higher share of pregnant or lactating women. The literature emphasizes
the critical role adequate balance and adequate levels of bioavailable protein, calories, and key
micronutrients (such as vitamin A, iodine and iron) play in mental and physical development
(Calloway 1995; Sharma et al. 1996; Latham 1997; Neumann and Harris 1999). The daily
protein consumption at national level (India) has dipped from 60.2 gms for a person in 1993934 to 56.5 gms in 2011-12 in rural areas (The Times of India News). Research suggests that
adequate, balanced nutrition helps in preventing morbidity. Animal products are excellent
sources of absorbable forms of iron, zinc, vitamin B12 and retinol. Certain meats and milk
products are cited as being good sources of thiamin, calcium, vitamin B6, riboflavin, vitamin
A, and other minerals required in higher amounts during growth periods (Calloway 1995;
Latham 1997; Neumann and Harris 1999).
A large combination of crop-based nutrients does provide the necessary amino acids and trace
nutrients to meet nutritional needs, but availability of such food throughout the year is a
problem for the rural poor in developing countries. Many communities on hills and dwelling
amidst forests periodically suffer from scarcity of food during end of summer and beginning
of rainy season (Kornel, 2006). On the other hand, increased consumption of even a relatively
small additional amount of meat and milk would supply the necessary protein and
micronutrients and a fair share of needed additional calories, especially to children. (Latham
1997; Hu and Willet 1998; Neumann and Harris 1999).
Livestock Revolution has shown many potential benefits for nutrition of poor and effluent
middle class in developing countries like India. The primary nutritional problem in most
poor people remains at the level of securing both an adequate amount of food and a balanced
diet. These potential benefits outweigh the potential nutritional costs. Thus, the poor needs to
grow their own family food security through growing cereal foodstuffs including livestock
and backyard poultry to meet the nutrition requirements.
Table 3 indicates the per capita availability of chicken meat, eggs and milk in India during the
year 2000, 2010, 2011 and 2012. It is observed that the per capita availability of chicken meat
has increased from 0.8kg during 2000 to 2.1 kg in 2012, so also the percapita availability of
eggs that was 28 numbers during 2000 reached 58 eggs in 2012. However, the milk
availability was 217 gms per day in 2000 and it was 299gms per day in 2012 in India. It is a
significant growth but the question remains How much the poor gain out of it?
The ill effects due to excess consumption of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids and excess of
calories are a phenomenon of developed world but in absence of physical work this becomes
serious in proportion. However, this problem is encounter in developing countries among the
effluent rich population of the urban areas. However, average per capita consumption of meat
and milk in developing countries in 2020 is projected to be less than half the present
developed-country average
108

The Livestock Revolution and Food Security of the Poor

The increased animal production has impact in developing countries like India. The sheep and
goat including the draft animal production use major natural forages from natural resources
and meager amount of feed from home. The pigs live on scavenging or small amount of home
feeding. The dairy cattle and buffaloes more especially in northern India do get home grown
forage and feed. The back yard poultry including the ducks are reared on scavenging. It is the
poultry industry that depends on maize and soya bean cakes that are grown in the country as
well as imported. The pig in organized sector is not that much developed in India. So there is
not much that the ecologists and animal scientists, should tend to view the effect of increased
animal production of food supplies in India as a trade-off between using cereals (and the land
and water used to produce them) as food or feed.
It is observed that increased animal production by poor tend to increase consumption of meat
and milk at home with proportional decrease in cereal consumption. This is a situation where
the family income is increasing. Increase in animal production also increases the household
income due to sale of surplus and the surplus income thus earned goes for food and education
of the children even to the crucial medical bills. In most of the backward societies the social
functions demand bulk of the income.
In total, food prices have been increasing over the long term, despite rapid increases in the use
of cereal feeds due to Livestock Revolution. The Livestock Revolutions effect on the food
security of poor people, through cereal prices, is likely to be far less important than its effect
on the income of the poor. This has been demonstrated in Table-2, where along with the price
rise of cereals used for feeding livestock the price of the byproducts has risen sharply, thus the
poor have taken benefit of of higher market price and niche market. The production cost of
livestock and products have remained comparative with the rural smallholder. For example
the broiler meat price rose to 460 percent from 1993-94 pricing and to that of 2014 but the
indigenous poultry meat grew to 600 percent for the same period. The former has 80 % cost
from feed alone where as the indigenous poultry as produced in the back yard by the poor
farmers has 5% feeding cost of the sale price.
In the similar vein the sheep meat showed 820 % and goat chevron 900% growth in price per
Kg of meat marketed for the above said period. The sheep and goat are produced by the poor
in smallholder set up and solely by grazing natural resources. This implies that the poor gain
immensely from these small ruminants and are gainer in the Livestock Revolution pretext.
The Livestock Revolution and Incomes of the Poor
Livestock are pivot to the livelihood of the rural poor in India. They are vital source of cash
income to the families. The poultry forms the first item followed by sale of small ruminants in
this aspect. Of the few assets that is at the disposal of women poultry forms the first asset.
They use the income from the poultry for food, house hold expenditures and education of
children. The livestock manure and draft power are vital for growing agricultural crops thus
food for the family. This system has so far maintained the soil fertility even from centuries.
The livestock in turn utilize the common property resources that are otherwise of no utility for
generation of food and income to the poor families. Livestock provide a vital and often the
only source of income for the poorest and most marginal of the rural poor, such as
pastoralists, and widows.
109

In our study we found that the pigs are the most profitable followed by backyard or village
poultry sector and the goat came next followed by sheep. But in preference questionnaires
communities rank goat at No 1, backyard poultry at No 2, pigs at No 3, sheep at No.4. They
claim a goat fetches high price, poultry can be marketed early at 3-6 months of age but disease
risk like Ranikhet disease, Fowl pox is high.
Piglets can be sold at 2-3 months of age and fetch remunerative price, sheep are disease
resistant than goat, grow faster and can attain 12 kg body weight at 6 month of age. Regarding
ducks they are of the opinion that it is comparatively disease resistant, less labour required at
home and has good market. This ranking is based on utility preference than based on real
income.
The poor and landless derive a higher share of their household income from livestock sources
than do the relatively better-off in the same rural communities.
Poor people on hills comparative to the plain land poor have few opportunities to increase
their incomes because of limited access to land and capital so after initial investment their
sources to agriculture start extensive and repeated investment in animal husbandry activities.
This was observed in this project (ILDP, Koraput). It is because of limited land resources on
hills and the small-scale and backyard livestock production enables the poor to earn income
from animals grazed on common property resources or fed household waste. Livestock
production offers one of the few rapidly growing markets that rural poor can take advantage
with small trainings, exposure visits to successful farmers in neighbourhood and small capital.
The poor earn a higher share of their income from livestock than do the wealthy raises the
possibility that the Livestock Revolution is good for the poor.
Sheep and goat ownership
In India there are 15% of the worlds goat population and 6% of its sheep. As of 2009, its
estimated sheep and goat population was 191.7 million, comprising 10% of the world total.
About 38 % of the goats are slaughtered annually.
All told, anthropologists have identified about 500 nomadic groups in India, numbering
perhaps 80 million peoplearound 7 percent of the country's billion-plus population (Misra
and Malhotra). Majority of them keep small ruminant flocks and migrate with their flocks.
They are devoided of welfare benefits.
Most of Indias goats (70%) are found in just 8 of the countrys 28 states (West Bengal,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh) and
72% of the sheep population is concentrated in just 4 states (Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
These above mentioned states require focus along with the states and region with major tribal
population to improve the productivity of sheep and goat for mutton and wool, thus the
Government of India needs to come out with large scale special schemes with institutional set
up like NDDB. The focus should be improving the carcass weight of individual small
ruminants with reduction and control of parasitic diseases and common infectious diseases.
More emphasis should also be at the plantation of fodder crop and shift should be gradually
from semi-intensive feeding management to intensive management. This will improve India
productivity of meat and income of the poor thus reducing the poverty.
110

Although total numbers of such small ruminants have been rising in the country, average
numbers per household have been falling, by about 25% as seen from the fact that it has
reduced from 85 households to 64 per 100 households in the 11 years period between 19912 and 2002-3.
The importance of livestock for womens incomes in India has been widely emphasized.
Dairy cooperatives like Amul in Gujarat have shown women play major role in milk
production and marketing thus won cash income.
First, the poor are improving their incomes from livestock sector as it is growing.
Second, the current rapid intensification of animal production is appearing at a time
when the rural poor desperately need higher income due to their shrinking land than
field crops alone can offer.
The concern is in an environment where the demand for livestock product is appearing
substantively, and under the circumstances the small operatives is to be competitive before the
large producers of commercial farming system is the challenge. Large producers in many
areas like poultry production in India enjoy capital subsidies; tax holidays and free
government services etc. They come under Agriculture sector of India and officially enjoy
several benefits like tariff in electricity, labour laws, land purchase etc. This ofcource does not
impact the poor as they are mostly in the small animal production system. As far as
commercial poultry sector influence is concerned coloured broilers impact is negligible in the
market. Poor traditional poultry sector is a meat production unit and has at present a strong
niche market and as they are not producing eggs for sale they have no impact due to large
layer farms. The government has policy to support the smallholders separately. However,
subsidized Co-operative units of broiler units and also the contract farming in this sector
supporting the small production units in mass scale production is in the favour of the poor.
This has been amply seen in Orissa context.
There is increased evidence in India that the small operators have overcome these barriers by
joining institutions of collective action like co-operatives and Contract farming firms. But the
establishment of such institutions has been possible due to Government policy support in
India.
Self Help Groups led by women have shown opportunities for rapid growth in poor rural areas
of Orissa. Integrated livestock production has provided one such opportunity. This has
provided dynamicity to groups and sustainability to grow further. However, the future
challenge and research option is to provide benefit to the smallholders from growth in the
livestock sector. This can be achieved through policies that will focus on rural organizations.
In the coming 20 years livestock sector shall play vital role in alleviating poverty in rural
population. It will depend on the fact that the policy mass production by masses. In addition
if the vertical coordination of small holders/small operators with processors are encouraged
as it is now with policy support it will provide great opportunity to poor.
111

The Trend
1.
In India the opportunities for rapid growth of poor are limited in rural areas, thus
livestock production may be one such opportunity to improve living standard.
2.
In the last decade in India the small ruminant production has come from increase in
number of animals rather than higher carcasses weight per animal. This is already in
stagnation and soon will reach platue. The bulk of meat is thus provided from
commercial broiler poultry growth. India has produced 53 % meat growth during 198090. This needs synchronisation such that poor farmers who keep small animals for meat
production can get their due share in the livestock revolution scenario.
The poor will get the benefit from the livestock sector growth through accesses to
Technological progress particularly in the production and processing sphere. Rapid
advances in feed production and improvement and genetic and reproductive technologies
will offer additional growth by overcoming the technological gaps in increased livestock
production. This was tried in ILDP, Koraput with very encouraging results.
3.
It is essential that appropriate and new technologies and production systems have to be
disseminated into the rural sector to eliminate low production in other words improve the
productivity. The new technologies to be user friendly and appropriate to the poor and
suit to their non-literate environment along with poor infrastructure facilities. It is first
and foremost that the animal health constraints are addressed more especially that of
small animals. Control of infectious diseases, parasitic diseases gives the most
opportunity to the poor to come out of poverty. It gives immense hope factor to their life
and the acceptance of development through technology begins with.
4.
Once the disease constraints are addressed the population size of livestock and poultry at
home increases and that creates new demand for feed resources. It works well if new
locally available feed resources are included and protein supplement from local resources
is added to the animal feed.ILDP has the experience that plantation of dual purpose
improved crops i.e. grains and fodder works satisfactory.
5.
Improved Breeding technologies and Breeding Plan to improve the chronic inbreeding
and addition of new genes for production enhancement should be the motto. New
technologies have limited scope in the poor environment and require sophisticated
management system at place thus needs careful attempt.
6.
Appropriate technologies for food processing or value addition in the rural sector is a
challenge. More research is needed to bring in such reforms. This pays the most to the
farmers.
7.
At the end the rural small holder should be well protected by the government for fair
price to his live animals and products. The middle man should charge the right price and
farmer should be price maker than price taker in the market. The recent trend in India as
denoted above is that the Industrial farming is market demand driven and the smalholder
farmer is price and market demand driven. It is amply demonstrated by DANIDA and
GALVMed initiatives in India that the application of infectious disease control in village
small animal is improving the living standard of the poor significantly.
112

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114

VILLAGE REVOLVING FUND THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS

The Koraput district has 14 blocks, of which ILDP is working in 4 blocks, i.e. Koraput,
Laxmipur, Jeypore and Kundra. The former two are hill blocks and later two are plain land
blocks. There are at least 8 tribal groups in ILDP blocks. They are Kondhs, Sano Poroja,
Bodo Poroja, Bhumia, Gadaba, Omnatya, Bhattra, Pentia and other small groups.
The Poroja groups of Koraput, Kundra and Jeypore blocks were the most vulnerable and
poorest group. The other tribal groups were equally poor. The degree of poverty varied based
on resource endowment. They are classified as Koraput: resource poor; Laxmipur: resource
limited; Kundra and Jeypore blocks: resourceful. However, in Kundra and Jeypore blocks,
there are also some villages, which are despite being surrounded by irrigation canals and
water, inhabited by landless or marginal land holding communities. So out of 25 villages of
Jeypore irrigated block, there were at least 6 villages with very poor status households.
The project had selected poor and poorest village communities in the 4 blocks, each with 25
villages. There were few other castes as well as scheduled caste population in the village who
were included in the service part of the project. Thus, out of a total of 7500 families living in
the 100 project villages, only 5000 families were included in the total programme.
The Koraput block is an undulated plateau located in the hills of Eastern Ghat. The soil is red
loamy, highly acidic pH and also deficient in phosphorus. The micronutrient analysis showed
deficient Zinc, Molybdenum and Boron. The block is inhibited by Sano Poroja tribal, who
are considered to be rather sober and timid. They tend to maintain rather limited contact from
the mainstream communities and development and also from other neighboring tribes. They
have been living for long by selling firewood and wood charcoal in Koraput and Jeypore
towns. As a result, the forest cover is lost; the lands are exposed to sun and rains resulting
into soil erosion leading to loss of fertility. The development assistance provided under
government schemes was not very effective and thus they lost faith in government
programmes. They even did not like the presence of any official and other people in their
villages. During 1993, when the project initiated, the people (male) were normally found
heavily drunk and sleeping on verandah in villages. The naked children and old women with
poor health, and people throwing household materials around home; stagnating dirty water
around water pumps in the village were a common sight.
Socio-economic constraints in the working environment:
The tribal areas in India constitute a significant portion of the poor
and backward areas. Following the North Eastern States, it is Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa that record the highest proportion of Scheduled
Tribe population. As of 2001 census, S.C. and S.T. comprised 16.20
and 22.21 percent of the total population of Orissa, respectively.
115

The Koraput is one of the 10 lowest literacy districts in the country (The Hindu, 22/1/2001).
As per survey conducted by the DRDA in Koraput district, 86.59 percent of the rural families
were below poverty line having an annual income below
Rs.11, 000 as in 1992. The
physical and socio-economic characteristics for the four blocks are given in Table 1.
Why Village Revolving Fund (VRF)?
The DANIDA Mission expected that the project would generate an environment for improved
economic activities after working for and with the target families during the initial period of
the project. There would be an increased demand for economic activities in respect of
livestock and subsidiary enterprises among the villagers. To sustain this interest and for
helping them in further development, the DANIDA Mission suggested, among other things,
the establishment of a Village Revolving Fund (VRF) for every village. The VRF could be
utilized initially on a selective basis for livestock husbandry and other related activities. The
VRF with a corpus up to one lakh rupee a one time grant for each of the project village to be
managed by the villagers themselves was proposed.
116

Table 1 Showing physical and socio-economic characters of four blocks of Koraput

district, Orissa
Sl.
No.
Discription
1.
Geographical area (sq.km)
2.
No. of households
3.
No. of villages
4.
Total population
Kundra
Jeypore
Koraput
Laxmipur
Total
District
359.86
510.09
420.89
310.33
837
11973
19729.00
14628
11163
241560
85(I)
113(I)
92(I)
101(I)
1915(I)
52181
86747
51021
49301
1029986
Male
26041
42098
25288
24719
517274
Female
26140
41649
25733
24582
512712
Percentage of SC population
16.73
19.67
15.35
14.68
13.41
6.
Percentage of ST population
50.21
49.93
44.10
68.81
50.67
7.
Sex ratio (females/ 100 males)
5.
8.
Total
1004
989
1017
994
991
ST
1013
1011
1064
1028
1987
Literacy rate ( 7+population) 1991

Total
13.70
21.92
21.23
17.07
2465
Male
20.68
31.76
32.35
27.14
33.99
6.68
11.8
10.23
6.92
15.16
66.01
93.34
86.42
86.59
86.59
Female
9.
Households below poverty line (% in total

households)
10.
Land utilised (% of area in total geographical area
i.
Forest area
15.64
3.96
10.17
6.72
9.36
ii.
Miscellaneous tree crops and groves not

included net area sown
0.64
1.78
0.42
0.35
2.34
iii.
Permanent pasture and other grazing lands
2.25
7.81
2.89
1.13
2.83
iv.
Culturable wastes
0.12
1.86
0.43
0.40
2.07
v.
Land put to non-agricultural uses
9.66
9.38
4.82
4.78
6.99
vi.
Barren and uncultivable land
4.55
4.66
27.29
39.66
21.37
11.85
14.77
15.48
11.87
12.90
2.61
9.72
8.46
3.73
3.71
52.68
46.06
30.05
31.36
38.43
100.00
vii.
Current fallows
viii.
Other fallows
ix.
Net area sown
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
11.*
% of villages electrified up to 1993-94
77.60
90.30
67.40
42.60
Villages with drinking water facility
77.65
90.30
91.30
87.13
Total
86.84
The above table indicates that more than 50% of population is tribal with 87% households
falling below poverty line. The female literacy rate is only 15%. The cultivated area is 38% of
total land with another 13% falling under current fallow.
117

Table 2. Survey report of ILDP block villages in 2000

Kundra
No. of villages
Koraput
Jeypore
Laxmipur
23
26
28
25
1566
1672
1685
2475
68
64
60
99
Males
2.04
1.78
2.13
2.02
Females
2.05
1.99
2.13
2.18
Total
4.09
3.77
4.26
4.20
SC
14.62
6.22
10.39
1.74
ST
85.38
92.82
89.61
97.62
OC
0.96
Nil
36.33
33.13
35.73
23.84
0-1
24.71
10.94
25.28
13.49
1-2
16.99
15.79
18.93
21.98
2-5
14.75
26.91
13.89
28.97
Above 5
7.22
13.22
6.17
11.72
No. of households
Average households/ village
Prcent in total households

Communities:
0.61
Size of landholdings (acres)
How to implement VRF?

Initially, it was proposed that:
The Village Committee (VC) shall prepare the list of families for assistance from the
VRF
The Village Committee (VC) and BET shall deposit the VRF fund in a bank and shall
operate it jointly.
While the asset endowment will be on individual basis, the assistance shall be in the
shape of group loans and group guarantees.
The amount to be advanced to each family was to vary according to the need of the
individual family and its backwardness.
The loan shall be exclusively for economic activities.
Modified Programme Strategy of VRF through Self Help Groups (SHGs):
The modifies strategy was built on ground reality and evolved over a long period of study of
various projects having common mandate, analysis and debate since 1995, which finally took
118

a practical shape by 1997. A distinguished feature of VRF through SHGs group strategy was
that the 20 to 25 members will form SHG groups for taking up economic activities suited to
their skills, aptitudes and local conditions. The small group strategy was adopted to motivate
the rural tribal people to come together and to break social taboos that had denied them
income-generating and self-fulfilling opportunities.
It was proposed to have more than 80% women groups of SHGs in this proposal, keeping in
mind the active role for economic pursuits for women in the tribal world.
Process Development of the SHG model

Collaboration with MYRADA, Bangalore
MYRADA, an NGO based in Bangalore was the role model to develop ILDP SHG model.
The co-operation was established during summer of 1997.
A group of four BET members visited Bangalore and studied the experiences in SHGs
development and functionality in MYRADA. This was discussed in depth in a workshop back
home and a working manual was prepared for SHG formation in ILDP villages along with an
action plan to the effect. The process started.
Further, there were two visits by MYRADA senior women functionaries to the project area
i.e. November 1997 and October 1998. They studied samples of SHG, interacted with officials
and SHG functionaries in all the four blocks and gave their recommendations in order to
further strengthen the groups and process. These recommendations were accepted
At the phasing out stage of the project, a group consisting 21 leaders of tribal women SHG
and two Community Organisers interacted in MYRADA villages to organise SHG Apex
bodies in Koraput. This was a very essential and vision building study visit so that the SHGs
are successfully phased out and are sustainable after project withdrawal.
This was a very successful co-operation with MYRADA, which is considered as a successful
NGO and Government department functionaries co-operation along with people.
Formation & Strengthening of Self Help Groups (SHGs) by Interest Group Families
The SHGs formation was initiated by BET members of the ILDP, who at the onset placed the
idea of forming small groups by like-minded people to the community. The lady community
organizers of the BETs were instrumental to motivate women members into the concept, as
they had already attained a good working relationship. At the beginning, the groups were
looking for some kind of free gift or grant but BETs refrained of such discussion.
The SHG formed in most villages of the project area had 15 to 25 members. They started
savings in regular weekly meetings and joined to visit banks for deposits. The Jeypore block
members saved Rs.5 to Rs.10; where as Koraput block initially saved Rs.0.50 per week and
during rainy season they could not save.
119

Initially the SHG members were motivated to utilize their internal savings for loan purposes.
The grant to the eligible SHGs was given after one and half year when the group sufficiently
mobilized internal loan. At this stage, most male SHGs dropped out of the programme. The
remaining women SHGs exercised utmost care to take loans and used carefully; naturally it
was their own hard earned savings. They were very much convinced of the benefits of SHG
funds.
When the Project Level Committee assessed each of the group through suitable criteria, grant
amount was issued proportional to the groups total savings.
It improved further the confidence level and new hope appeared among the group members.
The BETs continued assisting the SHGs in book maintenance, stressed for regular weekly
meetings and latecomers as well as absentees were discussed and laid fine for the act.
A process-building mode for each SHG meeting was introduced by BETs and facilitated the
process. The SHG members gave their opinion on each loan application boldly and made it a
point to see better utilizations of loans and repayment.
Equally, the rotational Chairperson for every SHG weekly meeting through a regular process
could improve the confidence of every member and her stakeholdership. This was amply
demonstrated when women SHG members in later years were guiding Village Committee
(male) members to act as Executive Committee members and Chairperson. The illiteracy
barrier was come over by members, which itself was a great achievement.
In later period, perfect disciplined meeting conducted by illiterate SHG women members
surprised many senior level administrators who saw them functioning.
The rotational Chairperson, executive members to attend bank businesses and rotational SHG
representative to Apex body of SHGs was a very practical concept, where the dominancy of
Presidents, Secretary was eliminated. Incidentally the co-operation as a team emerged out of
rotational leadership and opportunity.
Apart from discussion on loan issues and recovery, the SHG became regular forum where
social issues, education, women and children health care, panchayat activity were regularly
discussed.
The HIV as an emerging disease, its mode of transmission, and preventive measures in
practical terms was discussed. The tribal women go for daily wage earning in construction
activities or come in contact with truck drivers; so they were cautioned.
The Department of Horticulture later utilized the SHG forum to sale seedlings. In turn, the
SHG members were seen motivating non-SHG village members in anti-alcohol activisms. The
active SHG members family development impressed neighbors and other village members.
We could see in Jeypore block new SHGs coming up by old SHG group assistance; the
process of development of such new groups was faster and economical. This concept thus
born was utilized for replication of SHGs in the village, in another new village and in another
new block. This is the stage where people took away SHG ownership and it became a
revolution.
120

The project refrained from the beginning to speak against the local moneylenders or their
interest rate; and advocated as well as tried to keep the SHGs a non-political identity because
this can add to the growth and sustainability of these groups. However, the SHGs member
representatives were encouraged to attend panchayat meetings, where they were questioned
for their presence. This was to see that SHGs come closer to Panchayat raj institution. The
SHG now comprise of extensively women SHG and men or (men and women) groups do exist
in over few cases (Table 4).
At the end of the project, out of the total functioning groups 88 percent were all women, 6.6
percent were all male groups and 5.33 percent were mixed groups (Table 4). Most number of
male groups was in the Koraput block (19.44 percent). In Kundra block, there was no male
group at all. Regarding size of the groups, the number of members varied from 10-28 with an
average being 18.
The coverage of households in the ILDP villages by SHGs is about 52.56 per cent at the end
of 2002. It varies across the blocks. Jeypore has better coverage with 69.68 percent.
Homogeneity: Homogeneity of the group members usually contributes to the smooth
functioning of the group. The SHGs in the ILDP villages have members of the same socioeconomic background. As the selected villages are dominated by Scheduled Tribes, in most of
the groups the members are exclusively tribal. In some groups Scheduled Caste members are
also found but in meeting SCs and STs sit separately.
The age group of the group members is found to be between 20s and mid 40s. About 75
percent fell in the below 35 age group and the rest are above 35. In the female groups over 90
percent are agricultural labourers, and about five per cent are cultivators and a negligible
proportion came from petty business.
Formation of apex body (Federation) of SHGs:
The next step was formation of Apex bodies of SHGs on cluster basis. This lead was due to
SHG committee members who were elected to the Apex bodies. The project remained as
facilitator and introduced the lead SHG members, about 18-20 from all four blocks, initiated
the process but then became passive to allow the members to act. This was followed by 3 to 5
consecutive monthly meetings. They were then on their own.
Linkage: An opportunity to bring together ILDP SHGs with District Administration (DRDA)
SHGs appeared, it was right time that ILDP SHGs to get a new identify of their own by
merging into DRDA setup. This was achieved by ILDP authorities through repeated meetings
and dialogues with Koraput district administration. Thus, all concerned agreed to the proposal
that Apex body be formed in a cluster of villages and it will include both ILDP and DRDA
SHGs. This had two objectives; one was that the ILDP SHGs shall strengthen the relatively
weak DRDA SHGs and both will come together and the former shall not suffer any
discrimination of being ILDP DANIDA identity. They will be in the mainstream and will
progress as well as work together. This will ensure sustainability to SHGs in absence of ILDP
121

Role of gender sensitizing workshops:

Of women:
Considerable effort needs to be made for gender sensitization, removal of misapprehensions
and information sharing before an effective SHG group can be formed. The field
functionaries (BET) paid several visits to the houses of the identified families and had
interactions with womenfolk followed by several meetings before the SHG emerged.
The WID from Royal Danish Embassy, New Delhi, played vital role to strengthen the real
participation of women in the project. This had two dimensions, one the implementers who
are government functionaries and are not sensitized to a large gender issues, and they are at
project and department level. The other ground reality is that the tribal society is highly
gender sensitive culturally; the fear is in future, as development will improve the living
standard, the women may try to copy the neighbors as role model societies and get behind
doors.
Thus there were four gender workshops, one at the Advisors level, following three at Koraput
district, project level.
Tribal Woman SHG conducing weekly meetting
122

Conducting weekly SHG meetings:

The ILDP model of SHG comprises these essential following 13 functional points
1.
Members will reach their meeting place in the fixed weekday, time and place and sit
according to their membership number in a circle.
2.
Prayer
3.
Self- introduction
4.
Selection of Chairperson on rotational basis
5.
Welcome address by the Chairperson
6.
Attendance by the book writer
7.
Reading of proceedings of the previous meeting
8.
Chairperson of the last meeting will hand over the Bank passbook, deposit receipt and
cash in hand if any (weekly rotational Chairpersonship).
9.
Meeting register will be up dated with all details viz. savings, loan, fine etc.
10. Individual passbook will be up dated with all detail viz. savings, loan, fine, interest etc.
11. Update of cashbook, general ledger and reading of proceedings of the current meeting.
12. Signature of the members present in the meeting register.
13. Vote of thanks by the Chairperson
General Bylaws of SHGs: The SHGs layout their own bylaws for the group.
Only one person from a family should be included in the SHG;
Everybody should save Rs.2/- or more per week not exceeding Rs.15/Only poor should be a member;
No interest or incentives to the members on their savings;
If anybody absents more than four meetings, those persons should be levied fine based
on group discussions;
Representatives to banks should be rotational, once in six months;
Amount collected in weekly SHG meetings to be remitted in the bank by the
representatives (rotation-wise);
If anybody expresses the desire to leave the group, savings should be returned after six
months or one year without any interest;
Loan should be repaid within the specified time;
SHG should focus more on income-generation activities and discourage consumption
loans;
123

Rs.1 or Rs.2/- fine for the absentee, as the case may be;
At the time of meeting no smoking and chewing;
After completion of SHG meetings, proceedings should be read over again before
getting signed by the members.
Selection of income generation activity (IGA) - preference to cluster, block approach and
group activities
The selection of income generation activity was left to group members. However, the activity
was to be a viable one for which forward and backward linkages (skill training, raw materials
and marketing) were available locally. More economic generating activities for animal
husbandry activities were the focus.
The ILDP BETs started formation of SHGs from 1997 in respective 4 blocks of Koraput
district. By the end of year 1999, there were 80 functional groups. The ILDP community
developed 119 SHGs in 3 years. There were 2628 members in 150 SHGs and women formed
92.31 per cent of the total membership by 2001. The detail is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Total number SHG formed for respective blocks and years:
ILDP Blocks
Total SHGs in ILDP
Year Jeypore Koraput Kundra Laxmipu Total Grants to SHG Total* with
Grant (unit)
in lakhs
1997 . 10
10
34
1998 . 13
31
1999 16
11
11
16
54
98
2000 2
17
132
10.72 (March, Oct.)
2001 5
19
150
19.36(Oct.August)
2002 -
150
12.96(March Oct.)
Total 46
36
34
34
155**
* The figures of 2003 are not included here.
124
7.97 (June)
43.40
Grants Rs.

Table 4 Details of the Self Help Groups (SHGs) in ILDP blocks as on 25th October -2002
Details
Kundra
Laxmipur
Koraput
Jeypore
Total
No. of targeted villages for

SHG formation
25
25
25
25
100
No. of villages in which SHGs

formed
25
25
25
25
100
No. of family with access to

SHG credit
1250
1250
1250
1250
5000
No. of members house holds
582
578
597
871
2628
34
34
36
46
150
Proportion of SHG hose hold

to total house hold in per cent
46.56
46.24
47.76
69.68
52.56
No of male groups in per cent
5.88
19.44
2.17
6.66
100
82.35
77.77
91.30
88.00
11.76
2.77
6.52
5.33
No of male members
29
137
36
202
No of women members
587
549
460
835
2426
Grant to SHGs given by

ILDP in Rupees
784736
969150
981510
1604980
4340376
No. of SHGs rceived grants

from ILDP
34
34
36
46
150
Total savings by the members

of SHGs in Rs. (150 SHGs)
593180
490997
689680
1554797
3328654
Savings per SHG (Common

fund)
23080
28508
27264
34890
28935.84
Grants per SHG
17446
14441
19157
33799
22191
No of SHGs formed
No of female groups in per

cent
No of mixed groups (Male &
Female) in per cent
** 6 groups dropped out, of which 3 were male group.

Credit management in SHGs of the project was reviewed by respective block teams during the
last quarter of 1999, and indicators to evaluate SHGs were developed in a workshop by the
stake holders.
It can be concluded that by two years, 80% of the project villages had SHGs formed and
functional. The next one-year was devoted to strengthening the existing groups, formation of
new group through old groups and attempting difficult and very poor villages who were
unwilling to become SHG members, particularly in Koraput block. The SHG formation,
stages of development, focus of ILDP SHGs are given in Table 5.
125

Training and Capacity Building

SHG members at regular intervals were provided with need based trainings so as to empower
them as well as improve their confidence level such that they can be independent and easily
link with outside world. Given below are the modules, which were covered during SHG
weekly meetings, however, suitable income generation and appropriate skill development was
taken in relevant institutions with 1 to 4 days duration.
Module
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Module 4:
Topic
Duration
Understanding
poverty
concept
of
SHG
Understanding the work
of ILDP
1 day
How to conduct meetings

Leadership Decision
making and problemsolving.
1 day
1 day
1 day
Credit management and

building up of common
fund.
1 day
Importance of book
keeping
1 day
Building linkages with

other instructions
Involvement of SHGs in
ILDP activities.
Importance of health,
education of children and
environmental issues:
SHG initiatives
Developing individual
competencies for Income
generation and social
development
126
1 day
1 day
1 day
1 to 4 days,
periodically as
per need.

Koraput district officers SHG training
Apex body ILDP Jeypore giving a live demonstration to officers on training
Malkanagiri district officers live interaction with ILDP SHG members
127

Table 5. Denoting SHG stages of Development with period, focus and ILDP SHGs
Stage of
Development
I. Pre-formation
Duration in
months
1-2
Focus
Remarks
(ILDP SHGs)
Identify the target group

beneficiaries and organise
through
participatory
democratic methods by door-to
door approach in hamlets of
villages
Under very poor, resourceless,

poor health environment we had
(8 - 20% SHGs who took 2 to 5
years to form groups.
6-12 months period, confidence
level increases and high
acceptance level
II. Formation
2-4
Acquainting the Group with

informal and unregistered
formations of groups for
saving/ thrift and internal
credit rules and regulations
Regularising Group Meetings
pooling of savings. Issue and
collection of small loans.
Group cohesion adjustmentssystems of accounts.
III.Stabilisation
5-12
Leadership
stabilisation
handling
group
level
transactions independently or
with less support.
8-20 months was the period

when groups started IGA.
IV.Consolidation
13-18
Initiate Income Generating

Activity. Linkages with Banks
and Financial Institutions
Exchange of Experience and
Second phase New Groups.
After 6 months the groups get

grant assistance, but in our case
due
to
administrative
amendments it stated at 20
months of the first group
formation
V. Growth or
Take- off Stage
Addressing Community Issues

through village community.
Stratification of IGA Creation
of Assets for
Purchase of land, is one good

indicator increase in volume
of loans is another indicator.
VI Expansion and
Withdrawal of
ILDP Guidance
The group and its members

Spreading the concept and
promotion of new groups
Apex body function.
128

Replication of SHGs
In the same and nearby villages:
After formation of 80 SHGs in 4 blocks by 4 BETs they (BETs) showed reluctance to form
more new SHGs in old and new villages of ILDP. They argued that 20 SHGs per BET is
optimum for 5 working days in a week. The persuasion did not result any change. Thus
Logical Framework Application (LFA) was utilized to identify the problems in a Workshop
attended by all Stakeholders and solutions were also identified. They were implemented.
The results continued to be satisfactory up to 2000 AD, when again it came to the notice that
there were 13 villages in project still without SHGs. A period of one and half year was
devoted to solve the problem of group formation in these villages and 13 village SHGs could
be formed successfully. The issues thereafter were resolved by BETs in next 6 month.
Large scale Replication of SHGs in Koraput district by District Administration:
The SHG concept got policy status in the state of Orissa. Soon, the District collector of
Koraput District after examination of various SHG models adopted by various institutions and
NGOs in the district recommended ILDP SHG model to replicate throughout Koraput district.
The major task was to train all concerned staff of the district administration. The ILDP staff
members together with District collector in person developed a curriculum and course for
training district staff members. It was from Community Development Office (CDOs) level to
senior district level. The major role was to be played by Block Development Officer (BDOs).
The senior officers remained at monitoring level to execute the plan of work. The trainers
training was taken up in a two days training workgroup session in a mixed batch of 60-70
officers including women officers. The training included both theory and practical courses.
The training materials contained filtered elements from the ILDP training materials. The
focus was on Account keeping and interaction in Group meetings as well as the Women in
the focus. The ILDP staff members were the resource group and on the first day, gave
theoretical knowledge of SHG concept and process building to the trainees. In the second day
of the training, a woman SHG gave live demonstration of conducting business in the weekly
meeting. It was an interactive session both by the trainees and the SHG members. The SHG
members answered the questions and doubts raised by trainees. At the end of the training, the
trainee in turn were encouraged to enumerate the salient features of SHG, number of books
with their names to be maintained, group rules and cardinal principle to conduct meetings etc.
This ensured full and clear knowledge of SHG concept to all. A plan to action (Calendar) was
immediately drawn by respective member and was in place for each CDO and BDO of district
with number of SHG groups and villages to be taken. The support continued through out the
district with direct supervisions of senior district officials.
Further, the ILDP BET staff member gladly accepted the offer to train 200 book
writers/record-keepers for district administration SHGs. The training of book writers/recordkeepers was taken at mostly block headquarters or at any convenient place. The training was
for 2 days. Thus, soon a large number of functional women SHGs came out through out the
district in a very short time. This was an effective improvement over ILDP SHG formation, in
terms of time and expenses.
129

Simultaneously, the District Administration took up a massive programme spread across

villages through full community participation and women leading to prohibit alcohol in tribal
villages. This soon took up a revolution. The results were soon appreciated. However, this had
a socio-political impact.
Influencing Changes in Social & Political System
It can be concluded that the village community organized themselves with a common cause to
prohibit alcohol consumption and sale in village and simultaneously rigorously they joined in
small groups through SHGs to improve the living standard of the families. They initiated
neighbours and villages to join with active assistance. This revolution as usual had different
out come and targeted the initiators of the programme because an age-old socio-economic
based political system felt unsecured then. However, no force can ever stop good revolutions
for betterment of human life and living once they start moving. It prevailed.
Soon in 2002 August 17th, a group of women in Kundra block felt that they did not get justice
from Kundra administration, as a village tank was leased to a relative of a Panchayat member.
The women SHGs took up the issue and organized through their federation. They demonstrate
their cause and district administration was pleased to pass government orders to their relief,
that women SHGs shall be given first preference to lease ponds to cultivate fish. The women
empowerment originating from small SHG groups could be seen from these experiences.
Table 6 Number of SHG in Koraput district with savings and Grant (November, 2002)
Name of
the
Sl.
No. promoting
Agency
Total
SHGs
formed
SHGs
above 6
month old
Revolving fund
received
Nos.
Amount of
Savings
Amount
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
I.C.LD.S.
1634
1308
720 18000000
8009641
N.G.OS.
1260
619
205
1123000
280445
I.L.D.P.
150
150
102
1867000
3328654
BY
BANKS
1852
655
408
4340376
214697
TOTAL
4896
2732
1435 22558000 20858783
Simultaneously, ILDP team demonstrated the SHG formation, management skills to

Nowrangapur District functionaries, followed by training of 100 book writers during 2002.
The Malkangiri District functionaries both implementers and monitoring level interacted with
ILDP Block teams and Sanakaudi women SHG members in 2 days workshop, at Malkangiri.
These workshops, training ability of Block teams and SHGs was in demand from various
NGOs in undivided Koraput as well Ganjam and Gajapati districts. The neighbour Bastar
130

district (Chhattisgarh state) SHGs and other NGOs have visited the ILDP villages several
occasions. There were at least two dozen NGOs who visited the ILDP SHGs groups in
different villages from 1999 onwards till 2002 with their SHG members and facilitators. The
ILDP shared all possible assistance to these visitors.
During 2002, the block extension team members along with Sanokaudi village women group
reached Bargarh district headquarters on the request of the district administration to
demonstrate the SHG group skills to their trainees. The District administration amply honored
the members of SHGs and extension team members.
The ILDP SHG replication was due to Koraput district administration who had an active
involvement in the project implementation and sources from its inception (Table 6).
Impact Analysis
The project instituted two independents studies on performance and out come due to SHGs at
different stages of the project cycle.
Study I of ILDP SHGs was under taken by Institute of Development and Planning Studied,
Visakhapatnam in December 2000. The study team constituted of Prof. G. Parthasarathi, and
Dr. K. Annie Nirmala and team. It was a sample village and household study, spread across
four blocks.
Danida Advisor conducted the second study during 2002. The study covered all SHGs of the
4 ILDP blocks. Here, the study report is denoted as Study II. The results and discussions for
the both of the studies are given separately.
Study I: Results and Discussions
Detail study reported as to what is the pattern of loan and volume of loans by different
agencies from sample villages and households of ILDP as well as Non-ILDP villages located
in the vicinity has been reported by Nirmal et al. (2000). They are given in Table 7
They concluded, Borrowers as percentage of total sample are the least in non-ILDP villages.
The non-ILDP villages in Kundra block show only 40 percent of the sample households as
borrowed. While the ILDP villages in the same block recorded as percentage exceeding 80.
Similarly in Koraput block the non-ILDP village shows less percentage as compared to ILDP
villages as borrowers, which indicate that the access to credit is higher in ILDP villages.
131

Table 7:Village-wise and Agency-wise Number of Loans Borrowed by Sample

Households during the Last five years
Agency
ILDP Villages
Kundra Block
Jeypore Block
Non-ILDP Villages
Koraput Block
Laxmipur Block
Kundra
Korapu
t
Gunth
a guda
Nuagud
a
Dutigud
a
Dharanahand
i
Khari
guda
Machar
a
Thimm
a Jola
Ranjit
guda
Ghadang
a guda
Bauda
guda
Money
Lender
1.56
1.14
1.75
--
6.90
4.08
3.03
25.00
30.43
Trader
4.08
25.00
Bank
7.81
5.68
5.25
7.69
10.34
28.57
8.69
6.06
25.001
56.52
Coopera
tives
3.12
1.14
1.75
1.92
3.45
10.20
4.34
3.03
25.00
13.04
Friends
1.56
2.04
4.34
3.03
Others
1.56
1.57
SHG
84.37
92.04
89.47
90.38
79.31
51.02
82.61
84.84
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
(88)
(57)
(52)
(49)
(23)
100.0
0
100.00
(64)
100.0
0
(8)
(23)
(29)
Nirmala et al. (2000)
132
(33)

Table 8: Percentage Distribution of Outstanding Loans by Agency 2000
Agency
ILDP Villages
Kundra Block
Guntha
Jeypore Block
Nuaguda
Dutiguda
Dharanahandi
0.68
1.77
guda
Money
2.63
Non-ILDP Villages
Koraput Block
Khari
Machara
guda
8.35
0.62
Laxmipur Block
Kundra
Koraput
Ghadanga
Bauda
guda
guda
guda
3.49
13.33
4.56
Thimma
Ranjit
Jola
-
Lender
Trader
3.59
5.25
Bank
20.34
31.97
4.61
25.27
42.89
55,53
33.59
13.95
77.73
82.08
Coopera-
2.63
1.36
17.72
3.06
2.26
25.15
23.99
5.58
3.69
13.36
tives
Friends
Others
0.79
9.75
2.40
3.84
1.97
11.82
SHG
71.65
65.99
64.08
71.67
46.50
5.36
40.02
73.14
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
(76,200)
(73,500)
(1,69,250)
(65,300)
(44,300)
(2,56,440)
(20,840)
(28,670)
(35,250)
(1,27,200)
Nirmala et al.(2000)
Table 9: Amount per Loan by Agency- 2000

Agency
ILDP Villages
Kundra Block
Guntha
Nuaguda
Jeypore Block
Dutiguda
Dharanahandi
guda
Money
2000.00
Non-ILDP Villages
Koraput Block
Khari
Machara
guda
500.00
3000.00
1850.00
800.00
Laxmipur Block
Kundra
Koraput
Bauda
Thimma
Ranjit
Ghadanga
Jola
guda
guda
guda
1000.00
2350.00
828.57
Lender
Trader
4600.00
925.00
Bank
3100.00
4700.00
2600.00
4125.00
6333.33
10171.43
3500.00
2000.00
13700.00
8030.77
Coopera-
1000.00
1000.00
30000.00
2000.00
1000.00
12900.00
5000.00
1600.00
650.00
566.67
600.00
895.65
25000.00
500.00
1100.00
1500.00
20000.00
tives
Friends
Others
SHG
1011.11
598.76
2126.47
995.74
549.60
438.95
748.93
Total
1190.62
835.23
2969.30
1255.77
1527.00
5233.47
906.09
868.79
4406.25
5530.43
Nirmala et al.(2000)
The role of SHGs in contributing to improved access to credit would be seen from Table - 7
showing percentage of loans borrowed during the preceding five years from the date of
investigation by agency and village. SHG accounted for more than 80 percent of the loans in
all the villages surveyed except Machara village. The non-ILDP villages record a higher
percentage of loans from moneylenders. They also record a significant percentage of loans
133

from banks and cooperatives. Among the ILDP villages, the role of moneylenders is found to
be minimal in all the blocks except in Koraput block where the proportion of SHG loans is
low especially in Machara village. Even when the loan amount is considered by agency, the
SHGs share is substantial (Table - 8). In non-ILDP villages loans from banks are much higher
compared to ILDP villages in which SHG have taken over the functions of the banks and
moneylenders.
Amount per loan by agency and village suggests loan amount borrowed from SHG is the
lowest (Table -9). This is because SHG loans are subject to the discipline imposed by peer
groups. SHGs loans are given for specific purpose with an undertaking they are repaid within
a stipulated time. They are normally for production purposes and are given without any
collateral. There is better monitoring of the use of loan within SHGs. They are also repaid
promptly. On the other hand repayment of the bank loans is much to be desired.
The moneylender loans are flexible no doubt but these are not necessarily for productive
purposes. A comparison between ILDP and non-ILDP villages suggests that in non-ILDP
villages implementation of credit programmes is not satisfactory.
Village-wise details of total outstanding loans by purpose indicate that the major reasons for
borrowing are for investment in agriculture or animal husbandry. In the ILDP villages
purchase of livestock forms a sizeable proportion. It is as high as 56 per cent in Timajhola
village of Laxmipur block. But in both the non-ILDP villages borrowing for the purpose
of purchasing livestock is very negligible. Ghadangaguda village stands out from other
villages as in this village 71 per cent of the total outstanding loans are invested in the purchase
of agricultural assets, i.e.., land and or implements. On the whole, loans for consumption
purposes exceed 59 per cent in one of the ILDP villages viz., Gunthaguda and in
Ghadangaguda (non-ILDP village) consumption purposes form 78 per cent.
The following extracts has been due to W. Francis (1907).Mr. Taylor- Agent to Vizagapatam
Agency stated in 1892 that The rate of interest on loans extorted by these Sondis is 100
per cent., and if this is not cleared off in the first year, compound interest at 100 per cent, is
charged on the balance. The result is that in many instances the cultivators are unable to pay
in cash or kind and become the gotis or serfs of the sowcar, for whom they have to work in
return for mere batta, whilst the latter take care to manipulate their accounts in such a manner
that the debt is never paid off. A remarkable instance of this tyranny was brought to my
notice a few years since: a ryot some fifty years back borrowed Ea. 20: he paid back Rs. 50
at intervals and worked for the whole of his life and died in harness: for the same debt the
sowcar claimed the services of his son, and he too died in bondage leaving two small sons
aged 13 and 9, and their services were also claimed for an alleged arrear of Rs. 30 on a debt
of Rs. '20, borrowed 50 years back, for which Rs. 50 in cash had been paid in addition to the
perpetual labour of a man for a similar period.'
This custom, of is firmly established, and in a recent case an elder brother claimed to be able
to pledge for his own debts the services of his younger brother and even those of the latter's
wife. Debts due by persons of respectability are often collected by the Sondis by an
134

exasperating method which has led to at least one case of

homicide. They send Ghasis,
who are one of tile lowest of all castes and contact with whom utter defilement is entailing
severe caste penalties, to haunt the house of the debtor who will not pay, insult and annoy him
and his family, and threaten to drag him forcibly before the Sondi.
In 1976, Government of Orissa has abolished the Gotic system under Bonded Labour system
Abolition Act.
Interest rate in SHGs and moneylenders:
The preceding analysis brings out the advantages of the households having access to SHGs
over those that do not have. In order to quantify the gain we calculated the interest on SHG
loans at the interest rates of 1) SHGs and 2) money lenders (Table I-7). The moneylenders
interest rates range from 60 percent with gold or land or other articles as security to an
amazing 240 per cent (reported by one household in Nuaguda). We considered here the
average 60 per cent. The gain per household is found to be Rs. 1226. In addition, households
borrowing from moneylenders give gold or land as security, which is not necessary for SHG
loans. Moreover, the interest on the SHG loans goes back to the group account, which
ultimately benefits the group members. For estimating the cost benefit ratio, we used the
Budget estimates for Village Revolving Fund through SHG given in the Annual Action Plan
for DANIDA -ILDP 2000-01. The budget estimate is Rs. 25,73,500/-. The total numbers of
SHG member households in ILDP villages are 2212 which means per household cost is Rs.
1163.43. The cost benefit ratio is 1:1.05. This does not adequately reflect the total benefits
derived by the tribals.
SHGs are helping in promoting other interventions of the project and creating more income
generating activities. We find a direct relation in the rising per household loans as seen from
the distribution of SHG loans by purpose. Households are availing the loans for purchase of
livestock especially in the hilly areas. In the plains higher proportion of loans are for
agriculture and also for business purposes. The loans help in diversifying the occupations
when the dependence on agriculture is not profitable. Women members of SHG groups appear
more confident than other tribal women. They perform the bank transactions on their own.
They gained social awareness and are able to discuss the community problems in the SHG
meetings. However, lack of education is still an impediment. They have to rely on some
literate persons, outside the group for bookkeeping.
Study II
Research Methodology
The study conducted by DANIDA advisor highlighted that the SHG consists of members who
are identified by name and with a code number. Each SHG has a separate name, village name
and a bank account number. Every member has an account page in the respective SHG that
denotes date and savings, as well date and loan amount with purpose, date to be repaid and
thus the interest in total to the loan amount. Every SHG group was provided grant by ILDP
through Bank draft in the name of the SHGs. The grants were issued periodically which were
135

governed by approved norms. Each SHG member can receive a maximum grant of Rs. 2,000.
The issue of grant was at 1:1 to 1:4 of total group savings. However, a further modification
was taken up looking those very poor members in SHGs who could not save a good amount to
receive grants; so under these circumstances once the SHG has attained 6 month of age they
were eligible to receive Rs. 2,000/- single grant at the first instance.
In total 150 Self Help Groups spread across four blocks of ILDP in Koraput, district data was
analysed for the study. The data was for the period of 1997 to 2002. There were in total 2628
members in the study.
Further, the SHGs in the study had issued Rs. 11,904,073 as loan to its members. There were
in total 8427 numbers had obtained loans during the study period.
Purpose of loan and volume of loan from SHGs:
The loan purpose was categorized as animal husbandry, agriculture, business, consumption
(family), education of children, gold mortgage and release, health loans for treatment,
medicine etc. housing, land mortgage and release, new land purchase and special loans to
meet expenses during ceremonies, marriages etc. as social loans.
The loan utilization as volume and frequency to the above loan purposes for each of block
was examined for calendar years of 1997 to 2001.
Each loan taken by individual SHG member was coded in serial number as loan number one
to loan number 12 with purpose of loan against each. They were clustered as block wise for
analysis.
The analysis aimed at finding out loan parity related to purpose of loan, number of loans for
the purpose and average volume of loan for each of the block, so as to see if there is same
trend or different trend, especially for purpose of loans in different farming and geographical
situation.
Secondly, the data was tested to see what is the frequency and volume of loan for each of the
above purpose that members are taking at micro level. This can clearly spell out how much
loan is required for consumption, health as well as for other income generation activities, so
too the education and land purchase etc.
Thirdly, the data was examined as to what are the priorities of members when loan is
available. This was clearly seen from first loan to subsequent loans up to 12th loan for each
member. The distribution of purpose of loan and capacity for loan utilization was one criterion
to find out the level of confidence the said members are gaining due to SHGs.
The Jeypore block SHG members, apart from loans taken from respective SHGs also drawn a
large sum of loan from Banks through SHGs. Those records are also included separately to
see the growth and enhanced loan requirement of members, where opportunities are available.
Relationship of savings, issued loans, earned interest by each SHG as a group for each of the
four blocks was examined; which can fairly give an indication as to what is the loan
utilization and health of the SHGs in the said block
136

Results and Discussion

The purpose of loan, total loan issued in rupees, number of loans and average loan amount in
rupees for four blocks of ILDP (1997-2002) is given in Table 10
Jeypore Block ILDP SHGs:

The parity of loans, purpose of loan, total loan issued in rupees, number of loans and average
loan amount in rupees for Jeypore block (1997-2002) is given in Annexure -I
Loans for agriculture purpose:

Jeypore block SHGs utilized 77.6% of their total amount of loans in agriculture. The average
volume of agriculture loan was Rs.2212 and ranged from Rs.748 to Rs.8500. There was a
linear increase
Table-10 Showing purpose of loan, total loan issued in rupees, number of loans and
average loan amount in rupees for four blocks of ILDP. (1997-2002).
Kundra
Jeypore Laxmipur
Koraput
Purpose of loan Total
No. of
Average Total
No. of
Average
Total
No. of Average
Total
No. of
Average
Loan
Loans
Loan
Loan
Loans
Loan
Loan
Loans Loan
Loan
Loans
Loan
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Rs)
Animal Husbandry
1487.52
357967 329
1088.05 315325 132
Agriculture
1052900
1000
1052.90 5570520 2518
Business
329064
465
707.66
Consumption
26515
218
Education
2700
and release
(Rs)
2388.83 348960 270
1292.44 371880 250
2212.28
344040 491
700.69
445600 435
1024.37
492332 268
1837.06
67020
52
1288.85
223400 96
2327.08
121.63
2180
311.43
21450
141
152.13
69080
230
300.35
11
245.45
6200
11
563.64
1580
263.33
9600
28
342.86
103750
90
1152.78 20900
18
1161.11
9100
1011.11
15200
10
1520.00
Health
28065
109
257.48
49705
115
432.22
12490
36
346.94
53000
98
540.82
Housing
158864
294
540.35
255300 86
2968.60
33900
18
1883.33
96450
73
1321.23
and release
157601
50
3152.02 124850 33
3783.33
6000
1500.00
26200
17
1541.18
Land purchase
107300
29
3700.00 194100 33
5881.82
87950
22
3997.73
0.00
gold mortgage
Land mortgage
137

Social
69250
89
778.09
Total
2393976
2684
12796.41 7175247 3344

1163.31
Average
143835 123
1169.39
22000
53
415.09
69950
60
22709.70 954490 1102
12851.65
1380360 1297
2064.52
1168.33
1165.83
11571.24
1051.93
Planers in ILDP realized the said trend, and stratification of agriculture as well as stratification
to other livelihood resource was seen to be better option for future and action plan was
executed in accordance.
It is concluded that in Jeypore block that has new irrigation facilities for cultivation, SHG
tribal member families are investing 77.6% of total loan, amounting to Rs.55,70,520 for
agriculture pursuits alone. On an average each agriculture loan is about Rs.2212.
The SHG funds for agriculture season was inadequate looking at the need and demand of
families; so they were introduced to National and Gramyana banks for additional loan in the
name of respective SHGs. The total loan taken by each SHG in Jeypore block is given in
Annexure-V
They were regular and paid back the loans of first loans back first, with the explanation that
why they shall pay back more interest. It was also seen that there was inadequacy at marketing
of rice in Jeypore plains. This was because of situations arising due to new irrigation facilities
of Kolab dam, and tricks played by local traders.
The SHG Apex body members had organized themselves and raised their voice against
market inadequacy to District administration and to political leadership. This had appeared for
the first time.
Market and market force, if not regulated properly specially for agriculture produce like rice
in irrigation belt and vegetables on hills can prevent results due to ongoing poverty alleviation
programmes.
Animal Husbandry Loans:
It was the second major loan component after Agriculture and Business. There were 132
numbers of loans limiting up to Loan number 7.
Business Loans:
This was the second major component of loan after Agriculture in Jeypore block amounting to
total of Rs. 4, 92,332 and268 total loans.
Loans for consumption:
The consumption loan was only 0.03% of total amount of loan and there were 7 numbers of
loans with an average of Rs.311 each. The consumption loan completely seized from loan
number 3. This is a healthy sign.
138

Land purchase Loans:

There were 33 numbers of loans and it amounted in total Rs. 1, 94,100.
Land Mortgage release Loans:
Many farmers lose their lands due to land mortgage. There were 33 cases who had obtained
loans to release their land from land mortgage loans elsewhere. As irrigation came to the
Jeypore block from newly built Kolab Dam, farmers from Andhra Pradesh rushed here as they
did in Hirakud Dam and Indravati Dam to buy precious land at cheaper price before the local
farmers realize the real value of their land and many fell prey to it. But after the formation of
SHGs and farmers were trained in modern rice farming by ILDP the trend of land sale
stopped.
Kundra block SHGs:
loan amount in rupees for Kundra block (1997-2002) is given in Annexure -II.
Loans for agriculture:
It constituted 43.9% of the total amount as loan taken from SHGs, and was due to 37.2% of
the total number of loans issued to members. Average loan amount was Rs.1053.The trend to
agriculture loan utilization by SHGs up to loan 6 was higher and thereafter it declined to very
low level. The number of agriculture loan for Loan1 was maximum, which was 603 and
68.2% of total number of loans.
Animal husbandry loans:
It was about 14.9 percent of the total amount of loan issued to members and 12.2% of the total
number of loan issued.
Business:
Business loans constituted 13.7% of the total amount of loans issued and 17.3% of the total
number of loans paid to its member. The Kundra tribal families are perusing various options
of livelihood, and is a healthy development.
Consumption loans:
The members obtained 1.1% of total amount of loans for consumption.
Gold mortgage release and land mortgage and release:
It constituted 0.29% and 1.74% of total amount of loans sanctioned, respectively; they were
40 households in total.
Therefore, 218 number of consumption loans were there out of 2684 total loans from SHGs.
The Loan 1 had 20.38% of consumption loans and continued to remain at about same range
up to
Loan 12. The average loan amount per loan was about Rs.135 and maximum being
Rs.187 for Loan 6. The loan amount for consumption is low but high need was seen in Kundra
139

block. This can be explained due to families depending upon rain fed agriculture and fewer
labour markets in the area.
This is a significant finding because comparatively Kundra people are politically very active
than other three blocks of the project, and knowledgeable about different government
development initiatives.
Land purchase:
There were 29 members who availed Rs.1, 94,100 to purchase land. The average amount per
loan is Rs.3, 700/-.
Gold mortgage and release: land mortgage and release:
There were 79 numbers of loans that was for releasing the gold and land they had mortgaged
earlier for loans from money lenders mostly. The gold mortgage and land mortgages are due
to acute financial need of families, in Kundra and as said above uncertain harvest due to rain
fed agriculture has contributed.
Koraput block SHGs:
loan amount in rupees for Koraput block (1997-2002) is given in Annexure -III.
Agriculture loans:
It amounts to Rs.4, 45,600 (32.8% of total loan amount) and 435 numbers of loans constituted
33.5% of total loans issued to SHG members. An average loan was Rs.1024.
Animal husbandry loans:
There were 250 animal husbandry loans and total Rs.3, 71,880 was dispersed to members. So
26.9% of the total loan was due animal husbandry loans alone.
Consumption loans:
The consumption loan on an average was Rs.300; however it constituted -5.0% of total loans
and 230 numbers of loans (17.7% of total number of loans). The consumption loan number
was very high, initially in Koraput block due to high level of poverty.
The consumption loans for Loan 1 were 25.9% and Loan 2 was 15.45% and it fell to 2.91% at
Loan 5. This is a good indicator that members started improving the family income.
Most poor use consumption loan to purchase the subsidized ration from Government ration
shops available in weekly markets, which otherwise could lapse.
Business loans:
They invested 16.18% (Rs.2, 23,400) in business; and there was 96 numbers of loans (7.40%
of total loans). An average amount of Rs.2, 327 was paid for business per loan.
140

Land purchase:
There was no land purchase by any member of SHG in Koraput block. On hill blocks there is
scarcity of cultivable land.
Gold mortgage and release; land mortgage and release:
The members obtained 1.89% (Rs.26, 200) for land mortgage and release that too 17 loans
were there. Again 10 members for releasing gold mortgage took Rs.15, 200 loan.
In total for all SHG members there were 1297 loans and Rs.13, 80,360 was issued to
members; with and average of Rs 1064.00 per loan during total period of study in Koraput
block.
As said earlier, project at one stage laid more emphasis at Koraput block villages. The poverty
along with women illiteracy coupled with ill health was the challenge. They were averse to
government programmes, may be due to past trauma of some kind arising out of their
experiences as said above.
The hill people of Koraput invested 33% in agriculture, 27% in animal husbandry and 17% in
business loans. The investment in agriculture stopped from Loan 9 onwards, but animal
husbandry registered high investment persistently. The business loans had a very similar trend
like agriculture.
Most remarkable was that they did not invest in new land purchase even. The land and gold
mortgage release from mostly the moneylenders were at top priority. The gold mortgage
release was the first priority, maybe it is due to womens priority. Even the social
expenditures were seen controlled from Loan 6.
The above trend and action gives the impression that financial management in groups among
very poor communities SHGs is a well-managed event and they act very responsibly. The
group members are individually very active at decision-making. It is contrary to the belief that
poor do not act responsibly and they should not be allowed to use SHG loans for
consumption.
It is of special interest for us to know how the resourceless very poor who take SHG loans at
higher priority for animal husbandry base livelihood particularly on hills utilize them. Thus,
detail analyses of Koraput block SHGs records analyzed and are reported as following (Table
11).
141

Table 11 Priority of livestock species to very poor hill farmers:

S.N
Purchase of livestock
No. of loans
Average of loan Rs.
1.
Goat
32
812.50
2.
Sheep
16
881.25
3.
Local Cow
16
1375.00
4.
Local Poultry
16
293.75
5.
Bullock
15
1080.00
6.
Buffalo
2500.00
7.
Cow (milch)
3000.00
8.
Broiler farming
23
6169.57
9.
Cattle shed development
500.00
Total
126
1902.38
It could be clearly seen that goats are top priority, followed by indigenous poultry. However,
if assistance is given to the extent that tribal members venture to broiler farming they take a
good amount of loan and earn profit. But this depends on market and assured input supply and
assured services from an institution especially devoted to the development of small scale
broiler farming like that of PRADAN NGO in Keonjhar district..
It could be concluded that on hills, poor households go for animals with short production
cycle thus small animals are the first choice.
Health Loans:
The SHGs borrowed a credit of Rs. 53,000 for health related problems. There were 98 loans to
the regard. Health loan continued up to Loan 10. Fear of death in absence of resource and
awareness drives people to heavy drinking and this can be witnessed the way these drunken
people dance and drink in funerals. At the initiation of the project it was a common site to see
men and women heavily drunk and lying on the road sides close to the villages or the outskirt
of weekly markets. But gradually with the availability of credits for treatment and the thinking
process in the SHGs the heavy drinking got reduced and women played very important role
in pressing the men folk to refrain from habitual drinking and even as I have said before went
to administration to stop selling liquor in their village.
Laxmipur block SHGs:
loan amount in rupees for Laxmipur block (1997-2002) is given in Annexure -IV.
142

Agriculture and environment loans:

Agriculture and animal husbandry total loan amounts were equal for Laxmipur block; but
number of loans for agriculture purpose was double than the animal husbandry loans.
The agriculture and animal husbandry loans were Rs.3, 44,040 and Rs.3, 48,960 respectively.
Consumption loans:
It was Rs.21, 450 (2.2% of the total loans) and 5% loans (4.7%) were issued. The
consumption loan continued up to Loan 4 and then discontinued. The trend is similar to
Koraput block and both Laxmipur and Koraput blocks are hill blocks..
Land purchase:
The members utilized 9.2% (Rs.87, 950) for new land purchase through 22 loans. This was
contrary to Koraput hill block findings.
Land mortgage release and gold mortgage release
The land mortgage and release was negligible, this may be due to slash and burn cultivation
where the cultivation on hills is on periodic rotation basis; however gold mortgage release was
1.3% (12,490) and 9 loans were issued. The figures quoted are also small. This can even be
due to no investment in gold and alternate assets are available at emergency needs.
Business loans:
It constituted 7% of the total loan amount issued (Rs.67, 020) and 52 loans were issued.
Comparatively, the Laxmipur block SHGs performance was at slow pace. It can be due to
various factors like the investment opportunities on steep hill ecology, rain dependent
agriculture, inaccessible villages particularly all through rain reason, Kondh dialects not
known to many development workers, thus difficult to communicate with women and even to
some extent staff problems were encountered.
Childrens Education loans:
Name of
Amount in % of total No.of
the block Rupees
loan
loans
amount
% of
Average
loans
volume
issued
of loan (Rs.)
Jeypore
6,200
0.08
11
0.32
564
Kundra
2,700
0.1
11
0.4
246
Koraput
9,600
0.69
28
2.15
343
Laxmipur 1,580
0.16
0.5
263
143

It can be concluded that Koraput block though very poor, more families are investing in
children education; comparatively higher amount of Rs.343 per loan than better off Jeypore
and Kundra block. This may be stratification for livelihood and influence of district head
quarters as some community members are employed as lower grade employees.
In two cases of Jeypore block members of SHGs have encouraged their children to study in
English Medium School, Jeypore. The Jeypore block SHG members have mandatory for
children including girl child to attend school, failing which the parents are disqualified from
SHG membership. This is a recent outcome after training visit to Central Rice Research
Institute, Cuttack.
Health loans:
Name of
the Block Rupees
loan
loans
amount
% of Average
loans
volume
issued of loan (Rs.)
Jeypore
49,705
0.69
115
4.63
432
Kundra
28,065
1.1
109
4.0
258
Koraput
53,000
3.83
98
7.5
540
1.3
36
3.2
347
Laxmipur 12,490
The health loans includes doctors fees and medicine cost; very seldom SHG health loans are
spent on local village shaman, Disari fees
There is no provision to get health loan to poor people from any recognized financial
institution. The only source is local moneylenders or sale of assets in emergency The Self help
Group do provide this vital segment, loans. This strength is well perceived by poor SHG
members and thus SHG institutions are serious business to them.
The health loans constitute about 3 to 7.5% of total loans issued. Koraput SHGs availed
3.84% of health loans out of total loans and it was 7.5% of the total number of loans issued.
In the Jeypore block, there were 115 numbers of loans amounting to Rs. 49,705; so it can be
seen that the amount of loan to individual for health and treatment was small and was totally
discontinued from Loan 8.
Comparatively, Koraput block members know medical institutions and receive treatment than
Laxmipur block members. This is a positive development to the early reports where large
groups of sick people sleeping in verandah during daytime were common, especially in hill
blocks.
Additionally, awareness of health problems like Malaria, intestinal worms, AIDS transmission
created in SHG group discussions and village committees have induced more people to take
144

government medical services. The recent years introduction of mobile medical services in
fair weather roads has helped the people.
The DANIDA Tuberculosis control programme used the Community Link Workers forum of
ILDP to find and report Tuberculosis suspects to nearby medical centre and assisted diagnosis
and medication at village level to patients and treatment was given to positive cases. This was
successful.
The Sano-Paroja village in Koraput block and houses in most cases are untidy and has
unhygienic environment. BETs were successful in motivating villagers (ILDP) to clean
village twice a month, to dispose household waste in a pit outside the living quarters and the
drainage to drinking water etc. Introduction of ducks in village to control mosquito larvae
through village committees were also accepted.
Loans for social functions, festivals and ceremonials:
Name of
the Block Rupees
loan
loans
amount
% of Average
loans
volume
Jeypore
1, 43,836
2.0
123
3.67
1,169
Kundra
69,250
4.4
89
3.3
778
Koraput
69,950
5.06
60
4.6
1,166
2.3
53
4.8
415
Laxmipur 22,000
Social functions in tribal life is utmost important. This includes marriages, bride price, birth
ceremony, death ceremonies, sickness ceremonies (Bat Viva), promise payment to various
deities in the region, agriculture and harvest related religious expenditure and attending guests
at home and gifts etc. There are numerous festivals, where animal and poultry are scarified as
per tradition. The list is long. The families need new clothes in these festival days.
They borrow loans on an average of Rs.400 to Rs.1200 as seen from the data. It constitutes of
about 2 to 5% of total loan amounts borrowed; and ranges up to 5%of total number of loans
issued.
It was an important loan component. In Jeypore block, there were 123 numbers of loans
amounting to Rs. 1, 43,836.
The loan for social purposes is most vital, which is again never available from any recognized
institution other than local moneylenders. Sometimes the Scheduled Caste people exploit the
situation under such conditions by supplying cheap animals for the ceremonies and festivals to
needy families. It is amply demonstrated by anthropological studies and reports of Dongria
Kondhs where Schedule Caste Doms do the tricks, so also the similar situation in Kashipur
145

area. SHG institution regulates the social loans with proper arguments to limit loan size.
However, the tribal society as is seen gets indebted to moneylenders in most cases to meet
social function needs.
House construction and repair loans:

Name of
the Block Rupees
loan
loans
amount
% of Average
loans
volume
Jeypore
2, 55,300
3.55
86
2.57
2969
Kundra
1, 58,864
6.60
294
10.9
540
Koraput
96,450
6.98
73
5.6
1321
3.5
18
1.6
1883
Laxmipur 33,900
This was another important component in Jeypore block where SHG members took loan to
make pucca houses. There were 86 numbers of loans and a total of Rs. 2, 55,300 were issued.
The house loans were taken for repair or building a new pucca house, often, these loans are
projected as non-development loans and roadblocks. The funds get blocked and repayment
becomes difficult. However, Kundra members were utilizing the loans for annual or biannual
repair of thatched roof in most cases, except for construction of 2 to 3 new pucca houses.
The Laxmipur members utilized the loans for replacing the thatched roof with tiles to save
from village house fire accidents. This is a priority to them due to closely built double row
housing with open street system as on hills. It can be concluded that the members of SHGs
regulated carefully the volume of loan for members in house related loans.
Ranking Loan purposes:
The final study was conducted in 2002. It found that the number of loans show a gradual fall
over a period of six years, indicating to a situation that people have build their financial
capacity to meet their needs.
Agriculture loans in 3 blocks (Jeypore, Koraput and Kundra) occupy the first position
in terms of total amount disbursed in 6 years. In Laxmipur block it occupies the
second position (Table 10)
Animal husbandry occupies first position in Laxmipur block, second position in

Koraput and Kundra blocks and third position in Jeypore block.
Business occupies second position in Jeypore, third in Koraput and Kundra and fourth
in Laxmipur.
146

Housing occupies fourth position in Jeypore, Koraput and Kundra blocks and fifth in
Laxmipur block.
Land purchase occupies third in one (Laxmipur), 5th in another (Jeypore) and 6th in
another (Kundra). No one in Koraput availed any loan on this account.
Social loan amount occupies 5th positions in one block (Koraput), 6th in two (Jeypore
and Kundra) and 8th positions in one (Laxmipur).
Land release from mortgage 5th positions in one (Kundra), 7th in (Jeypore), 8th in
(Koraput) and 10th in Laxmipur.
Health loans occupy 7th position in Koraput, 8th in Jeypore and Laxmipur and 9th in
Kundra.
Gold release from mortgage occupy 7th in Kundra, 9th in the other three blocks.
Education loans occupy 10th position in Jeypore and Koraput blocks and 11th in
Kundra and Laxmipur blocks.
Consumption loans occupy 6th positions in Koraput, 7th in Laxmipur and 11th in
Jeypore and Kundra.
Credit priorities:
From the amount of loans disbursed over six years, one can establish priority of the needs.
Credit needs for agricultural purposes appear at the top, followed by animal husbandry,
business, housing, land purchase, social, release of land from mortgage, health, release of gold
from mortgage, education and consumption. However in hill blocks the animal husbandry
credit need is the priority.
This trend contradicts the popular assumption that the credit needs of the poor have around
consumption.
The bulk of the amount is consumed by two categories, Agriculture and animal husbandry
indicating the productive motivation of the loaner.
That all credit needs gradually dropping to low level amply indicate the ability of the target
group in reaching a reasonable level of economic solvency.
Reaching Extreme Poverty: Financial Services for the Very Poor:
The studies identified poor and poverty with respect to the economic condition of
households and individuals. It has been concluded from various studies that the better off
than the poorest households participate in microfinance programmes because of their
improved status. It has been seen that many poor households express interest in larger loans.
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They dislike meetings, which needs to a greater extent collective responsibility. Robert
Hickson, 2002, showed this. But however, under the Koraput district condition, this was not
the case.
Many microfinance programmes hold the belief that their borrowers should not use loans for
consumption purpose.
A significant number of households use new loans to repay old debts has been reported by
many authorities. It is a general observation that very poor households are either excluded
from entering into microfinance programmes or dropped out of these programmes at an early
stage (Kempson and Whyley, 1998 and Natin, 1998). Some authors believe that lack of
borrowing skill limits the effective use of credit.
The total quantum of land area gradually becomes too small to sustain the families as they
grow. The other constraint is the seasonal income associated with agriculture. As the
household falls into deepening poverty, a number of forced sacrifices are made to maintain
essential consumption. When there is non-availability of ready cash reserves, the households
begin to sell their material and non-material assets. The material assets such as livestock and
household goods first appear in the category and the land at the last. The sale of livestock is
the first one to meet the consumption and emergencies at home. Then the households depend
on the labour sale and take cash loans from very unfavorable terms. At this stage the
households become very vulnerable to economic or social misfortune.
Consumption levels:
The consumption levels of very poor household tend to vary with income levels. For the
poorest households consumption and income are closely linked. This depends on seasonal
employment opportunities, commodity price fluctuations and crisis like natural disaster,
drought etc. It is generally seen that the Tribal communities in undivided Koraput district
does face periodic food shortage and mostly the pre-monsoon months. There is in hill blocks
chronic hunger where people derive their family food from forest or non-conventional food
resources. Kornel (2006) has detailed out the food cycle of 10 tribes in undivided Koraput and
indicated the mango, Jackfruit are the famine saviours and early Suana and early ragi are the
crops along with tubers from the forest that comes to their rescue.
Poor households and exposure to risk:
Poor households have some consistent characteristics, which can be identified. Many of
these relate to the level of their exposure to risk in relation to economic misfortune, health
problems and educational deprivation. They are forced to undertake positions of high risk as
they have insufficient social or economic wealth to secure safer living environment. Poor
households use cash loans to invest in short term income security rather than long-term
economic security. It was observed that these often most commonly lend to indiscriminately,
not matching loans to repayment capacity.
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Physical characteristics:
The poorest people usually live in small dark, smoky, windowless mud or stone quarters to
conserve warmth. This also gives them protection from mosquito bites. They are very critical
at household construction. Even the households take all courses to have a tiled roof house,
which is seen among Kondh and Savara tribes. This is to get protection from accidental fire,
as the houses are in close rows.
The poor households are always subjected to live hand to mouth under the changing
circumstances; thus they are not able to accommodate the programmes effectively.
Very poor and financing:
Lending loans successfully to the extremely poor is a problem area. Very poor household are
targeted to these micro-financing programmes, which with high cost of capacity building and
skill acquired from training programmes are encouraged. The NGO sector acts well in these
circumstances. The following financial concepts are very relevant under the condition.
Group lending is necessary condition for successful lending to the poor
Savings discipline must be imposed in order to making habit to the por to save.
The provision of savings, loan size and date of repayment should be flexible.
Poor should be given the freedom to utilize the loan for the purpose they need eg.
Social purposes, health, consumption etc.
Moreover, the extremely poor require support for successful management of credit and of
financial services and to prevent incapacitation of a productive member of the household, or
to avert seasonal food shortages thereby maintain productive member of the household.
The poor rural households commonly buy and sell their livestock as a means of managing
their cash. The extremely poor households transactions are usually much smaller than the
value of livestock. Thus financial services in the form of loans or saving deposits, if readily
available and flexible regarding the size and timely transaction and allow the poor households
to effectively manage their savings.
The very poor families have equally very poor capacity for weekly savings. The Koraput
Block villages initially came out with Rs.0.50 per member weekly saving and discontinued in
rainy season. The savings later years registered growth. However, up till 1999 the project
could register 13 villages out of 100 who did not agree to form a SHG. The personal
confidence levels of the extremely poor are low and many are reluctant to enter into new
challenges. They were approached regularly by highly skilled Block Extension Team of the
project who were working since 1994-95 with them regularly as service providers and
community organization level.
Later on, it was agreed that such very poor groups and poor SHG groups who have six months
of saving activities were instituted with Rs.2, 000/- grant. The proportional grant to saving
amounts was waived to them for first grant. This was to encourage them.
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The increased income generations is the focus under such circumstances. An integrated chain
of poultry production through providing training plus support that ensures continuity of input
supply and marketing assistance that resulted in the improvement of living standard of poor in
Bangladesh have shown way. The very poor have the ability to compete effectively in certain
areas of activities. The continuous support to increase income generation and keep the group
functional is most vital.
Generally, extremely poor households have limited repayment capacity and easily become
over-committed because of determination of debt capacity in their decisions is lacking. They
become easily defaulters and use the credit accessibility and thus in long term does not help
them. However, in our experience we could see that the very poor and poor members start
with very small initial loans, and gradually in two to three years the loan amount improved
steadily. The group members help in building the outcome of activities, thus loan size, type
and period. The decision thus takes care of debt capacity of the member.
The labour availability of poor households varies depending upon the activities. This is one
of the areas that help them to over the difficulties. The project constructions, like railways,
industries and other constructions also the food for work programme help the needy families,
as seen from Koraput experiences. Generally labour earning builds up the savings of
members.
Loan sizes, lending strategies and poverty concept:
There are millions of poor households, who have been given access to loans from many
sources other than moneylenders, traders, or families and friends. Poor women, have also
empowered the accessibility to financial services through microfinance programmes. There
are two important concerns, of which one is operation of some programmes and the extent to
which the goals of serving the poor and achieving institutional sustainability. The increasing
income is proportionately to amount borrowed.
The smaller impact for the poor compared to better off clients is attributed to their greater
reluctance to undertake risky investments. This was seen from Koraput block and Jeypore
block loan sized and frequency of loans (Table-10, Annexure I and II).
The special designed features in microfinance lending have resulted improvement of poverty
status. These features include savings schemes, intensive loan collection and market rates of
interest. The existence of savings is expected to improve loan repayment by increasing both
the willingness and the ability of borrowers to repay. This is well established and documented
from studies of Self Help Groups.
The repeated loans and increase in loan sizes are characteristics and indicators that members
and groups are in transition to positive direction from poor to non-poor and then above
poverty line.
The Commercial Banks or organised Banks lending poor:
It is commonly believed that serving a poor clientele implies high costs and risks for lenders,
because the loans to the poor are necessarily small, and the lending costs are expected to be
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high and the poor have few assets acceptable for traditional collateral lending. For these two
reasons, alternative sources of credit through groups have come to the existence.
Commercial financial/bank institutions in India are weak and do not adequately service the
poor. These institutions are typically not conveniently located, require substantial collateral
for loans, and impose large costs on savings.
Consumption loan and Sickness:
Studies from India suggest that sales of livestock help insure consumption. (Fafchamps, Udry
and Czukas, 1998)
The consumption pattern among Koraput tribal has been analysed (Kornel, 2002). The hill
tribes as well as many primitive tribes who are in transition or failed to make a successful
transition to secured economy do feel the seasonal food scarcity. The degree varies even the
type and quality of food materials used at home during the food scarcity months. The
financial status of these households even forbids them to purchase the subsidised food made
available by government to them. The ready cash in many times are not available at home on
those fixed dates when subsidised grain is offered for sale.
The helping families insure consumption against major illness shocks. Townsend (1994) has
found that the percentage of the year that an adult male is sick has no impact on consumption.
However, Kochar (1995) did not confirm the finding. She finds that illness to the male lowers
wage income and increases informal borrowing during peak periods in the agricultural cycle,
but that there are no effects during the slack periods and no effects of female illness.
Bad harvest or job loss results in a deterioration of health and also household income.
It is not surprising that families in the developing world without a credit or saving account are
commonly vulnerable to unfavorable health shocks. Similarly, nobody shall be surprised that
families in the developing world that live far from a financial institution are less likely to have
savings accounts. It is somewhat surprising how important access to financial institutions is
in helping families deal with adverse health shocks. It has been adequately seen in our
experience and in Koraput block of villages; where in a given time the family members would
be seen suffering from health problems, like malaria, mal nutrition etc. These communities
are seen to take more health loans compared with other blocks. Thus, these loans are small in
number, but are needed very timely in availability and effectively. These are available from
the SHGs. They have much bearing on the life and living of such vulnerable communities.
However poor SHGs with resources opportunity quickly capitalize Bank loan as seen in
Jeypore block SHGs. (Annexure - V)
Social Changes:
The traumatised experiences of past development efforts in some individuals is express with
different degree of in disciplined behaviour expressed as noisy and unruly in village
discussion forums. They do not want any out siders in their village. This was often felt in
some very poor villages. They even did not return smiles from visitors, very angry they were!
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In many of these villages the dead animal flesh in strips were hanging in households, flies
infested giving foul smell were common. This was an endeavor to conserve excess food
materials for future family need out of dead animals, in most cases they were due to animal
diseases and epidemics. The women out of their helplessness complained the mortality of
chicken due to epidemics, when they know we are form Livestock Department. This was the
initial general reaction.
The Koraput block and its community were the greatest challenge for all and to the project. It
means creating awareness to their problems with possible solutions, which can bring out
changes measurable in terms of indicators. The community was to administer the solutions
itself. This was what Block Extension Team of ILDP was to do.
The multiple outcomes that appear due to resourceless, illiteracy and poor food security
coupled with ill-health makes it more complex problem that human society suffers. The food
security becomes acute due to frequent livestock diseases and mortality coupled with lack of
knowledge and skill around to combat. This continues as the poor community banks on
purchase of cheap old and diseased animals from the weekly markets, whose entry further
spreads diseases in the village livestock. These cheap animals further cost heavy to the poor
households. This is due to lack of knowledge and compulsion of poverty.
The community looks forward to labour for earning food through wages. This is again
dependent on able body persons and gender biased. The sick people do not get the
opportunity to earn some wages. This again happens to families who are dependent on rain
fed seasonal agriculture. Thus, it can be concluded that health shocks can effect consumption
to family; as well as consumption can affect health shocks. This is the cycle of poverty,
where it becomes difficult to approach to relieve poverty and the community to come out of
the poverty. It is only possible when both agree to remedy poverty. The community starts to
think; people from outside as facilitators develop the thinking processes. The community
appears in the centre of the stage in small groups to help themselves, called Self Help Groups.
The discipline is expressed in deeds through by-laws, followed. The thinking process
directed to improve living.
Such villages need at least 2 to 3 years of constant approach to be receptive and to form self
help groups. Most of the communities had no past experience to have disciplined meetings.
However, in such social situation it becomes most difficult when the women groups are being
organised. Initially, the drunken men try to peep into women groups disturbing also
discouraging such activities. The women giving a try help out the facilitators by supporting
the cause of hope and shout at men to keep out. Then, it starts the stage of better life. This I
had witnessed at Gopalput village, now after 5 years it is a leading women SHG, which has
shown the way of a new life to many villages. They could sit and interact with His
Excellency Dr. C. Rangarajan, Honble Governor of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh on his visit,
who appreciated tribal womens efforts in the direction and expressed his hope that the
country shall march towards prosperity.
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Between Male SHGs and women SHGs:

The ILDP started with three male SHGs in Kundra block, initially. It was seen that the men
groups became defunct and this was due to this impatience of not receiving grant from
government. Thus, it was suggests by all BET members to stick to women SHGs for all new
group formation henceforth. The women SHGs were found to be sincere and honest to the
purpose and they could rightly visualize and felt the objectives to be their future family
raising. The women groups were serious members of SHGs and also encouraged neighboring
village and neighbor women to form SHGs and actively assisted them about the roles,
objectives, management and linkages.
The women group formation and development goes well once the facilitators are also women
or are part of mixed group facilitators. This is important aspect and socially approved.
Non- Tribal, Scheduled Caste and Tribal members in SHGs:
The project villages are composed of non-tribals, couple of Scheduled Caste and majority of
Tribal families. It is advisable to accommodate few non-tribal poor families and Scheduled
Caste families in village SHGs. The frequency of such happenings is very small in real case.
Our experience goes that,
a)
As number of SC representative in a village is small, they get excluded, because of social

status issues of the societies. If one or two members of SC find a place in SHGs, they sit
in one side; she places here weekly saving on the floor and also lifts the loan from the
floor. This is not a good situation.
b)
The non-tribal families like Brahmins and other caste families in some villages find a
place in SHG. They are poor families. They assist the SHGs in many ways like book
writing, communication etc. Tribal women members take them equally. I saw the
situation in 4 SHGs. Gradually, the non-tribal families leave the SHGs. The book writers
in 2 to 3 years time are replaced with their own community member. The theory that the
caste people dominate the poor and tribal is not valid, it is in the equal opportunity terms.
Interest rate to loans and recovery rate in SHGs

Interest rate in SHGs: - The interest rate by local moneylenders in the regions is between 60 to
120 per cent per annum. However, SHG members in all groups have fixed the rate of interest
at 24 per cent per annum, but most credits are limiting to 6-month period.
There is no universal formula for the provision of financial resources to poorer people, but
surely there is an increasing consensus that, the interest rate should be market determined and
the lending agency should be decentralized.
The small groups have inbuilt risk- reducing mechanism. The success stories of SHGs in
ILDP are due to small groups, where the members share detailed knowledge of each others
circumstances and a social cohesiveness. The defaults (especially where the source of loan is
members own savings) are under pressure of the group member to repay the loans. This is
specially the case as the source of loans is members own savings in ILDP SHGs. Similar
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findings have been reported for Korea, Taiwan and BRAC schemes in Bangladesh (Carney,
1998).
The small SHGs, showed 100 per cent recovery rate, spread over 6 years in the study. Similar
findings have been reported and explained by Jain (1992). A further advantage is the
transparency of relationships between lenders and borrowers within the group environment
(Johnson and Rogaly, 1997). The model was suggested for World Bank spending for credit
institutions and it is also on record that many have failed. It thus concluded that the suitability
of groups is a function underlying social relationship along with participatory group activities
(Hulme and Mosley, 1996). Group cohesiveness needs to be genuine for results and
sustainability of SHGs (Casney, 1998).
Progress towards new goals:
In general, rural people often have no opportunities for savings and they are forced into
inefficient uses of their money, for example saving with no interest at home or frequently,
investing in non-productive business. Carney (1998) was of the opinion that it was cultural
and also economic reasons (if it can be very profitable) is why people invest in livestock, this
strategy can also be very risky. This is the case where general livestock health is not good and
the increase in livestock populations which it implies leads to over-grazing and crop damage
However as per our experiences we found that under our situations the farmers are careful to
invest on sheep and goat, pigs and poultry rearing when given the opportunity and freedom
to choose. This does hold to large ruminants also because of greed for cow dung manure and
they consider cattle as a source of wealth. Many tribals in the district use female cattle in
ploughing the agricultural lands. The farmers balance this situation very wisely and stratify to
different other pursuits for IGA other than local and agriculture base. They find out very many
new ways to invest the loans and it comes out of the group discussion process. So the thinking
process emerges from the SHG meetings and the community benefits from it.
The ILDP Block Extension Teams (BETs) assisted the formation and management of SHGs
through direct assisting them. The challenge was non-literacy status and women in the centre
of it. Traditionally women under her cultural context were not supposed to take up such jobs.
However, the initiative was a non-traditional one and was not without difficult hurdles.
Initially, the SHGs and behind them the villagers in total were aspirants for the grant amount.
But ILDP remained silent over grant issue and never promised anything and continued
building SHGs over a period of 20 months. There was natural constraint as the project
implementation were cautious to come up with suitable government orders with regards to
grant allocation as it was a new concept and as all government expenditures should register
audit. Before the grant was approved the SHG members were facilitated to take loans from
their own saving amounts. This greatly improved the confidence of women in SHGs and they
became more matured at decision and utilization of loans, thus received. The Grant concept
was approved by Government of Orissa through a Government Order and there commenced
a new era of SHG in the development of rural communities in the State. The ILDP played an
important role in bring up the GO on SHG Grants.
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Income Generation Activities (IGA):

SHG members were allowed to choose any income generation activity they wish and utilise
village SHG loans. Generally, the IGA skill deficiency results in stagnation of funds and nonloan utilization. The members were trained with various skills, both basic and packages along
with visits to witness successful stories. The increase in vision of members particularly
isolated tribal hill people was most essential and proved very effective.
The need assessment of farmers as well as the request call for loan by individuals from each
SHGs spread across four blocks were analysed before instituting training as well as visits for
member farmers. It was clearly seen from the study that in plains major ambition was rice
farming, the hill farmers were more ambitious in animal husbandry. Many farmers of
Koraput block were found to be lacking knowledge of chemical fertilizers and the dose at
applications. So, basic course in agriculture were followed by small demonstration of different
small millets, legumes at village level. Soon it was formulated to give practical knowledge in
vegetable cultivation, which most were lacking knowledge. The plain land farmers wanted
monsoon vegetable growing skills. The farmers were supplied with improved tested seeds of
ragi approved by National and State departments. The arhar (pigeon pea) was the collections
from the tribal villages of Laxmipur and Umerkote region. The project believed to improve
production of existing crops, under traditional system and thus avoided introducing new crop
types. The small millets, legumes like arhar and cuttings (Dongar rani) were the choice. A
limited quantity was sold to farmers and assisted.
The farmers visited crops on demonstration plots, and received direct knowledge. However, it
was seen that the tribal farmers were very careful to adopt new technology specially adoption
of new variety seeds. Even though they witness good harvest in person and learned skill they
do not accept readily. They have many considerations and angles to look into it, as it is
question of sole living for a family, without tangible alternatives.
In our experience, it takes about 4 years (4 seasons) constant and continuous work with the
tribal farmers to induce them to accept a successful technology. There after acceptance
improves very fast with increased spread effect as we had seen the introduction of the
improved high production ragi like Indaf-8 etc. acceptance in ILDP villagers.
The hill members demand very early maturing ragi varieties as it fits to their system, but plain
people like the long duration ragi varieties.
The pigeon pea was a part of the mixed farming system of Koraput tribal. Now this is limited
to few tribal groups. The Koraput block as well as Nandapur blocks also in Jeypore and
Kundra block this is totally out. In absence of legumes the soil fertility has declined rapidly so
also crop production. Reintroduction of pigeon pea genotypes for local area was found readily
acceptable. The pigeon pea crop adds 40 kg Nitrogen per hectares.
As said above, Jeypore farmers were rice oriented, and had to improve the rice production
from 12 bags (70 kg/bag) to 30 bags and above per acre. The recent migrated Andhra Farmers
in Jeypore get above 30 bags of rice per acre. The tribal farmers are aware of it. Training both
theoretical and practical was organised by Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack. About
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450 ,both men and women farmers attended the training. Visit to Cuttack and staying at the
Institute under the most modern amenities, and training in Air Conditioned training halls by
Senior Scientists made a great impact on their vision. This made a great visible impact on
their life and some sort of determination to give quality educational to children was witness in
later years. After return, many SHGs in Jeypore block particularly made it mandatory that
SHG members children should attend school. Many even instituted extra tuition fee to
children as a group in the village. One could see the village school active with lantern in the
night.
They have adopted modern practice of rice farming, became keen to do fish farming. Some
have now future visions to establish pond base multi-agriculture. In two years, most farmers
exceeded 22 bags of rice per acre; even some touched 28 bag of rice. They grew azola in
paddy fields, in limited cases. Women adopted line sowing of paddy. Soon they switched to
vegetable cultivations and adopted new high yield seeds. This activity further enhanced due to
farmers visits to Bangladeshi settler farmers at Umerkote of Undivided Koraput. The
Bangladeshi shelters are superior in growing maize, vegetables and even rice. Idea behind was
to induce stratification of agriculture in order to get market and price, as rice was the
dominant crop. The result was amply seen in weekly markets, in later years and is continuing.
However, the project maintained additional thrust in hill blocks. The livelihood generation
under low soil fertility and highly acidic soil with 3 to 4 months rainfall followed by 8-month
dry period was the challenge. They are resource poor, skill poor and starve with poverty. The
tribal farmers of Koraput block are mostly Sano-Paroja. It is surprising that one tribe group
remain secluded from other tribes. In the vicinity, the Laxmipur block Kondhs are better
agriculturists than Sano-Parojas under the similar and difficult terrains. So, about 350 farmers
from Koraput block were introduced to Laxmipur Kondh farmers. They were received happily
and explained proudly their agriculture skills particularly the importance of fencing and
terracing the fields and turmeric cultivation. Visits to Kondh farm and KVK, Semiliguda in
agriculture has a lasting impact on Sano-Paroja farmers.
The Laxmipur Kondh farmers instead paid visit to neighbouring Dongra Kondhs of
Bisamacuttack. They came spellbound at the horticulture techniques of Dongria Kondhs.
A part from training at village level by retired and Department of Agriculture officers, most
training was drawn from K.V.K. Semiliguda. The initial efforts were directed to improve food
production at household level, through improved technology from traditional crops.
The animal husbandry skills were mainly targeted initially on small animals including village
poultry. The thrust was to control epidemics of Ranikhet Disease (RD) and Fowl Pox (FP) as
well as worms. Once it was achieved, the confidence level of community improved, there by
the receptiveness as well as acceptance to new skills improved.
The sheep and goat rearing training sessions were initiated in villages with interest group
farmers. The PRA was employed to examine the smallholder performance along with problem
analysis. This included the stock position, growth of the flock with context to the family. This
analysis in-group could open up the thinking and comparative process. Thinking process was
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adjunct with solutions. Need of farmers and problems of significance did come up slowly in
this process, which was essential for further development and production.
Institutional training on small animal especially sheep and goat production is deficient in and
around Koraput; thus training curriculum was designed such that they can be useful for village
base trainings. It included knowledge of Orissa breeds, few from outside State, management
and housing, feeding practices and selection of breeding flocks, inbreeding, selection etc.
Farmers do not know the knowledge of parasite infestation cycle. The explanations of parasite
entry into body of animals and the ways that they harm the host make them to think over
issues of deworming. As they understand knowledge behind periodic deworming, their
adoption and acceptance are well improved. These sessions did discuss the preventive
measures for infectious diseases and common disease conditions.
ILDP SHG Farmers in Training session at Central Rice Research institute, Cuttach
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ILDP SHG Farmers interacting with scientists on Azola

cultivation at Central Rice research Institute, Cuttack..
Farmers adopting line sowing of rice

The causes of diseases are not well understood to tribal farmers, many still have superstitious
beliefs. The explanation to disease and epidemics is most interest to them, provided explained
through drawings and otherwise in an appropriate manner to their learning level.
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Sustainability of SHGs
The SHGs sustainability depends on financial sustainability
a)
A good transparent accounting system with accountability through a secured system and
monitored by auditing system is most essential.
b)
Income generation and loan utilization go together and are highly positively correlated.
The income generation skills need to be updated periodically.
Institutional sustainability
a) The SHGs managed by members and assisted by a proactive policy from government
with support at grass root level also linkage to various development oriented institutions is
most essential.
The ILDP SHGs were formed on a firm account management concept. The MYRADA, NGO
from Bangalore had extended the training assistance to ILDP BETs. There are always
opinions that a written account system should be avoided, and people take loans and payback.
However, a good account and record book keeping was emphasized and instituted. This was
initially seen as a most difficult step, but later the school drops and school going children
assisted the SHGs on account and book keeping.
The book writers are forbidden to be SHG members and were strictly not allowed to handle
any fund of SHGs.
The SHGs soon started paying service fees amounting Rs. 100/- per month (4 weekly
meetings) to book writers. One or more SHG groups both in the village and other villages
employed same book writers. Many perceived employment opportunity as SHGs spread in
other villages. The book writer from Sindigaon, Jeypore block was writing SHG books for at
least 10 SHGs and also was facilitating new SHG formation for NGOs and others. The other
sides, in Kundra block few book writers took advantage of their dependability and demanded
high service fees. This was addressed through training of new book writers in the block.
Bankers and Bank linkage to SHGs:
The SHGs get to know the bankers of rural areas. They are local bankers and also national
banks with branches. The Bankers spread across rural areas are the one easily accessible by
SHGs. In initial years we noticed that Bankers were looking at SHGs as their competitors and
thus perceived threat. They felt that the easily available soft interest loans by SHGs could
significantly reduce their business. They pointed out it to be against their interest.
The NABARD (National Agricultural Bank representative) took the lead to give co-operation
to SHGs as a policy. They made efforts to motivate the local Bankers through two workshops
with ILDP SHG implementers. Acceptance improved by Bankers to co-operate with SHG
Bank accounts. Now, after six year we witness bank-targeting SHGs for safe loans
investment, because repayment rate is 100 percent. The following table amply demonstrates
the statement.(Annexure-V)
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The SHGs take short and large loan amounts, which they utilize in agricultural activities etc.
when the members all need additional loans during main agriculture season.
Confidence level of institutions simultaneously improves on SHGs to disperse large loans; it
is particularly the SGSY, Banks and other development-based institutions who work with a
target by government and policy. There is risk that such loans are very large, attract SHGs due
to subsidy component and it is not need or preference basis. It is a package mostly. The SHGs
are given the loan in kinds and in cash for livestock at different frequency. These loans to
SHG members in groups, it has the provision of individual members loan along group
activities like dairy cattle loans. But in most cases the SHG members became default. But it
should have a loan component with training and the farmer should have the full freedom to
utilize the loan will lead to least risk and higher sustainability, specially under poverty
situations, where families are just coming close to come above poverty line. However in
Andhra Pradesh the SHGs are linked to banks for loans immediately after attaining eligibility
to utilize productive loan. Here the freedom to choose the loan size and utilizations improves
the usefulness of such programme.
There are many donor agencies who are working in the similar geographical region but vary
widely at offering grant funds to SHGs. Some villages and SHGs come up with suggestions
to diminish the differences. Such cases do appear frequently among SHGs who are linked to
bank loans assistance and other get donor grants. A practical look is essential into the
situation.
Farmers at exhibition cum demonstration session at Kundra
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Tamarind value addition by ILDP SHG members, Jeypore
Proud family before newly constructed home

SHG performance in terms of Finance:
The SHG financial performance was analysed and given in Table 11 and 12.
The Jeypore SHGs had an average common fund (savings) of Rs. 33,710 3,641 per SHG
which was maximum and Laxmipur SHGs had the lowest of Rs. 14,441 1,369. Even
161

though, Koraput block was poorest of all four blocks, each SHG sincerely saved Rs. 19,158
2,033. It also indicated that within the groups variation was high. This may be attributed to
newly formed SHGs.
Loan issued to each SHG in Jeypore on an average was Rs. 1, 55,984 18,676, where as
Kundra had Rs. 70, 411 11,118. This indicated loan size was smaller in all SHGs except but
Jeypore block SHGs.
As per records, indicated earlier the repayment of loan back to SHG was nearly 100 percent in
all the four blocks. This is partly due to tribals high moral and ethics, when they are in social
groups.
The average interest earned per SHG was highest in Jeypore block, Rs. 19,270 and lowest in
Laxmipur Rs. 1538. The gestation period in Laxmipur was high. The interest thus earned went
to SHG common fund, which otherwise could have gone to Money lenders or Banks.
Performance of Laxmipur SHGs was average; the income generation activity sources were
limited due to hill location, and away from development centers and markets. The language
problem and seasonal accessibility also contributed.
If the SHGs would have obtained loans from money lenders locally, they had to pay Rs.
7142414 simple interest at @ 60% and if paid after a year it could have double the amount.
33,710
Total
ILDP
grant received
upto 15.11.02
in Rs.
34890
Loan
issued to
members
in Rs.
155984
Interest paid
by members to
SHG @ 24%
in Rs.
19270
Money Lender
Interest
@
60% if paid in
Rs.
93590
Average
S.E.
Koraput
3641
19158
1317
27264
18676
38343
9208
23006
Average
S.E.
Laxmipur
2033
14441
1645
18504
7047
28073
1538
16843
1369
17446
1803
23080
4963
70411
1689
42247
1613
11879
11118
Blocks
SHG
common
fund in Rs.
Jeypore
Average
S.E.
Kunrda
Average
S.E.
*Common fund included savings, fines and interest collected in the SHG
162

No. of
SHGs
SHG total
common
fund in
Rs.
Total ILDP
grant received
upto 15.11.02
in Rs,
Total loan
issued to
members
in Rs.
Total
Interest paid
by members
to SHG @
24% in Rs.
Money
Lender
Interest @
60% if
paid in Rs.
Jeypore
46
1554797
1604980
7175247
886422
4305148
Koraput
36
689680
981510
1380360
334286
828216
Laxmipur
34
490997
969150
954490
52278
572664
Kundra
34
593180
784736
2393976
574554
1436386
3328654
4340376
11904073
1844540
7142414
Blocks
Total
Lessons learnt:
Women Self Help Groups behave responsible and with them the sustainability is very
high.
Illiteracy and resource less women take significantly long time than illiterate and
resourceful women to form SHGs.
Language problem of tribal women and facilitator do slow down the process (our
experience in Laxmipur Kondh villages).
Tribal women members and scheduled caste women members do not go smoothly in
the group.
Tribal women gradually take control of SHGs from non-tribal women members
More trained Book Keepers from the community (school drop out or going children)
do well thus monopoly and bargaining is reduced.
Three years support and training followed by planned phase out makes very strong
SHGs.
The facilitators should preferably be women and attend SHG meetings. The meeting
time at 7 a.m. to 8 a.m. and 6p.m. to 7 p.m. is suitable, followed by weekly regular
meetings.
A strong account management is most essential for growth and sustainability of SHGs.
The Book Keeper should not handled funds of SHGs and it is most vital.
163

Income generation activities should be instituted simultaneously for strengthening the

livelihood.
Basic agriculture like chemical fertilizer, bio-fertilizers, use of sprayers, vegetable

growing and source of seed procurements, basic animal health and management is
essential to growth of SHG members.
The capacity building of SHG members, increase knowledge of AIDs, schooling of

children, poverty and alcohol and place and position of women in families are
essential to empower women.
The knowledge and courage of women to work with government departments and
political system is most essential.
The visit to neighbors successful tribal (other tribes), institutions of learning is vital to
increase knowledge and vision.
The trainees should be handle kindly and respectfully.
The honesty of tribal women reporting should be respected.
There were 3 to 4 defaulters out of 2650 SHG members, the community force (3 to 4
village members) is unavoidable and they pay immediately.
The saving component in SHGs before grant is instituted is most essential.
Total freedom and choice to utilise loan of SHGs is giving very high confidence level
and results.
The District Collectors, DRDA PDs, BDOs, ILDP and PMU visits to SHGs is
improving the level of confidence.
Honest payment of grants to groups through bank draft in the SHG account increases
the respect and trust level between the SHGs and implementing agency.
Process building concept of SHG is very valid under tribal women, illiterate
condition.
Federation is improving their platform to work with Panchayat, Bank and Government
Departments.
164

165

166

167

168

(Purpose of loan utilization)
169

170

171

172

References
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Review 77, 26-27
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(U.K. & Ireland) and ACTIONAID.
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Shocks. American Economic Review, 85, 159-164.
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(1997) MYRADA Experience on Revolving Fund Management, Indo-DanishProject,
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173

Mosley, Paul and David Hulme (1998) Microenterprise finance: is then a conflict
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No.3, 539-691
Yasmin Master and Vidya Ramachandran (1998) Internal Review of Integrated
livestock Development Project, Koraput ,Orissa on Village Revolving Fund (SHGs).
174

Loan parity, purpose, number of loans, average amount per loan for Jeypore SHGs
(1997-2002)
Pattern of loan utilisation by SHG households of Jeypore block
Loan1
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
Loan7
Loan8
Loan9
Loan10
Loan11
Loan12
Total
90275
53000
50500
30000
15500
1000
315325
Agriculture 451085 844780
1189580
873680
755195
586000
437700
265000
109000
28500
13000
17000
5570520
Business
77950
88900
53400
62000
19700
45500
14000
20000
492332
A.H
Loan2
29750 45300
47657 63225
Consumption1660
520
2180
Education
500
200
2700
1700
900
200
6200
G.M.R.
3200
3200
6000
4500
4000
20900
Health
12620 12265
16800
4020
1500
1200
1300
49705
Housing
46500 54000
40300
32600
44000
11400
1500
25000
255300
L.M.R.
8600
32500
37250
14000
18500
14000
124850
Purchase
11000 16500
49600
71000
15000
15000
13000
3000
194100
Social
26925 36945
25100
10700
5965
36200
2000
143835
Total
639497 1109435
1535555
1154100
948060
756700
490900
338500
124000
48500
13000
17000
7175247
Land
Number of Loans by SHG households of Jeypore Block
Loan1 Loan2
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
Loan7
Loan8
Loan9
Loan10
Loan11
Loan12
Total
A.H
35
37
26
15
10
132
Agriculture
603
576
521
306
212
136
88
48
19
2518
Business
96
68
36
28
14
12
268
Consumption 5
Education
11
G.M.R.
18
Health
47
29
19
12
115
Housing
33
21
15
86
L.M.R.
10
33
21
10
123
662
396
259
173
103
57
21
3344
Land Purchase
33
Social
51
27
Total
884 779
175

Average amount per Loan by SHG households of Jeypore Block

Loan1
Loan2
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
Loan7
Loan8
Loan9 Loan10 Loan11 Loan12
A.H
850.00 1224.32 3472.12 3533.33 5050.00 6000.00 5166.67
Agriculture
748.07 1466.63 2283.26 2855.16 3562.24 4308.82 4973.86 5520.83 5736.84 5700.00 6500.00 8500.00
Business
496.43
929.78 2165.28 3175.00 3814.29 5166.67 3940.00 6500.00 14000.00 20000.00
0.00
0.00
Consumption
332.00
260.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Education
500.00
200.00
540.00
850.00
0.00
900.00
200.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
G.M.R.
533.33
640.00 3000.00 1500.00 2000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Health
268.51
422.93
600.00
650.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Housing
1409.09 2571.43 2686.67 4657.14 8800.00 3800.00 1500.00 25000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
L.M.R
2150.00 4642.86 3725.00 3500.00 3700.00 4666.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
L.P.
3666.67 2750.00 7085.71 7888.89 5000.00 7500.00 6500.00 3000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Social
884.21
335.00
375.00
0.00 1000.00
0.00
527.94 1368.33 1195.24 1070.00 1491.25 4022.22 2000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Loan parity, purpose, number of loans, average amount per loan for Kundra SHGs
(1997-2002)
Pattern of loan utilisation by SHG households of Kundra block
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10
L11
2000
L12
A.H
27542 41525 35650 50150 45600 45400 37000 43600 11000
Agric.
62100 123105 123220 141965 138910 126050 97990 72950 78360 43950 14800
Business 23039 36040 37220 45775 34100 39920 26950 18100 21020 23700
Consp
Edn.
L15
L16 Total
5000
357967
9500 12000
8000
0 1052900
7500
4000
3700
5000
3000
329064
6840
4580
2260
2775
2240
700
700
26515
200
150
100
1150
400
300
200
200
2700
8100
7200 13200
5000
103750
2700
3000
28065
3400 11100
1000
3000
158864
4700
5300 17300
9850 14100
Health
5535
2700
5220
Housing
9805 18385 20300 13864 16000 24360 26650 11000

21301
3860
3450
950
8700 10300
250
400
3000 10200 10600 31500 14000 31000 20000 16000
157601
4600
107300
7000
5000
4000
69250
167742 248995 285930 294984 306785 280020 250640 188950 156680 103950 30800 37400 21200 11900
5000
L.P.
1300
8200 22000
9700
Social
5800
3750 11600
5500 12200
Total
2500 11000
L14
6420
G.M.R.
L.M.R.
L13
7000 16500 13000 10000 15000

2100
8400
1900
2000
176
3000 2393976

Number of Loans by SHG households of Kundra Block

L1
A.H
L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16Total

51
64
46 56
42
32 16
13
Agric. 148 182 168 133 108
88 63
45
34
15
10
0 1000
Business106 78
64 72
44
33 22
14
16
465
Consmp.73 46
39 21
16
12
218
11
329
Education2
G.M.R. 11
16 10
13
90
Health 39
19
18 13
109
Housing61 65
48 30
25
25 21
294
L.M.R. 3
11
50
L.P.
29
Social 24
16
14
14
89
Total 520 488 426 353 288 216 151 100
67
37
17
11
2684
Average amount per Loan by SHG households of Kundra Block

L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15 L16
A.H
540.04 648.83 775.00 895.54 1085.71 1418.75 2312.50 3353.85 3666.67 2000.00 1250.00 5500.00 5000.00
Agric
419.59 676.40 733.45 1067.41 1286.20 1432.39 1555.40 1621.11 2304.71 2930.00 1480.00 3166.67 6000.00 8000.00 0.00 0.00
Business 217.35 462.05 581.56 635.76 775.00 1209.70 1225.00 1292.86 1313.75 2633.33 2500.00 4000.00
0.00 3700.05000.03000.0
Conssmp 87.95 148.70 117.44 107.62 173.44 186.67 116.67 140.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Edn.
0.00
0.00
0.00 300.00 200.00 200.00 0.00 0.00
100.00 150.00
0.00 100.00 383.33 400.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
G.M.R. 427.27 588.89 1081.25 985.00 1084.62 1012.50 1087.50 1716.67 2400.00 3300.00
0.00 2500.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
Health 141.92 142.11 214.44 401.54 383.33 316.67 250.00 200.00 675.00 3000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
Housing 160.74 282.85 422.92 462.13 640.00 974.40 1269.05 1222.22 1700.00 1850.00 1000.00 3000.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
L.M.R. 7100.33 750.00 1275.00 1766.67 2863.64 2800.00 5166.67 5000.00 5333.33
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
L.P.
650.00 2050.00 4400.00 2425.00 2333.33 2750.00 6500.0010000.0015000.00
0.00
0.00 4600.00
0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
Social
241.67 234.38 828.57 785.71 871.43 700.00 1400.00 1900.00 2000.00 7000.00 5000.00
0.00 4000.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
Loan parity, purpose, number of loans, average amount per loan for Koraput SHGs
(1997-2002)
177

Pattern of loan utilisation by SHG households of Koraput block

Loan1
A.H
Loan2 Loan3 Loan4 Loan5 Loan6 Loan7 Loan8 Loan9 Loan10 Loan11 Loan12
Total
70180 56900 50200 33300 36000 29500 22000 19000 13000 16200 15600 10000 371880
Agriculture 108300 126050 94300 76200 25000

Business
9900
3350
2500
0 445600
21700 43600 62900 22600 17700 30700 10700 10000
500
3000
0 223400
Consumption 40020 17350
7400
1560
700
350
300
400
1000
0 69080
Education
2200
1700
2300
2100
400
400
500
G.M.R.
2200
9000
4000
0 15200
Health
14300 11150
3100
250
9800
2800 10400
600
600
0 53000
Housing
34050 18100 22200 15000
3800
3300
0 96450
L.M.R.
Land Purchase
Social
1900
7700
4200
8700
3000
700
0 26200
5300 10800
0 69950
16100 23300 14450
Total
9600
310950 314850 265050 165010 106800 76950 47450 32300 15600 19800 15600 100001380360
Number of Loans by SHG households of Koraput Block

Loan1
A.H
Loan2 Loan3 Loan4 Loan5 Loan6 Loan7 Loan8 Loan9Loan10Loan11Loan12Total

87
58
52
17
12
250
180
126
59
43
16
435
22
20
22
10
96
Consumption 141
51
18
11
230
10
28
G.M.R.
10
Health
45
25
10
98
Housing
31
15
12
73
L.M.R.
17
Land Purchase 0
0
60
Agriculture
Business
Education
Social
19
18
14
Total
543
330
196
103
54
25
16
11
2 1297
178

Average amount per Loan by SHG households of Koraput Block

Loan1
Loan2
Loan3
Loan5
Loan6
Loan7
Loan8
Loan9 Loan10 Loan11 Loan12
A.H
806.67
Agriculture
601.67 1000.40 1598.31 1772.09 1562.50 1650.00 1116.67 1250.00
Business
986.36 2180.00 2859.09 2260.00 2212.50 4385.71 3566.67 5000.00
Consumption
283.83
340.20
411.11
141.82
233.33
350.00
150.00
Education
220.00
242.86
460.00
700.00
0.00
400.00
G.M.R.
550.00 2250.00 2000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Health
317.78
Housing
L.M.R.
Land Purchase
Social
981.03
Loan4
965.38 1958.82 3000.00 5900.00 5500.00 4750.00 6500.00 5400.00 3900.00 5000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
500.00 3000.00
0.00
0.00
200.00 1000.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
400.00
500.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
933.33 3466.67
0.00
300.00
300.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
700.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
847.37 1294.44 1032.14 1060.00 2700.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
446.00
310.00
125.00 1633.33
1098.39 1206.67 1850.00 1666.67
950.00 1650.00
475.00 1283.33 2100.00 2900.00 3000.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Loan parity, purpose, number of loans, average amount per loan for Laxmipur SHGs
(1997-2002)
Pattern of loan utilisation by SHG households of Laxmipur block
Purpose
Loan1
Loan2
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
Total
A.H.
76800
147160
67000
44500
13500
348960
Agric.
93230
150020
71490
23900
4000
1400
344040
Business
12170
24600
21250
9000
67020
Consumption
15360
3740
350
2000
21450
580
500
500
1580
G.M.R
1800
2000
5300
9100
Health
7190
1700
1000
2600
12490
Housing
2400
9500
7000
5000
10000
33900
2000
3000
1000
6000
L.P.
3100
29000
20500
18350
7000
10000
87950
Social
7050
5200
6350
3400
22000
Total
217880
375220
200440
114050
35500
11400
954490
Education
L.M.R.
179

Number of Loans by SHG households of Laxmipur Block

Purpose
Loan1
Loan2
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
Total
85
109
47
23
270
213
170
79
21
491
31
10
52
107
29
141
Education
G.M.R
Health
27
36
Housing
18
L.M.R.
Land Purchase
22
Social
22
16
11
53
Total
494
359
166
64
16
1102
A.H
Agriculture
Business
Consumption
Average amount per Loan by SHG households of Laxmipur Block
Purpose
Loan1
Loan2
Loan3
Loan4
Loan5
Loan6
A.H
903.53
1350.09
1425.53
1934.78
2250.00
0.00
Agriculture
437.70
882.47
904.94
1138.10
666.67
700.00
Business
392.58
2460.00
2656.25
3000.00
0.00
0.00
Consumption
143.55
128.97
87.50
2000.00
0.00
0.00
Education
145.00
500.00
500.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
450.00
1000.00
1766.67
0.00
0.00
Health
266.30
242.86
1000.00
2600.00
0.00
0.00
Housing
800.00
1357.14
1400.00
2500.00
10000.00
0.00
0.00
2000.00
1500.00
0.00
1000.00
0.00
1550.00
5800.00
3416.67
3058.33
3500.00
10000.00
320.45
325.00
577.27
850.00
0.00
0.00
G.M.R.
L.M.R.
L.P.
Social
180

ILDP Jeypore SHGs linkage to bank loans and other sources

Bank Loans
Sl.
No.
Name of the
village
Name of the SHG
ILDP
Total
Assistant
Members
3rd,4th
1st Phase 2nd Phase and 5th
Phase
1. Barangaput
Jabardevi S.S.S.
2. Barangaput
Patadabata S.S.S.
11
8000
3. Bayaguda
Bamanadei S.S.S.
26
40000
66790
277160.
234045
10000
15000
4.
Budhi Thakurani S.S.S.
20
40000
26442.
103700
58305
10000
20000
40660
186900
146580
40000
20000
48651
221535
155006
6000
40000
20000
Bayaguda
5. Bhjatra
26
Other Common
Loan
Loan Paid
Assistant
fund
Repaid
40000
20
40000
6. Dangarachinchi Dangaradevi S.S.S.
20
40000
7.
20
40000
20
40000
Dangarachinchi Maa Durga S.S.S.
8. Dhamahandi
Maa Pratima S.S.S.
9. Dhamahandi
Maa Birapani S.S.S.
20
31000
25166
90225
48970
10. Durgabhatta
Maa Durga S.S.S.
15
30000
29132
81995
58804
11. Durgabhatta
15
22000
12. Dutiguda
Trinath Thakura S.S.S.
22
18000
19007
92200
40860
8000
20000
70000
30000
30000
13 Dutiguda
Budharaja S.S.S.
19
38000
68837
289900
251500
13000
30000
90000
14 Gadiaguda
20
40000
83310
418250
310561
30000
20000
50000
15 Gadiaguda
Hundi Thakurani S.S.S.
20
30000
41681
173200
96100
15000
15000
25000
16 Gadiaguda
Maa Bhandaragharani
S.S.S.
20
20000
20886
95000
96690
15000
20000
17 Gadiaguda
Maa Laxmi S.S.S.
13
12000
12849
66000
41000
10000
18000
10000
18 Gadiaguda
Maa Dharini S.S.S.
20
40000
80598.
452499
350664
40000
10000
90000
19 Mulasore
Bamanadei S.S.S.
20
40000
59419
337143
250113
25000
14000
60000
20 Podeikera
Maa Gojabayani S.S.S.
20
13400
10974
50000
13000
10000
40000
21 Podeikera
Maa Jagatjanani S.S.S.
20
39800
31946
153200
84036
16000
30000
22 Putra
Shiva Shakti S.S.S.
20
40000
84608
339840
244349
6000
10000
100000
23 Putra
Jhadeswari S.S.S.
20
40000
38129
167000
117420
5000
15000
20000
24 Salpa
Maa Bhairabi S.S.S.
20
40000
33930
125790
86035
4000
25 Salpa
Maa Thakurani S.S.S.
20
30500
797255
31645
10000
30000
171255
91480
20000
25000
26 Sanakaudi(F)
Trinatha Mahila S.S.S.
20
30000
5000(ITDA)
5000(ITDA)
27 Sanakaudi(F)
Maa Thakurani S.S.S.
20
40000
231585
149785
5000
28 Sanakaudi(M)
Maa Tarini S.S.S.
20
40000
290382
203100
6000
10000
40000
29 Sindhigaon
Jayalaxmi S.S.S.
20
40000
586800
481728
8000
20000
45000
205000
30 Tankaguda
Maa Dharini S.S.S.
22
40000
376800
331570
36000
7000
60000
10000(DRDA)
5000(ITDA)
181

VILLAGE POULTRY DEVELOPMENT TO ALLEVIATE POVERTY

AND MALNUTRITION
More than a billion people of the World mostly in the developing countries live in abject
poverty. Eradication of poverty, hunger and malnutrition therefore has been major concern of
the World at present. The evaluation reports from a number of development projects indicate
that the village poultry plays a significant role in poverty alleviation and enhancing gender
equity among the disadvantaged communities in developing World (Saleque, 1996).
Poultry forms a common source to which the landless, poor and marginal farmers including
ethnic tribal groups and those with no cattle, sheep or goats, attach high source-economic
values.
The new thrust on sustainable food and nutrition security, with aims to create physical,
economic and social environmental access to a balanced diet, gives high priority to village
chicken in food security programmers.
Poultry keeping in backyard by weaker and vulnerable sections of the society along with other
crop and livestock enterprises is centuries old. Despite rapid development of commercial
poultry production systems world-wide, it has been estimated that still more than 80percent of
the global poultry population are raised in traditional small holder backyard production
systems and contribute up to 90percent of the total poultry products in some of the developing
countries. In most instances birds raised in backyard system meet their feed requirement by
scavenging. Poultry raised in backyard through small holder system is often known as family
poultry production. Since the number of birds raised by each family are only few, this system
of poultry production is also known as small-holder production system. Poultry raised in
backyard are mainly owned by women and socio-culturally important with few religious
taboos attached. Production is feasible at village level and only low cost technology is needed
to improve production considerably. Low investments are required to achieve such change.
Land ownership is not a constraint for backyard poultry production and it is environmental
friendly and helps in efficient utilization of locally available natural resources not considered
useful for human consumption.
Approximately, 20percent of the protein consumed in developing countries originates from
poultry in form of meat and eggs. Despite this, relatively few field programmes have been
initiated to improve the output of small holder family poultry units. (Branckaert and Gueye,
1998).
Traditionally, poultry is womens domain and the income received due to poultry is in the
hands of women, thus an increased income from small flocks of hens is easier kept under
womens responsibility than an increased income from cattle. Poultry is a unique venture to
reach the poor women with minimum interference of the patriarchal family pattern (Todd,
1998).
182

In order to develop a standard concept to reach a vast number of rural poor, especially the
poor women, poultry provides unique tool because,
The majority of the poor are familiar with poultry keeping
The investment is low
The generation interval is small and the turn-over is fast and assured
The results are visible
Makes significant contribution to family income
Provides protein rich food to members of the family
Is of considerable importance to meet social and religious obligations
Generates employment
Helps in control of pests and insects
The educational values of using poultry in participatory learning process are
considerable (Askov, 1998)
Backyard scavenging system of poultry production has received wide attention in recent
years, especially in developing countries of Asia and Africa since it holds promise for
transformation of rural poultry production from subsistence to sustainable productive system
and may serve as a tool for eradication of poverty (Sonaiya and Swan,2004). Rural poultry
production is also seen as a vehicle for providing employment, empowerment and financial
security to rural women.
Backyard poultry production through small holder enterprises cannot compete with
commercial sector on productivity i.e. egg yield per hen, because the same management skills
and the same production facilities are not available in the villages. They can compete only in
input cost by taking advantage of the feed available free of cost in the surroundings; the
scavenging feed resource base and other comparative advantages. According Todd and
Dolberg, 2001, the poultry production activities is merely a learning process since one activity
alone is not sufficient to lift a family out of poverty. Therefore there is a need for having an
enabling environment which will provide opportunities and make it possible for the
beneficiaries to establish a small poultry enterprise, to minimize the risks and to take the next
step out of poverty by adopting another income generating activity. It is also essential that the
beneficiaries should not be provided with any subsidy. The concept must be based on donor
support to establish the institutional capacity which sufficient number of beneficiaries and
after that the beneficiaries should contribute to cover institutional cost.
I. Village poultry in the tribal farming system
The village poultry production systems in India in general and in the villages of Koraput
district of Orissa in particular are based on indigenous or native domestic fowls (Gallus
domesticus), whose hens brood and hatch eggs and rear the chicks. Poultry keeping in
backyard has existed in the villages from time immemorial. All tribal groups and Scheduled
Castes keep poultry. Kitalyi (1998) has shown that 70 percent of the rural poultry population
183

in Africa is of indigenous types kept on low-input and low-output production system.

Indigenous poultry account for 94 and 90 percent of the total poultry production in Nigeria
and Bangladesh, respectively (Sonaiya et al 1998).
Village poultry form a common resource for all the different gender groups in tribal villages
to which the landless and also those who do not possess cattle, sheep, goat and pigs attach
high socio-economic value. The village poultry system is placed high in food security
programme. Poultry egg and meat often are the only source of animal protein for resource
poor households.
In tribal villages of Koraput district in Orissa, 53 to 76percent of the households were found to
keep poultry at home. The number of poultry reared per household differs significantly
between plain and hill located villages. The households who solely depended on wage
earnings have more or less no poultry at home because there is no responsible person at home
during the day to take care of chicks or adult poultry. The situation is also the same for the
village community grazier whose livestock depend upon the grazing to meet their feed
requirement. The household distribution of poultry in 4 blocks of Koraput during the year
1995 has been shown in table 1.
Table -1: Percentage of Households keeping poultry in Koraput district of Orissa
according to blocks.
Name of the Blocks
Percentage of families keeping poultry
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
53
63
72
76
Average no.of poultry birds raised per 9

house hold
184

Hanging Nest
Broody hen on eggs is pivot to BYP
Broken P
A new hatch with hen
Broody hen on eggs (ot nest)
Backyard Poultry in a tribal home
Hen with chicks (weaning stage)
2. Major Features of the Village Poultry Production System in Tribal villages of

Koraput:
Only indigenous/local breeds of poultry developed by the communities are used.
Traditional, cultural and economic considerations lead to keeping of small poultry
flocks varying from 5-50 in numbers, which includes adults, growers and chicks.
These local birds are raised in backyard with no or little inputs.
185

Coloured birds are preferred as they have strong relationship to ceremonial and cultural
purposes of tribal families
Broodiness is very common as it is essential for survival of the system. Broody hens are
used for hatching of eggs and care of the chicks.
Birds meet their feed requirements through scavenging. Some families also provide
home grown grain and their byproducts and kitchen wastes.
Shelter is provided only during the night.
Eggs are obtained in 3 to 4 clutches of 10-20 eggs per clutch.
Ranikhet disease, fowl pox, ecto and endo parasites play important role in determining
morbidity and mortality.
The system is auto generating rural base.
Most of the families do not have separate housing facilities for the birds, so the birds
share the same housing as those of owners.
When housing is provided these are usually made of local materials to keep the cost
low.
Surplus household labour (mostly women), kitchen wastes and other household
refuge/agri-byproducts and waste materials, insects etc. are the main inputs. The
recurring costs are very low or negligible.
Only the live birds, rarely the eggs are sold in nearby markets.
Indigenous knowledge is used for chick production, management and breeding.
Fowl pox lesions

3.
Poultry at Tribal Home:
3.1
Home consumption.
Ranikhet (ND) affected bird
Nearly 50percent of the poultry go for home consumption, mostly on festive occasions. Other
50 percent are sold in the market. They fetch a good price as demand for village poultry is
higher than the commercial broilers. The cocks in winter fetch very high price, as demand for
cock fighting is high then.
The tribal farmers keep poultry for hatching. Their primary and sole aim is to produce and
rear chicks for meat and then cocks for fighting purpose. Production of eggs is not their
primary concern. They will consume or sell eggs rather than hatch them only when there is an
epidemic or weather is not congenial to obtain a good hatch. Of all livestock species poultry
186

has the shortest generation interval and, as such, it has become a favorite practice by the tribal
families, more so, as it helps in effectively overcoming losses sustained due to disease, epidemics
in the existing system.
3.2
Tribal cock fighting sports:
The men folk are proud of and mad after good cocks suitable for cock fighting game. They
are tied with sharp knives at spur around the feet. The cock fighting though illegal, still
continues in most places on weekly once basis; the days are distributed evenly without
interloping interest with each other. The crowd assembles at about noon, the fight and
bidding starts from 3 PM. There are special skilled persons to lay the cocks for both parties
on ground who get a fee for it. The victor party mercilessly kills the defeated cock and takes
it to home for consumption. It is painful to see such cruel incidents.
3.3
The poultry number per family
Most of the tribal families in Koraput district keep a small number of hens with followers. The
number of hen varies from one to four. The village poultry production is characterized by low
level of inputs and outputs. The main feed comes from household refuge and scavenging
around. The other additional inputs are housing, additional feed from rice by-products, which
is dependent on economic circumstances of the household.
Table 2 : Summary of the Flock Structure in Koraput

Status
Number of
chicken
In percentage
Total
HHNos
Chicks
Young
Hen
Cock
Total
chicken
100
494
591
151
215
1451
34.04
40.8
10.40
14.81
100
With such low inputs or near zero contribution of the household, except for small labour
contributed by women at home, the village poultry is capable of generating cheap and readily
harvestable meat and, occasionally, eggs for
immediate home consumption and income
generation.
3.4
Poultry type and breed:
There are three breeds of domestic fowl in Koraput

district besides un-descriptive indigenous poultry.
They are Vezaguda, Dhinki and Kalahandi breeds.
Geda (Dwarf) poultry, Mayurbhanj
187

The local poultry population shows clear and distinct characteristics in different locations because
of variable selection pressure for shape and size of birds and some phenotypic characteristics like
comb type, plumage colours, and height and body weight.
The bio-diversity in poultry population like fizzled feathers, back lock wings, plumage colour,
necked necks, comb size and shapes etc. are maintained by linking the need to various festivals
and ceremonies of life in society (Kornel, 1999a). A tribal family requires about 30 chicks per
year for religious ceremonial offers. They are roasted for family food after sacrifice. There are
about 6 poultry breeds from Mayurbhanj, of that the KhudaJuaria and Geda are most prolific in
terms of production. Both of them resemble in production. KhudaJuaria breed adult weigh
between 0.7 to 1.2 kgs, first lay at 5 months, lay 12 to 15 eggs per clutch, such 4 clutches per
annum, the chick survibility is 90 % as claimed by farm women. There is another breed Geda
(Geda means dwarf in local tribal language) that has very short legs like wild poultry, and weigh
between 0.5 to 0.8 kgs, start first laying at 6 months of age and lay 12 to 15 eggs per clutch,
hatching percentage is higher and the survibility of chicks is like that of the KhudaJuaria breed.
The Vezaguda poultry of Kundra block in Koraput is most prolific and lay about 12 to 22 eggs per
clutch and has very high hatchability. It has 3 clutches per annum. We think KhudaJuaria and
Geda are most prolific and very early maturing poultry breeds of India.
KhudaJuaria breed of chicken from Mayurbhanj
188
Vezaguda poultry breed, Koraput

3.5
Production traits of village poultry:
The tribal families maintain 2 hen units per family on an average. Hens on an average lay 10
to 15 eggs per clutch, although, 20 eggs per clutch is also seen in Kundra, Boipariguda and
Mathili regions. The broody hen sits for 21 days over her eggs for hatching chicks. The
hatching percentage is above 80 percent, even up to 100 percent in some cases depending
upon hatching season. The chicks mature at 5 to 6 months of age.
During 1996, Kornel and Askov made a quick survey of village poultry production in Koraput
district, the result of which are summarised in table-3.
Table 3: Field observation of Production and Re-production traits of village poultry in

4 Blocks of Koraput.
Traits observed
Blocks
Kundra
Jeypore
Koraput
Laxmipur
No. of Eggs per clutch
20
15
10
10
Clutches per year
Hatches per year
Hatchability percent
80
80
80
80
Hatchability percent in Summer
50
50
50
50
Survivability percent ,to 8 weeks of age
40-60
40-60
30-60
30-60
Scavenging condition
G-M
Awareness
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
G = Good, M=Moderate,
3.6
Feed and feeding:
Rice bran and Ragi flour are the main source of feed for village poultry. Some families offer
feed once or twice to poultry at home. It depends on economic status of the family. The
protein is mostly from the scavenging of insects, earth worms, white ants and rarely from
other sources.
3.7
Seasonal poultry production trends
The village poultry production in tribal villages has somewhat seasonal cycle. The backyard
kitchen garden interest and increase in predation during rainy season mostly contribute to the
189

seasonal trend. Hatching of chicks starts from September and optimum hatching season is
from November to January. From April, it declines sharply. A PRA study indicated predation
to be highest in July although prevails up to September.
The poultry population reaches maximum level, during April which happens to be the period
of Chait Parab, the most important festival for tribals. Majority of birds are used by the
family for family festivals and a few hens and cocks are just left for producing next
generation.
3.8
New hatch management:
The newly hatched chicks are given clean water and fine-grounded rice. A circular portable
pan called thapa made of bamboo is placed over mother hen and chicks for giving feed.
Thapa is a device which prevents predation losses and allows separate feeding of chicks and
broody hens. The local poultry have very strong mothering instinct. In order to prevent
broodiness of hens, they are dipped in cold water once a day, may be twice or thrice. Some
even fix a feather temporarily in the nostril of the broody hen.
3.9
Poultry ownership and women:
The village poultry are in the domain of women in the tribal world here. The women go to the
weekly market for sale or purchase of poultry. Gueye (1998) reported that 70 percent of the
poultry owners are women in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The ownership pattern of
village chicken production system in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania (Africa) was
reported by Kuit et al. (1996), Williams (1990) and Kitalyi (1996). Three patterns were
discussed. They are family ownership, women and men ownership and individual ownership,
depending on the mode of acquisition of the chicken such as purchase, inheritance and gift.
The ownership of poultry in African societies is a product of social and cultural aspects of
society. No such studies have been done for the village poultry in Koraput district. Although
women play a vital role the poultry raised by the tribal families usually belong to family
irrespective of modes of procurement.
190

Impact on poultry production due to RD vaccination seen in weekly Markets
Business woman with her purchased birds from weekly market Kundra Block
191

3.10
Gender equity and decision making:
Gender-wise data collected on village poultry keeping in Koraput shows that the tribal women
are the main and dominant stakeholder of poultry at home (Table 4).
The decision making process is in line with the interest of the family and without
interpersonal interference by men and women. When the cocks are brought up at home,
women take decisions in the interest of the family. The men however, have a liking for good
fighting cocks and hence often suggest feeding and management practices to be followed
based on their experience.
Table 4: Gender division of poultry work.
Job description
Men
Feeding chickens/adults
Women
Boys
Feeding fighting cocks
Constructions of chicken house
Girls
X
Daily cleaning of chicken house
Hatching arrangement
Feeding newly hatched chicks
Management of newly hatched chicks
Selling chicken in market/village
Deciding selling price of chicken
XX
Purchase of chicks, hens for breeding
XX
Deciding when to eat chicken
Deciding vaccination of poultry
Deworming of poultry
Delousing of poultry
Who shall carry poultry for vaccination
Deciding eating of eggs
192

4.
Management of scavenging village poultry production system:
The village poultry production system does differ, in relation to household and interhousehold relationships within the village and between tribes. In all tribal villages of Koraput,
the poultry flocks raised by different household mix during scavenging period within limited
territory, but the households provide feeds separately, if available at home.
The Bhattra, Omnatya and Bhumia tribes prefer to have a large open space around the house,
may be with a boundary wall made of mud since the poultry production system is single
family flock type. But, among Sano-Porojas, Bodo-Porojas and others they are distinctly
mixed flock type limited to scavenging where poultry move freely in the entire village.
Among the Kondhs, the poultry has to remain in the backyard of the house since they have
parallel rows of close running houses with a front open street. The backyards in this case have
cattle byre, pig sty and large open yard of manure pits. The households love to keep the
street in front or back of the houses clean, well painted and free from poultry or pigs. The
poultry share the scavenging along with pigs in this system in the backyard manure pits.
The management of poultry in the village is complicated by the presence of multi-age groups
in the same flock. This is unavoidable in scavenging system; rather it is the most distinct
characteristic of backyard system on poultry production prevailing in Asia and Africa.
4.1
The present system of Biological optimization from scavenging poultry.
The following table the data for which was collected from nutritional balance study shows the
profit that is realized by incubating eggs of a village hen and the chicks those survive
a.
b.
c.
Days required producing 10 eggs
18 days
Protein intake/day 14g X 18
= 252 g
Energy intake/day 240 kcal X 18
= 4320 kcal
Incubation for 21 days

Protein 5g/day
= 105
Energy 100 kcal/day
= 2100 kcal
Rearing of chickens to 42 days of age

Hen 42 days protein 10g/day
= 420 g
Energy 200 kcal/day
= 4200 kcal
9
Chickens
six weeks of age
hatched.
All
193
but
two
are
dead
by

d.
e.
Protein intake by clutch
150 g
Energy intake by clutch
4000 kcal
Total feed consumed for 81 days period

Protein
927 g
Energy
14 to 20 kcal
Production by day 81 is 7 chickens; each weighing approx. 200g. This represents a

total of 1400g of chicken, equivalent to 280 g of protein for human consumption. Thus
nearly a kilogram of protein is harvested from the environment, to return 280g of
protein for human food.
Source: ACIAR and modified

5.
Village Poultry Development and Constraints
The tribals consider poultry mainly as a meat production unit. Eggs are rarely consumed or
sold. Routine work related to poultry is carried out by women and children. The men
however take care of cocks used for fighting purpose.
The major constraints of Village Poultry Production System are:

Control and prevention of Diseases.
Low Productivity of indigenous domestic Fowl.
Protection from predation
Lack of knowledge in poultry production technology
Lack of access to inputs
Unorganized Marketing
194

Fig. 1 LFA/:- Problem Tree
Poor income from

poultry
High mortality
Ranikhet
disease
virus
(RDV)
Fowl pox
other
diseases
Low productivity of
local hen
Health and Vet.

Care inaccessible
Govt. livestock
services
inadequate
Poor poultry
rearing system
Non-existence/
inaccessibility of cold
chain to preserve
vaccine
Majority of women
left out for formal
credit system.
5.1
Lack of
organised Market
mechanism
Non-availability
of some feed
ingredients
Unavailability of
HYV chicks
Control and prevention of Diseases
Ranikhet/Newcastle disease is the major impediment to village poultry production followed

by Fowl Pox, ecto and endo parasites in that order (Kornel, 1988). This was confirmed from
all need assessment analyses of village poultry sector of Koraput.
Genetic interventions, improvement in husbandry practices or improvement in nutrition are of
no avail unless there are live chickens in the village (Spradbrow,
1993). According to
him, the control of Ranikhet disease is the key to a new science of village chicken production.
The vaccination is the only prospective for control. The eradication of the virus is not
feasible, so the vaccination programmes must be continual and sustainable. The technologies
used in village poultry are rather confusing and have different meanings.
There does not appear to be any real record of progresses in controlling RDV in free ranging
village flocks, which represent more than 80 percent of the total poultry population. Several
surveys carried out showed high rates of seropositive in the absence of vaccination. In tribal
villages of Koraput Ranikhet disease occurs every year and kills on an average 70-80 percent
of the unvaccinated village poultry. To organize a successful campaign to control RDV in
free-range poultry the main constraints are
195

The difficulty of grouping together fairly large number of poultry in order to obtain an
efficient vaccination rate,
Poultry of various age groups are raised together, and
The need to maintain, at all stages, an efficient cold chain for maintenance of potency
of vaccine. In absence of an appropriate heat stable vaccine.
Although planned vaccination programmes using available commercial vaccines to control
RDV in village poultry has been successful, requirement of a labour force, technical inputs
and transport cost of vaccine, refrigeration equipment etc. have limited their use, consequently
efficiency.
The RDV is enzootic in most Indian village poultry populations except for North-east. The
disease occurs year-round, often with major epizootics once or twice a year and it inflicts
heavy losses on village poultry population. The velogenic, mesogenic and lentogenic path
types of RDV occur in the villages. Usual introduction of RDV to a village is due to
introduction of infected live birds. Spread within the village is through fecal-oral route, and
by the respiratory route.
RDV survives for weeks to months in the environment in tropical climate although this varies
with the viral strain. RDV continues to remain active in the village by cycling of virus through
the village chicken, other domestic avian species and wild birds.
Epizootic occurs at times of climatic stress like summer stress and during change of climate as
claimed by all tribal families. The spread of RDV in a village poultry population takes weeks
to months.
The susceptibility of an individual poultry depends on the strain and doses of virus it receives,
its age, its immune status and concurrent disease and parasitism.
Interactions of different strains of RDV within the village poultry population as well as effect
of repeated RDV vaccination on poultry population, which affect the immune status of the
individual and the flock, are poorly understood.
5.2 Low productivity of village poultry:

The village poultry production system in developing countries is often marginalized by
policy-makers, scientists and development workers because of its low productivity compared
to the commercial poultry production. For example, a scavenging hen lays only 30-50 eggs
per year and up to 90 eggs per year under improved feeding and husbandry conditions
compared to more than 300 eggs by a hybrid commercial layer housed in battery cages. But
many fail to understand that village poultry are meant for meat production under low input
and not eggs for family consumption. In other words, egg for chicks.
The traditional tribal family poultry keeping represents household savings; investment and
insurance as the value of the poultry increase overtime. It has also a strong provision for rural
employment and easily disposable income for tribals, particularly in the off-season from
196

cropping. It is integrated very well into other farming activities, as it requires very little time
and investment.
5.3 Predation
Most of the tribal villages are situated within or near to the forests which shelter a variety of
wild species of animals besides, domestic dogs, cats, vultchers, eagles, serpents, mongooses,
rats etc. which have been known to predate on poultry.
5.4 Inputs
Chick, feed, medicine, veterinary care, micro-credit etc. are the inputs required for an
organised poultry farm. These inputs are not available in the village as such the tribals have to
depend on an alternate system in which these necessities are not required. Therefore, they
keep hens which scavenge their feed requirements, require little shelter, capable of protecting
themselves from predation and capable of hatching their own chicks. This is only possible
only when indigenous fowl which possess all these qualities are used for village poultry
production.
5.5 Poultry production technologies
Although considerable progresses have been made in developing technologies for commercial
poultry production, there appears to be none for small holder village chicken production. In
order to make tribal backyard poultry keeping a viable enterprise a new approach is called for.
The challenge is not only to devise an appropriate package of husbandry practices which will
permit effective management of small flocks to make it a viable and remunerative enterprise
but to develop a dual type of bird which can withstand rural conditions of management and
feeding regimes to improve the economic efficiency of small poultry holder and free range
chicken production in village conditions. The poultry and poultry products produced through
tribal poultry production will not only meet the requirements of the tribal community
participating in the programme but also can be marketed locally to meet the requirement of
other population. Such a system of poultry production although may not help to optimize
production but will be a blessing in disguise since these products will be cheap and thus can
be sold at a price which rural and tribal population can afford.
5.6 Marketing of Poultry
The poultry produced in tribal villages has a readymade market due to consumers preference
for Deshi eggs and Deshi birds for meat. Eggs and meat from Deshi/indigenous birds fetch a
better price over the eggs and meat of improved layers and broilers.
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6.
Model Strategy for Development of Village Poultry:
Fig. 2 LFA / Objective Tree

Improved income from
poultry
Reduced
mortality
Access to health
and veterinary
care
Improved
productivity of hen
Market mechanism
well organised
Alternate/and cold
chain vaccine supply
available on notice
Improved poultry
management system
Feed ingredients are

available locally
Community livestock
services with
assistance from Govt.
Livestock services
established
HYV chicks
availability improved
Majority women are

connected to formal
credit system through
SHG/Bank linkage
Objective of smallholder village poultry production system

To increase the number of households keeping poultry
To increase number of poultry per household
To improve the productivity
Through
i)
Reduction of morbidity and mortality of village poultry

Periodic and timely vaccination of poultry against Ranikhet
Disease and Fowl Pox
Regular deworming by administration of Anthelmintic
Control of external parasites like lice and ticks
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ii)
Prevention of Predation
Provision of proper housing system
Clearing of bushes around the village to discourage entry of predators
Protecting chicks by personal supervision and planting of shady trees around the
house.
iii)Prevention of Thefts:
Community enforcement of conduct
Effective reporting system to Police Department developed by the village tribal
community
iv)
Increasing the number of families keeping poultry birds.

Motivation
Awareness development through demonstration of visible effects of poultry
production
v)
Improving performance of Village poultry production :

a) Breeds and types:
Small scale trials of coloured broilers and dual purpose breeds under semiscavenging condition
Cross-bred poultry performance test under village scavenging condition
Identification of superior local poultry germplasm, as well as development of
improved poultry germplasm with similar phenotypic appearance as that of local
poultry, but with superior performance
Introduction of small scale Broiler farming in areas with market oppertunity.
b) Improving management
Adoption of Improved semi-scavenging system
Creep feeding of chicks
Increasing the clutch size of the hens from 3 to 4 and more per annum
Reducing the egg spoilage in hatches during summer months
Intensive Broiler Farming Management skills adoption by interested farmers
c) Improving quality and quantity of feed
Knowledge and adoption of concentrate feeding to poultry
Preparation of poultry feed with indigenous ingredients
Feeding of White ants from forest and home grown
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d) Training of farmers for simple skills

Upgrading Farmers knowledgeable on Ranikhet disease, Fowl pox and worms and
its prevention
regular vaccination, deworming etc against poultry diseases
Improvement in poultry farm management skills
Creating awareness on the benefits to be realised from commercial Broiler and
layer production.
vi) Assistance to farmers
Formation of Self Help Groups(SHGs)
Encouraging SHG women members on use of Village Revolving Fund to enhance
family income through poultry husbandry
Training of SHG members on modern poultry production technologies.
Demonstration and exposure to good poultry farming practices locally and in
neighbouring districts
Initial assistance of vaccination and deworming of poultry, followed by user fee
collection.
7.
Village Poultry Development Process
The village poultry production has long been neglected; in spite of the fact that the majority of
rural poor keep a small flock of chicken and all available evidences suggest that this provides
first step to get out of poverty.
Askov (1998) wrote, Activity, such as improved breed, may show a positive effect on the
egg yield, but have a negative effect on the family livelihood because the new breed does not
possess the required brooding traits to produce and nurse the chickens.
The technologies used in village poultry are rather confusing and have different meanings.
Some see indigenous fowls as a low productive unit when the egg yield is 50 eggs per year.
For others 50 eggs per year has no meaning, but when 50 eggs mean 4 clutches and 4 hatches
and the outcome are 30 saleable chicken per year it is a remarkable achievement and the
productivity is also considered high.
Cockerels exchange programmes and vaccination campaigns were considered to be very
useful and experimented in several countries for development of village poultry in the
previous years. There is no feed-back to these interventions.
Networks based on rural poultry have recently been established and the interest for using
poultry as a means in poverty alleviation and food security programme is increasing. The
accessibility to information and experiences has remained in a difficult state. The text books,
databases, journals or other media which publish results and findings have remained silent.
200

The main parts of publications are in proceedings known only to limited number of research
and development workers. So it can be concluded that inaccessibility to literature, documents,
guidelines, manuals etc. are the main constraints.
7.1
Loss prevention (mortality control) in village poultry production system:
7.1.1 Disease control strategy:

The development of an extension programme for control and prevention of Ranikhet disease,
fowl pox and ecto and endo parasites holds the key to rural poultry development and is based
on the following principles:
Objectives which are expected to be achieved in the area of extension, within a specific
time period
Means of achieving these objectives
Resources that are needed to fulfill the programme, and
A work plan indicating the schedule of extension activities that will lead to the
fulfillment of the programme objectives.
This will necessitate initial collection of baseline data and identification of farmers problem
and need analysis in group work. The farmers prioritize the problem. This is some sort of
need analysis. These are usually men dominated forums.
In the initial pre-project period of ILDP in Koraput tribal villages as well as at group need
analysis it came out clearly that mortality of village poultry is the most serious problem which
is existing and no solutions are yet available to them.
Further, in gathering information through Lady Community Workers (CLWs), it was clear
that taking care of village poultry is the responsibility of women and children.
However, it should be kept in the mind that village poultry extension is relatively a new field,
and much is to be learnt.
The features that need to be addressed in the extension for promoting village poultry
production are:
The livestock extension networks mainly focus on large animals such as cattle and
buffalo, and relatively silent at small ruminants and particularly village poultry?
The village poultry is with the women. The knowledge imparted to men in extension
programmes therefore often does not percolate to women in home.
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The village women do not prefer to attend village poultry network, as the trainers are
men.
The farmers are reluctant to invest their time, money and materials on poultry due to
their bad experiences in the past (e.g. frequent high mortality due to RDV, Fowl Pox
and Predators).
Many farmers are unaware that RD can be controlled in poultry with effective use of
vaccines.
The extension knowledge base in village poultry is poor.
7.1.2 The extension methods applied to control poultry diseases in the villages and
experiences:
There are various methods where the extension agent can bring together the village farmers to
undertake his/her extension work. The ILDP had adopted the following:
7.1.2.1 Group meetings: When the Block Extension Teams visit a village for the first time,
they contact the village head man and other elite members, speak to them the purpose and
solicit permission to speak to the villagers. This is very useful in tribal village context,
particularly during inception days.
A village group meeting is conducted on a given date and time and the objective of the
programme are placed before all with the opportunities.
The villagers including the panchayat are requested to elect one or two young male and
female voluntary workers, who would be the link person between the village and the Block
Extension Team. They are called Community Link Workers (CLWs). The CLWs are
imparted several skills to organize veterinary first aid service at village level. There is a space
for such services at village level.
7.1.2.2 Demonstrations: The farmers like and show receptiveness as to how a new idea
works. The BETs prepare the ground for poultry vaccination campaign in all villages. The
demonstrations follow the awareness campaign in the village where Lady Community
Organisers play very vital role being contact persons, particularly to the women members of
the village.
It is most crucial that the project activities need to fit in to their already busy schedule. The
meeting should be preferably held near to their households; to make the child care less
difficult. Shorter and more frequent meetings are essential. The fluctuation in workload
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throughout the year as well as festival seasons should be well considered to make the
programme successful. The planting seasons, summer chait festivals should be kept in mind
while fixing date and time for holding meetings.
7.1.2.3 Some special experiences for extension agents

Pus Parab: It is an important post harvest celebration of all
tribals. This lasts for 7 days in each village during the month
of January, in full moon fortnight. The villagers are in no
mood to spare their festive time and period. It is better to
avoid entering to tribal villages during this period.
Chait Parab: This is another festival celebrated by all tribals

and other village members. The celebration falls during
April. It is an annual celebration of great significance. The
inhabitants celebrate this summer festival with ample of
intoxicants and food. It is not possible to get into tribal
villages for extension work during this period; more over
some tribes do not like the presence of any outsiders in the
village even of their community members during this period.
Training session of women CLWs to

control poultry mortality
The local language proficiency and non-formal methods during training sessions are found to
be more useful for communication with villagers.
The community should be well informed that RD vaccinations are never 100 percent
effective. The poultry may die from causes other than RD.
The vaccination campaign should not be initiated in the face of an outbreak of RD, as the
farmers tend to associate mortalities in their poultry with the vaccination process.
However, in most instances the villages have endemic RD, and the mortality as well as
disease continues in the village. Thus, the villagers are clearly told about the possible
consequence of vaccinating poultry under such situation. This in some cases causes serious
set back to the further acceptance of the extension agents.
The following is suggested for control of RD in village poultry from the experiences gathered
due to the execution of ILDP in Koraput district of Orissa
The vaccination campaign is strategically implemented prior to season of hatching and
outbreak.
The pre-campaign awareness raising programmes is well designed and appropriately
implemented.
The first campaign of vaccination should be initiated by trained professionals.
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7.1.3
The follow-up programme, once the disease incidence has reduced, is handed over to
CLWs, under the supervision of trained vaccinators, so that the farmers lay and
improve their faith.
Follow-up with the farmers is essential to learn the effectiveness of vaccination and if
any mortality due to or after vaccination.
Community Link Workers as Village poultry development extension agents:
The project strongly emphasized that a closer rapport is established and maintained with the
target group. This would require developing the leadership among the local resources on
which community can draw upon in social as well as technical matters. The Community Link
Workers (CLWs) were to fulfill this need.
R2B S/C injection for Ranikhet (ND)
Lasota eye drops for Ranikhet (ND)
Thus through repeated visits and discussions, the Block Extension Teams (BET) facilitate the
target groups of each village to identify youths (both male and female) with certain amount of
primary schooling at least.
In practice, it has been difficult to maintain the criteria for the selection. Many of the CLWs
are more mature people and many of them, especially the female CLWs, have limited
educational background.
The CLWs have a crucial role to play in the project activities. Therefore their training
programmes were designed with great care. The aim was to improve their knowledge, skill
and attitude so as to enable them to carry out the functions they are required to do and become
innovative farmers in their community.
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Initial training of the CLWs in poultry development and disease prevention started in 1996.
The details of the training are given in Annexure I.
Each village was provided with one vaccination kit, which was given in the custody of the two
CLWs. However, during year 2000 it was recommended that every female CLWs should get
one vaccination kit in addition to the existing norms. This was to reduce the dominance of
men CLWs over the female, at working place.
7.1.3.1 Community Link Workers Training Manuals for Poultry Disease Control:
The ILDP has developed one Poultry Disease

Control Manual appropriate for training and
reference of CLWs. It is illiterate-userfriendly in use. It covers vaccinations of RD,
Fowl Pox and Deworming and Delousing of
village poultry. The manual has extensive
drawing base for trainees and is well tested.
7.1.3.2. Backyard flock dynamics and Community Link Workers Village Poultry
vaccination schedule:
A typical family poultry flock in tribal villages of Koraput consists of 20 birds; 7 chicks, 5-6
growers and 1-2 hens, if not affected with RDV and fowl pox.
205

The epidemiology of RDV under backyard systems remains unclear (Awan, et.al.1994). It has
been suggested that within a population, the disease can be considered under control if less
then 30 percent of birds are infected.
Based on the rates of egg incubation, loss and

mortality in chicks and growers flock turnover rate
due to the introduction of new birds, means that
from a point in time, the average flock may
comprise 30 percent unprotected birds within 4
months.
This indicates the need for vaccination between 2

and 3 times a year if effective cover is to be
maintained in these flocks (Oakeley, 1998b).
CLWs conducting village poultry
The CLWs were assisted and encouraged to do the

vaccination - Koraput Block
village poultry vaccination against RDV under the
direct supervision of AHD staff of BETs. This continued until, they (CLWs) gained
confidence as well as the villagers had developed confidence on their CLWs. This was
achieved during 1997.
Still a few women CLWs (about 10-12) could not perform vaccination against RDV and fowl
pox but the other skills like deworming, delousing were perfectly carried out. Since the
villagers have confidence in the CLWs and their skills, most of them are now regularly
visiting the nearby villages to immunize poultry against Ranikhet disease.
The Participatory Rural Appraisal epidemiology interventions due to village farmers

knowledge with the inclusion of women farmers were used to build an effective RD
vaccination programme by the project.
The village poultry production system is a seasonal and secondary occupation to many. The
hatching starts from September and continues up to February end or even March 15.
During this period every household takes interest in hatching. Repeated hatches come to
floor. It is not possible to give vaccination to all successive hatches; thus a strategy for
vaccination is made from the knowledge of people.
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Three live R2B RDV vaccinations between September to March appears to be most effective
strategy to control R.D. The vaccination of newly hatched chicks, below 2 months of age
with F1 nasal / eye drop vaccine in the villages has enhanced the survivability. Birds of 8
weeks and above are vaccinated with live R2B strain of RD vaccine.
7.1.3.3 Fowl-Pox Control strategy in tribal villages

The Fowl-pox, particularly among the newly hatched chicks was one major production loss
effecting disease. This is caused due to a virus. There is extensive skin lesion, particularly
over face of the chick, and in most cases they get infected with pus formation. In most cases
the chicks become blind due to damage of one or both eyes. The growth of the chicks gets
seriously retarded.
The fowl-pox vaccine available in the market is to be administered after 8 weeks of age.
Somehow, the newly hatched chicks get infected with fowl-pox, before the 8 weeks of age
leading to serious economic losses to the farmers.
This constraint of fowl pox vaccine is that it can not be given to chicks before they attain 8
weeks of age. It is therefore of no help to save the young chickens.
Vaccination of Mother hen with fowl fox vaccine before laying started (August) followed by
vaccination of chicks after 8 weeks of age reduced the incidence of the fowl pox significantly
in the project villages after 2 years.
There was another observation that after control and reduction of RDV outbreak, the fowl pox
incidence was very high.
7.1.3.4 Productive diseases control strategy:

The worms, mostly tape worms and round worms are common in village poultry. The project
had witnessed very high chick mortality due to tape worms in Kundra block. The use of
Albendazole followed by Piperazine compounds reduced the problem of tapeworms and
round worms, significantly.
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The women Community Link Workers were found to be very effective in this skill of
individual poultry deworming with anthelmintic.
It is well known that poultry free from worm loads respond well to Ranikhet disease
vaccination; thus after few days of deworming with anthelmintic the poultry are vaccinated
against RD in the project area.
7.1.4 Predator and poultry loss control:

The main predators for chicks and adult poultry are crow, fox, hyena, wild cat and even large
carnivorous animals. The tribal villages are either adjacent to forests or inside forests. Now,
most are degraded forests. There is steady fall of preys in the forest, resulting into intrusion to
the village livestock poultry and dogs.
The existing wild life laws do not allow control of wild animals in villages, nor compensate to
the property losses incurred due to wild animals.
Under the existing situation, this problem stands with a few options like cleaning bushes
around villages and warding off foxes and wild cats at sunset. Plantation of economic small
bush plants gives protection to chicks from crows.
7.1.5 Theft of poultry:

Villagers often lose chickens due to petty thieves. Sometimes thefts are done by jealous
neighbours. Occasionally valuable fighting cocks are also lost. Application of a piece of wet
cloth over the head of a bird makes it quiet and thieves apply this technique to catch the
poultry. Keeping Muscovy duck is one form of alarm system to households in tribal village,
because they immediately react to such situation and make noise. Feuds sometimes do come
up due to thefts of chicks. Organized communities and co-operation among neighbours reduce
the chance due to thefts. Losses due to predators even get the name of theft.
7.2.
How to Improve Village Poultry Production
7.2.1 Through Improvement of genetic stocks

The village poultry performance needs to be improved. The Change of variety or breed is one
option, but it needs to be verified more from total net profit than from merely the appearance.
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The second option is identification of superior local poultry germplasm

A large size breed with low reproduction performance coupled with high mortality results in
least profit. But most people prefer the large size. It needs careful and honest interpretation
and to be compared with the existing varieties and types already available in the villages.
Moreover, large size in poultry is positively correlated with low egg production, thus low
reproduction.
7.2.2 Identification of superior local poultry germplasm and promotion:

The replacement of genetic stocks need to be considered only after the local indigenous breeds
have been screened for their existing economic traits and if they are superior with regard to
some specific trails like adoption to tropical climate, scavenging ability, escaping from
predators, disease resistance etc. they should not be replaced. Sarkar and Bell (2008) have
described the potentialities of the indigenous poultry and its role in alleviating poverty and
nutritional security of rural people. Singh (2001) and Singh and Johari (1990) have described
the Aseel and Kadagnath breeds of chicken in India. Ramappa et al. (2000) stressed the need
to continue research on improvement of indigenous varieties of chicken in developing
countries.
Over the years we have observed that Vezaguda breed of poultry of Kundra is superior under
village condition. There are hens in the breed that lay up to 22 eggs in a clutch and hatch 18
to 20 chicks at a time per clutch. Average of a hatch is 15 chicks. The cocks are good fighter.
As it is, they are superior for economic traits and are developed by local people.
The indigenous birds fetch higher price in the local market than broilers.
Price of live bird/kg as on 19/4/2001 in Jeypore market was as follows:Deshi
- Rs. 75/- per kg.
Commercial Broiler - Rs. 45/- per kg.
7.2.3 Income assumption from local village poultry of Koraput: (participatory

method)
Before implementation of ILDP in four blocks of Koraput, the following information on
economics of village chicken production was collected from the farmers.
A family has 2 hen units.
So, if one hen will hatch 12 chicks X 3 times per annum
209
= 36 chicks

Assuming(maximum) 40percent of chick mortality
= 22 chicks will survive.
Assuming (minimum) 10percent of chick mortality
= 32 chicks will survive.
(The poultry mortality in different families was found to vary between 10 to 40percent)
Income of a family from poultry at mortality rate of
40percent
10percent
One hen unit @ Rs.60/- per bird for 22 birds
1,320/-
1,920/-
2 hen units are common per family, the income
2,256/-
3,456/-
If, 3 hen units per family, income
3,384/-
5,184/-
If, 4 hen units per family, income (optimum)
3,632/-
5,632/-
When vaccinated it improves to, 3 to 4 hen

units per family.
After 1 hen unit, some feed cost need to be added to

the investment.
Total feed cost:
384/-
for 2 hen units
576/-
for 3 hen units
768/-
for 4 hen units
According to tribal poultry farmers the optimum age for sell of poultry birds is about 6
months. An average tribal family requires about 20 chicks per year for religious and
ceremonial purposes and additional 8 to 10 chicks for guest entertainment. The ceremonially
offered chicks are also consumed by the family.
7.3 Improved Kadaknath Breed

Improved Kadaknath breed of CARI, Izatnagar is an indigenous breed of poultry from Jhabua
district of Madhya Pradesh. Tribals of Jhabua district have bred and developed the breed. The
important characteristics of this breed are its black skin and very dark flesh and blood. The
breed was procured by Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly for evaluation of
genetic potentiality for production and re-production traits and subsequently improved
because of its economic merits. Kadaknath breed of chickens available at CARI at present has
210

some amount of exotic inheritance. A limited number of birds of this breed was tested under
intensive management condition in Laxmipur block of Koraput district by BET. It was
concluded from this study that the selection high egg production has seriously affected its
broodiness character. Therefore, it cannot be used for rural poultry production since the
females cannot hatch their own chicks. The feed consumption was also found to be high.
Performance of the breed in village condition still remains inconclusive.
7.4
Exotic poultry: performance under different management systems in tribal

village:
7.4.1 Coloured Broiler introduction into tribal homes; a small trial under semiscavenging system.
Limited numbers of fertile eggs of Giriraja and coloured broilers from OUAT, Bhubaneswar
were supplied for hatching under broody hens in randomly selected village households in 4
blocks of ILDP. The results were as follows:-
The percentage of chicks hatched ranged from 0-100. On an average it was 44percent
The broiler chick mortality rate was 67 percent
The predators such as dogs, village pigs, foxes contributed to 36.36percent of the
chick mortality, accidents: 21.21percent, death cold/worms/diarrhea: 42.42percent
There was significant difference between hatching percentage and mortality of chicks
between blocks. The performance in Jeypore block was better than Laxmipur block
The growth rate was 900 gm 1200 gm at 3 months age with feeding at home,
wherever they survived (Semi-scavenging system).
The farmers named the broilers Bhakua kukuda, means foolish birds, because the
broilers could not escape from
predators; could not jump small canals, thus
drowned; could not adopt to group scavenging habit, rather moved astray, hence the
name.
The broiler chicks are highly susceptible to cold shock and death. This may be due to
larger size of the day old chicks, thus could not derive enough warmth from mother
hen during night.
They are highly susceptible to worm infestations and other infection compared to
indigenous chicks in the same batch.
7.4.2 Crossbred performance under Semi-intensive condition in Tribal villages
The technical programme implemented for this purpose was as follows
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The Rhodes Island Red (RIR), hens were crossed with cocks of local indigenous breed. The
eggs thus produced were distributed to a few farmers in Koraput block during 1997-98. The
feeding system remained unaltered. The weight of the crossbred chicks along with purebred
indigenous chicks was recorded up to 13 weeks of age at weekly intervals. The growth curves
of crossbred and indigenous chicks were made from the body weight gains at equal intervals.
Body weight in grams
Fig.3.
1 240
1 200
1 1 60
1 1 20
1 080
1 040
1 000
960
920
880
840
800
760
720
680
640
600
560
520
480
440
400
360
320
280
240
200
1 60
1 20
80
40
0
1
10
12
13
14
Weeks
Khariguda Desi (1)
Khariguda Des i (2)
Gopalput Des i
Modaguda Des i
Khariguda CB (1)
Khariguda CB (2)
Gopalput CB
Modaguda CB
Results:
It was seen that there was no superiority of crossbred chicks over indigenous chicks
under scavenging/village feeding conditions up to 13 weeks of age.
The study suggested that tribal farmers should add some protein to the chick feed. This
will improve the performance of village poultry.
7.5. Feed and Feeding Improvement:
Supplemental feeding to the growing chicks should result in more financial benefit to family.
As said earlier the poultry production system under tribal farming is based on scavenging on
manure pits. The chicks receive broken rice for 10 days. Some families do supplement ricebran along with ragi flour once a day to all poultry. There is no separate protein supplement
in the feed, which
is essential for
growth
and
production.
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Bamboo Creep Feeder for chicks
7.5.1 Women Farmers training in creep feeding of chicks

500 women farmers were trained in creep feeding of chicks during 1998. The feed supplied
was market purchased commercial poultry feed. A bamboo cage with holes sufficient for
chicks to creep in and take feed was introduced. The mother hen has to stay out. This study
revealed Strong motherly instinct of indigenous hens prohibited the entry of chicks to creepers
for feeding.
The chicks grew faster and chick mortality was reduced.
It was seen that the farm women did not adopt the market based concentrate system
subsequently for indigenous poultry. Few cases of fishmeal supplementation was recorded
and verified to be effective. Some women added large snails in the feed. The white ant
supplementation was practiced by few women. From this it was concluded Supply of market feed did not make the women knowledgeable to make feed from the
locally available resources
The availability of proteins from oil cakes and animal origin near village level is a
problem
Increasing the number of poultry at home will depend on changing the system from
scavenging to semi-scavenging or semi-intensive and other factors like market
pressure; profit ratio, infrastructure support etc.
Conversion of scavenging system to semi-scavenging is a transitional stage into industrial
system. The technology of transition is not well documented. This need to be solved by
constant feedbacks and farmers participation coupled with experience. In many places, the
existing technology has been found to be superior with tribal farmers.
7.5.2 Role and linkage of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in family and village group poultry
development:
The SHGs play the most vital role in family and group poultry farm development. The SHG
members at first take loans to establish broiler farms, as a women group identity. There may
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be 3 to 6 or more women members. Large member groups, are essential because the SHG is
not going to advance large sums of loans for individual farmers, as per the by-law restricting a
large sum to any one or two SHG members.
After the establishment of group broiler farm, the members separate out slowly and go into
smaller groups and come up with more farms.
Like this more farms come up, but at the end there are two to three well functioning,
sustainable poultry farms which continue working in a village. These groups pay back the
loans taken from the SHGs as the turnover is high and profit ratio is good. This is our
experience in ILDP, Koraput.
The farm women time and again are cautioned not to spend more SHG loans in construction
of pucca poultry house. They should rather restrict to utilize old houses or construct thatched
low cost mud houses and use earthen floor. The old houses or new houses constructed should
have provision for proper ventilation and provide protection from thefts and predators. This
reduces the burden of loans to farmers.
8. Impact
The following two objectives were laid in the project plan for evaluation of the impact of
ILDP on poultry production in tribal villages of Koraput.
To increase the number of poultry per household
To increase the number of household keeping poultry.
At the end of the project period therefore data collected for the above 2 aspects were
compared with the base line data to establish the impact of village poultry development. Study
revealed a significant increase in poultry population. The number of households keeping
poultry also increased.
However, along the study it was also seen that number of hens per household is a key
indicator in this respect. The total poultry population in a village and at household level has a
threshold factor. The total poultry population has a limit of growth. Thus when a plateau is
reached further growth under the prevailing management system is not possible. This is the
threshold level. This has significance in alleviating poverty through village poultry. Some of
these aspects have been discussed below-
8.1 Increase in the number of poultry per household.

At the inception of the project, the village poultry were immunized against Ranikhet disease
and Fowl pox by Block Extension Team, and soon after training, the new Community Link
Workers (CLWs) took over the skills and is continuing now.
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During subsequent years, it was seen from the records maintained at BETs that there is 300 to
600 percent increase in poultry population in project villages. This could be verified from
livestock census data as well as from the poultry vaccination records of the villages. There
was more than one vaccination in a given year in each village. The maximum figures were
taken in to consideration for the study and report.
The number of poultry birds vaccinated in each project village of Koraput block is given in
Fig. 4 and it covers the period from 1995 to 1998. The total number of poultry vaccinated
(RD) in 25 villages of Koraput block from 1995 to 2000 is given in Table-5.
It was concluded that the poultry population growth registered in the study is due to increase
in survivability of poultry due to control of RD and fowl pox diseases and worm load.
Fig-4
POULTRY R.D VACCINATION - 1995 TO 1998, KORAPUT BLOCK, 25 VILLAGES
1995
1996
1997
1998
1100
1000
R.D VACCINATION
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
BA
BA
GR
GR
A
A
GU
BA
DA
RA
BO GU
DA
G
EIP
AD
AR
DA
DA
Y
KR
A
NI
DH A
IG
UD
DO
A
LI
A
M
BO
G
O
PA
LP
U
KE T
ND
KO
A
R
RA
GU
LA
DA
UR
IG
UD
M
A
A
CH
A
PU
M
AC T
HA
M
EN
DH RA
A
GU
M
O
ND DA
NI
A
GH
G
UD
AM
A
A
NI
G
UD
PA
A
DM
A
PU
PO
R
DE
I
G
PO
UD
RJ
A
A
LIM
CA
PU
TA
TP
LA
O
ND
JA
I
NI
GU
TA
DA
L
A
TA
LI
LA
M
CA
M
A
NG
A
TA
RA
TA
UM
UP
UR
PE
I
R
UM
UR
I
VILLAGES
Table 5: Average number of poultry per village vaccinated in ILDP

villages of Koraput block
Name of
No. of
Avg. No. of poultry vaccinated per village
Block
villages
for RD Year-wise
Koraput
25
1995 1996 1997 1998
1999
2000
173
342
373
211
322
Fig-5
215
508

ILDP - POULTRY POPULATION AT VACCINATION
POINT YEAR WISE
14000
12000
1995
10000
1996
1997
8000
6000
1998
1999
4000
2000
0
2001
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
Fig-6
ILDP - POULTRY POPULATION YEAR WISE
16000
14000
12000
1995
1998
2001
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Jeypore
8.2
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
Increase in number of households keeping poultry
Comparison of benchmark study of 1995 with evaluation study of 1998 showed the following
growth trend in village poultry in 4 blocks of ILDP.
Table -6 showing increase in house hold keeping poultry
Increase in percent of household
Keeping poultry
Name of the Blocks

Jeypore
Kundra
Laxmipur
Koraput
+22.9
+ 41.4
+8.2
+7.7
From these results it was concluded that ILDP created a positive impact in building
confidence and demonstrating the positive aspects of poultry farming which helped in
motivating families not keeping poultry before the project period to keep poultry. The number
of birds kept per family also increased.
216

8.3
Income in Rupees and Number of hens per house hold as indicators of village
poultry development:
A research scholar from Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology evaluated the
impact of poultry development in ILDP villages of Kundra block. The study was carried out
in the year 2000. The results were as follows :-
Table-7 : Average number of poultry consumed at home, number of poultry sold and
percent survivability of the birds of ILDP villages in Kundra block
Name of block No.of

Average No. of
and No. of families poultry
villages
at surveyed Consumed
home
Before After
ILDP
ILDP
Average No.
poultry sold
Before
ILDP
After
ILDP
Before
ILDP
After
ILDP
Kundra,
villages
11.65
41.96
40.52
61.99
Table-8:
25 318
12.39
19.85
of Survivability
percentage
poultry
in
Average income from poultry in rupees and threshold value/Hen unit of

Kundra block ILDP village
Name of block No.of families Income from Poultry (in

and
No.
of surveyed
Rs.)
villages
Before
After ILDP
ILDP
Threshold value as hen

unit *
After
ILDP
Before ILDP
Kundra,
villages
2.79
4.01
25 318
441.54
2209.29
On hill blocks it is about 2 hen unit per family
The average income from poultry per household was Rs.441.54 before ILDP intervention and
the average income level after ILDP interventions reached to Rs.2209.29, which was an
increase of Rs.1754.75 per household. It was 400 percent increase in income. The increase in
income level was due to improved survivability of poultry at home due to effective disease
control rgime by Community Link Workers in the ILDP villages.
217

Threshold level and village poultry:

The threshold level of poultry in traditional farming system is defined as the optimum
number of reproducing adult hens kept per family and its followers. The threshold level also
can be defined as the stage where loss absorption is ensured in the family. A number of
factors have been known which influence 'threshold' level (Kornel, 2006). These include
Epidemic diseases (Ranikhet Disease, Fowl Pox etc.) and production diseases (worms)
Predators
Thefts
Limitation of feed, feed resources (carrying capacity under scavenging conditions)
Backyard farming season interest.
Scavenging space around household or Geographical area
Tribal farming system (mixed species animal farming)
Family resources: (men and women), time and occupational interest
Value (utility) need, religious needs, price, market demand
Feuds with neighbours
Once the threshold limiting factors are addressed, the household optimize the number of
reproducing adult hens.
The backyard space is limited for scavenging of poultry in the village condition. Thus, it is
feed resources, which depends upon scavenging area, is the limiting factor for village poultry.
The scavenging food resource is a bio-production unit. It is dependent on the quantity and
quality of manure realized from livestock and household wastes. The season, moisture as well
as the shade over the manure pit influence the type of insects and fly population harbored in
the manure pits. The hidden unicellular component is a vital factor in the operational bioproduction system.
The optimum conditions for poultry production in villages prevail during September to March
months, when plenty of bio-mass is available due to post-rainy days and good climate.
The average tribal families often keep a two hen unit, particularly in hill villages. This is the
threshold level for the tribal villages located in the hills.
In the present study the 'threshold' value for unit of hens was 2.79 in the pre ILDP period. This
increased to 4.01 in the post ILDP period. This is a significant increase. The is due the fact
that farmers have attained increased confidence in poultry keeping and adopted disease
control measures successfully. In other words it is addressing the threshold limiting factors
enumerated as above. Thus, it has helped to increase income and food for family by increasing
number of adult hens thence number of followers.
218

Under favourable conditions in plain villages elsewhere in Orissa it is seen that the tribal
families have 4 hen units under traditional farming set up but it can increase further to 6 hen
units easily but scope to 8 hen units is rare. Once it attains 4 hen units, the family needs to
supplement the chicken with some amount of feed at home, then it becomes Semi-scavenging
system of poultry keeping.
It is clearly evident from the observations and experiences in that the number of hens per
household is the best indicator to measure the impact of poultry development in village
conditions.
9. Future research need:
The most important component in village poultry production is the control of diseases and
thus availability of cold chain to preserve live vaccines in inaccessible tribal villages. The
latter is dependent on round the clock supply of electricity to functional refrigerators. Thus a
strong functional cold chain from the site of vaccine production to the village level vaccine
administration is most vital, or else the whole exercise is defeated.
A heat stable Ranikhet disease vaccine is the right answer in the absence of cold chain for
preservation of vaccines. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR,
1990 and Alders et al. 2001) has developed two heat stable New Castle disease vaccines viz.
V4 and V12.
The producers advocate two potential advantages of these vaccines for village poultry
production (i) such vaccines remove the need for a complete cold chain and offer the
flexibility of delivery via alternate routes than the nasal, eye or muscle (Spadbrow, 1994).
The heat stable vaccine can be delivered as a coating on bird feed or in water.
Trials have been conducted on the role and effectiveness of heat stable V 4 and V12 vaccines in
various countries of Africa and South East Asia including Afghanisthan.
Trials for water borne delivery of V 4 was although reported to be more successful than feed
borne trials, still showed considerably less protection after a single dose than that achieved by
intraocular delivery of either V4 or V12 (Bell et.al.1995 and Wilcox, 1999).
Quantifiable definitions for heat stability of V 4 and V12 vaccines have been pointed out. There
is varied opinion due to variability in use of V4 and V12 vaccines, and it is not conclusive. In
recent years I-2 Vaccine is employed in Uganda, Africa.
The other alternate is the killed RD vaccine, which is thermo stable. Heat stable killed RD
vaccine is manufactured by some firms in India, but the cost of the vaccine is very high. This
can be used even at present in those inaccessible villages where cold chain or ice in flask is
not available. We have no experience of it.
There are 18.44 millions of indigenous poultry (Livestock census 2001) in tribal and rural
areas of Orissa. There is scope to get two to three folds the benefits from rural poultry
219

production in favour of poor through transformation rural poultry from subsistence to a

sustainable and economically viable sector as evidenced from the above ILDP pilot project.
In recent times, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai has developed and tested a oral pellet
thermostable vaccine of Ranikhet Disease in India from a virulent natural selected village
strain,
D-58
of
the
virus.(www.tanuvas.ac.in/Research_products.html)
and
http://www.galvmed.org/2012/03/workshop-on-newcastle-disease-and-nd-vaccines-galvmed/)
Indian scenario:
The increasing demand for livestock products is driven by economic growth and rising
incomes. It is predicted by Experts that India shall be one of the countries in developing world
that shall consume a large quantity of livestock products in near future; in particular meat will
come from the fast growing poultry sector. The rural population grows their own food for the
animal, including poultry in the backyard. They consume a significant number of home grown
poultry at home. As said above there are numerous festivals and religious ceremonies in a
year where the family must sacrifice chicken and all of that goes to family food. In general
about 20 poultry are sacrificed per family in a year and about minimum 6 poultry are required
to felicitate guests and relatives coming home. These poultry are home grown. So the
purchasing capacity of the family has no influence to this event. It can be concluded that the
backyard poultry augments a larger share to the wellbeing of the family by supporting the
nutrition.
Poultry meat production growth in India:
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India. The
production of agricultural crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5-2% per annum that of eggs and
broilers has been rising at a range of 8-10% per annum (Mehta et al., 2003). Simultaneously,
with the growth of the poultry sector in India, an increase in the size of the poultry farm has
been witnessed. As an example, in earlier years broiler farms used to produce a few hundred
birds (200-500 chicks) per cycle on average; whereas now units with less than 5,000 birds are
gradually becoming rare and units with 5,000 to 50,000 birds per week cycle are common. In
Orissa, the broiler farms are still small-holder dominant and mostly an urban and peri-urban
initiative.
Backyard poultry, which is based almost entirely on indigenous poultry, has been by-passed
by overwhelming results of the poultry revolution today and appears to be a stagnant lowproductivity sub-sector in the poultry sector.(Conroy,2004) The percentage of indigenous
poultry in the total poultry population has dropped from 50% about 30 years ago to about 10%
now (Rengnekar and Rangnekar, 1999) However, in Central India it has remained unaltered
particularly in regions where major population are tribal. Industrial poultry production has
undermined family production is not well established, and on the other side, the meat from
back-yard scavenging chickens is very highly valued than that of exotic poultry with prices
per kg live weight being 50-100% higher for the former. It has a niche market and is being
gradually occupied by coloured exotic broiler, which is sold in the name of indigenous
poultry.
220

More than 150 million of indigenous desi fowls are reared in rural and tribal areas of the
Country at present. They contribute 25 to 30% of poultry egg and meat amounting to more
than 7 billion rupees annually; thus there is immediate scope to improve it to two to three
folds with appropriate cheap interventions.
Improving profits from Village poultry-keeping:
According Todd and Dolberg, 2001, the poultry production activities is merely a learning
process since one activity alone is not sufficient to lift a family out of poverty. Therefore there
is a need for having an enabling environment that will provide opportunities and make it
possible for the beneficiaries to establish a small poultry enterprise, to minimize the risks and
to take the next step out of poverty by adopting another income generating activity.
There are two steps for backyard poultry system development, one is to improve the
production in traditional scavenging system, and the other is to promote an intermediate,
semi-intensive system. It needs to be realistic, low cost improvements and easy access to input
to improve the traditional scavenging system in Indian villages, particularly tribal dominant
regions. Additionally, the following objective needs attention,
use summer eggs for sale and table purpose.
reduce the mortality rate of growing birds by 25%; and target in steps at 50%
supplement protein in the feeding schedule
The experience of ILDP, Koraput in Orissa is that technological improvements such as these,
combined with poultry health-related and capacity development interventions both at farmers
and staff level, results in almost a doubling and trebling of the chicken populations.
Productivity and production impacts like these are results in substantial increase in sales and
household incomes. However a set of thresh hold factors operate in traditional backyard
poultry (Kornel, 2006)
Semi-intensive system is an intermediate step between scavenging system, a step close to
semi-intensive system and is the second option. Equally it has the higher establishment and
operational costs involved along with motivation of households on production and profit
prospectus. However, when closely observed the traditional poultry system (village poultry)
has the semi-intensive components at different layers of the system. The chick hatching to
rearing of chicks at least up to 6 weeks of age is an intensive system. The chicks then pass
through a semi-intensive phase where they receive home feeding twice to thrice a day and
continue scavenging. Nevertheless, the experiences points to the fact that this approach can
work, and farmers with support can develop semi-scavenging or semi-intensive system.
More ever it is our experience in ILDP, Koraput that income from poultry due to four hen
units under semi-scavenging production system can provide enough cash to buy cereals for
family consumption and can skip mango kernel as food during scarcity periods. The back yard
poultry is an entry point for women in tribal villages to attain empowerment.
BEST PRACTICES
221

Table 9. Characteristics of Poultry Production Systems:

Characteristic Intensive
Breed
and Specialized
flock size
500-5000
breeds
Semi-intensive
Scavenging
: Specialized and dual Local
purpose breeds: 50-200 type:<50
Housing
Modern
housing,
generally with concrete
walls and regulated
internal environment
Feed
resource
Commercially
compounded feeds
Health
programme
Standard and regular

animal
health
programme
Cold chain system for
input-output distribution
Markets
Infrastructure Water, electricity and

communication
available
Product
Products refrigerated;
storage and dressed birds and table
processing
eggs refrigerated
Technology / Formal
training,
information
extension
services
available-information
disseminated
through
producer and consumer
associations
Varies from modern

houses
to
simple
housing made from
locally
available
materials
Commercially
compounded,
homemade
mixtures
and scavenging
Disease control and
health programme at
varying levels
Input
and
output
distribution is based on
existing trading centres
Modest infrastructure
depending
on
proximity to urban
centres
Minimum
refrigeration,
occasional dressing of
birds
Moderate
formal
training and extension
services
indigenous
Specific poultry houses

are rare
Scavenging
and
occasional feeding with
home
grains
and
household refuse
No
regular
health
programme of disease
control measures in place
No formal marketing
channels
Underdeveloped
infrastructure
No refrigeration, sales of
live birds and eggs
Local knowledge, with

moderate or no extension
services
Source:FAO
The Bangladesh Model of poultry production.

Semi-scavenging poultry development model developed and adopted by Bangladesh provides
a good example of how poultry can have an impact on the empowerment of the poorest
women and on poverty reduction (Nielsen, 1998). It is a replication of both large-scale
commercial poultry production and backyard semi-scavenging system with service,
production and consumer units, but adopting it at the village level where women groups act as
222

the production units. The main feature of the model is that the supply of inputs and services is
turned into an income earning opportunity for poor people, carefully sequencing its
components and ensuring appropriate linkages between various actors. The main components
are the involvement of NGOs with access to groups of very poor women, the provision of
micro-credit and training by NGOs to help groups establish small, semi-scavenging, egg
laying units, and special training for poultry workers, feed distributors and egg traders.
Other successful rural poultry production programme include DANIDA assisted integrated
livestock development project besides in Orissa, are in Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh. The
principle and practices adopted in these projects therefore, are the best practices for promoting
Village Poultry. Selecting small farmers in a compact block, training of target group, NGOs
and key leaders in poultry production technologies, creation of enabling environment and
other institutions necessary for obtaining inputs, credits and services at village level,
formation of Self-help groups, establishment of mother units and small broiler and or layer
units in compact area, combined decision for fixing of prices of poultry and poultry products
etc. has been advocated. The Chhattisgarh project had Cross-bred poultry supplied from
Government poultry breeding Farms, in Koraput as said above was mainly the indigenous
poultry breeds with small trails of exotic and crossbreds. The NGO intervention was strong in
Tamil Nadu, where as in Koraput it was limited to one block, a cooperation with DANIDA
Watershed project.
Development of appropriate model for promotion of Village Poultry
The principles behind this model include organisation development, selection of target
group and adoption of industrial poultry production technology for small holder production
and creation of enabling environment for making available the required inputs including
credits at the village level. Although technology may defer from one country to another,
principle can be adopted. The enabling environment means that risks for investment in income
generating activities are minimized. The beneficiaries must learn to use these activities. No
subsidies shall be involved at user level. The sustainability of this system is very much related
to institutional development.
9.
INNOVATIONS
9.1
Development of superior Germplasm:
India is still rich Nation in Poultry biodiversity and the list is increasing with new additions. In
order to improve the productivity of this system, research efforts are currently under progress
for developing a high yielding varieties of coloured poultry from exotic genetic base which
can withstand harsh rural conditions of management, predation etc. However the performance
indicates that they are poor scavengers, non-broody in nature and not able to cope with
predation. These attributes of these birds are the negative points, which make their survival
difficult in village conditions. Under Indian rural condition and management their
performance is also reduced. Therefore, before recommending their wide spread use for rural
poultry production from these varieties so far recommended due to exotic germplasam more
adoptive research data need to be collected on their ability to perform well. However, there is
scope to improve the productivity of the native breeds of chick with research, keeping intact
223

its autogenerating capacity. The Vezaguda breed of Odisha Breed of Poultry in Kundra block
in Koraput district lay 20 to 22 eggs per clutch and in winter the hatching percentage is close
to 100 percent. It is a medium size bird. These are the genetics of the future. Let the future
studies say about the net meat production per hatch.
The other sphere of research is to develop Indigenous varieties of poultry to meet the need of
rural mass and meet the strong niche market. The need of the rural India at present is meat not
egg, so to introduce egg laying breeds may not be popular. A layer breed hen lays 305 eggs
per annum and it is about Rs.1,525 worth; but a desi hen gives Rs. 3700 worth of chicken per
annum through hatching the eggs and having 50% mortality of chicks.
The Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Bareli is maintaining flocks of native breeds
like Asseel, Kadagnath etc. These flocks are bred at random mating method. This in long run
will lead to inbreeding. It is essential that CARI being the premier research institute needs to
study the genetics parameters of these native breeds with an appropriate plan than adopting
the random mating. The genetics of native chicken will give deep insight for the improvement
of the native chicken and compare the genetics of exotic breeds.
9.3 Government hatcheries should refrain from supplying exotic poultry like Banaraja,
Giriraja etc in Tribal dominant districts where valuable indigenous poultry population is
already with the people and save these valuable bio-diversity. Western World has
already lost the native poultry genetic resources.
9.3
Development of Thermostable New castle or Ranikhet Disease and Fowl Pox Vaccines
which can go togather as a single dose/ injection is the need of the hour. To immunize
village poultry which are in small numbers per family, small packs containing 50 doses
of ND/RD vaccine need to be made available to reduce wastage.
Fowl pox affects the newly hatched chicks to adult. The disease is charecterised by
postules leading to wound in the face. This kills many chicks; mostly they die due to
blindness. But the Fowl pox available in the market needs to be used on chicks above 8
weeks of age, however, before 8 weeks of age all mortalities takes place so hardly there
is beneficilaity from the vaccine. Fowl pox vaccine which can be used and be effective
to chicks below 8 weeks needs development through research by ICAR or Universities
or the private organizations.
9.4
Composite farming system

Small holder poultry production as a part of integrated/composite farming system
involving crop and other livestock prevalent at present in South East Asian Countries
including China has been found to be more remunerative. Examples of
composite/integrated farming system involving poultry include: Poultry/Fish,
Pig/Poultry/Fish, Poultry/Fish/Rice/Vegetables (Smith, 1990).
9.5 Increase in inventory of feed resources

Feed alone account for 70% of the cost of poultry production. Village Poultry depend
mostly upon the scavenging feed resource base which varies greatly from one village to
224

another. Under such circumstances use of supplementary feed is the only answer for
sustainability of rural poultry production. A number of non-conventional feed resources
have been identified which have been found to have very good nutritional value as for
example green leafy meals are good sources of protein, carotene and trace minerals.
As Odisha has a long coastline (480.40 Kms) thus it is economical to use Fishmeal for
feeding the village chicken at an economical level and increase the productivity.
Similarly, Azola can be a good protein supplement in the semi-scavenging feeding
regime. The tribal villages in the vicinity of forest easily get white ants and bring home
to feed the newly hatches. The white ant can be grown/ trapped by easy methods as wet
old gunny bags or on wastes like dry cow dung, torn clothes, dry leaves etc covered
under a pot.
Government should come up with institutions that can sale fishmeal in weekly markets of
the backward districts of the State on regular basis.
White Ant Hills in Villages
Family feeding white ants to chicks
Azola cultivated in Tribal home
White Ant grown in a pot in the backyard
225

Fig. LFA Problem Tree: Village Poultry

Low Productivity & Income from village Poultry
Low chick production from hen
High Poultry Mortality

High Mortality of chicks
Less number of eggs per clutch

(8 to 15 eggs per clutch)
Very cold winter shock

High ambient temperature shock
Heavy rains on hills, chicks washed away
2-3 clutches per year per hen
Fowl Pox
Ranikhet Disease (ND)
Long chick carry period by hens
Diarrhea (white & green)
(55 days or more per hatch)
Protein deficiency
(15 days laying + 21 days brooding

+ 55 days carry period)
Predators
Accidents
Fig. LFA Solution Tree : Village Poultry

226

High Productivity & Income from village Poultry
Maximised chick production from

hen
Reduced Poultry Mortality
Reduced Mortality of chicks to 20% level

per clutch
Selection of hens with 20-22 eggs per
Cold shock reduced in winter to newly hatch
hatch achieved
by management
4-5 clutches per year per hen
High ambient temperature shock reduced to chicks
achieved by
medication
by management
selection
and
Loss of chicks to drowning reduced on hills

Fowl Pox controlled by regular vaccination
Ranikhet Disease (ND) controlled by regular
Reduced chick carry period (35-40

days) by management
medication.
vaccination
and
Diarrhea (white & green) controlled by medication

& management
Improved summer hatchability of eggs
Worms controlled by regular administration of
by cold treatment.
anthelmintic
Provision of more protein from white ants, fish meal,
oil cakes and legume leaves in feed
Intencive chick management till 21 days of age
10.
POLICY RECOMMENDATION:
10.1 Strategy and direction for Village poultry development:

The strategy for smallholder poultry development will differ from country to country and
from area to area within the country. The smallholder production line in Bangladesh usually
227

consists of (Jensen, 1996) small-scale egg-producers (5-10 hens), small-scale chick rearers
(200-300 chicks, 0-8 weeks), small-scale hatcheries (500-1000 eggs/month), small-scale
parent stocks (40-60 hens and 6-10 cocks). This system requires services and functional
institutions with trained man power. We at present need to improve the productivity of the
existing traditional village poultry. Learning how to rear 5-50 local chickens is just the first
step out of poverty, not a goal in itself (Dolberg, 2003) and we agree.
10.2 Village poultry: challenges for small holder farming system:
If the smallholder poultry sector will grow rapidly, and if it constantly reduces the
cost of production, reducing costs will allow the real price to decline and production
can grow even faster. This is possible when a niche market is available, close by.
Once the traditional no/low input backyard poultry under transition shifts to first
stage, i.e. semi-scavenging system some amount though small amount will be spent
for cost of production i.e. feeding, vaccination and housing. As the production cost
gradually increases, the system needs to be more efficient.
The role of Government is critical to success. Government must have a strategy for
developing the smallholder poultry sector. That should include the sequencing of
physical infrastructure investment, setting of priorities for research and extension,
and appropriation of adequate financial resources.
The smallholder livestock sector in order to play its full role in employment growth
and poverty reduction, government need to diagnose the critical needs for public
goods to complement private activities and to ensure that the critical needs are met.
The loss in welfare from this neglect is very high.
The key to success by smallholders is open market access (provided by high trust
and reputation), which shall in turn, result higher prices for their products.
In the light of these factors, the policy measures to improve sector competitiveness will need
to focus on
Effective control of diseases
Improving public and private infrastructure in rural areas.
Awareness creation and education about product quality,
Enhanced research, development and extension efforts,
Creation of favourable investment framework and linkages
Refinement and implementation of sanitary and quality standards that can be
met by smallholders.
Obtain advantage of niche market.
10.3 Village poultry to sustain under large integrated farms:
The rapid expansion of large industrial poultry production units with significant economies of
scale has raised concerns about the sustainability of backyard poultry production models.
There are concerns that the backyard poultry model as promoted in Bangladesh may not
withstand competition from large producers while traditional models based on scavenging
228

feed may have a better chance due to near zero feed costs. But those who have closely
observed the Bangladesh model express far more confidence in the sustainability and internal
robustness of the model. They point out that commercial poultry farms may not necessarily be
a constraint for backyard poultry since there is significant scope of market segmentation and
product differentiation. The native birds are sold at double the price of broiler meat in the
market throughout the country due to its niche market. The fear in the future is that the colour
broilers will take up this market and it will be sold in the name of native birds, because the
buyers will not distinguish the difference. It is now happening.
10.4 Role of the Government and other stakeholders:
There is poor awareness among the governments on the village poultry production. Thus there
is poor government support towards promotion of this activity. It is therefore necessary to
raise awareness about this option.
10.5 Need for a common platform:
There is an immediate need to organize a series of meetings and workshops to sensitize
decision makers, politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats, policy makers and planners on village
poultry as a tool to alleviate poverty. It is the need of the hour to attract more NGOs to animal
husbandry sector and more so in Village poultry.
10.6 Capacity building:
Organisation of support services and input supply are critical elements of any model that
attempts to link improved village smallholder with output local markets. This requires support
from farmers and strong organizational skills. Farmers are to be educated about the benefits
from Village poultry farming, what are diseases and how they cause diseases, poultry
common diseases, Feeding and feeds and calendar of vaccination and deworming of the
Village poultry, housing, Chick hatch management etc The Community Link Workers are to
be trained in administering anthelmintic, various vaccines to the poultry including the de
liceing etc. They are to be trained on preserving vaccine in cold-chain until delivered to the
poultry.
10.7 Linking with micro-credit
Micro finance organizations and self-help groups have a critical role in facilitating access to
cash credit for financing expenditures on day-to-day operations of Village Poultry support
enterprises. The establishment of strong linkages with micro-credit organizations in this is an
integral component. Poor require loan of small amount also to start poultry at the household;
this loan is not available from organized financial institutions.
10.8 Input supplies
From an organizational point of view the supply of vaccines and medicine are essential. The
first supplier to contract locally will thus be a veterinary service. A veterinary service
deliverer either private or governmental has to assure a sustained supply of vaccines against
Newcastle Disease (ND) or RD and Fowl Pox, as well as medicines against coccidiosis,
229

internal worms and lice. Vaccination campaigns should preferably cover at least 80% of the
poultry population to be effective against epidemic diseases and this call for the involvement
of veterinary assistants or "Community poultry or Animal Health or Link workers" to cover
the vast number of chickens in the villages. As most of these vaccines at present are coldchain dependent it is essential that in each cluster of villages (at least 15-20 villages) a
refrigerator is available and all community animal Health worker are provided with cold box
to carry and keep vaccines until used at the doorstep of the farmers. During 2014 Hester, a
Vaccine producer located in Ahmadabad has introduced Thermostable New castle Disease
(RD vaccine) in India. A large scale use of the vaccine in Mayurbhanj district by BMPCGALVmed co-operation has produced very encouraging result. This is going to create
revolution in village poultry development in India.
10.9 Service lines
Social, cultural and economic conditions of the smallholders need special emphasis in
developing village based poultry production systems. A slow participatory sensitization
process of all village members, including village heads, women, children and men, is an
essential starting point for the development of village based poultry production focusing on
the poor (Askov-Jensen, 1996; Frederiksen, 2004). The training aspects of the service delivery
and formation of Self-help Groups (SHGs) are also important. But now the SHGs are common
identity in almost all villages.
10.10 Essential backward and forward linkages for small poultry production:
The essential backward linkages are development of skills, provision of quality poultry stocks,
feed, health cover and adequate credit support. The forward linkages are support for
marketing of produce (eggs/poultry meat).
The impact of improper backward-forward linkages on sustainability of small farmer
production is very high considering the socio-economic advantage of small rural poultry
keeping. Contract Farming system is being followed very successfully in Broiler smallholder
system in South India and elsewhere. Extending the concept to Village poultry could most
rewarding to subsistence farmers in backward areas, particularly among tribes. But the
limitation is that the Village Poultry is not yet a commercial identity of the scale that the
Broilers are.
10.11 Low cost technologies in smallholder poultry production in villages
It is advisable to go with the traditional auto generating village poultry in villages, but
it requires research to make it more productive. The broodiness in hens is the only trait
that makes the native poultry most suitable for backyard poultry production. This
broodiness is not favoured in commercial breeds of poultry. The broodiness that makes
the native bird to hatch its own eggs to chicks in 21 days thus it becomes auto
generative that means there is no requirement of a machine to hatch eggs in village
condition. This aspect has been discussed in detail as above. It was observed by
Subrahmanyam et al. (2006) that in Orissa 4.88,21.95,62.93 and 10.24 percent of the
hens hatch once, twice, thrice and four times, respectively. This trait is controlled
230

genetically. In general, there are 2 to 4 clutches per hen per annum. In larger and
heavy breeds the clutch size is generally 2 and in dwarf and smaller breeds of poultry
it is 3 to 4 clutches per annum but on average the clutch size is
Mix the soil and sand
Collect one part soil to 3 parts sand
Add little water to wet the soil and sand

mixture
Cover the wet soil andsandby a dry gunny
Collect the eggs daily on the wet soil& sand

mixture until laid for hatch
3 per hen per year. So more number of clutches means more number of chicks for the
family from the hen unit. This means more family nutrition and profit to the family.
Increasing the clutch size of the hens from 3 to 4 and 5 per annum will significantly
improve the production per hen unit thus enhanced profit to the family. The general
methods are to separate the chicks from the mother hen for a week generally reduces
the broodiness of the hen and new laying starts, but this requires considerable labour
and efforts. The tribals of Koraput give repeated bath to the broody hen in order to
reduce the broodiness and start new laying .They also insert a wing feather through the
231

nostril and keep it there for couple of days resulting in mating with the cock and new
laying of eggs.
Recently Kornel Das (2014) have made a breakthrough in improving the number of
clutches per hen. The Norgestol (HLL Life Care Co.) tablets contain- Levonorgestrel
0.15mg and Ethinylestradiol 0.03mg. One tablet is administered orally daily for 3
days to a broody hen right after 21 days to 30 days of hatching chicks. After 10 days to
15 days of administering the tablets the hens start new laying of eggs that means new
clutch thus starts. This has been tested on more than 2000 hens and is effective. The
farmers are using the technique in their advantage. The cost per treatment of one hen
comes to about Rs. 7/ per clutch. As of now a hen has 2 to 3 clutches per annum and
by administering the drug it can be enhanced to 5 clutches per year; if the family has 5
hens in the flock then there is additional advantage of 10 clutches which means 120
more chicks to the family per annum. Other trade names of the medicine available in
the market are Combee-L, Ovipaur-L, Ergest, Ovipauz-L, Ergest, Divacon and OvralL. etc. This treatment is going to revolutionize the village poultry production and hens
will act like factories to the advantage of poor.
Addition of Fishmeal at 5 to 10 % level in the feed made at home from broken rice
and rice bran is found to increase 2 to 3 more eggs per clutch and the egg size is also
significantly enlarged resulting in birth of healthy chicks with reduction in chick
mortality has been reported by most women farmers. This has also significant effect in
reducing the clutch length as said by women poultry farmers.
It is seen from the studies of GALVmed in Orissa that there is 67.92 to 74.80 percent
hatching of eggs during summer in Kenjhore and Mayurbhanj districts respectively. In
the month of May it may go upto 50 to 60 percent hatching in some places. There is
thus significant loss of chicks to the families.
Reducing the egg spoilage in hatches during summer months is another technique that
results in gain of more chicks to the family. This is because due to high ambient
temperature the eggs spoilage is high. There are three methods to improve the hatch in
summer and all aim to reduce the temperature effect on the eggs stored for hatching.
In Tamil Nadu ILDP the farmwomen were candling the brooding eggs on 7th day and
infertile eggs were sent for table purpose and rest retained for hatching. This technique
helps in reducing spoilage of eggs and improves the infertile eggs utility as food for
the family.
During summer the eggs laid by a hen is marked as 1, 2, 3 etc from day 1 of the lay
and the eggs with 1to 6 number that are laid first are consumed and rest of the eggs are
left for hatching. This method reduces the spoilage of eggs and improves the hatching
percentage.
The other method is to have an earthen refrigerator where eggs are preserved in cool media
until the hen is ready to sit for hatch. One part of soil and three parts of sand is taken and
232

filled in a 10 inches wide mouth earthen vessel. Little water is added to the sand mixture so
that it becomes just wet. A small piece of gunny bag is laid over the mouth of the vessel with
care that it remains dry. Over it the eggs laid by the hen is stored one by one and it is placed in
the cool part of the house. After the laying of eggs is over the eggs are removed and placed
under the hen for hatch. This works perfectly under village condition. Spoilage of eggs in
summer hatch touch to about 50 percent, but with this method the farmwomen get normal
hatch.
11.0 Village poultry production traits
The village poultry production and its study is vital in order to improve the poultry production
at family level. The following are some of the findings on village hen production traits.
Table -10 showing production traits of hens in Mayurbhanj district
Traits
Production
Percentage
Number of Clutches per hen 2-4

per annum
Eggs per clutch per hen
8-20 ( Aver. 12.5 eggs)
Eggs consumed
1.94 to 2.30(Aver, 2 eggs)
Eggs sold
0.075 to 0.225
Eggs spoiled
0.295 to 0.87
Eggs for hatch per clutch
9.52 to 10.79 or say 10 to 11
Number of chicks hatched 7.2 to 8.89 say 7 to 9

per clutch by a hen
76.8 to 79.2
75.6 to 82.4
Number of chicks hatched 9 eggs *3 hatches=27 chicks

per hen per year
produced per hen
Number of chicks hatched 4 hen units*27 chicks per
per family per year ( @4 hen hen=108 chicks
units per family)
Chick mortality
20.1 to 33.1 %
Seasonal hatching: Season has significant effect on hatchability of eggs by broody hens in
villages. The hatching percentage in summer is significantly low as said above and during
rainy season it is moderate and varies from 71 to 75. 1percent and in winter it goes beyond
85 percent and some hatch even register 100 percent hatch. The summer hatch poor
hatchability is due to effect of high ambient temperature on eggs causing spoilage of eggs
and may be deficiency of vitamins like Vitamin A and E in the feed of scavenging poultry.
233

Table -11 showing Seasonal effect on hatchability of eggs

District
Summer
Rainy
Winter
Average
Kenjhore
67.92
71.0
70.71
69.87
Mayurbhanj
74.80
75.01
85.24
78.35
Chick Mortality: The chick mortality is a vital factor that speaks on the profitability of the
village poultry on the livelihood of the poor. The chick mortality is high in very poor tribal
localities. In general 20 to 33 percent of chick mortality registered in one of the GALVmed
studies in Orissa but it can go upto 39 percent as evident from Kenjhore studies. It was in a
pilot study. The chick mortality is high in winter because most hatching happens in winter
and the farmwomen claim the mortality of chick is high due to cold. The winter chick
mortality was reduced in Mayurbhanj by providing suitable nest material like dry leaves
and dry paddy straw to hen and chicks in night shelter and providing a lantern or electric
bulb lighting close to the mother hen. In Mayurbhanj the chick mortality was near equally
for all the 3 seasons. This may be due to improved nutrition by feeding white ants (protein)
to newly hatched chicks and good management practices.
Table-12 showing seasonal chick mortality

District
Summer
Rainy
Winter
Average
Kenjhore
25.2
32.8
38.8
32.27
Mayurbhanj
18.0
18.9
20.4
19.1
It was evident from the study that 65 percent of the chick mortality was due to predation, The
predators are snakes, mongoose, wild cat, foxes, vultures, rats, crows and a special type of
frog in the Mayurbhanj called Bramhani frog. Of the 804 mortality record it was seen that
98.6 percent of the mortality was solely from the chicks. The study also indicated that the
adult chicken mortality rate varied from 0.13 to 7 percent.
Mortality due to predators has been reduced in Mayurbhanj by providing adequate feed with
protein supplement to the flocks. This has reduced stray scavenging and thus falling prey to
predators. More ever introduction of creep feeding to the chicks and white ant feeding to the
chick has reduced mortality significantly. It is the general observation by women in villages
that if chicks are protected and reared carefully for 3 weeks after hatching the chick mortality
rate is reduced significantly.
Observation
234

It is reported that Odisha state has 144.2 lakhs of indigenous poultry that constitutes 70
percent of the total poultry in the state. As per Subrahmanyam and Murthy (2006) hens
constitute 19.84 percent of the total flock in Odisha. The indigenous hens hatch 2.8times say 3
times in a year. About 28 chicks are hatched per hen per annum. Thus in the state of Odisha
about 800.8 lakhs of chicks are hatched by indigenous hens in a year.
In order to hatch 800 lakhs of chicks per annum it required huge hatcherices, supply chain to
the villages and it will cost the farmers in terms of chick cost, feed, and reararing of chicks.
This all process will consume time of the family. To be successful to rear the chicks electricity
supply should be ensured.
Thus under the circumstances the indigenous poultry with broodiness to hatch its own eggs is
the most appropriate technology in the rural India and to the poor. It is most economical, least
cost technology and saves time to the farming families. In future this broodiness should be
maintained in the rural sector poultry. This is viatal.
235

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239

DUCK DEVELOPMENT IN TRIBAL HOMES IN ODISHA

Das Kornel
Ducks are common to people of Odisha. There were numerous ducks in coastal districts of the
state but a large population was lost to infectious diseases out-breaks in the past. Ducks are
very popular in tribal belts of Odisha. In Kalahandi district of Odisha the ladies dont
consume chicken as taboo but Duck consumption is allowed so the duck population is
significant. The duck meat and eggs are preferred by most people. In early days the higher
caste people never consumed chicken egg but consumed duck eggs instead; now this custom
is fading away. Three distinct species of ducks along with two Wild duck population that is
reared by the people of the state. They are-
Muscovy ducks (Carina moschata)

Geese
Deshi Ducks( Kuzi Ducks of Koraput and Kuzi ducks of Kalahandi)
Wild Muscovy Ducks of Mayurbhanj district
Mottled Ducks of Mayurbhanj and Kenojhar districts
In undivided Koraput district of the state the Bhattras, Omanatyas, Bhumias, Matia, Koya and
Poroja are some of the tribes who fondly rear Kuzi ducks in home. Apart from them the ducks
are found in the western Odisha and north tribal dominant districts of Odisha. The Desi ducks
are seen in the coastal belt sparingly.
The Geese are most common in Kotpad and Nowrangpur area as well found all over Odisha,
whereas Muscovy ducks and Deshi ducks are well distributed all over the district, as well as
the Western Odisha districts like Kalahandi and Bolangir may be in small number in small
percentage of households.
Wild Muscovy Ducks (Cairina moschata): Brazilian Indian villages were reported to be
keeping wild-caught Muscovy ducks in the 1500's by the Spanish conquistadors (Paul Dye
also Sarah Stai,2004) . Kornel et al. (2015) discovered Wild Muscovy Ducks in Mayurbhanj
and Kenjhore district villages in Odisha. This is the first discovery of Wild Muscovy out-side
South America. This also sheds light on the fact that the Wild Muscovy Ducks were coming
to Similipal Biosphere on migration thus the local tribals around it domesticated them. The
Wild forms are black in colour (feathers), has less prominent red facial wart like areas with
tiny carbuncles. They can easily fly, so the farmers trim the wings so that they do not go stray
and lost. The males are larger than female and the facial growth are more prominent in males
than females. They lay about 20 eggs per clutch and such 3 clutched per annum and hatch
their won eggs. Locally the people called them Dahi Hansa and some call it Kau Hansa.
In local language Kau means crow. This name is possibly as the ducks resemble crows black
feathers. This identification of Wild Muscovy Ducks in Mayurbhanj sheds the light on the fact
that the India may be another secondary origin of Domestic Muscovy ducks after South
America.
240

241

Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata forma domestica): The original home of Muscovy duck
is South America. They are tree birds rather than water birds, so they do not need a pond to
swim in. They have adopted well to Indian climate due to their tropical origin. However, it is
not known how KBK districts tribals got the Muscovy ducks. Plumage colours vary widely.
White, black, black and white mixed and various shades of grey colours are common. They
have a bright red crest around their eyes and above the beak. The drakes are much bigger than
the ducks. A full grown drake weighs about 4 kgs and female weighs around 2.5 kgs.
The Muscovy hens hatch their own eggs and can hatch eggs of other species like Khaki
Campbell or local ducks, and are good mothers. The Muscovy hens can brood three to four
times a year, with a clutch of 8 to 21 eggs. The eggs hatch after 35 days. The birds are ready
to eat after 90 to 120 days or at any time after that in village condition of rearing. The meat
yield is higher than any other breeds of duck with 50percent more breast meat, which is
98percent lean and the skin has 50percent less fat than other ducks.
They show self-dependent behaviour and better foragers than other ducks. They grow fast and
seldom show sickness. They do not make chatterer noise like ducks. They are quiet but make
hisses only when they have to. They do not go far off from owner's house and mostly live on
kitchen waste of the family. Most families feed rice bran to the ducks at home.
Their ability to brood and hatch own eggs as well as mothering ability, fast growth and
foraging quality around backyard limits has made the Muscovy ducks very popular among
Koya, Bhumiya, Bhattra and other tribes of KBK districts of Odisha. The project supplied
Muscovy ducklings to a limited number of village and families. It was their first experience
with Muscovy ducklings. They say they made more money from these ducks and the demand
for ducklings is very good in local population.
The Kondh tribes cross Muscovy with the common Deshi ducks and produce a hybrid that
combines many of the advantages of both. The cross is locally called "Bodhia" and in English
"Mule duck".
Except France, Italy and Taiwan Muscovy docks have received little attention in modern
research and development work.
Mottled Ducks (Anas fulvigula) of Mayurbhanj district in Odisha: This type of ducks are
found in Florida, USA and Mexico in wild. This as domesticated ducks in India is first
reported by Kornel (2015) in this report. It is a small sized duck below 1.700 kgs body weight
found in the Mayurbhanj district. In and around the Simlipal Biosphere purebreds are found in
villages where as in other parts of the district crossbreds with Mallard ducks is common. They
are locally called Kudri Hansa or Geda Hansa, this means tiny ducks. The mallards are
called Bangala hansa. The Mottled ducks is a new species of duck reared by the tribals of
Mayurbhanj district. It has a dark body, lighter head and neck, orange legs and dark eyes.
Males and females look similar, but the male's bill is bright yellow, whereas the female's is
deep to pale orange. The plumage is darker in female, especially at the tail, and the bill is
yellower. It lays from 10 to 30 eggs per clutch such 3 to 4 clutches per year and hatches their
own eggs. The hatching percentage generally as claimed by farmers is hundred percent.
242

Generally the farmers place 10 to 15 eggs for brooding and rest of the eggs are consumed at
home or sold. After hatch mother duck does not take care of the ducklings and instead the
women at home take the care of the ducklings. So it can be concluded that the ducks have
mothering ability or instinct. The ducks at 6 month of age start laying of eggs.
Mottled broody Duck on eggs
Duck in the nest
Mottled Ducks (Anas fulvigula) of Mayurbhanj district
Mother Mottled Ducks with ducklings
Mottled Ducks (Anas fulvigula) of Mayurbhanj

district
243

Success story on Muscovy duck development

The Bayaguda village of Jeypore block is heading towards a revolutionary change in its
pursuits to improve the living conditions of its residents by supplementing income from other
sources. One of its residents Shrimati Bati wife of Sri Kamal Lochan hails from a landless
schedule caste family and both were struggling to earn their livelihood from labour and casual
small business till they adopted for the first time home rearing of Muscovy ducks with
persuasion by advisors of ILDP.
A pair of Muscovy ducks bought by them from Malkanagiri and reared laid 33 eggs per clutch
at the first instance and the female duck unlike the indigenous species hatched all the eggs
during months of March April 2002. After four months the families have already sold 5 pairs
of ducks at Rs.250 / - per pair and due to amazing acceptability of this particular species
amongst the rural folks prospective customers have started approaching this family for
purchase of this variety and it is no surprise that the rest 11 pairs will soon be sold off. These
four month old ducklings weigh 2.50 kg each and are found to have high adoptability. This
schedule caste family was feeding the brood with paddy and rice bran and at times with left
over family food. According to Bati rearing this particular species of ducks is far more
profitable than chicken. She is planning to sell her stocks to interested breeders through ILDP.
Many more tribal and SC families including women Self Help Groups in the country side are
impressed with the success story of this single woman and appreciating the initiative taken by
her in adopting this species without least apprehension and have shown keen interest for
breeding of this species. Another schedule tribe woman Smt. Raimati Bhumia who is also
impressed with the growth rate and prolific breeding capacity of this Muscovy ducks says,
generally these ducks lay up to 15 eggs per clutch thrice in a year, but Bati prefers only two
hatches in a Year which will limit her to full time occupation.
Bati made Rs. 4000/- from sale of

Muscovy ducks reared by her from one
clutch of eggs of a single duck in six
months. Since the family utilized
homemade feeds for the brood, the
feeding cost accounted for less than
20percent of the sale proceeds of
ducklings.
Domestic Muscovy Ducks in a home
244

The Muscovy ducks in Kalahandi district of Orissa lay around 20 eggs per clutch and has such
3 clutches per annum. The Muscovy ducks of Baipariguda block (Koraput district) and in
Mathli block of Malkangiri lay about 30 to 40 eggs in a clutch and such two clutches per
annum. The present rate (2014 market price) of Muscovy adult varies from Rs. 800 per piece
to Rs.1000. Thus there is opportunity of receiving Rs.48, 000 to Rs.60, 000 in one year from
one female Muscovy duck reared at home. This amount is sufficient to buy food for the family
and that can last for a year. The Muscovy ducks are being researched at the Central Avian
research Institute, Bhubaneswar. The Muscovy ducks can be alleviating hunger and giving
food security to the poor families and at large can reduce poverty. The Government needs to
import improved strains of Muscovy from France or from Vietnam and give for breeding to
the tribals of Orissa and south Chhattisgarh. This will improve their livelihood.
Domestic Muscovy Ducks in Mathli, Malkangiri
Khaki Campbell ducks

A small number of Khaki Campbell ducklings were procured from Bangalore, Central Duck
Breeding Farm to ILDP, Koraput. The ducklings were reared under intensive housing and
management conditions and provided with standard duck feed free from afflation for a period
of one month. Plenty of clean water was provided round the clock. They were reared in 4
villages of Jeypore block. It was concluded by the farmers thatThe ducks grew well under village conditions, with least mortality,
They started laying eggs earlier than local breeds,
They adopt to scavenging.
However, the farmers observed that these ducks are noisier than local varieties.
There were about 7 white Peking broiler type ducks in the study. They grew very well and
245

adopted to local scavenging conditions. They grew faster than Khaki camp bells and farmers
appreciated it. These ducks do not sit on eggs for hatching.
Lessons learnt:
The government policy should be to encourage chicken for meat production and
consumption in rural India especially the tribal regions. The Ducks should be focused for
egg production in the villages both in scavenging and semi-scavenging management
system. The present stock of Khaki Campbell and Peking ducks in government farms are
highly inbred and it should be replaced with new imports.
Recent years there were rumors in India that the ducks are the carriers of Avian Influenza
virus, but the recent outbreak in 2013 and 14 (Kerala and Punjab) has shown that the
ducks are also equally and highly susceptible to Avian flu or Bird Flu. So there should
not be any misconception not to keep ducks in poultry farms.
Government by policy should stop introducing exotic or crosses chicken breeds into tribal
areas where there are very valuable indigenous chicken germplasam and then use all
district hatcheries that has been inducted to boost the backyard poultry endeavor for
hatching ducklings instead.
The tribal farmers (specific groups) have high affinity to duck egg and meat.
The promotion of duck farming will depend on reliable and continuous supply of
ducklings which they can purchase. Now the Andhra Pradesh business people are
fulfilling this need, it is in lakhs, particularly in Undivided Koraput district.
Duck can be another species which can be a food source to poor farmers under semiscavenging feeding system. This needs promotion.
Periodic de-worming and vaccination against Duck cholera, Duck hepatitis virus and
Duck plague are most essential. These vaccines are not available in free market and in
Odisha. Vaccine should be freely available to farmers.
Ducks except Muscovy do not hatch their eggs. So foster brooder hens of Muscovy ducks
need to be procured for hatching of duck eggs. In absence of incubator and hatching
machines for hatching of ducklings a mechanism to hatch ducklings and supply to farmers
need is most vital.
Promotion of Duck dishes as in South-East Asian countries will improve duck rearing and
further utilization of resources which otherwise cannot be utilized by other species of
animals.
Running Ducks in paddy fields is a specific technology and it has a complementary role.
Allepay in Kerala State as well as in most South-Asian countries and China this skill is
available; co-operation is essential to transfer this skill to Odisha farmers.
246

References
Dye, P. Stai, S. 2004. Muscovy Ducks in the wild. Wild Muscovy Ducks. Accessed
October 27, 2011. http://www.greatnorthern.net/~dye/wild_muscovy_ducks.htm
Dye, P. Stai, S. 2004. South Florida Muscovy ducks. Accessed October 27, 2011.
http://www.southfloridamuscovyducks.com/courtship-and-reproduction.html.
3.
Wildfowl Trust. 2008. Wild Muscovy Duck, Cairina moschata. Pointe-a Pierre,
Trinidad
and
Tobago,
Accessed
September
19,
2011.
http://www.petrotrin.com/WildFowlWeb/Ducks.htm#WildMuscovy Dye Paul and Stai
Sarha,
Kornel Das (1999a) Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in Tribal life - Koraput Modern
Book
Depot,
Bhubaneswar,
Orissa
.
www.amazon.co.uk/koraputBooks/s?ie=UTF8&rh...page=1
Kornel Das (1999b) - Livestock and Poultry Genetic Resources in Orissa, Vol. l,
Modern Book Depot, Bhubaneswar catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009162773
Kornel Das, Gopal Tripathy (2015) Mottled Ducks (Anas fulvigula) of Mayurbhanj
district, a new find.
Kornel Das and S.C. Mohapatra (15-16th Dec, 2003) State Level Workshop Poverty
Alleviation through Poultry production
in Orissa ; proceedings and papers)
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/ak069e/ak069e00.pdf
Kornel Das, Mohapatra, S.C., Alhawat, S.P.S.,Tripathy, Ashok.Bio-diversity of
Poultry in Orissa, S.C.Mishra (2004) in Biodiversity of Livestock in Orissa and Its
Role, Papers, Proceedings and Presentation of the Workshop held in Bhubaneswar,
India, on 6th and 7th February, 2004:
Kornel Das, S.C. Mohapatra, Gopal Tripathy and Piyush Mishra (2015) Wild
Muscovy Ducks (Cairina moschata) in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha.
Mottled Ducks: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mottled_duck
S.C.Mohapatra, S.C. Mishra and Das Kornel. Indigenous Poultry Genetic Resources
of Orissa. www.intercooperation.org.in/.../
247

SMALL RUMINANTS (SHEEP AND GOAT) IN ILDP, KORAPUT

Sheep Production in Smallholder setup
Introduction
The tribals as well as small holders have special affinity to small ruminants in particular to goats,
followed by sheep. This can be seen from their folk stories (Kornel, 1996). They are intimately
sitting into their culture and heritage through association in religious ceremonies and festive
occasions.
The bio-diversity in these species has been conserved by associating various phenotypic traits
in to ceremonies both at family and village level.
They have many reasons to include these small ruminants as an important component in their
age old traditional mixed farming system.
The small ruminants convert otherwise value less resources such as crop residues,
forage from marginal lands and forests to animal products.
The manure produced is utilised by crops.
They also serve as a hedge against the years when crops fail. They are sold for cash
when emergency or special need arises.
They are made to walk in flock over newly sown small millet fields, to give due
depth to the tiny seeds for germination.
They are offered as sacrifice at times for various religious ceremonies, festivals and
village feasts.
They stand as symbol of status and wealth for a family and are provided as gifts
between families of bride and bridegroom during marriage ceremonies.
248

Sheep of Koraput
The sheep population of Koraput is thin and short tail group as that of peninsular India. Kornel et.
Al (2006) identified and described the Koraput sheep breed of Orissa. They are medium sized and
vary from 16 to 35 kg body weight among ewes. The legs are normal in length. They are long
necked and the ears are medium, but sometimes are crunched too.
The ewes are polled, rams are horned or polled. The hairy ones resemble like goats.
Colour: Body colour varies from light to reddish-brown (tan) with very seldom black. If there is
fleece it is as of the same body colour only. There are hairy as well as wool sheep in the
population.
The fleece may be 6 inches in length and are moulted, it is rough type. Face, legs and belly
remain free of wool. The sheep show periodical moulting of fleece. The sheep are never
known for shearing in this tract; so the people do not know its utilization either
Koraput Sheep Breed-Ram
Adaptability, behaviour and temperament: They are hardy and well adapted to a high
monsoon rainfall (June-October) tropical environment. They adapt very well to direct sun light
of summer and exhibit 'head below abdomen of mate' phenomena to protect from direct sun of
noon.
249

They are excellent mothers. Their milk production is just sufficient for single lamb rearing.
The rams remain throughout the year in the flock and breed.
Growth: There are no studied records in this aspect. It is apparent that the growth among
lambs is good up to the age of 9 months. The body weight of adult ewes varies from 16 to 35
kgs.
Health: The health status of sheep population depends on intensity of sheep numbers,
housing, rainfall and humidity as well as the population of sheep inflow from other distant
areas. On the contrary the farmers claim that local sheep are preferred to goat on disease
resistance.
The slaughter house examination indicates existence of liver flukes, ruminal flukes also other
worms like haemonchus. The extent of its involvement is not studied yet. The fact that no
deworming is ever done to sheep population here it can be said that they show remarkable
resistance to internal parasites.
Other diseases appearing are mange, foot rot, pneumonia and gastro-enteritis may be parasite
origin.
The enterotoxaemia as a cause of lamb mortality has not appeared yet. There is no incidence
of sheep pox either so also the Blue tongue. The Blue tongue is highly prevalent in the plains,
sheep of neighbour A.P. State and elsewhere.
The Peste-des-petit Ruminant (PPR) viral disease is recorded, and is one of the most feared
diseases by the farmers, because of its high mortality rates.
Lamb mortality: The farmers do not complain about lamb mortality as a problem in their
discussions. The multiple birth of course with the existing low milk yield from mother leads
to lamb mortality. I feel that the farmers take no notice of lamb mortality as they feel it to be
natural. Studies are needed in this aspect.
250

Koraput Sheep Breed Flock
Prolificacy and other aspects of female reproduction: One of the most outstanding
qualities of the sheep population here is that there is high variation among the flocks on
economic traits and reproduction abilities. They mature between 7 months to 1 year and
always have single lambing at first lambing. Most sheep have single lambing but twins below
5 percent and occasionally triplet reports are seen. These sheep in many flocks have three
lambing in a period of two years. These all traits combined, the sheep population can be called
as prolific.
The major lambing takes place between November-December and another minor lambing
season between February-March. However, both are favoured but between February-March
the problems of less milk to the lambs are observed.
Management: Sheep farming in Koraput district is normally a secondary interest and as such
a backyard operation. Traditionally, sheep have been kept by tribal farmers as a ready
resource for cash, to offer in ceremonial functions or of meat for special occasions. About
85% of the sheep population in flocks come from farmers house as 2 to 6 sheep.
The sheep are grazed in community grazing lands along with cattle, buffaloes and goats.
Depending on the size of the village and number of households, there can be one or more
village herds and thus graze in different directions. They graze during day time and are
penned during the night. The farmers do not supplement grazing, even in dry season. Small
farmers of Laxmipur, however, follow the tethering system of management whereby 3 to 10
sheep are grazed in a group along the shift cultivated land patches on hills. Thus children and
cheap family labour is made use of to manage the sheep.
The farmers claim the superiority of sheep over goat as goats run stray out of the herd/flock
amidst grazing and there is always the fear of losing few in such events in their minds; but
claim this is not so with the sheep who remain in the herd of cattle.
The farmers in total do not deworm the sheep. They do not know that sheep if routinely
dewormed shall be very productive. Lambs are allowed to run with and suckle their mothers
as long as the ewe will permit. The newly born stay under the care of the women at home
until about two weeks of age. At about noon the village women take the lambs to the flock and
251

feed from their mother's milk and get back the lambs. This is evident in Koraput block villages.
Castration of young ram lambs is never a practice.
Sheep in the Koraput district are raised as a component of the traditional farming system where it
is operating almost near zero input and low output. The losses due to diseases and loss of
production needs to be ameliorated to make traditional sheep farming a sustainable and
economically viable enterprise
In order to make it most profitable there is a need to improve genetic potentiality of sheep. This
will call for a detailed assessment of their present genetic potentiality for economic traits and
implementation of a workable programme to bring about further improvement.
Summary: Production system of sheep in tribal villages of Kundra, Jeypore and Koraput blocks
5 to 14 percent of household keep sheep

Number of sheep per household vary from 1 to 20.
Sheep is only for mutton production
Sheep graze along with goat, cattle and buffaloes in herd(s)
Employment of common grazer by the village community on annual payment and daily
supply of cooked food basis is common.
Women take care of the newly born lambs and men bring tree loppings to feed the mother
ewe.
Women report loss of sheep if any to men after return from grazing.
The women share decisions with men on sale of sheep
No concentrate, salt or mineral mixture is given to sheep at home except for new
lambings. Stall feeding is not known.
The wool harvesting and processing is unknown
Surplus un-castrated males are sold at one year of age to fetch a better price.
Only old ewes are sold
Sale of surplus sheep rams and male lambs is profitable.
No selections are made to improve performance of flock
The sheep are never known to be dewormed
Predation is common
Sheep are believed to be more disease resistant than goats by farmers
Sheep's unique flock loving ability during on set of rains and the goats fleeing habit
weighs in favour of sheep
Mortality, theft and predators account for major loss
252

Expenditure is only the grazing charges
Summary: Production system of sheep in tribal villages of Kundra, Jeypore and Koraput
blocks
5 to 14 percent of household keep sheep
Number of sheep per household vary from 1 to 20.
Sheep is only for mutton production
Sheep graze along with goat, cattle and buffaloes in herd(s)
Employment of common grazer by the village community on annual payment and
daily supply of cooked food basis is common.
Women take care of the newly born lambs and men bring tree loppings to feed the
mother ewe.
Women report loss of sheep if any to men after return from grazing.
The women share decisions with men on sale of sheep
No concentrate, salt or mineral mixture is given to sheep at home except for new
lambings. Stall feeding is not known.
The wool harvesting and processing is unknown
Surplus un-castrated males are sold at one year of age to fetch a better price.
Only old ewes are sold
Sale of surplus sheep rams and male lambs is profitable.
No selections are made to improve performance of flock
The sheep are never known to be dewormed
Predation is common
Sheep are believed to be more disease resistant than goats by farmers
Sheep's unique flock loving ability during on set of rains and the goats fleeing
habit weighs in favour of sheep
Mortality, theft and predators account for major loss
Expenditure is only the grazing charges
253

Logical Framework Application (LFA):

Fig-1- Problem Tree- Sheep Production in Koraput (Orissa)
Low
household
High loss of
sheep
High lamb
mortality
High
mortality
Pred
ators
Thefts
High
incidence of
wasting
diseases
Poor
Health
High incidence
of Pneumonia,
Enteritis
Less sheep at
low price to sell
Slow lamb
growth
Low milk
production
Breed
type
Poor
Nutritio
Heavy internal,
external
parasite burden
Low
feed
intake
Feed
Scarcity
Poor Hygiene
Communa
l Grazing
Irregular drug
supply
254
Low household income
Low
protein
level
Extensiv
e
cultivatio
Heavy
grazing
pressure
Low energy
levels in feed
High
human
populatio

LOGICAL FRAME WORK APPROACH (LFA) PLANNING:

Fig-2- Objective Tree- Sheep Production in Koraput (Orissa)
Improved
survival rate of
sheep
Improved
household
Reduced lamb
mortality
Predators
/ loss
controlled
Thefts
contro
lled
Reduced
incidence of
wasting
diseases
More sheep at
high price to sell
Improved
lamb growth
Reduced
mortality
Improved milk
production of
Good
Health
Appropriate
Breed type
Low incidence
of Pneumonia,
Enteritis
Improved
Nutrition
Reduced
internal,
external
parasite burden
Increase
feed
intake
Increased
feed
supply
Improved Hygiene
Farmer
training
Regular drug
supply
255
Increase
protein
level
Increase
energy levels
in feed
Forage
development

SHEEP PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT IN TRADITIONAL TRIBAL FARMING

OF KORAPUTO
Objective of the production system for sheep
To increase the number of sheep holding farmers from the
present level to additional 30 percent in the project villages
To produce and market more number of heavier lambs per farmer family
1. Ewe performance
Improved body weight at one year of age
Improved milk production in ewes
Improved healthy multiple births in ewes (twins mostly)
Improved lambing rate (3 lambing in 2 years)
These are dependent on genetical quality of sheep as well as feed and management.
2. Loss prevention in adult sheep
Diseases
Periodical deworming and regular vaccination schedule adoption
Predators
Adoption of proper housing system slatted floor house preferred
Effective grazing management to be adopted with graziers and farmers
Introduction of stall feeding system
Introduction of Watch Dogs in grazing herds?
Joint predator control system need to be established in collaboration with Department of
Forestry.
Thefts
Proper housing system
Village night watchman introduction
Effective reporting system to Police Department developed by the villagers
Loss prevention in lambs
Introduction of dams (ewes) with improved milk yield and sufficient milk for twins
256

Retention of strong mothering instinct in Dams

Reduction of weak lamb births
Separate housing of dams and new born lambs
Penning of Lambs in dry place at night
2. Improvement in feed resources

More fodder trees planted and regularly harvested
Improvement of natural pasture and introduction of rotational grazing
Conservation of tree leaves to feed in dry lean periods practiced
Salt and chalk feeding adopted as a routine
Lambs to be provided with limited concentrate feed after weaning
3. Training of farmers for simple skills
Improved Farmers knowledge on general diseases, their preventions and access to

Veterinary institutions.
Adoption of first aid measures for sheep in the village

Regular deworming and deticking of sheep
Basic knowledge in primary animal husbandry skills
Knowledge and awareness of breeding cycle
Procedure to be adopted for selection of breeding ewes and rams
5. Assistance to farmers
More new sheep farmers are inducted into Village Revolving Fund
Village farmers practice castration of non-breedable male lambs
Access to appropriate breed of rams and assistance in selection
Exposure visits to other good sheep farmers in the neighbouring areas and states
Assistance to deworm sheep, initially
257

Simplified objective for production units
The objectives for production unit is due to LFA planning vide Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
The primary production units are the households of poor tribal villages in Koraput. In 1996,
between 4 to 16 percent of the households in tribal villages were keeping sheep and there was
also significant difference among blocks. Laxmipur block had the lowest sheep holdings.
The objective was to increase number of households to adopt sheep farming at least to 30
percent more than the existing level within the production system. The methodology followed
was:
The leading tribal farmers in the village, with more than 10 sheep, were to be selected
and given training and exposures through study tours so as to increase their interest
further to take up sheep farming as one major occupation. It was assumed that if this
procedure becomes successful shall attract more new farmers into sheep farming.
The sheep farmers were also given assistance of breeding rams, simple breeding plans to
improve the flock and loans from SHGs to utilize in the trade. Risk to the livelihood was
perfectly secured in the plan such that they do not have any adverse effect on their living.
The leading sheep farmers were organised into a forum where they shared their experience.
This was to make them more knowledgeable in sheep farming and become master sheep
farmers.
They had no knowledge of other sheep breeds and their quality, which are available in this
country or elsewhere. So expert opinion was taken and implemented.
The production level of the existing small holding was to improve through production
improvement and marketing of more number of heavy body weight sheep at weaning and
reduce marketable age.
The sheep to be given health coverage i.e. regular deworming and vaccinations to prevent
infectious diseases. This was to improve production and reduce losses due to morbidity
and mortality. Reduction of risks shall improve confidence level of farmers in the sector
and growth shall be faster.
BREEDING SYSTEM AND BREEDS

Fast growth and gaining marketable body weight at 9 months of age under local grazing and
management condition was conceived as most desirable traits in sheep for small holder tribal
farmers in Koraput.
In early 1997, a pilot model sheep development programme was developed which advised
introduction of suitable carpet wool Indian sheep breeds from Rajasthan as the best choice for
upgrading local sheep in Koraput district. Rajasthan sheep breeds, particular Malpura, have
good milking ability which is desirable for mutton lamb production.
258

Acharya (1982) reviewed Indian sheep breeds along with their breed characteristics .The
information was used to prepare an effective sheep stratification plan, keeping in view the
local climatic conditions which experience heavy rainfall during monsoon (June-October).
The local sheep are highly adapted to it.
Review and past experiences
Use of rams of other breeds for mating village flocks did not produce the desired results was
the general experience and opinion in Orissa. But there is not much recorded information
available in this matter.
That the sheep breeds show reproduction disorders when shifted from one hemisphere to
another is well documented. Change of temperature, humidity, photo periodicity, grazing
behaviour, availability and type of fodder etc. have been attributed for such change in
reproductive performance.
There are also several disastrous examples of transferring sheep from the temperate zone to
the tropics. As per examples the Bikaneri sheep of Rajasthan transferred to Sri Lanka did not
survive. It was attributed to non-adoption of semi-arid Bikaneri sheep to hot humid
conditions of Sri Lanka. Thus it was contemplated that arid zone sheep if saved from heavy
rain conditions during rainy season in Koraput and can survive up to at least 3 breeding
seasons and shall leave good number of progenies. Other alternative was use of
Muzafarnagari sheep breed, which can adopt better to the rainy conditions of Koraput as its
natural breeding tract experiences 89 cms of rainfall per annum.
Strategy
In order to improve the growth rate and body weight, the local sheep population was screened
as per Fig. 3. The following conclusions were made.
Introduction of Malpura, Malpura Awassi cross breed and Muzafarnagari even Nellore
rams was suggested. This decision was dependent on availability of good breeding rams in
sufficient number. This was the breeding plan for first year.
Thereafter, the objective was to improve the twinning rate as well as to have two lambings
in a period of 14 to 16 months. In order to achieve this crossbred rams of 50 percent
superior genetic inheritance, rams of Rajasthan sheep breeds were to be selected and
mated to triplet and twin bearing ewes (from local villages and Puri - Cuttack coastal tract
of Orissa). The 50% CBs thus produced were to be used on the progeny produced due to
first year born.
259

PILOT PROGRAMME FOR SHEEP DEVELOPMENT IN 15 TRIBAL VILLAGES

OF KUNDRA BLOCK
Objective
The objective of the pilot project was to pass on superior and desirable genetic traits of an
identified superior performing sheep breed into the local sheep population at the same time
retain the superior local adaptability of the native breed. It was conceived to be a limited
intervention where the upgraded population to be followed by further selection and
replication.
This pilot trial was taken up by ILDP in Kundra block. The aim was to improve the milk
yield of the local sheep population, thus to improve growth rate and body weight of the
progeny. The project also aimed to improve the twining rate as well as to produce two
lambings in a period of 14 to 16 months.
The rams of Malpura breed of Rajasthan were selected for upgrading the local sheep. Few
Marwari rams were also used. Their habitat is dry and hot with sparse grazing facility. The
Marwari breed goes on periodic migration over long distances. Both breeds are maintained in
the open without housing.
The annual rainfall in Kundra Block is about 1000 mm but in some years it goes up to 1300
mm. The local sheep are early maturing and mostly prolific in their breeding habits. They are
small with an adult weight of about 20 kg. They are housed overnight on slatted floor in a
few cases or in small rooms or sheds. In the day time they graze in mixed herds with goats,
cattle and buffaloes.
Sheep and goat development in the ILDP villages of Koraput District is important and
necessary in order to improve the income of the tribal families. Marketing of improved
animals is easy for the time being and will not be a problem in the near future (next few
years).
A pilot programme for sheep development in 15 villages of Kundra Block was undertaken in
1997-98.
260

Quarantine of newly purchased breeding rams
The tribal areas of Koraput so also most areas in Orissa are free from many contagious animal
diseases. These newly inducted animals can be the main source of infection to infect local
sheep with new and emerging diseases. The Koraput region is free of blue tongue although
the blue tongue virus has caused serious losses in south India, especially among sheep flocks.
The Brucellosis and many other abortion causing diseases are not found in rural Koraput.
Introduction of new animals also pose the risk of introducing drug resistant parasites and
bacteria.
Thus a strong quarantine measure was taken up for all newly purchased animals.
The sheep purchased were dewormed before loading into the truck and another deworming was done
immediately after reaching the project area.
The animals were sprayed with insecticides to free them from ecto-parasites. They were also given a
subcutaneous injection of Ivermectine to free them from all ecto and endo parasites. It is a long acting drug.
Blood was collected to examine for brucellosis.
The newly purchased rams were quarantined at Randapalli farm for 3 to 4 weeks before
being released to the villages for breeding. During quarantine they were regularly watched
for sickness symptoms.
Extension methods adopted in village pilot sheep development
Sheep farmers were identified in each village; and the number of sheep kept by them was recorded and
compared with base data survey records of 1995.
The farmers were called for a meeting. After preliminary discussion
the proposal to
improve their sheep by use of improved rams was suggested. The immediate reaction from
the sheep farmers was that the proposal is good but they require some time to think
over the proposal.
After a week the matter is again placed before them at a meeting. It was told with clear
terms that if they agree to the proposal the following conditions to prevail:
i) one host is required to house and manage the village ram
ii) the ram is govt. property and the govt. reserves the right to pull back the ram after the
breeding season
iii) the breeding ram supplied by ILDP is for all villagers; if the ram is sick or otherwise
not useful, it will be replaced as soon as possible
iv) the villagers have to castrate all existing local rams in the village.
261

This required the consent of all sheep farmers of the village. All recommendations are open
for debate.
The decision was hard, because some have to keep un-castrated rams for religious
offers/ceremonies.
A date was fixed for castration of all rams (young and old). The ILDP Block Extension Team
(BET) had to see that no ram gets maggot wounds after castration.
The system was farmer driven and accountable.
The agreement with farmers
The villagers will be supplied with a breeding ram for every 30 to 50 ewes available in the
village.
The breeding ram will be housed with one of the interested farmers of the village.
Balanced 250 gm of feed is to be supplied to each of the breeding ram per day by ILDP for
the breeding period or when the ram becomes weak.
The village graziers are contacted by the BET about the rams breeding performance
including libido. BET also collected information if there were any un-castrated ram in the
herd and the name of the owner. He was then persuaded by BET to castrate his ram in the
interest of the village
Sometimes, some farmers add one or two rams during the breeding season, for their religious
offerings. If they do not want to castrate these rams, they will be requested to send the rams
for some weeks to a neighboring village or to place an apron on the abdomen of the ram to
prevent them from mating.
Feedback system and strengthening of linkage through village link workers:
the CLWs receive information from the village herd graziers about
the
ram
performance, problems, number of ewes served and lambs
born etc. and report to the
BET in the weekly meetings.
the village CLWs inform the BET immediately if the ram is sick or injured. In all weekly
meetings of the CLWs the sheep breeding is discussed and all relevant information
including data collected are recorded.
262

The above activities are spelled out as a comprehensive Action Plan for tribal village sheep
development vide Table 1.
Table 1: ILDP sheep development action plan in tribal villages
S.N
Activities
Workshop, consultant on breed selection resource

A
availability of breedable Rams and Bucks enquiry
availability of breedable Buck/Rams for sale from

National Institutes
Purchase Committee formation, Director, AH to

nominate members
Disease investigation: Brucellosis, Johne's disease

(Blue tongue?), Sheep and Goat pox others if any ?
1997
11
12
Purchase of breedable Rams and Bucks each
Advise from CSWRI/CGRI at site

C
purchase, deworm treatment against ecto/endo

parasite and transport
Transport of Rams and Bucks to ILDP, Jeypore
Quarantine at Randapalli Fodder Farm, Jeypore
Preventive treatment for bacterial infections and

worms for all rams and bucks; R.P Vaccine/PPR
vaccine. H.S, Anti-tetanus injection
Awareness building with sheep and goat farmers in

the village to adopt breeding Rams of ILDP and
identification of Ram and Buck host in the villages
a) Sheep and Goat farmers participation in

castration of all bucks, ram lambs/separation to
another village in total
b) Feed supply, deworm regularly discussed
Placing of breeding Rams and Bucks to village

flocks(1:25)
Treatment of Rams and Bucks showing lack of

libido
10
Breeding Rams and Bucks performance recording

and health check, replacement of sick regularly
11
Farmers to be reassured of breeding losses if any to

be taken care with reserve males at Randapalli
farm. Answering questions relating to the program
12
Training of village farmers on sheep and goat

farming by PRA, practical training at village level
and visit to Kundra block villages having the
programme since 1997 May
13
Lamb birth recording
14
Workshop with farmers
263
1998
1
10
11
12

Output:
Table: 2 Body weights of local ewes (Kundra block)

=====================================
Ewes
Body wt.
No.of
in kg.
Observations
=====================================
2 teeth age
16.40 0.39
62
4 teeth age
18.96 1.21
28
Full mouth
21.80 0.65
47
=====================================
The lamb to the left is about 3 months old. The cross breeds generally
reaches the same size as their mother after about 5-6 months
264

Table 3.
Body weight of Graded (F1) Sheep (Kundra block)
Sheep age
Body wt.
(both sex)
In kg.
No. of
Observations
One month
7.04
0.21
76
Two month
10.03
0.23
77
Three month
13.17
0.39
52
Four month
13.76
0.39
71
Five month
16.94
0.48
53
Six month
18.27
0.67
30
Seven month
19.06
0.87
18
Eight month
23.01
0.97
10
Nine month
26.0
1.00
The body weight of local ewes and graded lambs of Kundra block are shown in Table 2 and 3
respectively. The body weight of graded lambs at 5 months of age was close to that of two
teeth local ewes (12-18 months of age). The graded lambs were marketed at six to eight
months of age because of their superior growth performance and high body weight. The same
weight was achieved by the local breed sheep at 12-18 months of age in most cases.
The villagers agreed and undertook the castration of all surplus F1 male lambs in 15
villages.
The villagers appreciated the effort of ILDP for supply of rams which improved the
performance of local sheep. However many asked for rams with horns and black hair
colour for use in religious functions. Rams with black colour also fetch a higher price in the
local market.
The survivability of rams supplied by ILDP was high. Out of 15 rams supplied, two were
injured and replaced and one died of tetanus.
It was decided to exchange the rams among the ILDP villages after each breeding season to
generate more variability among the progeny and avoid inbreeding.
Up to October 1998 about 475 graded lambs were born and about 200 more were born until
the end of the breeding season. Out of these 100 CB ram lambs could have been utilised in
the remaining 100 non-ILDP villages of the Kundra block to have at least 25% blood level
of Rajasthan sheep. This could have helped in the spread of the genetic merit.
265

This issue was discussed with non-ILDP and ILDP sheep farmers for further action as it was
essential to utlise the available genetic material. The results which appeared slowly from this
intervention has been reported in this manuscript.
Lessons learnt
Invariably all newly introduced breeding rams show loss of libido, and delay in
socialisation with the local flock. Administration of testosterone hormone improved the
performance.
During the first few days, the large ruminants of the herd showed fear and apprehension
and often took up a position of defense or attacked the Rajasthan rams.
Most of these rams never grazed along with cattle and buffaloes before. In two cases we
have recorded injury to rams due to attack of buffaloes.
May is the ideal month for placement of breeding rams in the flock.
The debility and sickness among exhausted rams may occur in October. Special care in
feeding, management and deworming is essential especially during this month to improve
the performance of Rajasthan rams in Koraput.
Koraput farmers do not appreciate long tail sheep; and the Disaris and Pujaris do not
allow them for religious uses. But they allow those which have docked tails.
Farmers appreciated the growth and body weight of lambs and placed the crossbred lambs
at superior level then the local lambs.
The graded lambs produced good carpet quality wool. Harvest of wool and its use is
unknown in the district.
The increased growth of the upgraded lambs was partly due to heterosis and partly due to
better utilization of local available feed resources.
The Rajasthan breed of rams, though from a hot and dry region, adopted well to the heavy
rain and hot and humid climate of Koraput.
The breeding rams required an effective deworming schedule.
The graded lambs also needed routine deworming for better performance. This is essential.
It is being taken care of at farmers level.
The graded female lambs were in heat the next year breeding season and were bred. This
indicates that the early maturity is maintained.
The ultimate aim is to have ewes with improved milk production capacity, prolific breeding
habit and resistance to internal parasites as that of local sheep. All these characters are very
essential for a good mutton sheep with little wool that can be processed.
266

REPLICATION OF KUNDRA ILDP PILOT SHEEP DEVELOPMENT MODEL IN

OTHER THREE BLOCKS OF ILDP, KORAPUT:
Our experience on sheep development from the Kundra block pilot project has been discussed
above. Since the results realised from this project was found to be successful, it was decided
to replicate the same sheep development model in all ILDP villages of Jeypore, Kundra and
Koraput blocks having a minimum of 15 ewes in one village. The Laxmipur block, which has
a very small population of sheep, was excluded. This proposal was agreed upon by the sheep
farmers of ILDP villages. The only modification which was undertaken in this phase was that Purchase of Rajasthan breed of rams and their transport is a costly affair. It was
therefore agreed upon to purchase such rams from normadic flocks on migration to
Bastar-Raipur West Orissa.
The F1 & F2 CB rams were used to breed sheep of non-ILDP neighbouring villages.
The KVK, Semiliguda used F1 Malpura rams in their adopted villages. The results
reported were found to be satisfactory.
The sheep development is of special importance, especially for poor population to improve
their living standard. The planners depended on breeding farm as base concept to supply
breeding rams for use at farmers level. Somehow, these institutions do not possess capability
to undertake this job and to cope up with the demand. The large scale irrigated pasture base
exotic and crossbred sheep farmers did appear during 1970s in India but with limited utility.
Now, there is a need to think over the changed scenario, where the demand for improved ram
still remains and will continue. A cost effective model is required to fill up the gap thus
appearing to improve the village sheep production.
As per experiences of ILDP, a farmer nucleus village based system with government/NGO
assistance can be the best choice for village sheep development. It is also sustainable.
Lessons Learnt:
1. The development of new genetic material and its continued use is result dependent. Once
the farmers realised its worth from profit angle, it will receive social acceptance and shall
spread.
2. The sheep development agency needs to work with the concept of village base Nucleus
breeding system initially, at least for 2 to 4 years. Preferably the breeding rams need to be
exchanged between villages well in advance before the commencement of new breeding
season.
a. This should be a regular feature to avoid inbreeding.
b. Rams of improved breeds need to be introduced as per demand of the villages for
specific traits and with firm knowledge base of consultant or professionals.
3. The progeny growth, susceptibility to diseases, worms load and mortality rate should be
monitored regularly by data collection, technical evaluation and farmers opinion. The
opinion of farmers is very essential to make any changes in the approved programme.
It is our considered opinion that the multiplication of breeding rams and their supply to
farmers and community from Government breeding farms can well be transferred to
village level through systematic nucleus breeding system with support.
267

4.
5.
The extension agency should stay out of the village small ruminant development plan
onece villagers are knowledgeable and prepared to select and maintain their own rams for
their flocks.
In every 4 to 5 years, the village sheep farmers will need technical assistance, because in
absence of proper selection, the sheep population shall revert back from where it
originally started. They should be assisted in evaluation of the progress of the new
genetic materials; and selection of sheep to bring about further improvement.
268

PARTICIPATORY
EVALUATION
PROGRAMME BY FARMERS
OF
THE
SHEEP
DEVELOPMENT
The project team had frequent interactions with farmers who owned crossbred sheep, due to
rams received from ILDP, Koraput.
The tribal farmers preferred heavy lambs and heavy adult sheep. They appreciated well the
sheep breeds of Rajasthan which were introduced. They took good care of breeding rams in
terms of housing, feeding and management. The community reported the performance of rams
and their sickness promptly. They showed high concern and interest to improve their flocks.
There was total participation of the village farmers in all spheres of the operation. The
community and individuals readily offered guidance and CB rams to improve the
neighbouring and relatives villages.
A brief account of sheep development and sheep farmers opinion of Koraput, Jeypore and
Kundra blocks have been reported in this study. The farmers of Koraput block although very
enthusiastically adopted the sheep development programme switched over to goat
development subsequently. There are various reasons for this change. One of them is that the
local butchers, who go to the Koraput villages spread the rumour that long tail CB sheep
fetches less price compared to goats.
The Kundra block farmers faced the same problem did not agree to the opinion of the butchers
and successfully sold the sheep in very high prices. Never before they received such a high
price in the market. There are several instances where one and half year old home reared CB
rams were sold at 1500 to 1800 rupees each.
The farmers in all the 3 ILDP blocks did not face any market problem as they have ready
market. In all the blocks the farmers also liked to keep CB ewes and wanted to increase the
number of CB ewes at home.
95% of the Kundra farmers opined to breed their flocks with CB rams, where as 65 percent of
Koraput farmers agreed to the proposal.
Although more than 95% of Sheep farmers of Kundra and Koraput agreed that CBs fetch a
very high price, none of the Koraput farmers wanted to retain the CBs.
The sheep farmers in all the blocks agreed that i)
the CBs mature early like the local sheep
ii)
the CBs grow faster than local sheep
iii)
the CBs are heavier than local sheep
iv)
the CBs are attractive to look at
v)
the CBs give more milk enough for twin lambs
vi)
the CBs produce more number of lambs compared to local sheep,
vii)
the CBs have better market value
viii) the CBs are disease resistant like local sheep

ix)
the birth weight of CBs is higher than local breed lambs

269

x)
the local ewes experienced no birth difficulty in Koraput but 13% of Kundra farmers
reported, difficulty at the time of birth in CB sheep.
Further Kundra farmers docked lambs by themselves once they received technical guidance
followed by demonstration. This is favourable sign. Interse mating of cross breed population
reduced the tail length as a result tail in the CBs was indistinguishable from the local sheep.
Table-4 Farmers view on sheep (CB) development in ILDP, Koraput district, Orissa
Kundra block
Items for farmers view
Yes
No.
Koraput block
No
No.
Yes
%
Jeypore block
No
Yes
No.
No.
13
100
0
Market problem
no comment
Do you want to increase no. of ewes
140
90.32
15
17
100
Do you know stall feeding
0.64
154
10
58.85
Have you sold the CB rams for breeding

purpose
77
53.84
66
12
Do you want to continue and develop

your sheep flack with selected CB rams
145
95
11
64.7
Are you retaining CB female
122
95.3
Sale of CBs fetching good price
43
96.47
10
100
Are rams lost due to sex (libido)
19
Are you aware of breeding value
16
76.19
Is it low due to long tail
26
76.47
Practice to sale males
146
Is it early age at maturity of CBs
No.
No
%
No.
%
0
64
98.46
1.53
64
100
64
100
56
86.15
13.84
100
64
98.46
1.53
100
10
15.38
55
84.61
22
51.16
43
66.15
21
100
100
19.04
17
80.95
90
83.33
18
100
65
100
Do the CBs grow well
154
100
100
65
100
Do the CBs gain good body weight
154
100
100
65
100
Are the CBs attractive to see
44
86.27
100
65
100
More milk on CB mother
138
98.57
100
65
100
More lambing/twins
41
75.92
13
100
64
100
Do the CBs have more wool
6.89
29
64
100
Do the CBs have market value
132
88.59
17
100
65
100
Are the CBs disease resistant
108
80
27
100
64
100
CB lambs performance
270
100

Birth difficulty of CB F1 lambs
14
13.2
92
100
65
100
Mother milk (CB) sufficient to twin

lambs
135
100
100
65
100
CB body weight more than local sheep
154
100
100
65
100
Poor
65
100
Good
Excellent
67
45.29
65
100
No better
81
54
Feeding behavior of CBs:
271

IMPACT OF SHEEP DEVELOPMENT IN ILDP VILLAGES AT FARMERS HOME
Population: The household survey of 100 villages of 4 ILDP blocks showed that sheep
population was highest in Jeypore block and lowest in Laxmipur block (Table 5, Fig 4).
Table 5: Sheep population - year wise

Year
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
1995
1136
853
609
463
1998
1683
1110
1044
663
2001
2471
1805
1309
650
Fig: 3 Sheep population in 4 blocks of Koraput district, year wise
There was significant increase in sheep population in all the ILDP blocks except for Laxmipur
as seen from 2001 data. There was about two fold increase in sheep population. The annual
increase in sheep varied between 10 to 20%.
Laxmipur block is characterised by hilly terrain and has predator problems. The goat farming
is preferred here against sheep due to the available browsing forest resources. The sheep is
costlier than goat in Laxmipur, where as it is reverse in all other blocks. This is due to
scarcity of sheep and religious ceremony demand for sheep in Laxmipur block.
272

Village wise sheep population of Jeypore and Kundra blocks from 1995 to 2001 is given in
Fig 5 & 6.
* Villages with increased predator problems
The Barangput, Dangarchinchi, Durgabhatta, Mahaliaput, Patraput villages are known to have
serious predator problem. The Bengal tiger, Leopard and other carnivorous are the major
predators here due to the new Kolab dam reservoir. This has limited the animal population in
these villages.
Fig. 4 showing the trend of sheep population growth in Jeypore block for the year 1995
& 2000
TREND IN SHEEP POPULATION IN 25 ILDP V ILLAGES OF JEYPORE BLOCK - 1995-2000
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
1995
190
2000
180
Breeding Ram w ith f lock
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
T
h
ur
dip
u
t
S
a
nk
au
d
Ta
i
nk
ag
ud
a
S
a
lp
S
a
in
dh
ig
ao
n
Pu
tr
a
Pu
ja
rip
Ph
u
up
t
hu
g
ao
n
P
od
ei
ke
ra
*
Pa
tr
ap
ut
N
ua
g
ud
a
M
ul
as
or
e
D
h
u
tig
ud
D
a
ha
rn
ah
an
*
di
D
ur
ga
bh
a
tta
G
on
da
gu
da
G
ad
ia
gu
d
*
a
M
a
ha
lia
pu
M
t
aj
ur
m
u
nd
a
B
a
da
ju
in
a
B
a
ya
gu
d
*
a
B
ar
an
gp
ut
B
ha
tr
C
a
ha
t
a
D
an dip
ut
ga
rc
hin
ch
i
10
The villages with affinity for sheep, when supported with breeding rams, technology and
financial support to women self-help groups, are able to improve the sheep population
significantly.
Household: The households keeping sheep varied from 5 to 13.5 percent during 1995. The
average number of sheep per family is given in Table 6.
273

Table 6: Sheep population growth trend

Block
Year
Numbers
Household
Percentage
Average/
household
Jeypore
Koraput
Kundra
Laxmipur
1995
1136
228
13.5
1998
1683
306
17.9
2001
2471
639
35.69
1995
609
167
10.0
1998
1044
228
12.4
2001
1309
354
18.43
1995
853
182
11.6
1998
1110
229
13.5
2001
1805
420
23.94
1995
463
128
5.2
1998
663
121
5.2
2001
650
134
2001 survey revealed that percent of household keeping sheep increased to 5.2 to 35.69 % in
different blocks compared to 1995 survey.
Body weight and growth of CB sheep:

The project had surveyed the CB sheep performance during the year 1997 to 2000. The body
weights of CB sheep born due to 1997-98 pilot breeding in Kundra villages were available.
These data were due to F1 CB sheep (Rajasthan ram x local ewes). In other occasions the
project had collected the body weight data of local sheep in Kundra, they were mostly from
the annual livestock exhibitions and village studies.
These data on body weights of local and CB sheep of different age groups under the village
conditions were analysed and reported in this study.
It was found that under the existing grazing and feeding conditions, the F1 lambs had higher
birth weight than the birth weight of F2 and F3 lambs. This was expected since effect of
heterosis declines in F2 & F3 and maximum heterosis is observed in F1. (Fig 5)
274

Fig 5: F1 and pooled (F2 & F3) CB Sheep body weight Kundra block
Shee p body weight - Kundra block

30
Body w t. in kgs
25
20
Malpura graded (F2 & F3)
15
Malpura graded (F1)
10
0
1
3 4
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Age in m onths
However, at 3 months of age both the groups showed similar body weights, the F2 and F3
lambs grew faster and heavier than F1 between 3 to 4 months of age. This may be due to
more milk and longer lactation of F1 ewes than the local ewes, under the condition. So, the
heterosis effect of F1 and more milk with longer lactation yield of F1 dams gave favourable
benefits to the farmers. This study also revealed that The body weight gain and growth rate for F1 and F2&F3 lambs were non-significantly
different between 5 to 7 months of age.
The F1 lambs grew faster than F2 and F3 lambs after 8 months to 12 months of age.
Even in absence of heterosis the CB sheep (F2 and F3) were found to be superior in growth
rate and body weight gain (Fig 6) to the local sheep.
Fig 6: Local and pooled (F2 & F3) CB Sheep body weight Kundra block
Body w t. in kgs
Sheep body weight - Kundra block

34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Koraput sheep
Malpura graded (F2 & F3)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021
Age in m onths
275

The performance of lambs born due to F1 CB rams on local ewes:

The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Semiliguda (Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology)
had introduced selected F1 CB rams from ILDP to breed the local ewes in Semiliguda
block of Koraput district.
They found that progeny with 25 percent Rajasthan Sheep (exotic) inheritance due to use
of F1 rams were superior to local breed sheep in birth weight and growth rate as well as
body weight gain, (Fig 7).
It was therefore concluded that the F1 selected rams can well be utilised to improve the
local sheep population, instead of sending them for slaughter. This will reduce the cost,
burden of purchasing and transporting of Rajasthan pure bred rams for upgrading the local
sheep. Moreover, the F1 rams showed higher adoption to local conditions. The farmers
appreciated the performance and results obtained from mating of F1 rams to local sheep.
Table -7 Performance indicators
Treatment /Age
Technical observation (Body weight (Kg)) Months

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3.0
4.0
4.5
6.25
7.12
8.54
7.04 10.03 13.17 13.76 16.97 18.27 19.06
4.25 7.52 12.20 14.79 16.50 17.00 17.64
3.75 3.50 7.83 9.42
10.43 11.25 -
T1
T2
T3
T4
8
9
23.01 26.00
19.14 20.00
-
Fig: 7 showing body weight of sheep to different breeding system in ILDP and KVK,
Semiliguda
Body Weight (Kg)
30
25
Treatment age
20
T1
15
T2
10
5
T3
T4
1
Months
276

T1 - Lambs produced by mating of local rams by farmers at KVK, Semiliguda

T2 - F1 Lambs produced by mating of local ewes with rams of Malpura and Marwari breeds
of Rajasthan in ILDP villages.
T3 - Lambs produced by interse mating of F1 population for two generations at ILDP.
T4 - Breeding of local sheep with F1 (50% Malpura) rams at KVK, Semiliguda.
Cost and benefit due to CB sheep sale:

The CB lambs attained 18.27 kg of body weight at 6 months of age. Whereas the local
sheep attained 8.54 kg of body weight during same period. This proves that the CB grow
faster and attain marketable age earlier (approximately 9 months) than local sheep. Thus,
income realized from CB is higher to the family. This reduces time factor to marketable
age. (Fig 8)
Impact of technical skills and knowledge:
i) Deworming Sheep: The sheep of the project villages were regularly dewormed, twice
to three times a year. The operation was carried out by farmers and Community Link
Workers, initially Block
Extension Team who motivated the farmers to adopt the
practice.
The results can be seen among the local sheep population of the villages in Kundra.
Comparison was made for body weight of adult ewes in two periods, i.e. 1997 and 2000
(Fig 9). There was an increase in body weight gain among local sheep during 2000 survey.
It was also observed that once the sheep attained 50 percent or more of exotic inheritance
they became susceptible to worm infestations. Therefore, they need to be dewormed
regularly.
Improvement in body weight of local sheep through deworming
T1 1997 - Body weight of local sheep (ewes) at 2, 4 and 6 teeth age
T2 2001 - Body weight of local sheep (ewe) at 2, 4 and 6 teeth age
277

Fig:8 showing month of lambings and sale in Kundra block

MONTH OF LAMBINGS & SALE OF SHEEP - KUNDRA
BLOCK
120
100
80
no.of lambings
60
no.of sheep sold
40
20
0
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul
aug
sep
oct
nov
dec
Fig:9showing age and price of crossbred lambs in Koraput and Kundra blocks
AGE & PRICE OF CROSSBRED LAMBS IN KORAPUT &
KUNDRA BLOCKS
1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
Price in Rupees
900
850
Kundra block
800
Koraput block
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
1
10
11
12
Age at sale (months)
Table-8 showing body weight of sheep due to treatment

Treatment
Body weight in kgs

2 teeth
4 teeth
6 teeth
T1
16.40
18.96
21.80
T2
19.00
20.00
22.40
278

Fig: 10 showing body weight of sheep after treatment with anthelmintics
body w eight (kg)
25
Adult body w eight of local s heep through upgrading in Kundra

block
20
15
10
5
0
2 teeth
4 teeth
Age in teeth (pairs of incisors)
6 teeth
T1
T2
ii) Vaccination: The breeding rams purchased were all immunised against PPR (Peste-despetit Ruminant). The CB population at village level during 2001 were vaccinated with
limited supply of the PPR vaccines. There was no other immunisation.
Breed Impact:
The general experiences in sheep breed and breeding outcomes were as follows:
Malpura graded lambs were superior to other breed crosses in the Kundra block. The milk
yield, growth rate and body weight of ewes were also superior. The farmers liked the
graded sheep.
The Awassi x Malpura cross bred one ram was used in one village and the rams sired one
to two more villages around. The size of the lambs born and subsequent size and body
weight was higher than Marwari, Malpura and Patanwadi born lambs.
There were two Marwari breed rams. They were highly accepted by the farmers due to
their black head, and some progeny born to them had black coat, and were sold for a higher
price as black sheep have higher demand in religious functions. The Marwari rams were
very active and prolific breeders, even traveled to distant flocks to breed ewes. They were
highly competitive breeders. The progeny in first generation (F1) were heavy, gaining
good growth and body weight; however, after F2 and F3 (interse cross) the progeny were
showing susceptibility to endoparasites. The wool of the progeny was long and coarse.
The Muzafar-nagari rams mostly used in Jeypore block were heaviest. Very few rams
were also used at Koraput and one at Kundra block in the later part.
279

The general observation was that the progeny had long maturity period than the local breed
and the tail of the lambs were abnormally long and thin. The body weight was higher and
also growth rate was very good.
The Patanwadi breed rams were purchased from migratory flocks at Dhamtari
(100 kms from Raipur) to reduce the cost of transportation and unwillingness of
staff members to visit Rajasthan for purchase during peak summer.
These rams had long body, strong legs and jaws, white to black in coat colour. The
ewes produced more milk. They were accepted by the farmers. The last batch of
the rams used in the project area was due to this breed.
One Kuzi breed ram from Puri district, which was born as triplet was used in
one flock of Gadiaguda village, Jeypore. This ram was of medium size, horned
and brown in colour. It was also accepted by the villagers.
Another ram, due to Banur or Mandya breed crossed to West Bengal Garole
breed ewe was received from Phaltan, Pune. This ram was of medium size and
was used to breed the Kuzi flock at Randapalli fodder farm. The ram after 1
years was transferred to Nuaguda, Kundra. This ram had sired many crossbred
Malpura ewes. Recently 2 to 3 daughters of this ram have given birth to twins in
the first lambing. This suggests the presence of booroola gene in the daughters.
Housing:
The Kundra farmers do keep small ruminants on raised slated floor housing
system. The platform floor is made of either bamboo or wooden planks. This
allows the urine to drip down. The animals remain clean thus in good health.
The project had encouraged the similar housing system in other blocks.
280

Malpura Ram from Rajasthan at Randapalli Farm
Malpura X Local Cross Bred Sheep

ILDP, Kundra exhibition - 1998
281

Market and marketing Sheep:
SHG membership and effect on sheep production:
The Koraput block SHG members like any other hill blocks invested more in livestock raising
activities. This was clearly spelt out from ILDP studies. The plain land rainfed farmers give
importance and invested more in animal husbandry activities.
Sheep Manchan Shed
282

Small holder
Raisers
Personal use
Middle men
(Weekly market)
Butchers/
retailers
Traders
Middle Traders
(Butchers)
Processors of
skin, bone, horn
and hooves
The village schedule caste member families are mostly non-agriculturalist. They either
purchase the sheep from the raisers at village or bargain as intermediate men to retail butcher
or exporting traders. They forcefully in groups bargain the price with the farmer in the
weekly market. The middlemen receive his commission from the traders.
The small holder farmer is a price taker in most cases, but we have seen in Kundra and
Jeypore blocks they are becoming price makers. Now, if they dont get proper price for their
animal they do not hesitate to go back for another market or again come to market the next
week.
283

The Nucleus village based breeding design and area sheep development:
Breeding method:
The following conclusions are based on the results realized from 17 villages of Kundra block
where intensive breeding was undertaken for sheep development by participatory method
from 1997 to 1999. During 2000 to 2002 it was observed that the CB sheep had spread into
other villages in the block and also to the neighbouring blocks and to other watershed areas
located elsewhere. The rams from the market were purchased by breeders of far off villages.
The visitors who witnessed the improvement of sheep in their relatives villages were the first
to take ram lambs to their villages. Some villagers could negotiate to take the ILDP supplied
rams for two weeks to two months on loan to produce their F1 rams. Thus the acceptance and
spread of the breed occurred. The following data show how the sheep improvement
programme undertaken in ILDP has spread to non ILDP villages and its impact.
Table-9 showing spread of graded Rams to other non-ILDP villages

S.N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Nucleus breeding Extended to other villages Remarks

village
Ghumar
- Thatguda
- Digapur
- Pujariput
- Khariguda
Mundiguda
- Paknaguda
Mossigaon
- Kaliariput
- Jholaguda
- Jawaput
- Gandaguda
- Udliaguda
- Kusumguda
Somrathguda
- Sundhiguda
- Musaljoba
- Maliguda
- Pradhaniput
- Kudum padar
Boraguda
- Hontalguda
- Jayantigiri
- Baligaon
- Gondaguda
- Turaput
Balaguda
- Gorahandi
- Disariguda
284

7.
Khutuguda
8.
Doraguda
9.
Kenduguda
10.
Jeeraguda
11.
Kandiaguda
12.
Jhilligaon
13.
Gunthaguda
14.
Pandripani
- Bariaguda
- Chikmiaguda
- Majhiguda
- Karanguda
- Jaba patraput
- Kandulguda
- Chandra Sundhiguda
- Musaljaba
- Mundariguda
- Borigudma
- Similiguda
- Near Vizianagaram
- Aita Handi
- Dangarpaunsi
- Beda Paunsi
- Bheja Handi
- Purnaguda
- Sargiguda
- Kundra
- Rai Kundra
- Naikura
- Kataripoda
- Bagdiri
- Kundra
- Khatlapadar
- Girliguda
- Nuaguda
- Makdiguda
- Poknaguda
- Similiguda
- Bondaguda
- Dongarpali
- Raniguda
- Bhusangaguda
- Tuniguda
- Baligaon
- Umuri
- Similiguda
- Jabapadar
- Tumbapadar
- Hatikhal
- Gamkapadar
- Baligaon
- Lachhanaguda
- Kenduguda
285
Thorugh KVK
Asna
Asna
Asna
Asna
Boipariguda

15.
16.
17.
Pradhaniguda
Nuaguda
Jhodagaon
- Gunda
- Bhaluguda
- Boipariguda
- Pialkani
- Kandulguda
- Bamnaguda
- Jholaguda
- Purna Hatguda
- Gad Gundal
- Taliaguda
- Katriguda
- Kenduguda
- Kirimuti
- Balibeda
- Kumbarguda
- Baligaon
- Chirka
- Valiapadar
- Jayanagar
- Similiguda
- Panasput
- Dandabadi
- Lamptaput
- Kotpad
- Nadialpali
- Baragaon
- Dangarpaunsi
- Mundiguda
- Ghasrla
- Digapur
- Nuaguda
286
Boipariguda
Boipariguda
Boipariguda
Boipariguda
Asna
Kirimuti
Boipariguda
Jeypore
Ramgiri
Ramgiri

Open Nucleus Breeding Plan adopted in Koraput
Village 7
Village 6
Village 8
Village 5
Selected
Village 9
Male
Village 4
Village A
Nucleous flock-I
Village 1
Elite Female
Foundation
stock purebred
Rams
Village 3
Village 2
Culled animals sold for slaughter
The nucleus flock can be open or closed. If open it should take elite animals each year
287

AN ATTEMPT TO IMPROVE TWINING RATE OF SHEEP IN ILDP VILLAGES OF

KORAPUT
A prolific sheep breed of large size is the ultimate goal of the sheep farmers. The prolificacy
depends on age at maturity and first lambing, number of lambs born (twins or triplets), short
inter-lambing period and absence of lactation anestrus. High survival rate of lambs is most
desirable. This is mostly dependent on genetic makeup of sheep as well as nutrition and
management status.
A sheep population as prolific as goats is most advantageous from environment concern

point of view. This will be the ultimate goal for sheep breeders in years to come.
Some prolific tropical sheep breeds were documented by Mason (1981). This was due to
FAO and UNEP joint programme, on conservation of breeds. Kornel (1995) identified a
highly prolific dwarf sheep breed/variety known as Kuzi in Puri Undivided Cuttack
coastal belt of Orissa. The Kuzi means dwarf. Its syn. is Kendrapada by OUAT. They
usually give birth to twins. Triplet births are about 5 percent and quadruplets are occasional.
The milk is sufficient for twins only. The author believes that there was flow of prolificacy
genes from east coast of India to Indonesia and Malaysia, which may have contributed to
Paringgan and East Javanese fat tailed sheep known for high fecundity. It is evident from
historical document that one ship loaded with native Indian sheep from Calcutta port due to
arrive at South Africa was downed at Australia. These Indian sheep are partly responsible for
development of the present Australian Merinos. Wera sheep breed found in Orissa coast
and Bangaladesh might have also contributed to the development of Merino. Thus, the
prolific major gene recently discovered as the multiple ovulation factors in Merinos of
Australia has origin from India.
Materials and methods:
The project received 30 ewes of Kuzi breed from Paradeep region of Cuttack district in 1998.
They were housed in Randapalli Farm, Jeypore and maintained over irrigated pasture mainly
grasses and received daily 250 grams of balanced feed. The ewes and lambs were periodically
dewormed based on fecal sample examination.
he flock was bred with a CB ram (Banur/Mandia X Garole) and other rams belonging to
Rajasthan breeds. It was observed that the Rajasthan rams which are very tall than Kuzi ewes
could not mate the Kuzi ewes except in few cases.
288

The lambs thus born to Kuzi ewes were maintained with good management and feeding
conditions. The body weight of the flock was recorded.
Improving multiple births:

The increase in ovulation due to Booroola gene was first observed in the Booroola Merino
strain of sheep (Davis et al.1982) and subsequently the gene was mapped to sheep
chromosome 6 (OOV6) (Montgomery et.al.1994). It is a major autosomal mutation (FeeB)
which increases ovulation rate.
Booroola refers to a gene called the B gene (also called F for fecundity) and acts independent
of the breed or type of sheep. Booroola gene offers great opportunity for producing prolific
sheep.
Kuzi sheep with twins in Kundra block of ILDP
Koraput Sheep Breed with twins in Kundra block
289

Due to low heritability of fertility traits several meat breeds of sheep have been crossed with
known prolific European sheep breeds to produce more lambs per ewe.
Kuzi Sheep breed with triplets (Bidyadharpur, Cuttack, Orissa)

According to Walling et.al. (2001) the Booroola gene is a single gene located on OOV6 with
only small evidence to suggest differing effects from different allelic sources. Thus the B gene
can be transferred into any breed of sheep.
The Finn sheep and Romanov breed has high prolificacy but they show multiple gene effect
multi ovulations. However, the B gene of Booroola Merino behaves like a single gene and
cannot be diluted when other non-prolific breeds are added to the breeding programme. It is
both an advantage and disadvantage. If a large lambing percentage is desired, the breeder will
find that the B gene is an asset.
The inheritance pattern of the B gene is simple. When a homozygous ram (genotype BB) is
bred to a non-carrier ewe (genotype ++), all of the offspring produced will carry one copy of
the B gene (and a+ at the other locus). These offspring are heterozygous and ewe lambs from
this mating will produce (on average) one more lamb per lambing than what the dam was
capable of. If a heterozygous ram lamb from this mating (genotype B+) is bred to a noncarrier ewe (genotype ++), then only half of the offspring will carry the B gene (genotype B
+) while the other half will be non-carriers (genotype ++). This is due to the fact that a
heterozygous animal will only pass one of the B gene half of the time, whereas homozygous
animal will pass on the gene every time.
It was thus concluded from this study that Booroola gene offers unique and exciting
opportunity to add a high level of prolificacy to sheep that fit the environment well, without
having to add undesirable traits of another breed.
290

Results and Discussion:
Table-10, shows the body weight of the crossbred lambs and purebred Kuzi lambs and adults.
There was not much difference between crossbred and pure bred Kuzi for body weight and
size , even though the sire breed rams were much heavier (over 35 to 45 kgs body
weight)than the ewes. This was a disappointing experience. This programme was therefore
abandoned.
Table 10. The body weight and body size attributes for purebred
Kuzi and Crossbred sheep
Breed
Age
Body
Height
Chest
Abdomen
Wt. (kg)
(inch)
Girth (cm)
Girth (cm)
Thigh
Body
Length
Circumference
(inch)
Kuzi
Breed
30-40
days
3.000.00
11.331.20 14.002.08 16.672.40 10.001.15
9.001.53
Kuzi
Breed
12-18
month
9.630.63
15.750.31 20.130.58 24.000.76 14.130.79
14.250.37
Kuzi CB
30-40
days
2.880.35
10.500.76 12.501.18 14.381.29 7.250.98
8.500.78
Kuzi CB
12-18
month
12.350.59 17.300.35 23.450.61 27.450.82 16.500.47
16.150.43
The above result can be explained as follows. Animals carrying a Booroola allele are lighter
than non-carriers, {Walling et.al (loc.cit)}. Merino sheep carrying Booroola gene is typically
lighter than receiptant breeds used in the introgression programme eg. Romney.
This study indicated that, the Booroola gene does not have pleiotropic effects on live weight,
but may be closely linked to a QTL affecting post weaning growth and mature body weight.
The QTL can hitchhike with the Booroola allele in introgression programmes. Sheep
inheriting the QTL allele on the same haplo type as the Booroola allele in series are, on
average, 1.4 kg lighter at weaning. These lighter weaning weights have a subsequent effect
on 1 year old mating weight, although the data suggest that the growth is not affected by the
QTL after weaning.
According to the Authors there is some evidence that the Booroola gene affects MWT (mature
body weight). The chromosome scan indicated a QTL affecting WWT approximately 20 cM
distal to the Booroola gene. An effect of MWT was also observed within this region. So the
291

effect observed for this trait in the Booroola analysis may be due to linkage with the putative
QTL affecting WWT (Weaning body weight).
Conclusion of Kuzi Breed sheep introduction:
From the result presented it was concluded that, the Kuzi sheep of Orissa has the multiovulation gene, called FeeB and it is closely linked to a QTL affecting post-weaning growth
and mature body weight. This is not allowing the off springs to inherit heavy body weight,
even though the sire has the trait.
It has been observed that, the Koraput sheep in certain localities have twinning ability. The
Dasmanthpur block of Koraput adjoining areas up to Katharagada has such sheep genetics, so
also in some individual owned flocks in Kundra and other areas.
The project had recorded three ewes with triplets, two in Kundra block and one in Laxmipur
block.
A programme to collect such high triplet and quadruplet birth giving ewes in Koraput and
coastal belt of Orissa to breed for homozygousness, is necessary. This flock can be used to
improve prolificacy in Orissa sheep which in turn will help to increase multiple births and
consequently income. The expenditure to be made for this purpose shall weigh in favour of
environment. This breed of sheep will be as prolific as goats.
Conclusion
1. It was observed that the graded sheep due to Rajasthan rams, the local born cross showed
an advantage of 8.67 and 9.73kg body weight at 3 and 6 month age level respectively over the
local sheep population. This has thus created a great potential of financial gain to the families
rearing sheep.
2. Due to deworming with albendazole, an anthelmintic there was gain of additional 2.60 kg
of body weight in young growing local sheep. This was at cost of Rs One for 4 ml of
Albendazole per sheep (2014 price).
3. The sheep meat is popular in southern districts of Orissa but goat is popular in north and
coastal districts. This is very similar to the trend of sheep very popular in south of India and
the goats in the northern part of the country.
4. In recent years Kornel et .al. have discovered Edeka sheep breed in undivided Puri district
of Orissa that is a short tail hairy sheep with majority of twins and about 5 percent triplets. It
has advantage of good body weight compared to Kuzi thus Edeka can be used to improve the
prolificacy of KBK districts of Orissa and elsewhere. Edeka can be an improver sheep breed
to synthesize a prolific commercial sheep to be reared under intensive feeding and
management condition in India.
5. The Nucleolus village based breeding is perfectly functional under the supervision and
support of Village committees and people thus it can replace the Farm centered breed
292

improvement. The Farms can be used as the Transit Centre for the breeding rams to be used in
the villages.
6. The 50% graded sheep with Rajasthan breed and the F2 and F3 rams can be used profitably
to improve the local sheep population as observed from KVK, Semiliguda trail. This will be
economical.
N.B.: Breeding of local Koraput sheep with Rajasthan and Gujurat rams have been termed
here as Cross Breeing but it is technically Upgrading.
293

References
Acharya, R.M. (1982) Sheep and Goat Breeds of India, FAO.
Davis, G.H.; Montgornery, G.W.; Allison, J.A. Kelly, R.W. and Bray, A.R. (1982)
Segregation of a major gene influencing fecundity in progeny of Booroola sheep.
NewZealand Journal of Agricultural Research 25: 525-529.
Kornel Das (1999). Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in Tribal Life - Koraput, Modern
Book Depot, Bhubaneswar.
Kornel Das, S.C. Mohapatra and R.M. Acharya. Sheep and Goat Genetic Resources of
Orissa
(2006)
A
Survey
Report
with
Government
of
Orissa.
www.pastoralpeoples.org/docs/keepersofgenes_web.pdf,
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/017/ak525e.pdf,
www.intercooperation.org.in/images/icindia/sheep&goat.pdf
Manson, I.L. (1996) A world dictionary of livestock breeds types and varieties. CAB
International, Wallingford, U.K.
Montgornery, G.W.; Lord, E.A., Penty, J.M., Dodd, K.G; Broad, T.E.; Cambridge, L.;
Sunden, S.L.F., Stone, R.T. and Crawford, A.M. (1994). The Booroola Fecundity
(FecB) gene maps to sheep chromosome and Genomics 22: 148-153
Walling, G.A., K.G. Dodds, S.M. Galloway, A.E. Beattie and E.A. Lord et al.,
2000. Characterisation and mapping of the Booroola (FecB) gene using regression
analysis in sheep. Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, March 2006,
New York, UK., pp: 41-41.
Walling, G.A., K.G. Dodds, S.M. Galloway, A.E. Beattie and E.A. Lord et al.,
2000. The consequences of carrying the Booroola fecundity (FecB) gene on
liveweight. Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, (BSAS`00), New
York, UK., pp: 43-43.
Walling, G.A. Dodds, K.G, Galloway, S.M; Beattie, A.E.; Lord, E.A., and McEwan,
J.C. (2001) Consequences of carrying the Booroola fecundity (FecB) gene on sheep
live weight.
294

SMALL HOLDER GOAT DEVELOPMENT

The relationship of tribal farmers with small ruminants has been described in detail in the
earlier chapter.
There is considerable debate on goats and environment. There is a need for further research to
establish the truth under various agro-forestry environments. The tribal are most conscious
people as regards management of forest around their habitats the ecology around their life.
It was observed by the author that the goats kept by the tribal living in the forest periphery are
dwarf type which grazes lower level weeds and grasses or bushes. These are least harmful to
forest in comparison to the plain breeds like Ganjam goat breed and others which are leggy
and aggressive browsers. They have ability to stand on their hind legs to browse tall bushy
plants.
It is assumed that the population of small ruminants particularly goats kept by the tribal will
not grow significantly, because of the reasons explained earlier. Moreover, during night they
house goats inside their living quarters where there is not enough space. The tribal of the
villages situated near to or inside the forests have preference for goats but losses due to
predators like tiger, leopard, wild dogs, fox and hyena have totally discouraged the goat
rearing. In areas where predation is not a potential problem, the goat keeping is continuing.
In recent years tribal particularly living in plain areas are more interested in sheep rearing as a
result the preference for goats has reduced. This is due to increased interest in agriculture and
horticulture. They acknowledge it and say it is because of lots of feuds and quarrels are
appearing in the village due to strong grazing behaviour of goats. They also claim that the
mortality rate of goats is higher than the sheep.
Goat Breeds of Koraput:

There are several breeds of goats in Koraput district, which have been bred by different tribal
groups in different ecological zones. The various breeds/varieties known so far include
Malkangiri breed, Raighar breed, Narayanapatna breed, Gunupur goats and hill goats (Kornel
1999a). These breeds are prolific and medium in size.
The goat production system is very similar to sheep which have been described in short.
295

Fig 1 -LFA Problem Tree Goat

HIGH MORTALITY IN GOATS
Infectious Diseases
Parasitism
Productive Diseases
PPR (Viral)
Management Problems
Predators
Wet Floor
Goat pox (Viral)
Ecto-parasites
Protein deficiency
Heavy rains
Dog
Contagious ecthyma (Viral)
Endo-parasites
Micronutrient deficiency
Draft wind
Leopard
Contagious Caprine pleuro- pneumonia
Salt deficiency
Crowded housing
Hyanna
Pneumonia (P13, Chlamydia, Bacterial)
Mastitis
Night shelter
Foot wounds
Weed poisoning
Foot rot (Bacteria)

Enterotoxaemia a (ET)
Goatish odour in male
296
Fox
Jackle

Fig.2 -LFA Solution Tree Goat

REDUCED MORTALITY IN GOATS
Redyced Infectious Diseases
Reduced Parasitism
Reduced Productive
Diseases
PPR (Viral) vaccinations once in 3 yrs

Goat pox (Viral) vaccination every year
Improved Management
Slattered Floor introduced

Ecto-parasites controlled
Protein deficiency removed by
Protected from Heavy rains
by medication
feeding legumunus plants
Endo-parasites controlled
Micronutrient deficiency
by broad spectrum
removed by 2% feeding
Anthelmintic
Common salt feeding @1%
Spacious housing
Pneumonia (P13, Chlamydia, Bacterial)
Mastitis by management &
Raised floor Night shelter
treatment only
treatment
Foot rot (Bacteria)
Foot wounds management &
early detection & treatment
treatment
Contagious ecthyma (Viral) treatment only
Contagious Caprine pleuro- pneumonia
Predators controlled
controlled by management
Protected from Draft wind
treatment only
Weed poisoning reduced by

management
Enterotoxaemia a (ET)
Goatish odour in male is common
yearly vaccination
in adult
297
Loss due to predators
and housing

Fig.3 LFA Problem Tree Production in Goat

LOW PRODUCTIVIETY IN GOATS
Long maturity
period
Genetically
related to breeds
like Ganjam goat
breed,
Jamunapari goat
& most single
kidding goats
Long inter-kidding
period
Low body weight
Genetically
related to breeds
like Ganjam goa
breed,
Jamunapari
breed and dairy
goats
Genetically corelated to high

prolificacy as
Black Bengal
breed
Breed character
Low nutrition
Low growth rate
Poor gazing Parasitic

diseases Salt
deficiency
Micronutrient
deficiency
Protein deficiency
Foot rot / abscesses
298
High mortality
Low milk yield of mother

Goat Infectious diseases
Parasitic diseases
Predator
Production diseases
Management problems

DEVELOPMENT OF GOAT PRODUCTION IN TRIBAL FARMING SYSTEMS OF

KORAPUT:(Fig. 1,2 and 3)
Objective:
To increase the number of goat holding tribal farmers from 14 to 30 percent.

To produce and market more number of heavier goats.
To improve quality of goats and other economic traits.
1.
DOE (Female Goat) PERFORMANCE

Improvement in body weight at one year age
Improvement in milk production
To increase the percentage of multiple births in does (mostly twins)
Improvement in kidding rate through reduction in inter-kidding interval (2 kidding
in 14 months).
2.
LOSS PREVENTION IN GOATS
Diseases
Periodically deworming
Vaccination against PPR and H.S.
Vaccination of kids for Enterotoxaemia
Predators
Adoption of proper housing system
Adoption of an effective grazing management with grazers and farmers
Use of Watch dogs
Establishment of Joint control system involving the Department of Forests to
prevent predation.
299

Thefts
Adoption of proper housing system.

Employment of night watchman in villages.
Adoption of effective reporting system to Police Department developed by the
villagers.
3.
LOSS PREVENTION IN KIDS

Selection of dams for high milk yield sufficient for rearing twins,
Selection of dams with high mothering ability,
Reduction of weak kid births,
Separate housing of dams with new born kids,
Housing of kids in dry place during night.
4.
IMPROVEMENT IN FEED RESOURCES
Regular planting and harvesting of more fodder trees,

Conservation of tree leaves to feed in dry lean periods,
Adoption of salt and chalk feeding as a routine
Feeding of concentrate to Kids after weaning
5.
TRAINING OF
PRODUCTION
FARMERS
IN
SIMPLE
SKILLS
ON
GOAT
Training of farmers on common goat diseases and their prevention,

Adoption of first aid measures for goat in the village
Regular de worming and de ticking of goats
Knowledge in primary animal husbandry skills
Knowledge of the breeding cycle and the selection criteria for does and bucks
Knowledge of feed and feeding of goats and their impact on environment.
300

Assistance to Farmers
Induction of New goat farmers to Village Revolving Fund and Self-help Groups,
Castration of non-breedable male kids,
Farmers access to an appropriate breed of bucks and providing assistance to
reduce inbreeding,
Exposure of farmers to other good goat farmers in the state and if possible of the
neighbouring states,
Helping the farmers initially in de worming and immunization of goats.
Goat production and improvement
This is based on various inputs like goat breeds, farmers expectation of expenditure and
profit, environmentalists hope, consumers taste, production constraints and opportunities at
home.
Strategy at farmers level:
The development frame work for goat improvement is very close to that of sheep, as has been
described earlier. The prolificacy and high growth rate to have heavy body weight goats at
the time of marketing are the major objectives. The mothers milk is the most vital which
controlled both by genotype of the goat and the environment to which it is exposed.
Reduction of goat mortality caused due to worms, PPR and contagious ethyma is vital to gain
the confidence of farmers on goat farming. Once they are convinced of reduction in goat
mortality new households come forward to invest in goats.
Breeding plans and breeds:
The breeds selected were of Indian origin. The breeding plan was designed to retain the
characteristics of local goats like adoption to local climate, resistance to worms, prolificacy
(like early maturing, high twinning rate, high survivability of kids and short inter-kidding
period) and finally improvement in mother milk yield to support twin and triplet kids.
In most of the villages local breeds with known production potential were used to reduce
inbreeding depression. The Raighar goat breed was bred in Kundra, Jeypore and Koraput
blocks where as Narayanapatna goat was bred in Laxmipur block.
301

A small pilot breeding programme with bucks of Barbari breed was initiated in Kundra and
Koraput blocks. This was keeping in view the low biomass production in the concerned areas.
In Laxmipur, bucks of Sirohi breed were used to upgrade the local goat population due to high
feed potential and medium size of the local goats.
The breed characteristics of Barbari, Sirohi, Black Bengal, Raighar and Narayanapatna
goats are given in the following pages.
Barbari Goats: The Barbari breed of goats is native to Agra-Delhi region of Uttar Pradesh.
The Barbari goats are prolific in reproduction. They produce good amount of milk, and the
skin is valuable to the industry. They are fed on grounded wheat straw mixed with wheat flour
in home tract. They are quiet goats and well adapted to urban conditions. Now-a-days the
breed is in great demand for intensive goat production industry which is a new concept,
particularly in South India.
Sirohi Goats: The Sirohi goats are medium to large in size and tall. It is a dual purpose breed,
well known both for milk and chevron (meat), but milk is the most wanted trait by the
breeders. They usually give birth to singles and late maturing type. Males grow faster then
females, consequently the males are heavier than females.
In general, all milch goat breeds give birth to singles and the inter-kidding period is longer,
but the lactation period is longer. In North Africa, the milch goats with twin birth are culled
and sold out, in favour of single births.
Dual purpose goat breeds need to be highly prolific with good milk production capability, so
that the milk is sufficient to meet the requirement of twins. This gives more chevron and profit
to the family.
Keeping in view, the environment issues at top priority the goat breeding strategy was built.
It is seen that in spite of no government policy to improve goat, rather one can call negative
policy, the goat population is growing many folds through out India. This is going to continue
in future.
Black Bengal Goats: Twelve Black Bengal bucks from Balasore region were introduced in
Koraput block villages. The goats of this breed are of dwarf type with prolific breeding
habits. The skin has high industrial value. The breed is grass grazier type usually maintained
by smallholders. Milk yield is good.
302

Barbari X Local Cross Bred Flock Kundra Block, ILDP
Barbari X Local Cross Bred F2 Doe Kundra Block, ILDP

The Black Bengal goat can stand to water logging environment and has a good resistance to
liver flukes. Thus the villages around Kolab dam need such type of goats in future. This was
the idea behind introducing the Black Bengal breed in this area. The only fear was that its
dwarf size and goatish smell of male may not be liked by the tribal farmers.
As expected the farmers did not like the small progeny born due to the black Bengal bucks
and thus these bucks were replaced with available crossbred goats of other breeds from
303

neighbouring villages. The progeny born from black Bengal bucks were also removed by the
farmers.
Sirohi Cross Breed Goat

Narayanapatna Goats: The bucks of Narayanapatna breed was introduced in Laxmipur and
farmers appreciated the breed and its progeny performance. Some farmers rated them higher
than Sirohi as regards to body weight. The Raighar breed was introduced in all blocks except
Laxmipur. The longevity, performance of the breed in the field and its progeny performance
was appreciated.
The Raighar breed bucks were used for a longer period in the villages. The Raighar and
Narayanapatna as well as Black Bengal breeds showed high adoption to village conditions, as
seen from least mortality of bucks compared to Sirohi and Barbari.
Barbari bucks were seen to be very susceptible to rains and dampness.
304

The number of bucks of different goat breeds utilised in project villages were as follows-
Local
No. of
breeds
Bucks
Indian Breeds
No. of
Bucks
i) Raighar breed of Koraput 17
i) Barbari breed from Agra (U.P)
13
ii) Narayanapatna breed

of Koraput
48
ii) Sirohi breed from Rajasthan

10
(Central sheep & wool Res. Institute)
iii) Black Bengal breed of
12
Coastal Orissa
The Barbari breed was selected to improve smaller goats of the project villages.
Lessons learnt for breeding buck management in village goat flocks:
1.
The Sirohi bucks invariably showed loss of libido for one year (one breeding
season) after they were shifted from Rajasthan to Koraput (Orissa). They did not
respond to hormonal therapy during this period. Thereafter they bred normally.
2.
Few mortality was recorded in Sirohi bucks due to consumption of poisonous

weeds. This is a general finding with goats when shifted to different ecoconditions.
3.
The longevity and breeding life of Sirohi is higher than Barbari. It is more or less
same to those of local goats. This implies good adoptability of Sirohi to conditions
of Koraput District.
4.
Barbari pure breed bucks breed normally, but are highly susceptible to worms. The
bucks are very susceptible to rains and dampness. The rate of mortality among
them was highest in the first year of import to Koraput as compared to other
breeds.
5.
Least mortality was recorded for the bucks of local breeds such as Raighar,
Narayanapatna and Black Bengal. The breeding performance was satisfactory.
6.
The adult bucks of Sirohi are of aggressive nature and fight with buffaloes, even
charge people sometimes.
305

7.
As per our experience the breeding bucks of Sirohi and Barbari should be
transported to Orissa before November and be quarantined at least for 30 days.
They should be released to the villages thereafter. This is because,
i)
All quality bucks are sold during December for Id celebration in Rajasthan,
Delhi and U.P.
ii)
A longer period of acclimatization for breeding bucks preferably through

dry season before onset of breeding will improve the number of progeny
born. This will add value to the purchase.
8.
The breeding bucks need to be supported with 250 gms of concentrate feed per
day, specially during breeding season.
9.
Regular deworming is most essential for breeding bucks.
10.
Black Bengal CB progeny were totally sold out by breeders with the pretext that
they are dwarf and gain less body weight than the local goat. Bucks carry buckish
pungent odour, which is absent among local breeds.
Performance of cross bred goats in ILDP, Koraput villages:

Kidding season:
There is marked difference in kidding season, between Laxmipur and Koraput hill blocks. The
major kidding season starts from April and continues up to September in Laxmipur block
villages (Fig - 4), where as in Koraput block villages it starts from July and ends by December
(Fig - 5). A minor kidding period from January to February is recorded in Koraput block (Fig
- 5).
Fig -4. Showing month of kidding and sale of goats in Laxmipur block
Month of kidding and sale of goats in Laxm ipur block
30
20
Kidding
15
Sale
10
5
ug
us
t
Se
pt
em
be
r
O
ct
ob
er
No
ve
m
be
r
De
ce
m
be
r
Ju
ly
Ju
ne
M
ay
pr
il
A
M
ar
c
0
Ja
nu
ar
y
Fe
br
ua
ry
No. of goats
25
Months
306

Sale of goats and month of sale: (Fig - 4 and 5)

Fig 5. Month of kidding and sale of goats in Koraput block
Kidding
December
November
October
September
August
July
June
May
April
March
Sale
February
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
January
No. of goats
Month of k idding and month of sale of goats in Koraput block
Months
The Laxmipur block farmers sale most of the goats during months of April and May, few in
July. This is because the hill Kondhs of the block start hill podu cultivation operation from
March and they require funds for agriculture in April. Sale of goats during the months of May
and June is vital to meet consumption needs of scarcity period for the family. The farmers
also reduce the goat population before rainy season so as to avoid losses from predation and
diseases.
In Koraput block villages, the goat sale lasts from September and continues upto the end of
October. This is market targeted sale practice. The sale of goats, particularly un-castrated
males before Dasahara and Diwali puja fetches higher price to the farmers.
The above figures indicate that in Laxmipur the farmers generally sale goats at 11 to 12
months of age, where as in Koraput block at 9 months to one year of age.
The extra males are sold on priority basis as they fetch higher price due to demand, followed
by female stock. The old does are sold at cheaper rate.
Age and price of goats:
The age and sale price of CB goats of Barbari and Sirohi are shown in Fig - 6. The Koraput
block farmers get a better price from sale of goats of 8 to 9 months of age. It is between
Rs.1,000 to Rs.1,100/- per goat (2000AD). The price realised from sale of goats of 7 months
of age is more or less equal for Laxmipur and Koraput blocks.
From this it was concluded that, the Laxmipur farmers need a better market orientation.
307

Fig - 6: Age and price of cross bred goats in Koraput and Laxmipur blocks
Age and Price of crossbred goats in Koraput and Laxm ipur block
1200
1000
Koraput
Rupees
800
Laxmipur
600
400
200
0
5
10
11
12
13
Age in Months
Body weight and growth rate of CB Barbari, Sirohi and local breed of goats in ILDP
villages:
A study was undertaken to record the body weight of Barbari CB (F2) in Lauriaguda of
Koraput block as well as Majorgola village of Kundra. Barbari CB (F2) were also available in
Kundra block villages. Study revealed similar growth as well as body weight in both the
locations (Fig-7). The realised body weight was 8.55 kgs at 3 months of age, 13.60 kgs at 6
months of age and 19.0 kgs at 12 months of age.
Fig - 7: Body weight of Barbari cross bred (F2) in Koraput & Kundra block ILDP
villages
Body wei ght in Kg.
Body weight comparision of Barbari crossbred (F2) in Kundra and Koraput block
Villages
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Kundra(Total Block)
K
Majorgola(Kundra village)
Lauriguda(Koraput village)
Age i n Months
308

Fig. 8: Body weight of Barbari (F2) and Deshi (Local goats of Koraput)
Body w eight comparision of Brabari cross es(F2) of ILDP and pure barbari
from othe r reports
30
w e ight in Kg
25
20
ILDP Barbari(F2)
15
Pure Barbari(CIRG)
10
5
0
1
9 10 11 12 18 24 30
Age in m onths
The Barbari CB (F2) was seen to be superior to local goats for body weight at all ages of
measurement (Fig. 8).
The body weight gain of Sirohi CB (F2) and Barbari CB (F2) are given in Fig - 9. The Sirohi
CBs were found to be superior to Barbari CBs for body weight and this superiority was more
marked at 12 months of age.
Fig - 9: Body weight data of Barbari CBs (F2) of Kundra block and Sirohi CBs (F2) of
Laxmipur block
Body w eight in Kg.
Body w eight comparision of Barbari F2 of kundra block w ith Sirohi F2 of

Laxmipur block
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Kundra(Barbari F2)
Laxmipur( Sirohi F2)
Age in months
309

Sirohi CBs (F2) had higher body weights than Barbari CBs (F2) at all ages of measurement
(Fig. 9).
The body weight of pure breed Sirohi goats at 3, 6 and 12 months of age was reported by
Mishra (1985) of Central Institute for Research on Goats and Taparia (1991) of Indo-Swiss
Goat project. The ILDP Sirohi CB (F2) of Ranjitguda, Laxmipur block has been used in this
study. From Fig-10 it is evident that Sirohi CBs (F2) achieved similar body weights as
reported earlier. This may be due to favourable hill cold climate throughout the year along
with good feed availability from forest browsing all round the year in Laxmipur. The Sirohi
CBs also received regular deworming and the Laxmipur local goats are comparatively heavy.
Fig - 10: Body weight gain comparison between Sirohi cross bred (F2) of ILDP and pure
bred
Sirohi
from
other
reports
B o d y weig ht g ain co mp aris io n b et ween Siro hicro sses( F 2 ) o f ILD P and P ureb red Si ro hi f ro m o t her
r ep o r t s
35
30
25
20
3months
15
6 Months
10
12 Months
B o d y wt i n Kg
5
0
M ishra (198 5)
CIRG(1988)
Taparia(1991 )
ISGP(1 990)
ILDP(2 000)
cr o sses o f d i f f er ent p lac es
Population of goat and household:

There was a significant increase in the households keeping goats as a result of implementation
of ILDP in Jeypore, Koraput and Kundra block villages. According to 2001 survey the
households keeping goats were 10% for Jeypore block, 34% for Koraput block and 20% for
Kundra block compared to 6,24 & 9% of households in respective blocks according to 1995
survey.
310

Fig - 11: Year wise Goat population of ILDP

ILDP - GOAT POPULATION YEAR WISE
3500
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Jeypore
Kundra
Koraput
Laxmipur
Consequent to increase in households keeping goats and increase in number of goats per
family, goat population increase from year to year (Fig.11)
It may be worthwhile to mention here that the goat breeds vary from each other with respect
to their beheviour in different geographical regions and to stall feeding. The Barbari, Surti and
few other goat breeds are well known for their stall feeding habits. The goat breeds which are
not adopted to stall feeding make more noise and bleat in confinement. They shall be the goats
of future years.
Fig.12 Schematic outline of steps in gene resource utilization in livestock
Source: FAO , Animal Review

311

Reproduction:
The pure-bred Sirohi goat gives births to singles and is an annual kidding breed as said earlier.
The CB Sirohi females show high fertility and prolificacy, give twin and triplet births after
first kidding and mature early with low inter-kidding period. This is a significant observation
up to 75% of Sirohi inheritance. There is always the possibility that the single annual kidding
trait to be dominant. It can also be concluded that is it that there is a single dominant gene,
called major gene effect among Indian goats like the Booroola strain of sheep. This is a
favourable trend.
The Barbari CBs showed high prolificacy as the pure breed Barbari. Local goats are also
prolific in reproduction characteristics.
A detail study of CB Barbari in ILDP villages was also under taken by Sahu and Sahu (2002).
The results realised were as follows1. The Barbari CB goats matured early compared to local goats. Significant differences
(P<0.05) were observed between CBs Barbari and local goats for age of sexual maturity,
age at first fertile mating (8.38 vs. 13.24 months), age at first kidding (13.39 vs.18.26
months), kidding interval (8.14 vs. 11.26 months), mortality (15.00 vs. 21.80%) and
marketing age (9.15 vs. 12.08 months).
2. The Barbari CB goats grew faster and achieved higher body weight than local goats. This
remained consistent in both the sexes. The Barbari CB goats were superior to local goats
for body weight at first kidding (15.83 vs. 12.20 kg), twinning percent (41.86 vs. 9.30 %)
and body weight at marketing (15.92 vs. 12.29 kg). Consequently the CB Barbari goats
fetched a higher price compared to local goats (Rs.794.90 vs. 610.10).
Impact of Nucleus Village Goat breeding system in a tribal village:
One Sirohi Buck from Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar was placed
under the custody Sri Ghasiram Muduli, Ranjitguda in Laxmipur block during 1998. The
Figure 13 indicates the spread effect of the progeny born due to this Sirohi buck in and around
the neighbouring villages of Ranjitguda village of the district as well as outside the district.
312

Fig. 13. Nucleus Village Goat Breeding System of Ranjitguda and

villages and institutions
Pure breed Sirohi buck on

loan to villages
its impact to other
Ledriguda
Tikri
Ghadatikri
Dhepguda
Panasput
Panasput
(4 kms)
Laxmipur
Rumuli
(25 kms)
Other Institutions of Orissa
Ranjitguda
-Krishi Vigyan Kendra 3 Sirohi bucks
A small
Bodoporoja
village in
Laxmipur
block
-CDVO, Sonepur 16 Sirohi bucks

-CDVO, Phulbani 1 Sirohi buck +
Laxmipur
(3 kms)
Keggya
(5 kms)
Kashipur block
Bandhugaon block
Sirohi bucks
Dayanidhiguda,
Koraput block
transferred
2001
Raisil
Died in Sept2002
due to accidental
fight with a buffalo
(7 kms)
Ghotatikiri
(2 kms)
Breeding over Barbari

+ Jamunapari doe
population
313
Sale of bucks and

does in market is
not accounted for.

Sri Ghasiram Muduli, a tribal youth of Ranjitguda was identified as a prospective Community
Link Worker to accompany a buck and ram purchase team. They left for Rajasthan in 1997
summer.
During the course of animal selection Ghasi got the opportunity to visit Central Sheep and
Wool Research Institute, Rajasthan and Central Goat Research institute, Makdoom (Agra).
He had fruitful discussion with local farmers on sheep and goat rearing as well as profit.
On arrival back home, he retained one Sirhi breed buck and bred his village goats. He could
successfully motivate the villagers. The fellow villagers saw the offsprings due to Sirohi buck
which grew faster than local types and could fetch high price. The results further motivated
all households of Ranjitguda to rear goat, and availed opportunities of SHG loan in the
village itself. The village Ranjitguda had 35 goats in 1995 and it increased to 256 goats in
2001.
Now, Ghasiram owns 14 breedable female goats and maintains 5 goats on lease in the
neighbor village at 50 percent share of kids .
Slowly, Ranjitguda became well known for Sirohi crossbred goats. People from nearby and
far off villages came to purchase Sirohi crossbred bucks and does to develop their flocks, and
even Ranjitguda villagers agreed to share their Sirohi buck to other village flock
development, thus it extended to a large area and villages (Fig.13).
Thereafter Ghasi went to Bangalore to study SHG Apex bodies of Myrada and organized the
concept back home. He contested Panchayat elections and elected as Sarapanch. He is now a
strong advocate of SHGs , goat and poultry rearing in tribal homes in his area and is well
known for that.
The model thus developed by Ranjitguda villagers is a nucleolus breeding method, where
A village goat flock is bred with a selected male (may be any other breed). The villages
participate in total and remove the bucks they have or castrate them.
The selected male kids thus produced are supplied to neighboring villages through
Village Committees.
Supply of selected male kids for a period of 3 to 5 years.
314

PARTICIPATORY EVALUATION OF THE GOAT DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMME BY FARMERS
Table-1 Farmers view on goat (CB) development in ILDP, Koraput district, Orissa
Items for farmers view
Laxmipur
No
Koraput
Yes
No
Kundra block
Yes
No
Yes
No
Number %
Number %
Market problem
60
Do you want to increase no. of does
61
Do you know stall feeding
1.63
Number.
Number
Number
Number %
98.36 1
2.70
36
97.29
98.38 1
1.61
100
1.61
98.38 25
52.08 23
47.91 4
22.22 14 77.77
61
48
No count
18
94.73 1
5.26
Do you want to adopt stall feeding
10
66.66 52
33.33 3
6.52
43
91.48 14
82.35 3 7.64
Have you sold the CB bucks for breeding
5.0
57
95
20.83
19
79.16
Do you want to continue and develop
60
100
45
97.82
2.17
19
100
Are you retaining CB female
53
96.36 2
3.63
27
87.09 4
15
100
CBs Fetching good price
59
96.72 2
3.27
30
100
16
100
Buck Lose due to libido/to other flock 0
59
100
4.16
23
95.83 0
Not aware of breeding value
57
95
15.38 22
84.61 2
100
Practice to sale males
59
100
100
100
Early age at maturity
8.62
91.37 36
100
17
100
Growth high
60
98.36 1
1.63
36
100
19
100
Body weight high
60
98.36 1
1.63
36
100
19
100
Attractive to look
61
100
100 0
18
100
More milk in CB mother
46
85.18 8
14.81 28
96.55 1
3.44
18
100
More kidding twins
36.84 12
63.15 28
93.33 2
6.66
14
100
Market value
56
94.91 3
5.08
100
19
100
Disease resistance
44
84.61 8
15.38 26
81.25 6
18.75 16
100
CB kid performance Birth difficulty
57
100
34
100
100
Mother milk sufficient to twin
56
98.24
1.75
29
85.29
14.70
15
100
Birth weight more than Desi
57
100
18
100
your goat flack with selected CBbucks
0
53
0 34
36
33
100
0 1
The Laxmipur and Koraput farmers (97% and above) opined that they do not have problems to market
CB goats.
315

The Koraput and Kundra farmers are well aware of the breeding worth of CB goats, but Laxmipur
farmers could not explain.
The Barbari CBs in Koraput and Kundra blocks have early maturity and more twins at birth,
whereas Laxmipur farmers did not agree to the same findings for Sirohi CBs (37% of
farmers).
All the farmers of Laxmipur, Kundra and Koraput agreed that,
the CB goats are fetching high sale price and want to continue selection and
breeding of CB goat flocks
they sell out male CBs and retain CB females at home
the CB goats are attractive to look at
the CBs have higher milk yield, sufficient to feed twins
the CBs have good disease resistance
the CB kids are heavier at birth than Desi (local) kids
It was concluded that the farmers opinion on CB goat breeding is very positive. They gain
more from keeping of CB goats and want to continue breeding flocks with CBs.
316

References
Acharya, R. M., 1982. Sheep and Goat breeds of India. Animal Production and Health
Paper No. 30, FAO, Rome.
Biodiversity of Livestock in Orissa and its Role (2004) papers, proceedings and
presentation of the workshop held in Bhubaneswar, India.
CIRG (1985) Terminal report. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Goats.
Central Institute for Research on Goats. Makhdoom, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Edit. Kornel Das, S.C.Mohapatra, S.P.SAlhawat and Ashok
catdir.loc.gov/catdir/toc/fy0903/2008324922.html,
www.intercooperation.org.in/.../TIBILI_30_CONFERENCE_REPOR...
Tripathy.
Gaur, A. and Taparia, A.L. (1991). Indian J. Anim. Nutri., 8(1): 15-18.
Khan, B.U. & Singh, S.K. (1992) Genetics of Feed conversion efficiency in Barbari
Goats. Recent Advances in Goat Production, p561-564.V International Conference on
Goats March 1992, New Delhi
Kornel Das, S.C. Mohapatra and R.M. Acharya. Sheep and Goat Genetic Resources
of Orissa (2006) A Survey Report with Government of Orissa.
www.pastoralpeoples.org/docs/keepersofgenes_web.pdf,
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/017/ak525e.pdf,
www.intercooperation.org.in/images/icindia/sheep&goat.pdf
Prasad, S.P., Roy,A and Pandey, M (1972) Live weight growth in Barbari kids up to 1
year of age. Agra University Journal of Research (Science) 20 (2) : 45-54.
Sahu, B.K. and Sahu, D. (2002) Performance of crossbreds of Barbari goat in ILDP
area of Koraput, Masters Thesis. Department of Production and management, OUAT,
Bhubaneswar.
Singh, S.K., Sood, S.B and Khan, B.U. Genetic analysis of Growth traits in Barbari
kids. Recent Advances in Goat Production International Conference on Goats March
1992, New Delhi.
317

PIG DEVELOPMENT IN SMALL HOLDER ILDP TRIBAL VILLAGES OF

KORAPUT
Das Kornel & Helge Brunse
Village Pig sector
The scavenging pigs are looked down as source of food by communities who dont use pork
in India. However, in rural areas the scavenging pigs have remained with a large population
of schedule tribe and schedule caste whereas in peri-urban localities, it is limited to schedule
castes, labour class and slum dwellers.
The large ruminant sector due to their usefulness in agriculture as well as acceptance of milk
and milk products to a large group of society, more so for a large population of nonvegetarians has received the prime support from policy makers and planners service.
The small animal sector which includes small ruminants (sheep and goat), backyard native
poultry and village pigs remained with a large group of poor farming community. These
communities consisted of nomads, small holders and landless. Their stakeholder-ship is
recessive. Thus the sector did not get a due strong policy support. The small animal sector has
promises for future, and has relevance to poor farming communities.
Personally I have seen that many animal professionals do not have practical experience of
handling pigs in villages. They either entrust to livestock assistants or remain passive. Some
even refuse to handle the village pigs. The other side, the tribal and schedule caste farmers do
not want to discuss the pig problems with Government officials and they believe that it
amounts to embarrassing them.
The planners looked down the village pigs as an element of destruction to agriculture, village
environment and competitive to human food. This stopped them to think more over the pig
development prospect.
On village pig is scanty in India. The ILDP thus tried to study the problems of village pig
farmers and the husbandry practices they are adopting from the tribal farmers about village
pig husbandry. The investigation was limited to few villages but gave the conclusion that vast
prospect to hungry people and nutritious protein for poor people is there. The sector needs
policy support for development. Of all the livestock at home, pigs pay the highest profit to the
families.
318

Koraput tribals and pig rearing at home:
Pig rearing is tribe and schedule caste specific. The Kondhs, Sabara, Porojas, Konda dora,
Koya, Gadaba, Bondo, Mattia, Didai, Dongaria Kondhs, Gonds and many other tribes of
Koraput keep pigs. The tribal societies of Koraput, particularly in the hill blocks, raise pigs in
almost all households. The traditional roles of pigs are during customary ceremonies such as
funerals, weddings, harvest festivals and invitations. The pigs find its place as a sign of
fertility. Large numbers of pigs are consumed in such occasions.
The pig production is a major source of family income, and as a source of protein for the
family. The Koraput tribal village pig system has
One sow in each household is maintained under scavenging system with or without
feed supplement
The sow is for production of piglets
The piglets get some milk from the sow and thus survive the first 2 to 3 months
The families remove all piglets from the litter gradually with in a period of two to
three months. The removal sequencing is such that the sow can rear the remaining
ones effectively with the available milk
The farmers do not rear pigs to an adult stage except for replacement of sows. They
know well the limitations of feed resources and that this is a constraint for pig
rearing under their environment
They are well aware of the village capacity and the number of pigs they can sustain
under village scavenging conditions
They are aware of the feuds that can occur due to damage of crops (paddy fields)
by stray pigs
Pig breeds in Koraput district
There are two distinct types of pig breeds found with the tribal and scheduled caste
populations of Koraput district.
The local pigs are called Burudi. They are all of the pot bellied type. This breed of pig is
distributed all over in the local tribal villages. They attain about 30 kgs body weight. They are
generally light black and some have white patches on the belly or legs. The tail is long with
tufts of hair up to the hock. The face is long with a full jaw.
319

They scavenge around the village, and generally do not go out. They have little back fat, only
after one year of age they start putting on some fat.
They are very prolific with early maturity at about 6 to 8 months and farrowing twice in a 12
months period. They may produce up to 12 piglets per litter; but generally the number is
between 6 to 8 piglets. A large well fed sow produces the highest number of piglets. Males
mature earlier than females, and the sight of an adult boar in the tribal villages is uncommon.
Thus, the young males are the breeders. There is no selection of any kind and at many places
some inbreeding is seen. The early winter period, October to November, is the most common
farrowing season. Some litters have brown lines spread over the back of the body. This is a
sign of links to its wild relatives. These breeds show high fertility and seem to be more
independent of feeding conditions. Sows are usually capable of producing two litters per year
under good management conditions.
Another breed mostly seen in the urban areas of the district, particularly in the Rayagada belt
is called Jhinga or Pondi. They grow up to 50 kgs. They have black skin, barrel shaped
abdomen, and tail is thick at the base, twisted with small tufts of hairs. Some boars have long
standing hair at the neck.
They are equally prolific, and are preferred in places where feeding conditions are better and
also under a scavenging system.
They have a good herding instinct, thus they move in batches under the supervision of one
caretaker.
Now-a-days, most of them have some amount of exotic blood. The crossbreds have a better
feed conversion capacity than the local pot bellied types.
The native pig breed and biodiversity
The narrowing choice of breeds, for example, is leading to a loss of genetic diversity.
Indigenous breeds of pigs have long been selected for their ability to survive in demanding
local conditions. Some possess traits that are highly valued, namely disease resistance, ability
to utilize low quality feeds, good mothering instincts and high fecundity. The native pigs have
high multiple ovulations, which is independent of nutrition effects. They produce two litters
per year. The pot belly pigs have long gut length and thus bestowed with high ability to
320

convert roughages and scavenged agri bi-products, household leftovers to pork and thus best
quality village pigs.
These valuable genetic resources have not come into the arena of research community, and
before their genetic ability is known they are generally lost due to crossbreeding.
Exotic Pig breeds in tribal villages

There is some experience in the field of introduction of exotic pigs in tribal villages and
production of cross breeds by exotic boars.
A large amount of such breeding work was undertaken in the North-East by the Indian
Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR). They were successful in producing cross breeds
from exotic sires in the villages, and now it is difficult to find pigs without exotic genes.
The middle Yorkshire crossbred with desi dams became larger and matured earlier
than the desi breed and it seemed to have lost, to a certain extent, the foraging habit,
which is an instinct of the desi breed.
The white colour of Yorkshire is dominant over desi black skin colour.
Feed costs amount to about 75 to 80 percent of the total cost of raising pigs
Supplement of zinc sulphate significantly increased the growth rate
Feeding of protein supplements to pigs in Vietnam produced a 50% increase in body
weight.
The Crossbreeding of tribal village pigs with Yorkshire is being taken up in the district of
Bastar in Chattisgarh state. They have schemes for supply of exotic, cross breed sows and
boar units. However, the tribals insist on pigs with black skin colour. This preference is based
on religious customs.
The cross breeds have higher disease susceptibility, with a quite high mortality rate under
village conditions. The exotics also have more incidences of maggot wounds on their body.
Simple oozing of blood due to insect bites attracts flies.
The crossbreds and exotic boars have a natural instinct of seeking into village paddy fields
and crops, as the feed available in the village is not sufficient. They cannot sustain on
scavenging. This is one of the reasons why crossbreeding is often termed as failure
particularly in very poor villages.
The advantage of the exotic pig breeds are the higher body weight, faster and higher growth
rates and the better conversion of feed to meat ratio. However, under a feeding regime as it is
practiced in the villages of Koraput, rearing of exotic pigs is not possible as the local pigs are
only occasionally fed a little rice bran mixed with water or some leftover food like rice gruel
321

and ragi husk, millet husk or the like; moreover communities are
themselves.
very poor to fend
Productivity of small holder system is often low and is the problem

The pig production systems in our area are both scavenging and semiscavenging type, but in other developing countries (South East Asia), it is rice
production base.
The village pig production system is a smallholder system and the
productivity is well below potential levels. As a group, small holders are
generally price takers not price makers
Under scavenging system of village pig keeping, there is meager feed
supplementation when available at home and under the present traditional
subsistence farming system and in a poverty environment the understanding of
ration quantities and composites or un-balanced nutritional requirements does
not appear. However there is scope to improve the production by
supplementing the critical nutritional requirements.
The disease control is a difficult issue, particularly for small holders with poor
understanding of diseases, limited funds and poor access to vaccines, drugs
and other veterinary services.
Management of wastes from pig production is generally poor.
The veterinary and extension services generally need improvement.
Small holder farmers typically operating under a mixed farm system, produce
the majority of pigs.
There has been relatively little work of comparable quality undertaken to
examine the business management of pigs from a small holder perspective.
There are very few sources of useful, impartial advice on business
management available to small holder pig producers.
Pig rearing also creates considerable employment in the villages, especially
for women. Moreover, it is an excellent way of adding value to and disposing
of other agricultural bi-products by using them as feed component. Thus, pig
production plays an extremely important role in raising living standards and
contributing to the rural and national economy, particularly among below
poverty line groups.
The commercialization of pig development is linked to cultural practices in
India.
-
The tribal family does not normally feed the boar as feeding the sow is more
profitable.
The exotic boar is heavy and the villagers show disinclination to breed the
small local sows with it.
322

The local sow runs quickly, whereas the exotic male is slow, thus having
difficulty in catching up with a local sow in heat. Also, as the boar is not fed, it
gradually loses the reproduction function.
The feed/gain ratio for exotic pigs is about 1.8-2.0 whereas the local pigs use about 3.5 kg of
feed produce 1 kg live weight.
However, under low-scavenging or semi-scavenging conditions the local pigs are superior in
terms of survivability and production. The feed situation in the villages will not change
dramatically, because the situation is related to change of activities of life in pursuit of food
production.
The limitations in pig rearing are well understood by the tribals and thus they have evolved
their own system based on local pigs.
Use of improved breeds (exotics) is only beneficial if the animals are well managed.
Experiences have shown that improvement in quality of the genotype (breed) must be
accompanied by at least some improvement in standards of husbandry, nutrition and disease
control (Malynicz, 1973 a), if not, growth rates shall generally be depressed and mortalities
will increase (Malynicz, 1973b).
Issues before introducing improved pig breeds:
Competition for resources with man

Gut size and relative efficiency of pigs on local feeds
The costs
Nutritional characteristics, processing and storage requirements for local feeds
Diseases of Pigs:
The most important diseases and parasites are-
Viral disease: Swine fever or Hog cholera runs in epidemics. It is most feared disease of pigs.
The other viral disease is FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease). All tribals who keep pigs are aware
of it as the disease does appear periodically as in cattle and buffalo.
Bacterial disease: Hemorrhagic septicemia (H.S), anthrax, bacterial diarrhea (mainly caused
due to salmonella).
323

Parasites:
Endo-parasites: Round worms, tape worms which are very common in village pigs
Ecto-parasites: Ticks, lice, mange/scabies
Cycticercosis is common in north Orissa villages.
Supplementation of micro-nutrients and salt to all ages of pigs and provision of iron to piglets
shortly after birth is economical, not least under tribal villages.
Piglet mortality:
Piglet mortality is about 30% under village conditions. This is mainly due to over lying of
mother, pneumonia caused by dampness of the floor of the shed and inclement weather,
diarrhea and piglet anemia etc.
Pig farming systems:
This can be classified in 3 major heads as following:
1. Subsistence systems: in which pigs are raised by small holder farms mainly for the
purpose of subsistence, local consumption and maintenance of important cultural
values. This system is very common in rural Orissa.
2. Dual purpose systems: in which pigs are raised by small holder farmers both for
subsistence and commercial reasons with an increasing emphasis on the later. These
systems are next common in rural Orissa.
3. Commercial Industrial system: in which pigs are raised in vertically integrated, large
scale piggeries.
The scope is limited, thus the system will not appear soon.
Small holder pig farming:
Small holders are very important:
The majority of pig producers are small holders, most of them are located in rural and hill
areas. The scale of production of pigs are important to them as a major source of family
income, as a saving bank as a source of nutritious food and for cultural reason. It is because
of their generally low standard of living, small holders are an important focus for poverty
alleviation and development programmes.
324

Logical Frame Work Approach Problem TreeVillage Scavenging Pig development
SECTOR
Fig.-1
High
Social inhibition
Poor family
income
Poor growth of pigs
Sanctions due
to scavenging
pig production
Poor
survivability
Feed limitations
Medical opinion against pigs

Japanese
Encephalitis
High mortality
Poor housing hygiene
Predator
Poor tribe/SC
specific
Producing food for

poorest by
scavenging alone
Nutritious (protein)
Cheap present cost
Near zero input
Very high returns
and prospectus
Infectious
diseases
Wasting
disease
+Swine fever
+ Parasitic
disease
(ecto/endo
+H.S
Micro-nutrient
deficiency
Zinc ??
Iron, Cobalt etc.
Limited knowledge and access to medicine and

veterinary assistance
325

Logical Frame-work Approach (LFA) Objective Tree Village Scavenging Pig

development
Fig.-2
High
Improved social
acceptance due to
hygienic standard
husbandry system
Improved family
income
Improved production
of piglet and growth
Reduced mortality
Improved feed from

local resources
Medical opinion
against pigs
Medical opinion
on viral diagnosis
by appropriate
study methods
Reduced
Infectious
disease
incidence
Reduced
wasting
disease
Improved
farrowing
and traits
Improved
husbandry system
industrial
farming/adoption
Objective:
To identify an investment strategy which in relation to the management of village

pigs, will yield the greatest dividend to the target group tribal families.
326

Improving Pig health:
Control of endo-parasites (worms)

Prevention of swine fever
Prevention of HS & FMD
Predator losses reduced with good housing
Improving service and technology transfer:
Establishment of Community Link Workers and Village Institutions for Veterinary

Delivery System
Farmers training in pig management, feeding, utilizing local feed ingredients,
diseases of pigs and how to control animal disease, consequence of parasitic
diseases on pig health and production, housing pigs, pig farming systems including
semi-scavenging and intensive systems, pig breeds including exotic, reproduction
traits and fertility, effects of inbreeding and selection of boar and sows.
Economics.
Improving pig nutrition (utilisation of local feed resources)
Improving housing and environment (waste management)
Improving quality of pig breeds (genetics)
Assistance to pig farmers:
- More new pig farmers are inducted through Village Revolving Fund
- Exposure to other good pig farmers and farms in neighbouring districts and
states
- Assistance of deworming and swine fever vaccine, initially
Table-1 Holding type, herd and pig number and trends in pig
Holding type
Herd size
Number
Small
holder 1-15
traditional
Trends
Breeds
Static
Native
Small
holder 1-3
penned
household
90% in Koraput
Native
Small
holder 10-30
commercial
10%
Native
Commercial
Nil
Nil
Two
cases Exotic
appearing
327

Table-2 Services for pig:
Holding
type
R&D
Extension
Small
holder
backyard
Research
AH&VS
institute and department
university
(poor)
No
contribution
Source of Health
stock
service
Health
products
Feed
100%
local
(rarely
govt)
Locally
available
Crop biproducts
mainly
kitchen
refuse
Locally
(swine
fever
vaccine not
available in
Orissa)
Fig.-3 Production Marketing channels of village pigs in Koraput:
Small hold
Raisers
Middle men
Personal use
Butchers/
Retailer
There is no organized market for pigs in tribal areas. The piglets are sold in weekly markets
and adults are purchased by consumers from villages. The wet meat sale is the practice, often
butchers sale pork in weekly markets.
328

Marketing pigs:
Table -3 Marketing arrangements for pigs and pig products:

Holding type
Product
Marketing
system
Market sector
Small holder
Live
animals Informal, farm Mainly rural
mainly
for gate sales
family use but
with occasional
sales
Market signals
Growing
demand
fatty pigs
for
Impact of pig development in ILDP villages
The pig population and household keeping pig in the project villages for four blocks are
shown in Table 1 and Fig 1.
Impact in ILDP interventions:
Table-4 showing number of pigs and household keeping for 1995, 1998 and 2001
Pig small 1995

holder
Number
1998
2001
No.
of Number
household
No.
of Number
household
Household
Kundra
65
44
144
110
704
156
Jeypore
64
30
Laxmipur
1344
691
1592
680
1225
346
Koraput
525
284
729
266
1072
268
Total
1998
1049
2471
1058
3001
770
Percentage
It is concluded that
329

The pigs are totally eliminated from Jeypore project villages by 2001. There were
total 30 families keeping pig during 1995.
The induction of Kolab dam irrigation facilities to the farmers of Jeypore block
has opened up new awareness in agriculture, thus pigs are fast replaced from the
farming system.
In Kundra block, among the project villages there are four Sano Poroja tribe
villages who are keeping pigs. They have registered very high rise of population
as well as number of households keeping pigs compared to inception of the project
activities.
This is attributed to intensive pig deworming programme carried out since
1996. They were vaccinated twice with swine fever vaccines, as one outbreak
was witnessed during the project period. The pig farmers also received training on
pig husbandry and feeding. The confidence level of the farmers has considerably
improved, thus the production.
The Koraput block has two fold increase of pig population as compared to 1995,
though the number of farmers keeping pig has remained nearly equal. This was
one of the poorest as well as resource poor project blocks inhabited by Sano Poroja
tribe.
The improvement in pig production in Koraput block is significant. The farmers
here had undergone training in pig husbandry. Selected pig farmers were
trained for 3 days in intensive pig farming system at Andhra Pradesh Government
Pig farm, Vizia-nagaram. An efficient service delivery system remained functional
in the villages. These efforts have contributed in improving the confidence and
faith over technology, thus production.
The Laxmipur block had witnessed an out break of swine fever during 2001; this
had reduced the pig population. It is now slowly picking up.
A survey on pig production was taken up by Block Extension Team, Koraput
block
during September 2002. They have surveyed 70 households spread over 7 villages. The
farmers in the said block reduce the pig population during July due to backyard agriculture
interest, still the result reported are most encouraging.
330

Though one sow per family is the general norm and finding, now there are 14%
families who own 2 sow units and one family (1.42%) with 3 sow unit. The
increase is significant.
These farmers during inception of the project were found selling away piglets from
month one, but now no one is selling piglets before 2 month of age.
Now there are 19% of farmers who are selling piglets at 4 months of age where as 81% of the
farmers are selling piglets between 3 to 4 months of age
group.
This change of practice is fetching more money to the family. This is because now, they can
afford to feed the sows and piglets for 3 to 4 months.
On an average, a family is maintaining 7.14 0.36 pigs at home

The litter size is 8.15 0.10 in Koraput, maximum reported is 10. However, I
have seen two litter sizes of 15 piglets each in Kundra block villages may be due to
deworming and improved feeding to local pig breeds.
The piglet mortality is 1.9 per litter. This is significantly less than non-ILDP
villages.
The families are retaining on an average 2 piglets to grow as hogget (12-14
month age) for sale. The price range between Rs.1, 000 to 1,500/- and an average
of Rs.1335 17 per pig.
On an average in a year the total sale value of pigs per family is Rs.5, 518/-
123.76 in Koraput block. One farmer in the study reported to have received Rs.9,
700/- due to sale of pigs for the year.
The total expenditure per family to rear one sow unit comes to Rs.600/-. It
includes the cost of deworming agents and swine fever vaccine (if they pay).
This is about 91 days wages to a person @ Rs.60/-.
331

Lessons Learnt:
Table-5 Block Kundra showing sow number, ave. piglet born and sale
Village
Sows Total
per
no. of
family family
per
year
Ave.
Piglets
Piglets
sold/year
born per
family
Jhilligaon
01
02
15.70.45 11.10.24 2.20.65
Gunthaguda 01
02
15.60.44 10.90.80 2.50.58
Pandripani
02
16.00.46 12.71.05 1.8750.125 4177.7297.10
01
332
Adults
sold/year
Total receipt
for sale in Rs.

Table -6 Block Koraput showing the pig performance in villages
S.
N
Name of No
Village
.
Population of pigs at home as on 01.09.2002

Sows
Piglets
Adults
Total
Of
Ob
s.
No.
of
farro
wing
per
year
No.
of
piglets
per
farrowin
g
Mortalit
y
rate
per
farrowin
g
No.
Avg.(hh)
survived at
Receipt
from
age
of
sale of pigs in
markets
Rs.
01
Khariguda
18
1.220.10
3.290.77
1.020.24
3.740.88
20
8.000.25 1.720.10 12.110.47
5594.44198.7
02
Tala
Janiguda
14
1.160.11
3.00.52
1.750.41
5.910.72
20
8.410.22 1.830.16 12.830.38
6083.3337.75
03
Tala Limca 13
1.440.14
4.660.57
3.660.47
10.01.06
20
8.330.28 2.00
6211.11453.51
04
Podeiguda
10
1.250.24
4.870.63
1.620.59
7.751.08
20
8.000.26 2.120.12 11.750.58
5325.0072.79
05
Machhara
12
1.00.0
3.750.30
1.330.33
6.080.45
20
8.160.20 2.000.00 11.750.62
5300.00198.71
06
Bagra
1.00.0
3.710.56
0.850.26
5.570.42
20
7.850.26 1.850.14 10.140.67
4514.28165.60
07
Padmapur
1.00.0
4.000.40
1.000.40
6.000.40
20
8.500.28 2.000.00 04.001.08
4725.00295.45
333
12.660.57

PIG DEVELOPMENT IN TRIBAL VILLAGES OF KORAPUT
Pigs grow quite fast and are prolific breeders, farrowing 6 to 12 pigs at a time. Sows are
usually capable of producing two litters per year under good management conditions. The
carcass return is quite high - 65 to 80 per cent of the live weight. It is a single stomach
animal unlike ruminants (cattle, sheep and goat) and hence it cannot utilize coarse fodder.
Therefore, it needs a maximum of concentrates and a minimum of roughages.
Disease Prevention Measures

The understanding of diseases in tribal villages is that diseases are mostly attributed to the
fury and effects of an evil spirit. Money is spent for sacrificing cocks, pigs, pigeons, etc. as
per the advice of their Disari, the priest. There is a need that the farmers be appraised about
diseases of pigs in understandable terms, the causative factors, symptoms and the preventive
measures thereof. Once convinced they will co-operate in the preventive vaccination
programme as they have seen and believe in vaccination against human pox and cholera.
Piglet Mortality
Piglet mortality is about 30% under village conditions. This is mainly due to overlying of the
mother, pneumonia caused by dampness of the floor of the shed and inclement weather,
diarrhoea and piglet anemia etc.
However, our experience from villages have indicated that use of deworming agents to all
village pigs alone have yielded very good growth, survivability as well as an increase of 30 to
40% piglets at birth. This result has increased the confidence of farmers.
The villagers are regularly visited by Block Extension Teams. The farmers receive two doses
of anthelmintic a year to control endo parasites.
Housing: The importance of housing is not well understood except the Koya tribals in
Malkangiri.
Reproduction: A shortage of boars hindered reproduction in many herds and indiscriminate
slaughter of boars and sows caused a loss of breeding potential.
Socio-economics and technology transfer:
The farmers had access to field days, training courses, and other farmers and extension
services in ILDP villages. This is not available to non-ILDP villages.
Priorities between disciplines as are seen from experiences of ILDP.
334

Fig.4 Problems affecting pig production in the Koraput district region, with their
priority ranking.
Problems to be addressed
Ranking ILDP intervention
Improving animal health
Yes
Extension service and technology transfer
Yes
Improving Nutrition
Yes, partly
Improving genetics
Housing
and
management)
environment
(waste 5
No exotics introduced, selection

for prolificacy advocated
Yes, through village committees
Fertility
No
Product development and quality control
No
The ILDP through Block Extension Teams
Improvised in the management of the serious problems of parasitism was made

through improved education of farmers and regular treatment of pigs in the village.
After initial treatment with broad spectrum anthelmintic, the treatment resorted to
cheap Piperazines.
Each farmer is visited twice a year and all pigs received Ivomec % (Ivermectin,
MSD Agvet) in Vietnam study. This medication was preferred because of its ease
of use and its ability to eliminate both internal and external parasites. This became
most popular with pig farmers (Nanjiani, 1993).
The pig farmers received assistance from respective Community Link Workers in
the villages
The farmer, therefore, and not the pig become the focus over the last 4 years of collaborative
investment within the villages. It included training, exposers and extension communication
and assistance in preventing the most feared disease, Swine Fever which is due to a deadly
virus. It is true that farmers are not looking for detailed and esoteric information they want to
build a mindset that enable them to apply efficient solutions to daily problems with
confidence. That was what tried with the pig farmers.
335

Recommendations and Opportunity:
India has 13.84 million pigs

(2007) but the population has
declined to an extent of 2.4
million compared to 2003. Of
which 21.5% are crossbred
population. Pork forms 11.4 % of
the total meat produced in India.
The North Eastern Region (NER)
has the highest concentration. In
spite of sizeable population, the
local pigs are not able to meet the
pork demand of North-Eastern
states. It thus, imports large
number of pigs from other major
The pot bellied pig with litters and pig style in a tribal
village
pig producing states.
As said earlier there is strong preference to coat colour of the pigs in India. In Assam,
Manipur, and West Bengal and UP states people like white pigs where as in Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and in South Orissa people have the preference for Black pigs due to their
religious and ceremonial dictate. But however the crosses between exotic white pigs with the
local pigs the progeny inherit the black coat. So in planning the introduction of new breeds
into an area the preference of coat colour needs consideration.
The local pig population in Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh are prolific and 12 piglets
per farrowing is common. There instances of 15 piglets per farrowing also. Thus this
opportunity can further be exploited by selecting high prolific sows from the region and then
improving them with proper selection. So Government has to take the initiative by organising
small breeding farms in areas where people prefer pork.
Exotic breed like Large Yorkshire, Tamworth, Hampshire, Russian Chinchila, Landrace
have been introduced in various states. These introductions were mostly in 70s and now they
stand with high inbreeding coefficient and most of the economic traits have degraded and the
mortality has increased. It is time to import new bloodlines of the exotic breeds and replace
the old lines. This requires urgent action.
Manipur is using Hampshire crosses and Ranchi Birsa Agriculture University has developed
a new breed by crossing Tamworth with Desi and it is called T&D breed. It is very popular
with the local tribal farmers.
Carcass weight of pigs in general is 35 Kgs. The most popular pig breed in Eastern India
(Assam and West Bengal) is Ghungru that grows to 40-50 Kg live weight. It has black coat
336

and wrinkles and even large ears. There are also many indigenous populations of pigs that
need validation and classification.
However, it is clear from experience of many years that the exotic pigs are best for pork
production due to its efficient feed conversion rate. Thus it suits to intensive feeding
management and commercially viable. On the other hand the indigenous breeds of pigs do
not have that quality but they are the best under village and scavenging condition. It has been
seen that the crossbreds do perform well under semi-intensive management conditions in the
villages. They grow up to 80- 100 Kgs in a year under semi-intensive management in
villages.
The crossbreds give 8-12 piglets per farrowing and two such farrowing per annum. It is
recommended by experts that 8 piglets per farrowing should be the target in a breeding
programme and it thus reduces mortality and the growth is enhanced. But however more
number of piglets per farrowing adds to the profit as in the tribal pig farming system they
earn more from the sale of 2 month old pig lets. The number of farrowing as noted is two per
annum and this can be manipulated to three per annum by administration of Levonorgestrel
and Ethynylestradiol orally after one month of the farrowing. The tablets is given to 30 kg
sows at the rate of one tablet per day up to 5 days and in large sows the dose is doubled. The
sow comes in heat within 15 days of withdrawal. Norgestol, Duoluton-L, Ovral, Ovral-G
tablets are available in the market.
The research should aim at producing 50 % crossbred pigs that can grow to 130 Kg body
weight in a year under intensive feeding and now it is mostly 100 to 110 Kg body weight.
The pig breeds for traditional subsistence farming system where most tribal farmers are
located may have pig breeds that can attain 40-50 Kg body weight in a year but the
prolificacy should very high, like two farrowing per annum and 10-12 piglets per farrowing.
Here local breeds have opportunity. Then there is another intermediate system of semiintensive management where pigs receive supplement feeding along with scavenging. This is
gradually seen in many states like Jharkhand, north Orissa and Chhattisgarh etc. It should
have pigs that shall attain 100Kg body weight in a year and can give 8-10 piglets per
farrowing and such two per annum. These are research problems appropriate to different
feeding and management systems that exists in India.
As regards disease control measures, use of anthelmintic to control endo parasites and
administration of Classical Swine Fever Vaccine yearly once will take out the major risk to
the farmers. Now a days broad spectrum anthelmintic are cheaply available in market. The
Swine Fever Vaccine is available in Indian Veterinary Research Institute and Calcutta
Biological, Kolkata. It requires cold chain. However, it is well known fact that this vaccine is
not easily available in India and thus the poor farmers suffer serious loss often. This requires
immediate attention in the public interest.
In Odisha and Jharkhand, a tribal farmer family earn Rs 30-50,000/ per Sow per annum. They
produce 15 piglets per annum per Sow and sale piglets at 10 Kg body weight or 2 months of
age at Rs. 1400 to 2000/ . They grow one adult pig at home and sale the pork at Rs. 150 per
Kg; and pig yields 80 % pork of its body weight. Pig is the most loved animal by the poor
tribals and the SCs and hence a thrust to pig production and value addition is required.
The importance of piggery sector in poverty alleviation has been highlighted in this study
with quantitative figures. Thus this opportunity should be utilized to promote pigs in States
337

like Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam, NE States, W. Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and parts of southern Maharashtra and provide plenty
of cheap pork to people such that they are above the mark of malnutrition.
A mission on pig production should be initiated in North-eastern region, tribal dominated
central India and other eastern states. This needs pig breeding units, quality superior
germplasm, vaccines and diagnostics, feed inputs, processing plants and developing market
linkages. The pig in China is called a factory. The Chinese pig breeds are well known for
their prolificacy and production; still they have a Canadian Pig Breed Marketing Company
that supplies the germplasm to the breeders and producers. India should look into the
opportunity of having such Pig Genetics Company in India like that of commercial poultry to
meet the requirements of NE and Eastern States, initially. Countries such as USA, Canada,
UK, Denmark and Brazil are the major Pig Genetics marketing nations and India should
invite them to meet the national requirements and strengthen the system in commercial terms
in the lines of the poultry industry.
Piggery Development was started in XI plan with allocation of 150.0 crores. However, no
expenditure has been made. This amply demonstrates the negligence this sector has suffered.
In future this should not repeat.
338

References
ACIAR Working Paper No. 53 March 2002:Priorities for Pig Research in Southeast
Asia and the Pacific to 2010
catdir.loc.gov/catdir/toc/fy0903/2008324922.html,
www.intercooperation.org.in/.../TIBILI_30_CONFERENCE_REPOR...
Edit. Kornel Das, S.C.Mohapatra, S.P.SAlhawat and Ashok Tripathy. Biodiversity of
Livestock in Orissa and its Role (2004) papers, proceedings and presentation of the
workshop held in Bhubaneswar, India.
Kornel Das (1999a) Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in Tribal life - Koraput Modern
Book
Depot,
Bhubaneswar,
Orissa.
www.amazon.co.uk/koraputBooks/s?ie=UTF8&rh...page=1
Modern Book Depot, Bhubaneswar catalog. hathitrust. Org / Record / 009162773
Kornel Das (2006) Biodiversity of Pigs, p-200-203 in Orissa, Biodiversity of
Livestock in Orissa and its Role (2004) papers, proceedings and presentation of the
workshop held in Bhubaneswar, India.
Manohar Publishers, New Delhi. books.google.com ... Agriculture Animal
Husbandry(See Annexure II)
Malynicz, G.L. 1973a. The productivity of exotic and indigenous pigs under village
conditions: Part 1. Papua New Guinea Agric. J., 24(1): 1619.
Malynicz, G.L. 1973b. The productivity of exotic and indigenous pigs under village
conditions: Part 2. Papua New Guinea Agric. J., 24 (1): 2022.
Nanjiani, I. 1993. South Pacific Commission Agriculture News, Vol 22, 7.
339

RURAL CATTLE AND BUFFALO DEVELOPMENT AND ILDP, KORAPUT
Das Kornel & Helge Brunse
There is a large and still growing population of Cattle in Koraput district, Orissa. They are
not milch cattle, nor are confirming to any breed standard, except Motu cattle and some
inbred small localized populations here and there. The large ruminants are kept in tribal
homes for
Agriculture use (ploughing, puddling wet soil, land leveling and transport where
bullock carts are in use)
As manure producers
As milk production(a recent limited introduction)
Food value, hide and bone find industrial application
The large population of large ruminants and continuing growth is seen as most disturbing to
environmentalists interest.
There are a group of planners who think
Improving the productivity of large ruminants can reduce or stabilize the

population
The exuberant cost of maintenance of working cattle in non agriculture work
period is forcing replacement with alternate sources like tractor and mini trucks.
This is in places where agriculture is a commercial preposition and land holding
size is in diminishing trend.
This situation is also forcing to think for relatively,
small sized bullock (breeds) as an alternate
the other is local breeds of tropics who
Gain body weight when plenty seasonal feed is available, thus put on more fat;
then deplete in scarcity period of summer. These breed grow slowly on seasonal
feed to mature size, which is go up to second lactation.
The desert breeds like Gir, Kankrej, Tharparker and many others have these
characteristics.
This is seen in most buffalo breeds of India as well as Indian cattle breeds.
340

These characteristics of large ruminants are most sought in rural sector of India.
As regard buffaloes and cattle the following distinct and trend is being observed.
The buffalo population in India are of two types

Riverine type (Murrah, Rabi)
Swamp type (South Indian, Central Indian)
The Riverine type is large sized but produce more milk and high fat. This type of milk is the
choice under Indian condition, because
This is the only source of fat to rural population, especially north of India,
Western India, and Gangetic plain.
The Indian milk production, white (milk) revolution has been attributed mostly to buffalo.
The future buffalo population as milk producing animals shall register growth.
The swampy lands of eastern coast are rich with buffaloes.
The Murrah is the dominant breed for cross breeding in all parts of India, and will continue.
The cross breed cattle (Jersey, Holstein) are the most sought after the undivided Koraput
scenario as milk producers.
Of recent, the Kolab dam irrigation water is available to Jeypore, Borigumma, Kotpad blocks
of Koraput. Already there is Bhaskel dam, Potteru irrigation and Satiguda irrigation
functional in Nowrangpur and Malkangiri region.
All these districts have infrastructure for preserving liquid milk, through milk co-operatives,
except for Malkangiri.
The Umerkote-Raighar irrigated areas due to Bhaskel Dam water is now producing the
highest maize per acre, and it is estimated that 17,000 ha. maize is cultivated per annum in
these areas. The maize stoves are going away for fuel use. The same area is also producing
cotton, thus maize grains, cotton seeds and maize stoves can form the most feeding items of a
livestock industry here.
There is ample of feed for cattle, going unutilized. There is Government of India assisted
special Cattle Development Scheme in Koraput region, can be extended to Umerkote-Raighar
area.
The scope can be analysed to a real viable operational situation.
The Jeypore-Kotpad irrigation is continuing the traditional rice cultivation. There is now
need and scope to stratify agriculture here. There is very bright scope to follow dairy based
farming system here. The infrastructure is there, as far as the cattle breeding and milk
cooling or marketing is concerned. This needs vitalization.
341

The farmers in these circumstances have their own priority, which is limited due to lack of
vision. The vision horizon is limited because of information inadequacy.
Initially, the farmers shall actively co-operate for a dual purpose or a draft cattle breed based
development, after that they shall accept dairy animals.
It is most essential due to its location and market availability and distance that, they should be
supply line for dairy cattle/buffaloes to Orissa demand areas. There is scope to replace the
existing Andhra Pradesh as the present supply line for Orissa.
The Danida ILDP, worked with co-operation of District Veterinary Officer, Koraput to look
into the issues a fresh. There were two areas of vital importance and one area for vitalization.
1. The morning milk in milk shed areas is collected from villages, daily through a
vehicle before being placed at Milk Chilling Plant, Umuri, Jeypore.
The milk thus collected can be doubled, if evening milk is also collected from the
same source. Thus it was planned to place small size milk chilling units in cluster
village units. These small size units are amply available in Europe at half the cost, as
the sizes of the present Europe farms and milk thus produced has doubled these.
These small milk chilling units are obsolete for them.
However, the import could not go through in time. It was rolled up.
2. The number of cows/heifer inseminated by AI and consequent calf birth in AI centres
located in rural area is very low. This is very costly, when compared from over head
expenditure. Thus the impact in the sector is not appearing. This is an area of
importance and an important problem. There are varied factor, responsible for the
problem. It was analyzed.
An insemination due to synchronization heat among cows was felt to be of most
relevance under the circumstances. Once the farmers, see the results to themselves,
the relevance of AI will improve and co-operation will come voluntarily from
farmers.
The farmers have no knowledge, experience about various Indian breeds of
cattle/buffalo; so even when they are asked to co-operate in such a participatory
programme they had no active role.
There were two aspects which needed a clear understanding:
1. The procedure, medicine (hormones) to be used in village cattle and its comparative
price structure. The side effects if any was all considered and contacts were made
with people of knowledge. The experience has been described in the preceding
chapter.
2. The suitable breed was agreed for a draught resistant duel purpose breed. Thus Gir
was the first choice, followed by Red Sindhi and Sahiwal. These three breeds have
origined from Red Kandahar breed. The variations are there.
342

The other pure draft breeds were Kangayam and Hallikar of South. The idea behind was to
give a limited access to farmers for many breeds and select the breed they choose. Until now,
the breed choice has never been of the farmers.
There is another area of large interest where ILDP came forward to improve situation, at
State level. The Danida had assisted the Frozen Semen Bank, Cuttack establishment under a
bilateral agreement. Danida had also assisted a 100 pure breed Danish Jersey cow Farm as
Bull mother farm. It was located at Chiplima, Sambalpur. This was in 1970s.
There was no new semen import to Orissa state, there after. Thus, once again 5,000 frozen
semen straw out of elite bulls (under progeny test) from Denmark was supplied as assistance.
The breeds were Holstein Freisian, Jersey and few Red Dane cattle dairy. They were to be
used in State Breeding Farm, in elite farmers herd by OMFED, in cities like Cuttack,
Bhubaneswar, Rourkela, Jeypore, Koraput, Sambalpur and Berhempur etc.
A few thousand CB bull semen collected from elite institutions of India like BAIF,
Visakhapatnam Dairy etc. was supplied to Koraput Frozen Semen Bank to use in urban areas.
The synchronization of heat in cows is one viable alternate choice to improve rural
cattle and buffalo population in India.
The breeding and development of cattle and buffaloes through Artificial Insemination in rural
villages is a complex problem area.
The efforts to increase and improve calf births through intensive cattle development schemes,
use of frozen semen technology utilising A.I. Centers, and some efforts elsewhere to
reintroduce breeding bulls in the villages, did not improve the situation satisfactorily.
In some centres the cost of producing a calf using A.I. goes up to Rs.2,500/- and above when
overall expenditure on employees salary, cost on semen, liquid nitrogen etc. is considered.
This is a common picture in all backward areas of the country, even in the more progressive
states. This has lead to closure of many A.I. Centers.
In most analysis, the technicians place the blame on un-castrated bulls in the village herds,
religious bulls, and people not being co-operative and so on. On the other hand farmers blame
A.I for repeat breeders etc. However, the majority in rural areas blame the un-castrated bulls
and villagers non-awareness.
Process Development: history: Some inconclusive trials were made to give injections to
scrub bulls to make them infertile or to remove them to other places. These efforts did not
provide the desired results and scrub/stray bulls remain an area of concern.
The western world earlier also phased problems in breeding of beef cows using A.I. Beef
production is often based on grazing, making heat detection difficult in grazing areas. By
temperament, beef animals are rather wild and sometimes also vicious; this limits the use of
A.I. services. The economics of beef production and grazing management prohibit frequent
handling of the animals.
Researchers therefore proposed a process of synchronization of oestrus to reduce costs in
rearing beef animals.
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Similar problems in breeding of sheep with Merino rams, which were limited in number,
occurred in Russia where the sheep were with the nomad population.
Dairy farmers all over the world want to produce milk whenever the milk price is highest.
Thus they are interested in calvings in the beginning of the lean season.
Synchronization of the heat cycle of cows and buffaloes: Over the years, a number of
progesterone compounds were used to synchronize the breeding cycle of livestock. However,
the success was limited. The drug Norgestmet was effective to some extent, but the cost
prohibits our farmers to use it on local cows.
Compounds like MAP (Medoxy Acetate-Progesterone), MGA (Malenogestre Acetate) were

also used with variable results.
During the 80s, Prostaglandin 2, a hormone, was marketed; it was used in

many western countries mostly to synchronize the oestrus of beef cows.
The invention of Prostaglandin 2 in a pure form and as synthetics gave the
desired results to predict the date of heat (oestrus) and hence perform A.I. on
cycling cows. This was a major break through in reproduction development
research.
There are Prostaglandin 2 synthetics, which do not require cold chain, and there
are Prostaglandin 2 which require cold chain. The non-requirement of cold
chain is a big advantage in a tropical climate like ours and this type is strongly
recommended.
The dose recommended by the manufacturer for a cow to be treated with
Prostaglandin 2 is 5 ml i/m, or s/c, or 3.5 ml i/v, and to be repeated on the 11th
day if the cow does not come in heat.
The cost of Prostaglandin in the Indian market is as follows:
Prosarvin 10 ml
Rs.750/-
(requires cold chain)
Illiren 10 ml
Rs.250/- or 350/- (do not require cold chain) etc.
Illiren (Hoechst Roussel vet) 1 ml. contains 0.150 tiaprost equivalent is a Prostaglandin
analogues.
344

These costs prohibit general use by farmers.

Bhavasar and Chhaya (1993) reported a 50 percent pregnancy rate by heat
synchronization of 370 cows and buffaloes. The study was undertaken in the
I.C.D.P areas of Gujarat state. They did not indicate the drugs used for the trial.
The study concluded that the technique has the following main constraints:
a. Non availability of required hormones
b. Hormonal treatment is expensive
Dr.A.V.N.Rao, a renowned field veterinarian, initiated his work on buffalo reproduction
problems in India. His research was on farmers animals, field and cost related problems. He
recommended that Prostaglandin L2 may be used at 1 ml instead of 5 ml, through vaginal
tissue route. The use is equally effective in buffaloes and cows to synchronize heat; it also
works under sub-oestrus conditions.
By using this method the cost of Prostaglandin would be reduced to one quarter. This is a
great step towards economical heat manipulation in rural areas for quick cattle development
and at reduced costs.
Synchronization of heat in cows and buffaloes may be achieved by a single dose of

0.5 ml. Prostaglandin (Illiren) injection in the vaginal wall ipsilateral to the corpus luteum
location on the ovary.
At the ILDP we have adopted the research findings of Dr.A.V.N.Rao and further found that:-
345

Prostaglandin 2 (Illiren) may be reduced even further to 0.5 ml. in local cattle.
Following the vaginal route we got the same results as by using 1.0 ml dose for ovaries
with corpus luteum.
The site of injection was ipsilateral to the corpus luteum location of the ovary. There is still
work to do in understanding the ovary conditions of local indigenous cattle of Koraput. The
ovaries are tiny-may be the size of a pea nut. The corpus luteum is not clearly palpable and
can often not be inferred with surety through rectal examination.
Given 0.5 ml (in divided doses of 0.25 ml on each left and right wall of the vagina) most
cows do respond to it; and if followed on 11th day by renewed injection, the cows are
showing conditions conducive for A.I.
This method was used on 481 cows and buffaloes in Kundra, Jeypore and Koraput blocks of
Koraput district on a pilot basis. The milk procurement centres in the areas were covered,
because of awareness of the farmers on dairy business.
At first 3 cows in Kundra block were tested at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 ml level of Prostaglandin
(Illiren) given through vaginal route (deep muscular).
All treated cows responded, one was showing metritis and the other two showed normal heat
and were inseminated. Thus the dose was fixed at 0.5 ml (Illiren) level.
The cows and some full grown heifers non-pregnant or with doubtful pregnancy were
screened out by the village grazier and owner in tribal villages and MPC villages. All were
examined for reproductive organ status. The non-pregnant cows and heifers were treated
with Prostaglandin (Illiren) at 0.5 ml level i/vaginal.
The cows where corpus luteum was not definitely established, were given 0.25 & 0.25 ml
i/vaginal.
The responding cows were inseminated after 72 hrs & 96 hrs of the first Prostaglandin
injections. The 200 cows which did not respond to the first treatment were re-injected with
the Prostaglandin at the same level on 11th day; of which 169 came in heat and they were
subsequently inseminated.
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Lessons Learnt
1. The synchronization of heat in cows may be achieved by a single dose of 0.5 ml

Prostaglandin (Illiren) injection in the vaginal wall, ipsilateral to the corpus luteum
location of ovary. The responding cows are bred two times after 72 hrs & 96 hrs.
2. Trials with 0.25 ml Prostaglandin, in limited number, showed satisfactory response.
3. The local desi cows of Koraput, under tribal village conditions show small pea size
like ovaries, thus in most cases the corpus luteum is not palpable, and the diagnosis is
not definite. Thus, taking the possibility of sub-oestrus in consideration, they are
given 0.25 ml in right and left side of the vaginal wall, cows not responding, due to
smooth ovaries, are given 11th day Prostaglandin. The majority l respond to 72 & 96
hrs. A.I. This is the largest group.
4. Buffaloes are equally responding to treatment at the mentioned level.
5. The treatment with 0.5 ml Prostaglandin (Illiren) costs Rs.12.50; and if at 11th
day another 0.5 ml is given, the total cost for Prostaglandin is Rs.35.00 against
Rs.250.00 as suggested by the manufacturers. If response is received at 0.25 ml
level, the cost may further be reduced to Rs.6.25.
6. Insemination is done both at 72 and 96 hrs, and if repeated heat is detected then
another A.I is done on the 21st day. The cost of semen straws adds to the cost but
there is scope of reducing the cost here also. Experienced inseminators may be able to
breed cows using only one or two inseminations.
7. The synchronization of heat was taken up in the natural breeding season in Koraput
district (July-August or September). Green grass is available and the climate is cool
or normal. Certainly most cows are in poor health condition, because most are also
being used for ploughing during that time. During summer the conception rate may
be reduced to 20-30%.
Results
Out of the 253 cows treated with Prostaglandin (Illiren) followed by A.I during July,
1998, 110 were presented, of which 60 were found pregnant during October 1998. This
is about 54.5% pregnancy rate on first heat insemination at 72 & 96 hours. The calving
rate due was 25 percent. The rate of pregnancy may further be enhanced if cows are bred
during the next heat at 21 days.
8. Buffalo breeding by A.I, in its natural breeding season (November-December) will be

tested for prostaglandin response and rate of conception.
Farmers
About 40-60% of the cross breed cows in Koraput are non-pregnant at a given
time. The percentage is higher in desi village cattle. That means that at least,
40% more milk may be produced if cows are treated and successful pregnancy is
347

achieved. This will also add 15-20% replacement cows to the population in one
year.
Higher efficiency in this way will change the milk production strategy in a
certain area.
There were farmers who, for various reasons, did not participate after first day
injections.
It is an intensive team work.
Mobility of the team is essential.
Farmers must be instructed to prevent natural breeding after A.I. of his cows.
The cattle breeding season coincides with the kharif cultivation period. The
farmers co-operation and time is a problem.
Prospects of using this technique in cattle and buffalo breeding in rural India:
More progressive states have covered up to 30% of the breedable cattle
population by A.I; but there are still states which cover only up to 5% or less of
the breedable population.
This ought to be an area of high concern in meeting the future requirement of the
growing population of India.
Inadequate number of A.I. centres, trained staff and fund shortages along with
less motivated farmers has contributed to this problem.
Village cattle synchronization for heat cycle programme twice a year, may yield
about 40-50% AI calvings.
It requires two camps per village per annum (A total of 20 man days work).
The work load is dependant on the number of cows a person is able to examine per day.
It will require
Village grazier co-operation and cattle owner motivation. Training camps for
these groups are essential.
Presentation of cattle, examination and 1st injection of Prostaglandin. (1 day)
Examination of treated cows after 72 hrs and 96 hrs & A.I. (2 to 3 days)
11th day examination & 2nd injection of Prostaglandin (1 day)
Examination of 11th day treated cows on 72 hrs & 96 hrs & A.I. (2 days)
Observation of all treated cows of 1st injection between (19th day to 22nd
day of A.I) & last A.I (2 days)
348

Prostaglandin single/double system
A.
Select non-pregnant
cows
B.
A. Select non-pregnant cows
Then inject all nonpregnant cows with

B. Inject Prostaglandin
0.5 ml. of Illiren (Prostaglandin)
st
(1 day)
C & D Inseminate all cows

in heat on 3rd day and
C. AI 3 days later (72 hrs)
4th day (72 to 96 hours)
Inject all cows which

th
D. AI 4 day
did not come in heat
(96 hrs)
with 0.5 m.l Illiren
Inseminate all cows in heat

E. Inject Prostaglandin on
349

350

351

References
Bhavsar, B.K., and Chhaya, H.H. (1993) Recent Advances in Livestock Production
Technologies: Gujarat Experience. In Recent Advances in Livestock Production
Technologies (Proceedings of A National Workshop) Edited Mangurkar,B.R., Joshi,A.L,
BAIF Development Research Foundation p-53-56
Chupin, D., Pelot, J.Mauleon, P. (1977) Control of oestrus and ovulation in dairy cows.
Therio-enology 7 Theriogenology.
Cooper, M.J. (1974) Control of oestruls cycles of heifers with a synthetic prostaglandin
analogue Veterinary Record, 95:200.
Gordon,I (2004) Reproductive Technologies in Farm animals. CAB Publications, U.K.
Haffa, H.D., Manna J.G., Lamming G.E. (1976) Synchronisation of oestrus and ovulation in
cattle Principles of cattle production (Edi: H.Swan and W.H. Broster) Butterworth Inc
Woburn.
Jemmerson, A. (2000) Synchronising ovulation in dairy cows with either two treatments of
gonadotrophin-Releasing hormone and one of prostaglandin, or two treatments of
prostaglasdin. Aust. Vet. I. 78:2 p. 108-111.
Kaim, M., Roseberg, M.; Folman, Y. (1990) Management of reproduction in dairy heifers
based on the synchronization of oestrus cycles. Theriogenology 34: 537-547.
Larson, L.L.: Ball, P.J.H (1992) Regulation of oestrus cycles in dairy cattle: A review.
Theriovenology 38 : 255-267.
Lucy, M.C. Stevenson, J.S. Call, E.P. (1986). Controlling first service and calving interval by
prostaglandin F2, gonasotriphin- releasing hormone, and timed insemination. J. Dairy Sci. 69:
2186-2194.
Macmillan, K.L., Burke, C.R. (1996) Effects of oestrus cycle control on reproductive
efficiency Anim. Rep. Sci. 42:307-320.
Roche, J.F (1976) Retention rate in cows and heifers of intravaginal silastic coils impregnated
with progesterone. Ann. Biol. Reproductive Fertility 46:253.
Sergio Lopez B. Alearo Martines L, Leopoldo Gabaldon L, Carlos Falcon M and Gio
Mazzarri (1981). Synchronisation of Oestrus with Nongestoment and Prostoglandin F2 in
Beef Cattle. Trop. Anim. Prod. 6:2 p.102-104.
Stevenson, J.s, Lucy, M.C.; call, E.P. (1986). Failure of timed inseminations and associated
luteal function in dairy cattle after two injections of Prostaglandin F2-alphe. Theriogenology
28: 937-446.
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Wenzel, J.G.W. (1991) A review of prostaglandin F products and their use in dairy
reproductive herd health programmes. Vet. Bull. 61: 433-477.
Wright, P.J. Malmo, J. (1992) Pharmacologic manifpulation of fertility. Vet. Clin. North Am
Food Anim Pract. 8: 57-89
353

FODDER AND FEEDING INTERVENTIONS

Helge Brunse & Das Kornel
One of the main constraints for the development of animals in the project area and for that
matter in most backward areas of India is seasonal feed and fodder shortage as well as
inadequate levels of management of farm animals. The same situation is observed in other
impoverished areas of India and is not at all unique globally. Shortage of sufficient fodder
for farm animals is seen in all poor developing tropical countries. The issue really is: Is it at
all possible for a farmer to provide quality fodder to the farm animals when the family does
not even get enough to eat.
The main objective for the ILDP has from the initial project preparations been to develop an
appropriate fodder production package, which is adoptable in the villages where the
economic output from animals is very limited as they are mostly kept as a form of insurance
or as a source of food in festive seasons and the like. Cattle are used only as draught animals
for land preparation a few weeks every year. Milk production is very limited.
The animals (both large and small ruminants) are sent for grazing in the morning and
afternoon, and grazing outside the main growing season is free, making it necessary to protect
land which is not meant for grazing - for example when establishing fodder plots or other
crop/tree cultivations.
The farming systems are gradually changing:
Generally speaking, livestock is traditionally kept as a supplementary enterprise on a
minimum-input basis and the type of animals evolved do not have the potential for high
productivity.
Improved management/feeding arrangements and fodder production was the important
interventions for the ILDP since project inception, but the process was slow as villagers
perception of a suggestion, for example, for stall feeding of ruminants is considered as a
major change of behaviour.
Numerous projects have made endeavours in improving the economic situation for the
poorest sections of the rural population. However, it must be admitted that most did not
succeed. For example, almost 22,000 crossbred cows, buffaloes and draught animals were
distributed to beneficiaries in Koraput district during the 1980s on loan basis, but proper
fodder production measures were not introduced and the level of management as well as
disease control were not sufficient to maintain an economical level of production and the
farmers who received improved animals more or less slumped back to the traditional way of
keeping animals. The only difference being that the farmers were registered as loan
defaulters and ineligible for further assistance.
The average landholding of tribal village people in the project area is very small indeed if
they have at all access to land. Often it is between 1 and 2 ha. Earlier, before new regulation
gave tribe people protection against non-tribals purchasing of tribal land, absentee land
354

owners had in many cases taken over tribal landholdings. Another, general tendency is that
the smaller farmers also often own the poorest land.
However, the improved economy brought about by the interventions of
the livestock project and the stabilising influence of well functioning
self help groups and village committees has dramatically changed the
situation. Many small farmers are now repaying mortgaged land or are
even purchasing land.
The main crop is paddy be it rainfed or irrigated and this is the situation throughout the
Koraput district and neighbouring districts. Finger millet (ragi) is a staple food for tribal
people and is also popular throughout the district. Before the project was initiated both rice
and finger millet was produced in a traditional way and using local varieties. This production
pattern has changed over the last years as will be described below.
Other principal crops are pulses, types of small millet, sorghum and maize. A few cash crops
are also produced in the irrigated parts of the district. As a result of the project interventions
vegetable cultivation has now been taken up in project villages around larger towns and to a
lesser degree in villages away from the town.
Podu, or shifting cultivation is still practised on the hill slopes. This system requires very
little input except labour and seed but the yield is low and the system is hazardous to the
environment.
June to August is a period of acute stress for
many tribals and other poor households. The
previous seasons crop has been consumed or
sold and government employment programmes
are reduced due to difficulty of working in the
monsoon rains. Diseases are also common
during this period. This period is the main Shifting cultivation is widely practised on
the hill slopes in Koraput district
planting season for paddy and rainfed crops.
The large majority of the rural population keep livestock. Milk production is very limited and
mostly confined to areas around larger towns, but cattle are kept for draught power mainly,
but also for meat, manure and as an insurance. Local cattle are of very limited value and
have to tend for themselves as they are usually not fed at home.
By intervention of the project, it is now common to see improved
varieties of finger millet and often interplanted with pigeon pea (a tall
multipurpose legume/pulse) under shifting cultivation systems.
Poultry and pigs are kept as scavengers and sheep and goats graze along with the village herd
in communal areas or after harvest also in the fields of paddy and finger millet, so that any
355

improvement in crop residue quality and quantity would benefit the nutritional situation for
ruminants.
As a result of the project extension service, stall feeding of draught
cattle, buffaloes and sheep/goats is slowly picking up. Feeding of desi
(local) poultry is now widely practised.
Fodder plots on communal lands (Fodder banks)

Availability of fodder is generally good in the rainy season
because the ruminant animals are able to graze on wild
grasses and herbs in the communal lands which surrounds
most of the project villages, and where grazing is free. The
feed shortage is especially seen in the dry season
November-April where the animals will become very thin.
The feeding value of dry grasses is low and consequently
animals are often stunted in growth (especially large
ruminants) reflecting the sub-optional nutrition right from
birth.
Danida Advisor Dr.Kornel Das is admiring a well established fodder plot of Napier
grass (elephant grass) developed by Coimbatore University. More than 40 tons of
fodder was produced per Ha/year.
The project undertook a comprehensive fodder programme in 1995 and the following years
by assisting the livestock farmers in establishing fodder plots or fodder banks on communal
land.
The reason behind this time and labour consuming endeavour was of course to create
awareness to farmers that feeding of green grasses will improve the animals performance,
health as well as the economy of keeping animals. About 225 ha were planted with grasses
and legumes. The project undertook the ploughing and levelling of the land and the villagers
were planting slips of elephant grass (Napier grass) or sowing the seeds of Stylosanthes
hamata or Centrocema pubesens (fodder legume). Seed and slips were all produced at the
projects farm Randapalli Fodder Farm where all the most common grasses and legumes for
fodder purposes were demonstrated.
The villagers should maintain the plots, do weeding, supply fertilizer, do gap filling etc. The
fodder plots had a size of about 2-2.5 ha. The growth must be characterised as fairly good
especially on land where it was possible to irrigate during the dry season. Whereas on dry
land the performance would be severely hampered during the long dry spell of 6-7 months.
One issue that has to be realised is that all initiatives and interventions have to start from
scratch. The district is very backward and even the most common items and facilities are not
available, but has to be obtained from distant places of the country. This was for example the
case for planting material (seed and slips) which had to be purchased shipped and then
reproduced by the project.
356

The fodder plots (fodder banks) must be characterised as a quite high cost intervention.
Maintenance and protection from grazing proved to be difficult for many villages and after 2
to 3 years about two third of the fodder plots were more or less neglected.
However, the lesson learnt is that villagers i.e. owners of farm ruminants are now aware of
the importance of cheap quality fodder and stall feeding of the animals during times of feed
shortages.
Also other institutions like NABARD (National Agriculture Bank for Rural Development)
are now promoting village fodder plots following the same model as introduced by the
project.
The Animal Husbandry Department in their new development policy is
recommending fodder plots and different methods of fodder conservation to be taken up in
the villages.
Lessons learnt:
All owners of small and large ruminants in the project villages know
and appreciate the value of producing/collecting cheap roughage and
feeding it to the animals. The practice of supplementing home produced
fodder to animals which are to be sold, is picking up.
Silvi pasture interventions

During fodder training sessions farmers were
encouraged to plant fodder-cum-fruit-cum-fuel trees in
association with grasses and legumes known as silvipasture system. Under this system suitable fodder trees
are planted 5-7 m apart - both ways - and interplanted
with various grasses and legumes. The silvi-pasture
system was demonstrated at the Randapalli fodder farm
and taken up in a number of villages in connection with
forest development or cashew nut plantation.
Farmers were also encouraged to collect loppings of
trees during winter and spring (December to May)
where many trees develop new leaves which are young,
succulent and highly nutritive and rich in protein.
Distribution of fruit and fodder trees
The project has planted

more than 150,000 fodder
trees on farmers land and
in the villages. An
advantage of fodder trees
over other fodder crops is
that trees remain green
during the long dry season.
(An illustration from ILDP
Extension Message No.4)
In the initial years of the project over 100,000 fruit trees

were distributed to farmers throughout the project area
with the idea of improving the nutrition levels of
villagers (see background article). In the latter years
more than 150,000 fodder trees were distributed and
planted in the project villages.
Training in the
utilization of fodder from fodder trees were imparted by the extension teams.
357

The trees which were distributed by the project were mainly of the species, Leucaena
leucocephala (Su-babul), Moringa oleifera (drumstick), Tamarindus indica (tamarind) and
Gliricidia maculate (fertilizer variety).
ILDP had introduced 356 Avocado (Persea Americana) fruit trees in Undivided Koraput
villages in 1995. It is a fruit tree originated from Mexico and Central America now found in
tropics. It has 67 % fat so very rich in energy thus will be of great food value to poor. The
avocado tree is fruiting in 3 years in Koraput and fruiting is in July thus of value in scarcity
months.
Lopping of trees for feeding of small ruminants is now commonly used

throughout the project area and the practice has spread to neighbouring
villages and districts.
All the species are performing quite well in the area. Tamarind and certain varieties of
moringa are doing very well provided that browsing is prevented while the trees are young.
Leucaena is growing only quite well because of the acetic nature of soils in the project area.
The Gliricidia sepium is best for livestock feeding. Gliricidia will only survive a few years.
It suffers especially during the dry season and has to be replanted by cuttings in every 3-4
years
Mixed cropping of dual purpose grain and legume (pulse) crops scheme
Utilization of crop residues of the most commonly grown crops varies and proper utilization
as feed for growing animals was not common before the project. The rice harvest is often
brought to the village where threshing is done and the cattle and buffaloes will eat the straw.
Maize is often grown near the house and the stalks will be used for fodder. Finger millet is
most commonly grown on marginal land and only the top part (panicles) are harvested and
brought home for threshing. The straw was often left to be grazed by the village herd.
The project undertook a survey so as to
find varieties of rice, finger millet, maize
and sorghum which produce high yield in
both grain and crop residues - tall and
leafy varieties.
And only after a
comprehensive study of available
literature and negotiations with various
research institutions was it decided to
undertake trials in the project area so as
to be able to produce
A good stand of a high yielding tall and leafy variety of finger millet (Eleusine
well
documented
coracana) var.Indaf-8 interplanted with a local variety of pigeon pea (Cajanus
recommendations for
cajan). The grain yield was 150% higher and the yield of by-product was more than
increased
fodder
160% higher than the local variety of the finger millet in the control plot.
production.
358

The objectives of the scheme was to

Introduce new high yielding dual purpose grain crops
To provide recommendat ion for
int erplant ing of
particularly in upland grain crops (mainly finger millet and maize)
grain
legumes
To promote residue moisture cropping of legumes

The new promising varieties of maize, sorghum and finger millet was obtained from
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad
and All India Small Millet Resources in Bangalore.
The Department of Agriculture in Koraput/Jeypore would along with the ILDP fodder
supervisors undertake the comprehensive training and demonstration programme. Krishi
Vigyan Kendra (KVK), a subsidiary of Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology
(OUAT) would assist the project in monitoring the trials and computerise the results and
publish the important findings in OUATs journals.
Trials
The project initiated the scheme in 1998, and trials in crop substitution, mixed cropping, use
of soil amendments and fertilizers, management practices including integrated pest and weed
management practices were taken up during the rainy season, the same year.
The demonstrations and trials consisted of
Improved rice+pigeon pea
Improved maize+pigeon pea
Improved sorghum+pigeon pea
Improved finger millet+pigeon pea or
Dolichas lab lab
Mixed cropping is often recommended as a
way to withstand a draught situation and is
thus a form for crop insurance.
Mixed
cropping of pigeon pea has an advantage as
pigeon pea is a long duration crop - about six
months and a slow starter wherefore
competition with the grain crop in which it is
interplanted
is
minimised.
The
Line planting of rice in Nuaguda village of
demonstration/trials were made on farmers
Kundra block. The project had sent about 200
farmers for training at Central Rice Research
fields. The farmer would supply labour.
Station, Cuttack, Orissa. Among other
Three field days would be conducted for
advantages line planting will reduce the amount
nearby farmers utilising the expertise of
of labour for weeding (mostly women) with
subject matter specialists of the Agriculture
about 50%.
Department. The agriculture department in
this way was also having a responsibility in promoting the scheme.
359

Three field days would be conducted for nearby farmers utilising the expertise of subject
matter specialists of the Agriculture Department. The agriculture department in this way was
also having a responsibility in promoting the scheme.
All crop varieties included in the demonstration trials had first been tested in the field at the
projects farm (Randapalli Fodder Farm) and only the best performing varieties were included
in the trials at the farmers field.
All crop varieties included in the demonstration trials had first been tested in the field at the
projects farm (Randapalli Fodder Farm) and only the best performing varieties were included
in the trials at the farmers field.
TABLE 1: CROP VARIETIES INCLUDED IN THE ILDP DEMONSTRATION
PROGRAMME
Crop
Variety
Finger millet (ragi)
HR-911, VL-149, PR-202, GPU-26, HR-374,

Indef-9, Indef-5, GPU-28, Indef-8 & 10, Neelachal
Sorghum (jowar)
C.S.V.No.112 & C.S.V.No.745
Maize
Vijay composite
Rice
Kalinga III, Gouri
Pigeon pea (arhar)
Improved variety
Lab lab (bailo)
Local
A minikit programme was also launched so that farmers participating in the field day could
purchase a minikit consisting of seed of
1. Finger millet + pigeon pea
2. Maize + pigeon pea
3. Sorghum + pigeon pea
The minikits were sold at a reasonable price so as to ensure a wide distribution of the
improved varieties. Farmers were requested to keep seed for cultivation the following years.
The new varieties, as well as mixed cropping of grain and legume crops, is now widely
distributed in the district. It was interesting to learn that the new varieties are selling at
higher rates than seed of local varieties.
Utilization of by-products
An important dimension of t he dual purpose mixed cropping scheme was to
increase the amount of by-products or crop residues by using tall and leafy
var iet ies, but without compromising the yield of high qualit y grain. For
360

example, is the finger millet variety Indef-8 producing the double amount of
straw compared to the local variety. The interplanted pigeon pea is also
providing addit ional fodder as well as high value grain and al of pigeon pea is
often used as fuel wood and pigeon pea being most without reducing the yield o f
finger millets. The stems a legume is also improving the so il.
Farmers were subsequently trained in collection and storage of crop residues as well as urea
treatment of straw and hay making.
A number of farmers are making hay of different crops in particular various legumes. Hay is
then fed in periods with scarcity of feed. Urea treatment on the other hand, despite
comprehensive training efforts, did not catch with farmers.
1.
Evaluation of varieties of finger millet under rainfed condition
Introduction:
Finger millet is an important crop for tribals, it is grown under diverse agroecological condit ions of so il, temperature, rainfall and on lands where options
fro m crop diversificat ion are few. Its cultivat ion is often seen on hill slopes,
undulating fields, shallow and gravelly soils and in regions predominant ly
inhabited by tribals like in Koraput district. Its production has shown steady
increase fro m 1.8 millio n tones in 1960-69 to 2.8 millio n tones in 1997-98. The
production of finger millet can be increased further by another 50 percent if only
two important key inputs like high yielding variety seed and minimum cash
inputs such as manures & fert ilizers are provided/applied by the farmers. Keeping
this in view a varietal evaluation programme was undertaken under rainfed upland condition
of Koraput district of Orissa during the year 1998-99.
Materials & methods:
The production potentials of 10 elite varieties of finger millet along with a local check were
tested under two similar situations during kharif season (1998-99). The crop was grown with
the recommended dose of fertilizer i.e. 40:20:20 kg NPK/ha with a spacing of 20x10 cm.
The grain and fodder yields with the percentage of increase over the local variety have been
presented in table.
Results:
The data pertaining to grain yield, fodder yield, percentage increase in yield over the local
variety are presented in the table below revealed that among the varieties tried HR 911
produced maximum yield (25.98 q/ha) followed by Indef.8 (23.86 q/ha), HR 374 (21.19 q/ha)
and PR 202 (20.54 q/ha) in that order. The variety Koraput local produced the minimum
(9.67 q/ha). The percentage of increase in yield of improved varieties varied from 35% to
168.7% over the local check. Indef.8 which was second best produced the highest fodder
yield (61.48 q/ha) followed by HR 911 (57.13 q/ha) and HR 374 (53.28 q/ha). Like
grain yield all the improved (HYV) varieties also recorded higher fodder yield than the local
361

check. The percentage of increase in fodder yield over the local variety of finger millet was
maximum (197%) in case of Indef 8 followed by HR 911 (176%) and HR 374 (157.4%).
The result s indicated that the high yielding varieties of finger
millet tested under rainfed condit ion were not only superior to
the local variety in respect of grain yield but also produced
more fodder which is often scarce for animals of tribal farmers
in Koraput. Through front line demonstrations the farmers
should be mot ivated to grow these high yield varieties like HR
911, Indaf 8, HR 374 and VL 145 which are not only high
yielders but mature 15 days earlier than the local variety and
thereby has a better chance of escaping a drought situation.
TABLE 2: PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF FINGER MILLET VARIETIES UNDER

RAINFED UPLAND SITUATIONS OF KORAPUT DISTRICT, ORISSA
Variety
Grain yield
% increase By-product
yield
local (q/ha)
local
HR 911
25.98
168.7
57.13
176.0
Indaf 8
23.86
146.7
61.48
197.0
HR 374
21.19
119.1
53.28
157.4
PR 202
20.54
112.4
48.25
133.1
Indaf 9
19.72
103.9
51.13
147.0
Neelachal
19.52
101.9
48.40
133.8
VL 149
19.10
97.50
46.20
123.2
GPU 26
15.68
62.00
37.43
80.80
GPU 28
15.11
56.30
36.63
77.00
Indaf 5
13.08
35.30
33.73
62.90
Local (long duration)
9.670
20.70
SE (M) I
0.474
1.249
CD 5%
1.490
3.930
Rep II
Fertilizer application recorded dose: 40:20:20
Sowing (June)
Spacing: row to row 20 cm
362
% increase over
(q/ha)

2.
Production potential of different inter cropping systems in uplands of Koraput
Introduction:
Intercropping has been recognized as potentially
beneficial systems of crop production for rainfed
uplands. Evidences suggest that, intercropping can
provide substantial yield advantage compared to sole
cropping. The farmers of Koraput district grow finger
millet, maize, sorghum, mixed with pigeon pea, but the
practice has to be improved. The present study was
conducted to identify suitable spatial arrangements for
enhancing productivity of the cereal crops inter
cropped with legumes and to find out the suitable crop
for intercropping with pigeon pea in uplands.
An experiment was conducted in 4 blocks of
Koraput district, Jeypore, Kundra, Laxmipur and
Koraput during 1998-99.
The treatments
consisted of growing two raised rows of pigeon
pea, the inter space was planted with paddy,
maize, finger millet or sorghum. A total of 8
treatments were laid out with four replications.
The project had introduced high yielding tall and

leafy varieties of maize (Zea mays) var.Ganga 5.
Interplanting of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is an
added advantage because an interplanted
legume like long duration pigeon pea does not
harm a cover crop such as maize. The amount
of by-product was about 40% higher than that
of the local variety of maize.
Results and discussion:

Maize + pigeon pea inter cropping system produced the maximum grain equivalent yield of
35.32 q/ha followed by sorghum + pigeon pea except in the Kundra block where the latter
system produced the highest yield. In different blocks, the yield advantage of maize + pigeon
pea over sole maize ranged from a minimum of 21% in Kundra to the 87% in Koraput block,
but that of sorghum + pigeon pea system over sole sorghum was in the range of 229% in
Laxmipur block to as high as 430% in Jeypore block (Table 3 ).
Intercropping paddy and finger millet with pigeon pea was equivalent in their yield level to
that of sole maize in almost all blocks. With the yield advantage of 78 to as high as 180%
over sole rice or finger millet with respect to the total by-product (table 6) sorghum + pigeon
pea in that order. Total by-product yield of the rice + pigeon pea system was almost similar
to that of either sole maize or finger millet. The percentage increase in total by-product yield
over respective sole crop was in the range of 69 239% in sorghum + pigeon pea, 28-86% in
rice + pigeon pea, 41-101% in finger millet + pigeon pea and 16-52% in rice + pigeon pea
systems. With regard to economics maize + pigeon pea system was the best closely followed
by sorghum + pigeon pea. Finger millet + pigeon pea was even equivalent to sole maize or
sole sorghum which had even greater, cost benefit ratio than the rice + pigeon pea system.
In general, the cost-benefit ratio of any intercropping system was higher
than their respective sole crop
363

TABLE 3: PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF DIFFERENT INTER-CROPPING

SYSTEMS IN UPLANDS OF KORAPUT (ORISSA)
Grain yield (quintal per hectare) (Equivalent to finger millet 1998-99)
System
Block
Total Mean
Jeypore
(q/ha)
Kundra
Paddy + Pigeon pea
18.52
19.63
19.62
19.25
Maize + Pigeon pea
41.62
34.98
37.42
141.29 35.32
Finger millet + Pigeon pea 23.77
22.12
16.0
16.95
Sorghum + Pigeon pea
38.0
19.75
25.37
27.27
37.13
Laxmipur Koraput
77.02
78.84
30.00
8.070
9.2
8.7
7.52
6.870
32.29
Maize (Sole)
24.22
23.37
21.3
20.05
88.94
Ragi (Sole)
10.5
11.0
9.0
8.000
38.50
Jowar (Sole)
7.0
7.75
5.25
6.000
26.00
Mean
171.96
21.495 19.73
16.68
C.D. for cropping system = 5.59

C.D. for Block
22.23
9.630
6.500
157.84 133.44 139.91 603.13(G.T)
17.49
= 3.95
364
19.71
120.25
Paddy (Sole)
Total:
19.25

TABLE 4: PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF DIFFERENT INTER-CROPPING

SYSTEMS IN UPLANDS OF KORAPUT (ORISSA)
By-product yield (quintal per hectare) (equivalent to finger millet 1998-99)
System
Jeypore Kundra Laxmipur
KoraputTotal Mean(q/ha)
Paddy+Pigeon pea 24.4
25.75 24.25
23.25
97.65
24.41
Maize + Pigeon pea47.5
33.0
39.75
43.75
164.0
41.0
Ragi + Pigeon pea 37.62
34.37 31.25
37.58
140.82 35.2
Jowar + Pigeon pea60.5
50.57 32.8
49.88
193.75 48.4
Paddy (Sole)
21.05
20.0
16.78
15.25
73.08
Maize (Sole)
28.7
27.13 24.47
23.52
103.82 25.95
Ragi (Sole)
24.15
24.42 21.6
18.65
88.82
22.2
Jowar (Sole)
18.2
19.38 13.4
14.7
65.68
16.42
Total
262.12 234.62 204.30
226.58 927.62(G.T)
Mean
32.76
28.32
C.D. for cropping system

C.D. for Block
3.
29.32 25.53
=
18.27
6.52
=
4.61
Production potential of paira (winter season) cropping in rice fallows
Paira cropping is a type of relay cropping in which short duration pulse crops are broad cast
in the field before the preceding crop is harvested. This system efficiently utilizes the residual
soil moisture and reduced the cost of land preparation. In Koraput district farmers mostly
grow black gram or field pea as a paira crop in rice fields. The present investigation was
carried out for maximum production of food and fodder.
The experiment was conducted in the farmers field in 4 blocks of Koraput district- viz.,
Jeypore, Kundra, Koraput and Laxmipur with three treatments of paira cropping system in
which black gram (mung bean) and field pea were grown after rice. The grain/seed yield was
expressed in terms of paddy equivalent yield and the fodder yield potential of both the crops
were also assessed.
Results and discussions:
Among the different treatments e.g. rice-fallow, rice-black gram and rice-field pea paira
cropping systems, the winter cropping of field pea in rice produced the highest rice
equivalent yield of 39.77 q/ha followed by rice-black gram with 36.12 q/ha and against 11.60
q/ha from rice-fallow (Table 5).
365

With respect to total by-product yield a similar trend was observed

(Table 6).
The yield advantage in case of field pea was observed to be the maximum i.e. 240.2%, in
case of rice-field pea followed by rice-black gram with 209.8% over the rice fallow. Field
pea as a paira crop proved to be superior to black gram in all the blocks except in Kundra.
The trend was the same with regard to by-product (fodder) yield (Table 6).
The economics of field pea as a paira crop in the rice field showed a
higher cost-benefit ratio as compared to rice-back gram in all the blocks
except in Kundra (Table 7).
In view of the above results field pea is considered the best paira crop
closely followed by black gram in a rice based cropping system for
Koraput district.
TABLE 5: RICE EQUIVALENT YIELD (Q/HA) OF PAIRA (WINTER SEASON)
CROPPING IN RICE FALLOW
System
Jeypore Kundra Koraput Laxmipur

Mean % increase
over rice fallow
Rice fallow 12.55
12.47
11.40
10.33
11.69 -
Riceblackgram41.85
42.97
27.84
32.18
36.21 209.8
Rice field pea42.99
39.46
37.63
38.98
39.77 240.2
Mean
32.63
25.62
27.17
32.46
Block
System
System x Block
SE(m) +/-
1.229
1.852
1.883
C.D 5%
4.00
6.41
5.65
TABLE 6: TOTAL BY-PRODUCT YIELD (Q/HA) OF PAIRA CROPPING ON RICE

FALLOW
System
Jeypore Kundra Koraput Laxmipur Mean %increase

over rice
fallow
Rice fallow 19.07
18.94 17.44 15.59
17.76 Riceblack gra33.44
33.66 25.53 27.14
29.94 68.60
Rice field pea38.33 36.24 34.00 54.67
40.81 129.8
Mean
30.28
29.61
25.66
32.47 cv=7.7%
Block
System
System x Block
SE(m) +/0.931
3.255
1.320
C.D 5%
3.03
11.26
3.96 Summ
366

TABLE 7: ECONOMICS OF DIFFERENT PAIRA (WINTER SEASON) CROPPING

SYSTEMS ON RICE FALLOW
Rainy season
Dry season
Cost of Gross Cost
System
Total
Increase
by-product
yield
(Rs)
rice
duct
ratio
yield
duct
lent
(q/ha) yield
(q/ha)
fallow yield
yield
(q/ha)
(q/ha)
(q/ha) (q/ha)
(Rs)
fallow
(q/ha)
12.55
19.07
12.55
19.07
4664
13.13
19.88
6.46
13.56
42.18
236.3
33.44
75.3
7044
18544
13.13
19.45
7.96
18.91
42.99
242.5
38.33
100.1
7358
19111
12.46
18.94
12.46
18.94
4529
5934
12.15
18.91
6.79
14.68
42.97
244.8
33.66
77.7
6797
4713
12.43
19.02
7.21
17.24
39.46
216.6
36.24
91.3
6956
4493
17.44
11.40
17.44
4487
5432
17.58
3.62
7.95
27.84
144.2
25.53
46.4
6371
12411
17.08
6.92
16.98
37.63
230.0
34.03
95.1
6705
16752
10.33
15.59
10.33
15.59
4308
10.43
15.94
4.83
11.20
32.18
211.5
27.14
74.1
6476
14229
10.30
15.69
7.67
18.38
38.98
277.3
34.60
250.2
6821
17322
KORAPUT
Rice-fallow
11.40
1:1.21
Rice-black gram 11.53
1:1.95
Rice-field pea 11.70
1:2.50
LAXMIPUR
Rice-fallow
1:1.40
Rice-black gram
1:2.20
Rice-field pea
1:2.54
% increase
Grain By-pro- Grain Bipro- equiva- over rice

(%) over
cultivation
Income Benefit
(q/ha) yield
JEYPORE
Rice-fallow
1:1.26
Rice-blackgram
1:2.63
Rice-field pea
1:2.60
KUNDRA
Rice-fallow
1:1.31
Rice-blackgram
1:2.07
Rice-field pea
1:1.85
Rice
367
5870
4912

Summary of the impact of ILDPs interventions in crop/fodder production - with

special emphasis on increased fodder production
1. Planting of newly introduced high yielding tall and leafy varieties of finger millet, rice and
maize is now done in all project villages and has spread to surrounding villages also, but
there is scope for the Agriculture Department, Animal Husbandry Department and KVK to
make a further joint effort to ensure that seed of the recommended variety is available
throughout the district and neighbouring districts.
2. Introduction of improved high yielding and tall varieties of finger millet under rainfed
conditions have shown that these varieties were not only superior to local varieties in
respect of grain yield, but they also produced more crop residues, which may be used as
fodder.
The improved varieties matured 15 days earlier than the local varieties - an
advantage to escape a late drought situation. Use of improved varieties of finger millet is
now wide spread both in the project area and outside the project area. The trials
(demonstrations at farmers fields) took place over three years and showed that the local
Koraput varieties of finger millet yielded 970 kg/ha (390 kg/acre) and the tall improved
varieties in average yielded 2400 kg/ha (960 kg/acre). An increase amounting to Rs.5, 000
- 6,000 per ha.
3. Trials of intercropping tall finger millet and tall maize interplanted with legumes - pigeon
pea - showed increases in by-product production ranging from 69-240 percent. The costbenefit ratio of any of the tested mixed cropped crops was higher than the respective sole
crop. Inter planting of legumes (pigeon pea) is now wide spread in the project area.
4. Line planting of Rice increases the yield about 20% and reduces the labour for weeding
with 40-50%. Line planting of rice is now practised in a number of ILDP villages of
Jeypore block of Koraput District.
5. Hay making and urea treatment (for increased feeding value) did not catch very well and
proper storage of crop residue is still not the normal practice in the villages.
6. Stall feeding of draught animals as well as sheep and goats is slowly picking up. Feeding
of backyard poultry is now common.
7. About 150,000 fodder trees were planted in the ILDP villages and on farmers land. The
use of loppings from fodder trees is
common in the plain villages of Jeypore block
whereas the survival of trees and utilization of fodder trees is less in the hill blocks.
8. The project established about 320 Ha (800 acres) of fodder plots on communal land in the
project villages during 1995-1997. In most villages it was not possible to protect the
fodder plots against indiscriminate grazing. 20% of the fodder plots have been maintained
in Laxmipur and Jeypore blocks - villages where the demand for fodder is high.
9. The area under commercial crops especially cereals and pulses (legumes) is now
significantly higher in project villages than in non-project villages.
368

10. An indept economic analysis of the projects intervention to improve the farm income
from crop production activities and fodder production was not done. But, as shown in the
trials using improved varieties of finger millet, maize and sorghum in a mixed cropping
system and with improved management, the net farm income is improved by Rs.40008000/ha. depending on level of management, which amounts to about half the average
annual income of a typical village family. In addition comes the increase in the
availability of crop residue for fodder of 30-50% compared to local varieties of finger
millet, maize and rice and having a value of at least Rs.1000/ha.
In average, it is estimated that an ILDP farmer increases his/her income by Rs.2000 4000/year (up to 1/3 of the annual income) by using improved varieties of finger millet,
maize or sorghum interplanted with a long duration variety of pigeon pea.
369

LIVESTOCK SERVICE DELIVERY - COMMUNITY LINK WORKERS, ILDP,

KORAPUT

Introduction
Community Link Workers (CLWs) concept was tried in one hundred tribal villages
distributed in four blocks of Koraput district. An adult man and a lady were nominated for
each of target group village. The literacy rate among tribal women recorded is below 10 %,
so also among women CLWs. However 40% were young dynamic men of the villages in the
CLW group.
It was seen that young men dominated women CLWs in most cases but later it was confirmed
that literate women perform equally in service delivery. This feedback was from Danida
assisted Watershed project in Koraput and Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Semiliguda.
It was further observed that 2 days training in Poultry disease control and 3 days in
Veterinary First Aid and Castration of small ruminants in class room when followed by
assistance by AHD functionaries at village level it is very effective. However, refresher
trainings as per need assessment of individuals brings best out of the trainees. The ILDP
CLWs were also trained for 5 days in basic agriculture and fodder production skills. The
tribal farmers lack basic agriculture skills. In ILDP, Koraput CLWs were the agents of
service delivery at village level and served as a link to the project Block Extension Teams
(BETs).
One CLW per 1000 families was advocated in ILDP, Koraput.
Initially, the CLWs were provided with one Poultry Vaccination Kit and Veterinary First
medicines and one bicycle by the project. They were linked to Village Committees, Self
Help Groups and AHD. This was to bring sustainability so that the CLWs work after the
ILDP ceases to function.
370

2.
Logical Framework
Livestock Services at Village Level Absent
AHD services
limited to GP
level and Block
Hqs.
Large animal
focus
Small animals
including BYP &
Pigs not in AHD
focus
Late evening
vaccination of
village poultry a
problem area
AHD Services are

Institution centered
AHD
institution are
treatment
centred
AHD does not
go to formers
door
Inadequate
service &
medicine
vaccine
supply
Nonexistenc
e of Mobile
Vet clinics
Farmers
go to
AHD
Preventive
medicine
neglected
Poor AHD
High vacancy
mobility
In AHD institutions
Staff not
paid fuel
allowance
AHD staff do
not like
backward area
postings
Staff not
paid vehicle
allowance
Residential
infrastructure for
staff very poor
Communication
facilities very poor
Children education
a problem area
Very late payment
of travel allowances
to staff
371
Poor People
unaware of AHD
People not aware of

primary right

Solution Tree
Livestock Services at Village Level Available
CLW vaccinate
Poultry
Community Link Workers giving

primary Livestock services
CLW de worm small

animals
NGOs facilitating CLW
AHD training
CLWs
CLW buying vaccine &
medicines from market
CLW administer
Vet. First Aid
AHD instituted
Mobile Veterinary
clinic in each
Block
CLW charging
service charges
services
CLW has small animal

focus
372
CLW has cold box, vet

aid kit.

Prooject Rationale
3.1
Background:
The livestock service provision is undergoing restructuring as part of an economic

adjustment. One such initiative is to focus livestock services through introduction of
community based animal health care services.
It involves the community
representatives who are trained in basic health and production techniques. It also has
the objective to supplement and support the existing, but deficit government based
professional system for delivering services to more isolated communities.
There have been several terms used for non-professional livestock health workers
who are at community based animal health work. Thus, in a seminar on smallholder
livestock services held in Indonesia, it defined community livestock worker as a
more appropriate definitions based on the role these workers play (Daniels et al.
1992).
The community link workers (CLW) employment is defined in the following four
points:
1. individuals are selected by the communities within which they work.
2. technical training in animal health and production totals less than a month.
3. the services may not be limited to animal health care but may also include
advice on animal production, husbandry and management techniques;
4. support and payments comes directly from clients for services provided.
3.2
Policies
The CLW is selected from a community; it ensures he/she has first hand knowledge of
the local livestock production system, in terms of both animal health and the socioeconomic environment in which livestock are raised. This helps to build a natural
relationship between CLW workers and their clients.
CLWs have no professional veterinary training and should not represent an alternative
to the technical services provided by public veterinarians. Thus, the terms paravet,
auxiliary and technicians are not used, since all imply to a degree of professional
training (Oakeley, (1999). Another key issue is the time CLWs should commit, or be
expected to use for their CLW activities, keeping in mind that most CLWs are farmers
themselves (Blackeway, 1993). The trainees should not either expect full time
employment from CLW activities. The CLWs in Ghana spend one or more days week
on their CLW activities but the exact time depends upon the wider responsibilities of
the individual (Oakeley, 1998a). In Orissa state a CLW spends about 15 days part
time basis in a month for livestock service delivery (GALVmed, 2015).
373

Project approach
As per ILDP action Plan the Community Link Workers are to be developed as following
thus the Project approach was ,In the above mentioned context it was essential that a close
rapport is established and maintained with the target-group as per the objective of the project.
This required developing the leadership among the local resources on which community can
draw upon in social as well as technical matters. CLW was expected to fulfill this need.
Through repeated visits and discussions, the BET facilitated the target group to identify
youths (both male and female) with a certain amount of education (eg. Primary schooling)
and social orientation to function as CLWs.
The role of the CLWs was to act as a link between the target groups and the project staff and
facilitate increased involvement of the community for the successful implementation of the
project. More specifically, their responsibilities included:
-
Working in close coordination with the BET

Generating awareness in the entire village about the overall objective of the project
Motivating the community to participate in the awareness campaigns/melas, training
etc.
Participating in the training organized for the target families by the project.
Helping the VC in supervision and management of the activities in VFPs/private lands
Observing livestock practices among the target families and provide feedback to the
BET and AHD mobile units
Looking after the TCSC wherever developed under the project.
The CLWs were required mainly to:

-
Keep closer contacts with the target group/other villagers.

Take on the role of demonstrator at a later stage (depending upon the type of skill
developed)
While the status of the CLWs was of a volunteer, it was however proposed that a
remuneration of Rs.200/- per month was paid to each CLW considering the fact that CLW
will be drawn from the weaker section family and that he/she will be spending considerable
time towards the common goal. The remuneration paid by the project through BET was
given to the CLWs until they had gone through the initial orientation and basic training they
will get a wage equivalent to the minimum wage (currently Rs.50 per day). This arrangement
was assessed at the end of the third year, in order to decide whether the CLW was a useful
input to the community and their effectiveness as per the objectives of the project; they found
useful, thus the current arrangement continued up to one year before the end of the project
Training and extension activities was with emphasis on need based and skill-based training
with focus on practical demonstration of skills. Training and extension was furthermore
promoted for better utilization of existing services.
374

The strategies to achieve was:

-
Two village youths (preferably one male and one female) were selected and trained to
function as CLWs from each target village.
Village-based training of groups of farm men and women in basic livestock
management and fodder cultivation
Provision of revolving fund through Self Help Groups (SHGs) for initiating livestock
or other related economic activities on a selective basis in the 4th year of the project
and management thereof by the village community with the help of Block Extension
Team (BET).
Extension services through (BET).
Pre-service orientation training of the existing extension and other staff with the
objective of involving them in the project extension and training efforts.
The project followed an area (cluster of villages) approach, based on the resources available
in each cluster.
Women are to a large extent responsible for the management of livestock. Therefore, in
implementation and in working with the villagers, the project placed equal importance on
womens participation.
3.4
Institutional framework
The literature focuses the need for a clear legal framework setting out of the
relationship between CLWs, veterinarians at state as well as national veterinary health
policies. A well-defined role for CLWs is a key factor in building greater co-operation
between professionals. The existence of genuine competition is of less significance
than the degree to which stakeholders, particularly the professionals in the subject,
perceive these to be a threat to their employment. These perceptions, compounded by
lack of evidence that CLW programmes are effective, lead to active resistance to
CLW programme (Oakeley, 1985 b).
The viability and effectiveness of a CLW is dependent upon communication, support
and co-operation with the professional veterinary system (De Hann and Bekure,
1991). The CLWs are to extend the reach of livestock services; they need to be an
integral part of those services, transferring information and skills between farmers and
veterinary staff. Poor co-operation with traditional veterinary service providers has
commonly left CLW programmers reliant upon the non-governmental project
infrastructures that initiate them (Sikana et al. 1992).
The Wasaidizi programme in Kenya was criticized for disseminating information
internationally, yet failing to develop solid links with the Kenyan Veterinary
Department. (Sikana loc. cit.). The dependence of this and other programmes on
external support leads to serious questioning of the long-term sustainability.
The ILDP, DANIDA model of CLWs as said above was a lady and a male per village
concept in Koraput; in Pudukottai, Tamilnadu it was a married couple in a village and
in Chhattisgarh Bastar context it was two ladies in a village as the tribal local culture
did not approve single lady remaining out of the village alone. But now-a-days it is a
single CLW per village or cluster of village. A single lady per village or two three
375

nearby villages works well; sometimes if a male member of the family supports the
lady then also travel like male CLWs. A male CLW covers a 6-7 km radius area by
bi-bicycle and a CLW with motor-bike covers villages in a radius of 20 kms. This can
be 10 to 20 villages with hamlets.
If you go with all lady CLWs then she can perform well in her village and hamlets
around. That means the number of CLWs will be high in the project; but if you
employ male CLWs with their mobility like bicycle/motorcycle then they can cover a
large cluster. These are two institutional approaches. In ILDP, Koraput they were
supported and the hand holding was due to BET staff members through mobile
extension services.
3.5
Selection procedure
The procedures for choosing CLWs vary. However, there is agreement on the need
for community choice and control over candidate selection. The degree of democracy
in the process is dependant on cultural and social context. The local-social political
divisions exist in many rural communities and village hierarchies are not easily bypassed (Blackeway, 1993).
Among other criteria, literacy is seen as a pre-requisite for learning, recording and
drug handling activities by some (Bowen and Andriesser, 1998). There is evidence,
however, that illiterate trainees can be trained equally effectively (Leyland, 1998).
Nor is there complete agreement as to whether a higher level of education carries the
risk of higher income and carrier expectations among trainees, making them more
prone to leaving the area. Our experiences goes with the fact that young people and
literacy with above VIII th class education has high and positive correlation to
performance, this we saw in ILDP, Koraput Replication programme in neighbouring
districts. The hand holding time and labour for CLWs is reduced and sustainability
improves as they learn well the new technologies and their skills improve.
The experienced persons in livestock raising is an obvious criterion and may go
together with livestock ownership; however, there is no evidence that limited
experience with livestock would preclude an individual from becoming a successful
CLW.
There are differences regarding the appropriate age of the trainees, although health
and fitness requirements may exclude some other candidates. But given the chance to
the community to select the candidates often, they select older women and young men
for CLWs. This was also seen in CLW selection in Bangladesh where elderly widows
are preferred than young women. (Lund, personal communication). To exclude this, a
bias couple CLW concept has been attempted in some livestock development projects
where, the young women participation alone is not expected. The link worker couple
concept is followed in the Tamilnadu Integrated Livestock Development Project of
Danida.
Though the older CLWs may enjoy greater respect in the community and be less
likely to move away, there is no evidence that younger candidates cannot perform
equally well.
376

Gender remains a sensitive issue, as it is apparent that the communities tend to have a
male bias in the selection of the trainees. There is little discussion of why it happens.
The programme however, discusses the important role of women in raising livestock
and thus their potential as CLW candidates. There is scanty or no information to the
relationship between gender and the success and sustainability of trainees. There is
need for further analysis of the correlation between trainee characteristics and their
success. It has been observed in Orissa that if women CLWs are encouraged it works
but the dropout rate is very high.
3.6 Criteria of selection for CLWs

-
Mostly selected by the community and NGO implementer agency on merit

Should represent the majority community of the expected 1000 households
Should have passed at least 8th class
Should be the age group between 18-35 years
For female CLWs, she should preferably be a married woman
He/she should have leadership quality
He/she should have known the cycling or willing to cycle and he/she should
have a bicycle
If the CLW trainee has a motorbike it is most desirable
Minimum 30% of the total CLWs of the district should be female
It has been observed that the candidates for CLW forwarded by AHD officials, politicians
and members of PRI in most case do not work satisfactorily and are drop outs. CLWs should
be selected on merit basis.
A single lady CLW working in her village does work well but it cannot be ruled out that the
ladies cannot travel and function. The lady CLWS of Turmunga in Patna block in Keonjhar
district outperformed the male partners.
Most young lady CLWs leave the village or project area after her marriage thus it is better to
select willing married women. Many a times family feuds do appear if lady CLW has night
halt in another village during her work.
It is a common experience that 35 percent of the CLWs leave the project after 3 months. This
is due to the fact that they get good jobs in government or in private and some do not find
lucerative and there are some who do not cope up. This high dropout continues even if we
take care in selection process. This is serious problem area and it requires suitable
accommodation with induction of new CLWs.
3.7Literacy vs. Non-literacy and performance of CLWs
The following graphs made out of the data collected from ILDP, Koraput suggests that the
literate CLWs perform better than the non-literates.
377

Fig.1 Literate CLW vs. perform ance (e xce llent &
good)
No. of CLWs
35
30
25
20
15
10
Literate
Excelent
0
Jeypore
Koraput
Kundra
Laxmipur
Good
Fig.2 Non lite rate CLWs vs. perform ance (e xcellent &
good)
35
No of CLWs
30
25
20
15
10
Non-Literate
Excelent
0
Jeypore
Koraput
Kundra
Laxmipur
Good
Fig.3 No chance classified CLWs presented as Male &

Fem ale
35
No Of CLWs
30
25
20
15
10
Non-Literate
5
0
Excelent
Jeypore
3.8
Koraput
Kundra
Laxmipur
Good
Institutional issues, Technical issues (Training and support for CLWs)

The training structure and context are vital factors in CLW programmes, the technical
content and scheduling of training courses should be planned in the context of the
local farming system (McCorkle, 1997). The total initial training is commonly
between one and two weeks, although the extent of refresher training varies
considerably.
The syllabus used in different programmes commonly reflects the basic animal health
and husbandry problems the community is facing in the country concerned.
378

The training includes the basic identification and treatment of common livestock
diseases and ailments, the handling and use of common veterinary medicines. The
veterinary authorities build the exposed role of CLWs in these communities.
Some authors express the need to include broader training in animal husbandry and
production techniques, extension skills and even food hygiene and safety as well as
marketing and business management skills (Mc Corkle and Mathias, 1995). Training
and supervision activities also offer the opportunity for the active involvement of
local private and government veterinarians.
To ensure its relevance, the training package should be developed through close
consultation with the farming community; invariability the participatory needs
assessment. It is preferred to train in the village rather than at training centers,
although there are successful examples of both approaches.
A number of programmes incorporate traditional ethno-veterinary skills to reduce
dependency and reduce cost on expensive western medicines (Blakway, loc. cit.,
Leyland,loc.cit).
The needs of communities become more extensive when more species of animals are
raised. Its implications have not been well analyzed in literatures available.
All programmes emphasize the importance of refresher training and field visits, but
the frequency and the format of this support varies. Follow-up support is hard to
maintain, in terms of both finance and motivation of CLWs (Mc Corkle, 1997).
While the CLW activities should remain community funded, these are no examples of
community funding the training programme or expense of veterinary supervisors
(Oakeley, loc.cit.).
Many continue to rely on external support. In the longer term, structural costs must be
the responsibility of the government system. There is no apparent model for
sustainable financing mechanisms for CLW training programmes (Oakeley, loc.cit.).
It has been observed that 2 days training on Backyard Poultry, one day in sheep and
goat and a small session on disease problems in village pigs with vaccination issues
and piglet anemia and de worming does well in training CLWs. But is very essential
that they practice injection techniques first on banana leaves and then live chicken. In
the evening they can be taken to a village organize a vaccination campaign of ND for
poultry, Fowl pox vaccine injection, and de worming of sheep, goat, pigs and poultry.
Even teach them to vaccinate goat for PPR. This should be done by all trainees. This
is sufficient and they will be of their own.
It is most essential that the CLWs are given 3 days Veterinary First Aid training. Of
the total period of training half a day should be practical in a Veterinary
Hospital/Dispensary located close to the training avenue. The practical training should
be on methods of restrain animals including large animals, administration of
medicines except for I/V and then treatment of maggot wounds, bloat and bleeding
fresh wounds. This will be sufficient to ensure sustainability of the CLW institution.
379

The vaccinations and de worming of the poultry alone will not support the CLWs.
Addition of entrepreneurship training of 3 days preferably after 6 months of the
technical training and practice in the villages is seen to be very useful. The training
builds further capability of CLWs to see the livestock and agriculture sector as a
business opportunity. The training aims at building the sustainability of the CLW
institution because it was seen in all most all the Donors building CLW institution
collapsed soon the project ceased.
3.9
Economic and financial issues

3.9.1 Willingness to pay
In general, a very high percentage of the respondents across all categories indicated that
the farmers will be willing to pay the link workers after the project ended, for their
services.
The response on quantum of payment has been quite consistent across the respondent
categories as well as blocks. The overall pattern that emerged was that a majority of the
farmers were willing to pay Rs.5 for cattle first aid, between Rs. 1-2 for goat and sheep
deworming, between Rs. 1-2 for goat and sheep first aid, 25-50 paisa for poultry
delousing, and poultry vaccination. A significant percentage of the farmers were not
willing to pay for goat and sheep delousing. Willingness to pay for treatment of pigs, and
agricultural advice is very low. There is no significant difference between what the male
and female farmers are willing to pay for the same activity.
3.9.2 Income generation
The income generation has been computed assuming that the livestock farmers will only
pay for poultry vaccination and deworming, and deworming of sheep and goat. In the
optimistic scenario, assuming that each CLW couple covers at least 5 villages, based on
the 1998 livestock population figures for the project villages, the range of profit earned by
two CLWs per annum will vary from Rs.1800 to Rs.3000 between the four blocks. In the
realistic scenario, the profit will vary from Rs.850 to Rs.1400, assuming that the CLWs
cover at least 5 villages. Given the time required to be spent by the CLW on the activity,
the profits are fairly lucrative.
3.9.2.1 Block wise income of male & female CLWs
BLOCK WISE INCOM E OF FEM ALE CLWS

Vaccination
4500
Dew orming
4000
3500
First-Aid
3000
Castration
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
JEYPORE
KORAPUT
KUNDRA
380
LAXMIPUR

BLOCK WISE INCOME OF MALE CLWS
12000
10000
Vaccination
8000
Dew orming
6000
First-Aid
4000
Castration
2000
0
JEYPORE
KORAPUT
KUNDRA
LAXMIPUR
The female CLWs of Koraput and Jeypore blocks did perform well in vaccination of poultry,
deworming of small animals and First aid treatment than other blocks but the male CLWs
performed better except for Kundra block.
3.9.2.2 Month wise income of male & female CLWs of four blocks
The month wise income of the CLWs was studied for male and female CLWs. It was seen
that the male performed better than female in volume of income but except for the rainy
season when agriculture work is in full swing.
53 Fem ale CLW m onth w ise earnings - all blocks

2000
VACCINATION
1500
DEWORMING
1000
FIRST AID
500
CASTRATION
0
July'01
Aug'01
Sep'01
Oct ' 01
Nov' 01
Dec' 01
Jan'02
Feb'02
Mar' 02
Apr'02
May'02
Jun' 02
93 Male CLW m onth w ise earnings - all block s

4000
VACCINATION
3000
DEWORMING
2000
FIRST AID
1000
CASTRATION
0
July' 01
Aug'01
Sep'01
Oct ' 01
Nov'01
Dec'01
Jan' 02
381
Feb' 02
Mar' 02
Apr'02
May' 02
Jun'02

3.9.2.3 Income due to different skills (in percentage) for male & female CLWs
INCOME OF 53 FEMALE CLW OF FOUR ILDP BLOCKS (7/01 TO 6/02)
Castration
14%
Vaccination
15%
Vaccination
First-Aid
33%
Deworming
Deworming
38%
First-Aid
Castration
INCOME OF 93 MALE CLW OF FOUR ILDP BLOCKS (7/01 TO 6/02)

Vaccination
12%
Castration
18%
Dew orming
29%
Vaccination
Dew orming
First-Aid
41%
First-Aid
Castration
Table 1 showing share of Male and Female CLWs in different skills in villages
Female CLWs
Male CLWs
Vaccination
15 percent
12 percent
De worming
38 percent
29 percent
First Aid
33 percent
41 percent
Castration (Sheep & goat )
14 percent
18 percent
382

The De worming and Veterinary First aid formed the bulk of the skills that was practiced in
the villages by the male and female CLWS. The male CLWs was a head in Veterinary First
Aid than the female counterpart due to their mobility. The female CLWs outperformed the
male in De worming skills and even in poultry vaccination skills in the village.
3.10
Monitoring and evaluation

There is widespread agreement that Reliable data on the quality of the service
provided by non-professional agents are scarce (De Hann and Bekure, loc.cit.). Few
quantitative data are available on issues of services efficiency, outreach and
production and producer benefits (McCorkle, loc.cit). Practical and effective
qualitative and quantitative techniques for monitoring and evaluating CLW
programmes are needed to facilitate comparison of experiences and lessons from the
many programmes in operation (Mc Corkle and Mathias, loc.cit.).
Record keeping by CLW is a primary tool used, but such records are rarely complete
or accurate.
Impact data are scarce owing to the paucity of baseline data available on the animal
health situation prior to introduction of CLWs and the logistical difficulty and
expense of collecting productivity data to measure impact.
Evaluations focus on subjective data from client interviews, which is valuable but remain
difficult to substantiate. A cost benefit analysis of a CLW programme in Afghanistan by
Schrender et al. (1995) estimates benefit-to-cost ratios between 2:1 and 5:1 but offers little
explanation of the methodology used
3.11 Process Development: CLW as an Institution
The project had focused entirely on in-situ development. The basic approach was to exploit
local resource potential, develop fodder resources, education, training and extension for
integrated development of livestock in the project area. However, the process was gradual
for enduring results. It was spread over a span of time and implemented in several phases.
The project was to cover the initial period of five years with a long-term perspective to cover
the entire Koraput District. The first phase of five years started from 1993 April, but actually
the project became functional from mid 1994.
383

Female CLWs in training Session
3.11.1 The ILDP, Koraput CLWs were associated in the following:
The CLWs of ILDP, Koraput were not only associated in small animal vaccination and
veterinary first aid but also very much involved in fodder development, agriculture, extension
and training of the community in different skills etc
3.11.1.1 Extension and Training
In order to utilize the potential of the target group optimally and to fulfill the project
objectives, it was necessary to generate an awareness regarding the project objectives.
The BET with the help of VC and the CLWs organized direct contact, group meetings
and awareness campaigns/melas towards the same.
3.11.1.2
Extension Work
Fodder cultivation, improved livestock management practices, use of agricultural

waste as fodder, nursery raising, effective soil conservation techniques, environmental
protection were the core activities envisaged to be undertaken in the project area
requiring intensive extension services. The Extension, Training and Monitoring Unit
was devised suitable mechanism for effective extension services. The methodology
included field demonstration, field days, film/slide shows. AHD service etc.
3.11.2 Training
The project period was used to identify the training needs of the target group with the
help of the short-term consultants and the expertise of the BET. On completion of
this, detailed trainings modules were prepared for target groups, VCs, CLWs and staff
of the project. The focus of the training was more practical and demonstration based
than theoretical.
384

3.11.3 Training for CLWs

CLWs played a crucial role in the project activities. Therefore, necessary care was
required in designing their training programmes. The aim of the training was to
improve their knowledge, skill and attitude so as to enable them to carry out the
functions required during their engagement in the project and to become innovative
farmers in their community. Based on the discussions with the village communities
and field level functionaries of the various government departments, it was felt that
the following methodology was more appropriate in training CLWs.
3.11.3.1 Village cluster based training sessions
It was observed that the youths were willing to explore the concept of improved
livestock and fodder management. However, they were not keen on being away from
their villages for a long period for training or any other reason more especially the
young mothers with children. The training was village cluster based in the required
skills. PRA base was used in most of the village trainings to learn from the farmers
and also to make aware of their system.
3.11.3.2 Orientation programmes
To start with several orientation programmes for short duration was organized in the
village itself by BET. Such programmes were of maximum 3 days duration and were
held at an interval of 3-4 weeks each. At least 4 orientation programmes were
necessary to have a better understanding of the project concept, its approach and
activities.
3.11.3.3 Basic skill training

Orientation was followed by a basic skill training programme, common to all the
CLWs. The duration of a training session was limited to 3 days. During this period,
it was possible for BET to identify the interests of the CLWs in specific areas in
relation to the project. Having identified such interests, special skill training
programmes were organized in order to optimize the input.
3.11.3.4 Specialised training
These specialized programmes were clubbed into 3-4 broad groups (eg. fodder group,
A.H group etc.) and imparted in 4 short training programmes, each for a duration of 3
days. These programmes were conducted at the PMU, Block TCSCs and Randapalli
Fodder Farm by its three functional units. Resource persons and the facilities
available with the government line department was also used. The retired specialists
of the field were also involved.These training programmes were essential in order to
use the potentials of CLWs optimally.
3.12 Training of CLWs:
The CLWs were trained in special skills in Veterinary First-Aid so that after 2-3 years
they shall be on their own and provide services to the TGF. The special skills and
385

training to the CLWs are in fodder production and fodder utilization, Vaccination and
Veterinary first aid.
3.12.1Duration
Each training session covered 15 to 25 CLWs men and women depending on type of
skill and lasts for 3 to 4 days. During the period the CLW trainees were exposed to
10 to 12 skills of relevance to them in livestock, poultry production and related
activities, like disease prevention to reduce livestock and poultry losses from disease
management etc.
3.12.2 Training Curriculum development
The curriculum of CLWs was prepared with the assistance of one Expatriate
consultant and project staff. The farmers meetings were organized in each block.
The problems of livestock in their villages were recorded along with basic agriculture
and fodder problem. The PRA technique was also employed. The farmers were
equally reported by men and women experienced farmers. The curriculum was then
developed basing on the farmers problems for each block. There was certain
significant difference of livestock species of interest and also the production and
disease problems in different blocks. The curriculum was subjected to discussion
with experts from OUAT, field senior veterinarians and others. The CLWs training
curriculum is given in Annexes- 1
3.12.3 Honorarium to CLWs:
The CLWs were paid Rs.200/- per month from April 1995 as honorarium. This
continued up to December 2000, where after it was reduced to Rs.100/- before
complete closure of the honorarium.
Vaccination of poultry by CLW in a project village

3.13 Summary of findings regarding Community Link Workers
A brief summary is given in the table below:
Community Link Workers
386

Observation
Community Link Workers
0:1 The CLWs institution
is not sustainable as they
are paid Rs.200 per month
Conclusions
Recommendations
C:1 The payment of the R:1 The payment of Link

CLWs may make them too workers should be stopped
dependent on the project shortly after they have received
and
jeopardize
the training in the new packages of
sustainability of the CLWs technology
institution
0:2 The skills so far C:2 The CLWs need more R:2 A programme should be
identified have limited skills and services that will designed that includes training,
enable them to earn enough equipment, and provision of
business opportunities
to sustain them
logistics of vaccinations
The CLWs, VCs and PMU
0:4 A more systematic
should
sign
a
tripartite
programme to build up
Memorandum of Understanding
the capacity of the CLWs
stating their responsibilities and
has
not
yet
been
their rights
established
Output-6: The CLW institution with village level links, transfer
Activity-6
Establishment
of
a of skills, assistance to target group in AH and basic agriculture
sustainable
CLWs is now functioning. Operation on payment basis is in process.
-Poultry disease control, Veterinary First Aid, Fodder
institution
Production in tribal villages (Module-I & II), Skill training and
practicing will reduce poultry mortality. Increase in the
production of 30%
-The livestock in the village will get veterinary first aid at the
village level and GP Hq. LACs will address other related issues
4.0 CONSOLIDATION AND COMPLETION STRATEGY
The Extract from Final Review Report-June, 1999 and Evaluation and
Recommendation on ILDP Community Link Worker by Management Services
Group, New Delhi in 1999 formed the base on which the consolidation of the CLW
institution was built.
The following formulation of a consolidation and completion strategy for the ILDP
was adapted.
The CLWs to function independently without any support from outside.
Support the introduction of the CLW concept in the line departments
institutional set-up.
4.1 Consolidation of the CLWs and the SHG saving groups in the present project
area by:
Weaning of the CLWs by training them in procurement of vaccines and medicine
from either AHD or from pharmacies
Ensure closer attachment of the CLWs to their nearest Veterinary Dispensary or
Veterinary Aid Centre
Continue training of SHGs and by making Village Revolving Funds available to
them
4.2 Expanding coverage of present CLWs to include neighbouring villages by:
387

Equip CLWs with bicycles and a kit easy to carry

Conduct village based awareness campaigns in neighbouring villages
4.3 Integration of the CLW concept into the AHD by:
Assist the CDVO, Koraput District in training Youth Facilitators of the CWDP in the
skills of vaccinating poultry, veterinary first aid and control of parasites.
Assist the CDVO in training village youths in the same package in villages outside the
present ILDP and CWDP areas.
4.4 Sustainable CLW Institution
The CLWs are seen as potentially cost-efficient providers of many types of livestock
extension and para-veterinary services. In order to sustain the CLWs in ILDP they are to be
gradually weaned out of the project assistance of Rs 200 per month towards their wages and
work on the basis for privatizing their services. Certain conditions and problems in obtaining
sustainability will be encountered, but these constraints can be overcome given project efforts
in that direction. These problems relate to:
medicine and vaccine supply
replacement of equipment
maintenance of a cold chain
continued extension support
transport to neighbouring villages
extension connection to the line department
local (village) performance monitoring
widening of service assortment (to e.g. include castrations and vaccinations of larger
animals) to provide more income opportunities and thereby better scope for CLW
sustainability.
On the other hand: An abrupt cutting-off of all subsidies in one go can be expected to
leave a number of casualties on the wayside. A gradual process of diminishing support
is thus indicated.
4.5 Recommendations
A two-pronged consolidation strategy to institutionalize the CLWs is recommended:
4.5. 1. Consolidation of the current CLWs
It is firstly recommended that the CLW concept is consolidated and made
sustainable in the current project areas through addition of more skills, refresher
training and follow-up extension on a declining scale by the BETs.
Further through firm links to the line department at block level, extension of CLW
services to neighbouring villages on a commercial basis.
The CLWs male as well as female should be provided bicycles to enable them
to reach neighbouring villages and Veterinary Aid Centres. It is recommended
that the bicycles be funded directly due to the late stage of the project.
A considerable strengthening of the village committees involvement and further
support from the Village Panchayats would be beneficial.
The objective of this strategy is to firmly establish the CLWs on a private agent
basis. The ILDP need to revise its operational plans to firmly focus on and take
388

up the necessary activities and investments to successful accomplish this CLW

consolidation strategy within the coming 3 years.
In this regard, clarification of the CLW concept in relation to veterinary rules and
regulations need to be promulgated officially through state resolution.
It is further highly recommended to conduct a participative problem analysis with
future CLW sustainability as the main focus. This problem analysis should be the
first phase in planning the activities for the CLW consolidation strategy.
4.5. 2.
Institutionalisation of the CLW concept
Secondly, it is recommended to extend the CLW concept via the line department firstly
to the Danida supported watershed project (CWDP) in Koraput and Malkangiri Districts,
and later perhaps within the general area of Koraput District. This under technical
support from the ILDP BETs through the Animal Husbandry Department, Koraput
District in the first phase with funds from the watershed project budget.
The objectives are firstly to test the possibilities for institutionalizing the CLW concept
into the line department, secondly to utilize the project assets created in the BETs and
thirdly to utilize the currently unused budget-line for a livestock component provided
under the CWDP project.
The initial extension of the CLW concept though the CWDP project is recommended
because the kind of institutional set-up required for this type of intervention is already
established through NGO involvement within CWDP. It is thus possible that only the
technical oriented personnel of the BETs is required in this connection. The more socioeconomic oriented personnel of the BETs can thus remain primarily responsible for their
current project areas, and focus on the institutional strengthening aspects. Back-up by
technical personnel for CLW training and extension should be provided in combination
with the Livestock Inspectors from the AHD also to get the project area CLWs
integrated into the support services available from the line department.
Assessment of individual CLWs by BETs
Excellent
Block
Male
Good
Female
Male
Poor
Female
Male
Female
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
Jeypore
11
11
14
10
Koraput
17
13
11
11
10
Kundra
11
17
12
10
17
10
Laxmipur
21
21
10
17
14
Total:
31
47
12
50
46
21
41
19
54
37
389

5.0 REPLICATION OF CLW MODEL IN OTHER BLOCKS OF UNDIVIDED

KORAPUT DISTRICT
The ILDP CLW model is replicated in eight blocks of un-divided Koraput district i.e.
Kosagumuda and Chandahandi of Nowrangpur
Khairput and Kudumulgumma of Malkangiri
Kashipur and Chandrapur of Rayagada
Nandapur and Dasmanthpur of Koraput district
200 CLWs identified and trained are in their active role and they have been providing
CLW services in about 100 villages.
Almost all the link workers are carrying out first aid for cattle (though to varying
degrees); deworming of goat and sheep, first aid of goat and sheep; deworming and
vaccination of poultry. Other activities have been reported by very few CLWs.
Deworming of pigs is being carried out essentially only in Laxmipur block. Agricultural
practices appear to have had the best response in Jeypore.
The farmers have been utilising the services of the CLWs and consider them as very
useful.
Farmers in general indicate that the project has had a significant impact in terms of
reduction of poultry mortality and increased income due to increased weight of
livestock
Farmers suggest that the CLWs should be provided training on castration of large
animals, and vaccination of large animals
Female and male CL Ws are confident that they can continue their activities in cooperation with AHD after ILDP is phased out.
CLWs are well respected, they are role models in their villages and their services are in
demand both within their own and neighbouring villages.
Some CLWs (regardless of sex) function as resource persons to SHGs (e.g, with book
keeping and group consolidation).
The number and the productivity of livestock in the villages have increased (e.g,
mortality particularly in poultry has been reduced from 80 -90% to 20 -30%, annual
income from poultry has increased and poverty reduced).
There is an increase in income due to increase in the body weight of the livestock.
Villagers are eager to access further information on improved agricultural, aquacultural, and horticultural and animal husbandry practices.
390

ILDP has succeeded in establishing the CLWs as a useful, logical extension to the
government system for providing animal husbandry services at the doorstep in the
villages
ILDP has provided considerable training inputs to CLWs.
A high percentage of the livestock farmers will be willing to pay for CLWs service in
the post project scenario (however, this should not be taken for granted as substantial
efforts may need to be put in place to ensure that a high percentage actually pay)
The CLW concept is accepted and acknowledged by the district authorities.
Selected by community one male and one female person per village
The degree of CLW performance depends on

Literacy
Intention to remain in the village
Skill in working with livestock
Desire to learn new skills to help the community and earn extra income
Willingness to learn
Age (between 18 to 35)
Time to devote to training and work
SHG of CLWs has been tried to mobilise savings and extend credit to the CLWs to
manage inputs for their activities particularly after phasing out of ILDP.
It is taking a shape and the response is encouraging.
Kornel et al. (2006) studied the sustainability of the ILDP, Koraput and its replication in
blocks of Malkangiri, Raygada, Nawrangpur and Koraput. The following are the study report.
The BETs assessed the individual CLWs basing on their performance in the field during 1999
and then the poor and good rated CLWs were given refresh courses and additional skill
practice to improve their performance; thus in year 2000 they were re tested individually for
their performance and graded. The results thus obtained are given in the following table. The
poor graded were mostly from the women category and most of them did not improve in
2000 rating. This was due to old age, vision problem and high illiteracy
6.0 Assessment of individual CLWs by BETs in 1999 and 2000

Excellent
Block
Jeypore
Male
Good
Female
Male
Poor
Female
Male
Female
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
199
9
200
0
11
11
14
10
391

Koraput
17
13
11
11
10
Kundra
11
17
12
10
17
10
Laxmipur
21
21
10
17
14
Total:
31
47
12
50
46
21
41
19
54
37
During the year 2006, after 4 years of the closure of the ILDP; evaluation of 40 CLWs in
ILDP villages of Koraput, Orissa indicated that more than 90 per cent of the CLWs were
between 36-45 years of age and more than 50 per cent were in the category of illiterate.
Primary and secondary occupation of most of the CLWs was cultivation and agricultural
labour, respectively. On questioning, most of them gave the reason that they became CLWs
as the community laid faith over them and they wanted to learn the skills. The project paid
more emphasis on animal husbandry skills, thus most recalled the aspects of wound
treatment and R2B Vaccination.
More than 70 per cent CLWs are practising and 22.5 per cent of them are in active daily
practice. Most of the CLWs are providing basic animal husbandry services in their own
village but in reality they are passive practitioners. These CLWs have not taken up these
activities seriously to generate some income for their livelihood. Most of CLWs are rendering
the service to the villagers either free of cost or on credit. The study indicated that 25 per cent
of total CLWs are either practicing in a single panchayat or in more and are receiving service
charges. About 90 per cent of CLWs have acknowledged that their social status have
improved after becoming CLWs;and their contact and communication with different
developmental functionaries, organisations and institutions have increased.
Linkage and liaison of CLWs with local veterinary institutions is not satisfactory. Most of
them have introduction to the Livestock Inspectors and Veterinary Assistant Surgeons of their
area but contact for the purpose of delivery of livestock services was very low. During the
project period, they were depending upon the LAC to get vaccine supply.
The willingness of the villagers to pay for basic veterinary services to the CLW was assessed
from the number of cases treated viz. large and small animals, and amount charged for
treating different types of cases. The paying ability of the livestock owners was assessed from
the CLWs record. On an average a CLW was treating one large animal in two months, one
small animal and five birds in a month. With such a low rate of treatment, many CLWs did
not get adequate compensation from their services and opted for quitting the practices. The
sustainability, therefore, is poor in present set up.
Most of the CLWs practising in their own villages expressed that the livestock owners were
under the impression that the services are still being supported by the ILD Project and
they need not to pay for it. They have opined that they did not face such problems in getting
back the cost of medicine as well as the service charges from other villages.
Most of the practising CLWs indicated that the livestock owners expect some more services
from them like treatment of animals in case of sickness, administration of intramuscular
injection and vaccination of large animals.
The major constraints to livestock service delivery indicated by CLWs was lack of logistics
and support from animal husbandry personnels. The other constraints identified by CLWs
were non-availability of medicine and vaccine at the time of need, unwillingness of the
392

livestock owners to pay for services and lack of community recognition for the service
rendered by them as livestock service providers.
Most of the livestock owners personally knew the CLWs of the village. They also knew well
that they have been trained on various aspects of animal husbandry skills and veterinary first
aid during the project period. Although, the majority of them expressed that the CLWs were
having good relationship with LIs and VASs, and they were competent and skilled, well
known in the locality as livestock service providers. But in case of sickness of their animals
they preferred to consult the local LIs first. Livestock owners were of the opinion that the
social status and income of the CLWs has enhanced due to project intervention. Similarly,
majority of them told that the poultry mortality due to Ranikhet disease has decreased
because of efforts of the CLWs.
The Panchayat Raj Institution members knew CLWs of their locality and were aware of their
skills. They were of the same opinion as that of livestock owners. Most of the PRI members
have mentioned that CLWs contact with them was very low and at present there is no
provision in the gram panchayat to support the CLWs.
6.1 Status of Community Link Workers (CLWs) in Replicated Blocks of

Integrated Livestock Development Project (ILDP) in 2006
The ILDP in the last phase has replicated modified ILDP CLWs concept in eight new blocks
of Malkangiri, Raygada, Nawarangpur and Koraput districts. Altogether two hundred CLWs
were given training and support.
Evaluation of 20 CLWs of replicated blocks of ILDP indicated that majority of the CLWs
were in 25-35 age group and literate. The main occupation of the CLW was agriculture
followed by agriculture labour. Twenty per cent of CLWs indicated that veterinary practice
was secondary source of income for them.
Most of the CLWs in the replicated blocks indicated that animal treatment primarily
motivated them to become CLWs so that they could have an opportunity to earn in future.
Most of the CLWs were in practice. However, their nature and intensity of practice varied
widely. More than 70 per cent of the CLWs were either practising in one GP or more than
one GPs and the rest were practising within the village. They were of the opinion that their
social status has increased so also their contact with different organizations, institutions and
NGOs.
The CLWs of the replicated blocks were having good contact with local LIs and VASs.
Their contact with LIs and VASs/JVOs was better than the CLWs of ILDP.
The average numbers of large animals, small animals and poultry treated by CLWs of
replicated blocks were 48.25, 78.18 and 135.5, respectively. On an average a CLW was able
to earn around Rs. 2661/- from AH practices in a year. All the practicing CLWs (16 nos)
expressed that livestock owners were paying for the services rendered and expecting more
services from them especially treatment, minor operation and castration of large animals.
Major constraints faced by CLWs to discharge their function as a community livestock
service providers were unavailability of medicine and vaccine in the local markets followed
by absence of local AH staffs in LAC and VD and high cost of medicine.
393

It was also observed that once the Block VAS and LIs those were working with ILDP were
transferred the new incumbent had no knowledge of the CLWs nor about ILDP thus there
was no cooperation between the two. So it is essential under government set up that there is
GO and Policy Support to the CLWs then it will function. It was seen that the vaccine supply
and cold chain that failed the initiative after the ILDP was closed. It was seen that 20 percent
of the CLWs only functioned in the year 2014 and they somehow managed the Poultry
vaccines from the department. Of all the skills the administration of anthelmintic survived in
the project area and it got spread to neighbor villages too. It was due to its effectiveness that
the farmers realized.
394

References.
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Bowen, R. & Andriessen, M. (1998). - Improving animal health through paravets.
Footsteps, Animal Health, 34, March 1998.
Daniels, P. W., S. Holden, E. Lewin, and Sri Dadi (Eds), Livestock Services for
Smallholders, Proceedings of an International Seminar held in Yogyakafla, Indonesia
November 15-16 1992 (Bogor, Indonesia: Indonesia International Animal Science,
Research and Development Foundation, 1993).
De Haan, C. & Bekure, S. (1991). - Animal health services in sub-Saharan Africa.
World Bank Technical Paper No. 134. Washington, DC, World Bank.
Kornel Das.(2002).-Poverty Reduction in Tribal Community: Integrated Livestock
Development Project in Koraput District of Orissa, Paper presented in the
International Workshop held at Bhubaneswar, India on Livestock Services and the
Poor , October 28-29,2002.
Kornel Das , Das B.C. and Mukerji, R (2006), Livestock Service Delivery and Poor:
Community Based Livestock Health Workers. NRMPO Bhubaneswar Publication.
Leyland, T. (1998). - Delivery of decentralized animal health services - the case for a
community-based and privatized approach in low-potential areas. FARM-Africa.
(Draft paper)
McCorkle, M. (1997). - Contribution to FAO electronic conference (January-March
1997): Principles for rational delivery of public and private veterinary services.
Available
at
www.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGA/AGAH.../CONTENT.HT
McCorkle, M. and Mathias, E. (1995). - Paraveterinary health care programs: a global
overview. Paper presented at 8th International Conference of Institutions of Tropical
Veterinary Medicine, 25-29 September 1995. Berlin.
Oakeley R. (1999). Community livestock workers: a review of experiences with
community-based animal health care delivery. World Anim. Rev., 93 (2), 47-54.
Oakeley, R. (1998). - Socio-economic consultant report for FAO emergency
assistance for the control of Newcastle disease. (TCP/ZIM/8821A). Rome, FAO.
Oakeley, R., (1998 b). Experiences with Community-based Livestock Worker (CLW)
Programmes, Methodologies and Impact: A Literature Review. Veterinary
Epidemiology and Economics Research Unit, Department of Agriculture, University
of Reading, Reading.
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Schreuder, B.E.C., Moll, H.A.J., Noorman, N., Halimi, A.H., Kroese, A.H. and
Wassink, G. (1995). A benefit-cost analysis of veterinary interventions in
Afghanistan based on a livestock mortality study. Prev. vet. Med., 26, 303-314.
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pastoral programme - some observations and recommendation. Nairobi, Intermediate
Technology Development Group
396

Skill Training of CLWs in ILDP, Koraput---Agriculture and Livestock

Annexure 1
1A Seed germination
test
1B Seed germination
percentage is known, thus
actual seed rate required is
determined. Seed loss
diminished. CLW is benefited
economically from good plant
percentage and yield
2A Seed treatment for

hard coat seeds
2B Dormancy is overcome
3A Application of
Rhizobium culture in
legumes
3B Better early growth of

legumes
1C Number of CLWs adopted

the technique
- Good plant population
2C Number of CLWs
successfully adopted the
technique in nursery
establishment
3C Quick early growth and
better production
- Nitrogen applications are

reduced
4A Chemical fertilizer
and
methods of
use
- CLW is economically
benefited
4B Fear to use chemical
fertilizer is eliminated and
confidence gained
5A Farm Yard
Manure (FYM) and
compost
preparation
- CLW knows the crop time

and dose of fertilizer
application and adopted on trial
5B Enrichment of soil and
increased water holding
capacity are achieved
-
More FMY available
397
4C More number of CLWs are

using balanced as well as single
chemical fertilizer
Higher yields of crops are
achieved comparative to that
with no fertilizer
application
5C Better crop growth and
production for more FMY
available. CLWs adopted the
skill successfully

6A Propagation by
direct sowing method
6B CLW has adopted in

limited scale
- The grass seed sowing
technique/ skill is learnt
7A Propagation of
grasses by root and
stem transplanting
8A Nursery
establishment and
management
7B The skill of raising grasses

which don't produce seeds,
through root and stem cuttings
is delivered
7C More CLWs are adopting

this technology in their village
gochar lands, very few have
adopted it in their home
gardens
8B Village nurseries are

developed by CLWs
8C Small nurseries are

established in the village by
CLWs. Demand coming for
new knowledge like
grafting and market facilities
and request for loans to
establish nurseries
- Very few may adopt

commercially
9A Stylo cultivation
in hill slope podu
lands (Koraput
and Laxmipur Blocks)
10A Harvesting doob

and bund grasses
11A Harvesting tree

fodder
6C Number of CLWs are

actively involved in the fodder
farm development and have
practically
adopted the
technique
9B CLW adopted the skill on

trial basis in podu cultivation.
There is improved soil fertility
and check in
soil erosion
10B More grasses harvested

without any expenditure and
fed to valuable
livestock group at home
11B More CLWs have adopted
harvesting tree fodder to feed
sheep and goat
- The dry twigs are utilized
as fuel at home
398
9C Some podu lands are

covered under stylo in every
village
Increased demand coming in
the next kharif season for
supply of more seeds &
fertilizer
10C Women are seen carrying
baskets of doob and bund
grasses towards village in the
evening
11C Lopping of fodder tree
branches by CLW keeping
sheep and goat is adopted. This
new skill for the area is adopted
by few people

12A Chaffing
technique of
paddy straw & fodder
12B CLWs have adopted the

technique of chaffing
12C Presence of cut pieces of

fodder in feeding troughs
- The fodder utilization is

improved through reduction in
wastage of
hard and long
stumps
- More CLW households are

using village chaff-cutters
- Feed intake is enhanced due

to increased palatability &
digestibility
13A Urea treatment of
paddy straw (Kundra
&
Jeypore
Blocks)
14A Fodder
conservation
(Haymaking)
15A Silvipasture
system
13B Use of urea to improve

quality of paddy straw, thus
livestock nutrition is improved
13C More CLWs have paddy

straw treatment with urea at
home
- Demand for urea is
increased
14B CLW learned Hay making

and conserved fodder to feed
livestock
during late
summer fodder scarcity period
14C Using of hay in the fodder

scarcity season improved
15B Better utilization of

available land
15C Number of silvi-pasture

plots increased
Multipurpose trees are

available. Fodder availability is
increased
The village fodder farms

have been replanted with
multipurpose trees
399
- Stacks of hay are seen in

CLW house holds

16A Control grazing

system
16B Equitable utilisation of

pasture land
- Village grazier adopted the
skill
- Checks on over grazing and
soil erosion reduced
17A Soil erosion

control
17B Retention of soil fertility

- Surface soil and ecology
well maintained
18A Introduction to
HYV of fodder
crops/grasses
18B More CLWs are aware of

new HYV, feeding norms are
introduced in the village
- More production of fodder
per unit area achieved
- Feed resources for all round
the year for livestock improved
- Livestock have been more
productive
19A Salt mineral

mixture feeding to
livestock
19B The CLWs have adopted

the feeding of salt and mineral
mixture to
valuable
livestock
- There is good growth and
health as well as improved
reproduction of livestock is
achieved
20A Single animal

traction system
20B Draught animal

requirement is less
- Expenditure in rearing
draught animals is reduced
400
16C Organised grazing

throughout year and increased
stall feeding system of grass
- Village grazier is
knowledgeable on effects of
over grazing
17C Increased number of bunds

and terraces in CLW fields and
vegetative
check bunds
introduced
Ploughing across the slope is
followed by more CLWs and in
one year TGF also followed the
CLWs
18C More CLWs/house holds
adopted HYV grass, legumes
and fodder trees and can be
seen at the
household
backyard, fields and
community grazing fodder
farms
Non-ILDP Village enquiring
TGF the art of technology and
assistance
19C More number of CLW
households have adopted the
skill
- Demand and sale of mineral
mixture salt are increased
- CLWs are following the skill
routinely due to improved
production
20C Number of households
adopted the technology

SKILLS FOR VILLAGE POULTRY DISEASES CONTRTOL BY CLWs
OBJECTIVES
1A Poultry diseases
control in villages through
skills learned by CLWs
EXPECTED OUTCOME
1B Significant reduction in the
incidence of poultry diseases in
the village, increase in income
from poultry to household,
improve in number of household
keeping poultry
INDICATORS
1C Disease incidence
decreased significantly.
Poultry number is increased

and nearly normal distribution
in villages is observed from
records
Increase in number of
household keeping poultry
learned from records. Demand
for service increased for CLW,
household
paying nominal
fee for vaccination, medicine
and services.
SKILLS
2A Ranikhet Disease
(R.D) Vaccination
OUTCOME
2B Reduction in number of
out-breaks and thus mortality
in the village
INDICATORS
2C Less no of vaccinated
poultry
died of R.D.
outbreak and TGF (women)
acknowledged effectiveness of
vaccination
programme
3A Fowl Pox (F.P) Vaccination
3B Reduction in number of
out-breaks and losses among
chicks in the village
401
3C Less no of vaccinated
poultry (chicks) showed fowlpox lesions over faceacknowledged by TGF
(women)

4A Round worm and tape worm

treatment
5A Poultry lice treatment
6A Proper disposal of dead poultry
4B The treated poultry

particularly chicks will not
die due to worms and will
have improved growth rate
4C TGF (women)
acknowledged no worms in
poultry stool and death due to
worms
5B Occurrence of lice
incidence among poultry
at home is controlled and
the household will not feel
the lice nuisance on their
faces
5C No lice from poultry

crawling over faces of family
members felt
6B CLWs are
disseminating the
acknowledge of spread of
infectious diseases to
poultry and preventive
measures like proper
disposal of sick and dead
poultry to TGF
402
6C CLWs and TGF are aware

of communicable poultry
diseases
Practising proper disposal of
dead poultry at home

VETERINARY FIRST AID SKILLS TRAINING TO CLWs

SKILLS
1A Veterinary First-aid
skills training to CLWs
OUTCOME
1B CLWs learn and adopt
reporting system and
schedule of Vaccination for
different diseases of
livestock
- CLWs learn restraining of

animals, organising village
livestock for vaccination by
Line deptt/AHD of ILDP
- CLWs attend to simple

but life saving skills like
treating acute tympany of
livestock
- CLWs along with TGF

attend the treatment of
FMD wounds, maggot
wounds and injury to
animals
- CLWs along with TGF

deworm and apply
ectoparasite control
measures to livestock
periodically
- CLWs have knowledge of

useful veterinary first aid
medicine
403
INDICATOR
1C TGFs acknowledge the services of
CLWs in veterinary first-aid to their
livestock
- TGFs are aware of infectious diseases

losses to his livestock and coordinating
with veterinary deptt during vaccination
- TGFs and CLWs are able to treat

animals for deworming and ectoparasite
- TGFs benefit from vaccination and

gain from survivability and productivity
of livestock
- Reduced burden of TGFs to treat

FMD and maggot wounds of cattle and
buffalo.

2A Deworming skills;
doses of common
anthelmintic, frequency of
administration in pig,
sheep, goat and calves
2B Improved growth,
weight gain and production
of pig, sheep and goat
2C Reduced mortality rate
- Reduced morbidity rate

- Improved growth of
calves
- Improved growth and body weight
(Pig deworming village specific)

- Improved survibility
- CLWs adopt the skill

effectively
- Weaning weight and number

increased
- Farmers acknowledge benefits of

deworming
- Demand for deworming is increased

and farmers ready to pay for services
3A Ecto-parasite control ticks and lice over
livestock
3B CLWs learn the skill to

make proper drug
concentration
3C Ticks and lice loads over livestock

body reduced
- Demand for service is increased

- CLWs apply the
medicines to control ticks
and lice over cattle, buffalo,
pigs, sheep and goat
4A Wound treatment
cases :
4B CLWs adopt the skill of

treating injury to livestock,
maggot wounds and FMD
wounds of cattle for TGF
i. Injury
4C TGF acknowledge the

services of CLWs
- TGF assist the CLWs and

FMD wounds effectively
ii. Maggot wounds
treat
iii. FMD wounds

5A Tympany treatment of
livestock
5B CLWs are able to give

first aid treatment to acute
tympany of cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goat
404
5C TGFs acknowledge benefits of firstaid treatment of tympany

6A Vaccination schedules
for livestock
6B CLWs are able to call

for vaccination aid from
local Veterinary Institutions
as per schedule
6C Least incidence of outbreaks

reported by TGF
- Purchase of replacement of stocks for

agriculture work reduced
- Increased live-stock
numbers
- Losses due to mortality
reduced, farmer's economic
gain
7A Knowledge of first-aid
medicines related to skills
in Veterinary first-aid
7B CLWs administer firstaid to livestock of the

village
- CLWs are equipped with

the acknowledge of first-aid
veterinary medicines and
their availability
- Dependence on veterinary
services reduced
- CLWs advise TGF to take

veterinary aids from the
local Veterinary Institutions
405
- Decreased mortality reported
7C Better and early recovery from

simple ailments of livestock reported
- Preparation of simple veterinary firstaid transfer to Veterinary institutions

reduced.

COMMUNITY ANIMAL HEALTH WORKER INSTITUTION IN 2015

Das Kornel
Integrated Livestock Development Project, Koraput CLWs and Vaccine Supply Chain
did not sustain
Integrated Livestock development Project (DANIDA assisted) in Koraput was established in
1993 and continued up to 2002. As for as the backyard poultry was concerned the project
laid priority to control Newcastle Disease/ Ranikhet Disease as it was the major killer,
communities reported that more than 90 % of the poultry died in out breaks.Before 10 days
of the RD vaccination of the poultry it is customary to administer anthelmintic such that they
are free of worm load. The effect of anthelmintic administration on poultry health is
pronounced and the farming community appreciate it well. The poultry grew well had shining
feathers and were active.In every project village the village community selected one male and
a lady to be their Community Link Worker (CLW). The CLWs were trained in handling cold
chain dependent poultry vaccines, its administration techniques to poultry along with
Veterinary First Aids. In the project F 1 vaccine was administered to the chicks and R 2B to
those above 50 days age to control the RD. These two vaccines were manufactured by
Government of Orissa at Orissa Biological, Bhubaneswar. Soon the RD was controlled to a
significant level. Later it was seen that the Fowl pox became prominent in poultry more so in
the chicks and inflicted losses thus the Fowl pox vaccine was administered to those poultry
above two months of age and it included the adult. Fowl pox was given twice in a year and
after two years it was observed that the Fowl pox is controlled to a significant level. In the
first year itself the poultry population in villages started swelling so does the production.
Input supply system collapsed after withdraw of the project
This system was efficient until the ILDP was functional. Soon after 2002 the project was
closed and the input supply also collapsed. It is important to mention that before 2 years of
closure of the project the ILDP had taken suitable measures so that the CLW institutions
survive in the post project scenario. ILDP had visualized that the vaccine supply from
government will come to a halt after the project is withdrawal, so as an alternate the CLWs
were introduced to local Medical retail shops such that they can buy the RD and other
vaccines and continue their services to the community. It also did not sustain. After 14 years
it was observed that 20 % of the CLWs were in business and rest discontinued. The lesson
learned was that once the project withdraws, the vaccine supply also stops. This is because
there is no Policy support by the Government to support the CLW institution and in turn the
backyard poultry. As the project came to an end the government of Orissa closed the Block
Extension Teams located in the 4 blocks so also the Project Management Unit located in
Jeypore. But in Chhattisgarh case their government continued the project in situ and the
services sustained after project withdrawal by DANIDA. In Government system if there is a
Policy, it is followed by all officials as in the case of the SHGs that survived and grew fast
with a policy support in post project withdrawal scenario. The officers get periodic transfers
so the new incumbent did not understand the concept of CLWs of ILDP thus no assistance
came from them. This happened in ILDP, Koraput.
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However as said above, out of the two major skills in livestock and poultry viz. the
vaccination against infectious diseases and anthelmintic administration to reduce worm
burden, the later survived and the farmers purchased anthelmintic from the market and
administered to their livestock.
The following are some of the problems that has been identified to improve the Livestock
Service system in villages through CLW institution and build the sustainability of the system.
No cadre of AHD at village level: In the village level there are no Veterinary institutions.
The Grampanchayat (GP) cluster level there are Livestock Inspector Centers (LIC). On the
contrary the Agriculture Department has one personal in each of the villages as Gram sevak
so also the Aganwadi workers of the medical department. The GP level institution is not able
to meet the livestockrequirementsadequately. So it can be termed as poor reach of livestock
services in the villages, especially to the poor.
Inadequate AHD staff with poor mobility: There are plenty of vacancies in Veterinary
dispensaries and LICs in the country. Professionals like posting a in and around cities and
towns but avoid posting in backward regions due to poor infrastructure, poor education
facilities for children and poor medical facilities for elderly parents. On the other hand there
are many posts lying vacant due to various reasons. The Veterinary department has very poor
mobility and mostly the staff work with the help of their won motor bikes or cars. This limits
their movement in their jurisdiction.
Policy lacks rural poor focus: It is seen that the focus of the Veterinary department is urban
area. The success of Artificial inseminations to improve the productivityof the bovines is
limited to the urban locality. The veterinary professional mostly focus the canine practice or
the large ruminants.
Poor reach of Livestock Services: The above factors contribute to the poor reach of
livestock services to the rural poor.
Poor focus and vision in small animal Vaccine research
Vaccine development research neglected for Backyard/rural ventures that targets
poor and tropical animal diseases: The animal vaccine research and development
focuses mainly the large ruminants and the canines. The small animals are owned by the
poor of the rural mass and the nomadic who have low voice in the democracy institutions
due to their ignorance. They do not know how to use their rights. This sector has largely
remained neglected. On the other hand the developing countries have not made much
breakthrough in combating the tropical animal diseases. They lack the will power, policy
focus and funds.
Vaccine Research and production targetsthe commercial sector: The animal vaccines
research is done by government institutions or the Commercial institutions both Indian
and non-Indian ventures. They look demand and bulk supply. The poor infrastructure and
poor productivity prohibits the rural market target. The vaccine research is not pro -poor
in its orientation. More ever the tropical diseases have not been researched thoroughly
thus most of the disease problems have remained static. The tropical countries lack
original research and are dependent on developing countries for technology. This is how
the tropical diseases have remained problem to the people.
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Research and supply demand for thermostable vaccines not met. Most of the
effective vaccines are live and cold chain dependent thus need refrigerators to keep them
viable. The refrigerators are mostly run by electricity and the supply of electricity is not
continuous due to short production and supply. This thus affects the quality of the
vaccines. To overcome this new generation of vaccines that can stand in the room
temperature needs more research. In recent years the New Castle vaccine as thermostable
one is available in the market. This technology should be extended to other small animal
vaccines that can be used safely in rural set up and for the benefit of the poor. GALVmed
had introduced Hester Biosciences, Ahmedabad to thermostable vaccine manufacturing
technology in India. There are two methods that is used in preparing thermostable
vaccines, viz. identifying a strain of the disease virus in nature that stands to high ambient
temperature and then preparing a vaccine out of it; the second is to give suitable sugar
coat to the exiting live virus of the vaccines. The second method is used to prepare
thermostable Lasota ND vaccine in India and the Tamil Nadu Veterinary University has
come up with a thermostable ND vaccine that is due to a natural strain of ND that stands
to 43* C and vaccine has been produced.
Research not serious on demand for easily administrable oral, nasal or eye route
vaccine production: The vaccine administration throughnasal, eye and oral routes are
considered to be more convenient in rural condition and at the door step of the farmer
rather than the conventional injection form of administration. So like new ND vaccine all
small animal vaccines should be available that can be used in other routes other than
injections. The researchers should focus in producing vaccines as said above. It is very
difficult and time consuming to inject vaccines to pigs in village management system.
Focus on sheep, goat, pig, backyard poultry and duck common disease vaccine
development and supply:The Classical Swine Fever epidemics are recorded all over the
country. W. Bengal and Assam are producing Swine Fever Vaccine (SF) for domestic use
and few thousand of vaccines by IVRI. There is no private firm that is marketing SF in
India. The farmers need it urgently. So is the case with Duck plague and Duck cholera.
Now it is high time that all the vaccines that are important to small animals should be
produced and the IVRI should take the initiative to give the vaccine production
technologies to private companies and if they are not accepting and if the technology not
up dated then should work on it with a date line. They should be committed to the people.
Focus Public Private (Commercial) /foreign collaborative vaccine research and
development: In recent years the vaccine research has much advanced due to the
premier research advances in molecular genetics and the AIDs and Malaria Vaccine
research, mostly in the Western world and Africa. It is no more possible to keep the
Public research to work in isolation. These are the days where collaborative researches
are the trend and it is going to give more mileage to the humanity by working in Public
and Private or collaboration with countries who are doing advance research in vaccine
production. GALVmed is working in tropical animal diseases and vaccine research and
production in Kenya, Africa. There are many other countries like South Africa, Kenya,
France, Australia , UK and USA who are doing advance work in the field and India can
benefit from collaboration.
Develop multiple disease single dose administration vaccines for small animals to
reduce multiple visits of vaccinators: In the human vaccine development, the multidisease single dose vaccines are freely available in the market. So also the Canine multi
disease and Commercial poultry multi disease single dose vaccines are available in the
market in India.
408

Now it is highly essential that the Veterinary scientists in India develop multi disease
single dose administration vaccines, like Ranikhet Disease (ND) and Fowl pox mixed
thermostable vaccine for the backyard poultry in rural India; in recent months GALVmed
has come up with PPR mixed Goat pox vaccine. India needs to develop a vaccine against
common Contagious Ecthyma (sore mouth) for goats and no attempts ever have been
taken in India in this sphere.Similarly mixed vaccine for Duck plague, Duck hepatitis and
Duck cholera will boost the adoption rate of Ducks in coast states and Kerala. This has a
high dimension in alleviating poverty and this should be taken as a priority in research
and marketing. The mixed multiple disease vaccine will reduce drastically the cost and
time that is spent by Vaccinators on travel to reach the farmers door repeatedly.
AHD Vaccine manufacturing technologies outdated: Most of the State government
Vaccine production units are functioning on old technology base and thus are not cost
effective. Bulk vaccine production technology is modernized by Indian Immunological
and some of the Commercial vaccine production units. India needs to import such new
technology based vaccine production system and strengthen the government owned units.
Absence of cold chain link up to village level
All Livestock and Poultry Vaccines are cold chain dependent.
The second constraint in the sustainability of the service delivery system for BYP was the
Cold Chain dependent Vaccines. The vaccine has to be in cold chain from manufacturer
to farmers door. If the cold chain fails in any stage the vaccination fails leading to loss
of trust on the vaccinators. To maintain the cold chain, it requires continues electricity
supply which in many place is not feasible. The vaccine needs to be preserved in 2-8* C
temperature in the refrigerators. So refrigerators at the cluster of villages or at the block
headquarters are a perquisite to maintain cold chain. The question is who will supply the
refrigerators to the vaccinators? The Vaccinator needs to carry the vaccine in thermo flask
or Cold box with ice or ice packs and use the vaccine in 24 hours during summer and
48hrs in winter. The cold box costs are high and is between Rs 800/ to Rs. 1000/ that the
poor Vaccinator cannot afford; thus some institution support is needed. At the end
inefficient cold chain spells doom and loss of faith on vaccination bythe farmers.
No Vaccine / dewormers Supply chain to Farmers door
Vaccine supply chain non-functional
The third constraint is Vaccine supply chain. It means supply of vaccine on regular basis
to the Vaccinator such that it can be administered to poultry at the farmers door. This is the
vital linkage that failed the Service delivery system in all the projects that had taken BYP
development in Orissa. The government based vaccines are supplied to the government
institution and not meant for sale. So it is not to the reach of the private Vaccinators in the
villages. As said the government village institutions have inadequate staff members to
administer poultry vaccine regularly in villages and the government focus is on large animals.
The NGOs are not keen in AHD sector as most donors do not support the livestock
interventions because of past failures. The far flung blocks do not have retail medical shops
409

in many places and the blocks where they are located they do not keep Veterinary medicines
and vaccines. There is no separate licensing for Veterinary medicine and Vaccine shops in
India. This constrains the vaccine supply for small animals.
State vaccine production and supply influenced by Central Govt. Policy: The
Government of India, Department of AH, Dairying and Fisheries is regulating the vaccine
production in the States. The State government has to obtain permission to produce
vaccine in their units and if they want to add any new vaccine even though it is produced
in other Statesand the concerned State should seek permission. This GOI control on
States for vaccine production should be abolished and the States should be free to produce
all those vaccines that they feel essential. In other wards the GOI should transfer new
vaccine technology of vaccine production to all States even arrange from abroad. Now the
GOI is encouraging States to buy vaccines from the market and is appreciated but still
several vaccines like SF, Duck disease vaccines are not available in the free market. The
GOI should dictate the private vaccine manufacturers to come up with these vaccines to
the market in the interest of the poor. The demand for veterinary vaccines in the rural
India is not matching with the commercial ambition of the private vaccine producers.
Poor vaccine supply system by AHD
Vaccine Supply by Government of Orissa to ILDP
The RD vaccines and Fowl pox was supplied by Government owned Orissa Biologicals,
Bhubaneswar to the Chief District Veterinary Office(CDVO) located at the District
headquarter, Koraput. Then it was transported to Kundra, Laxmipur, Jeypore and
Koraput Block headquarters Veterinary Assistant Surgeons office (VAS). All the blocks
were located from 1 to 50 kms from Koraput district headquarters. All these vaccines are
Cold chain dependent thus were transported suitably and there was provision of
refrigerators both in district headquarters and the block headquarters. From the block
head quarters bulk of the vaccine was transferred to Livestock Inspector Centers (LIC)
located in different Grampanchayats close to the village cluster of the block. Thus the
ILDP arranged to supply refrigerators to these LI centers for keeping the vaccines. The
Community Link Workers (CLWs) were located in 25 villages in each of the 4 blocks in
the district and they came with thermos flasks to the LI center or the BETs/VASs office to
collect the vaccines for administration in the villages. They collected the vaccines from
the nearest point to the respective villages. Most of the CLWs were using bi-cycles for
travel baring few women CLWs. After the completion of the ILDP the vaccine supply
system collapsed.
AHD vaccine supply focus large ruminants: It is well known fact that the Government
AHD focus mainly the large ruminants in their policy that is evident from the skewed
budget allocation. The case issimilar with GOI policy also. In the vaccine production also
the priority and bulk is due to large ruminants. The back yard poultry and pigs are
neglected. Veterinary professionals do not like to vaccinate the BYP due to the fact that
they are to be vaccinated in the evening i.e at 6 to 7 pm and villages are far flung. Is it
worth to employ a valuable and highly qualified Veterinarian to vaccinate chicken in
villages? Thus Government of Orissa has recently given policy support to Poultry
Vaccinators. This is very commendable step.
410

Commercial vaccine manufacture 500 -1000 dose poultry vaccine, wastage is high in
villages: Somehow the private players are keen in bulk vaccine manufacture like 500 and
1000 dose vials that which is not economical in the villages. They are targeting the large
commercial farms. The Indian villages need 100 dose vials of poultry vaccines and 25
dose of sheep, goat disease vaccine vials; failing which the village vaccinators loose
significant doses of the vaccines as unused and thus wasted.In villages the requirement of
poultry vaccine is 200 to 300 doses or sometime more. The vaccinators have to vaccinate
all birds within two hours of its reconstitution with the diluent. But a vaccinator can
vaccinate 200 birds in 2 hour in a village; thus if they are using 500 dose vial vaccine 300
doses get wasted. This loss is borne by the vaccinator and is a burden.
Nonexistence of Medicine shops at some block sub block levels: Private medical
shops are non-existence in blocks and Sub-block level in many backward districts. The
medical shop continue to function only if the block has a medical doctor and are
prescribing treatment to people. The medical shops are registered under the Drug
regulation and licensing by the Drug Administration. It is cumbersome to obtain a drug
license. The Human medicine stores are also authorized to store and sale the Veterinary
medicines in India. There is no separate license for Veterinary medicines and vaccines.
In many blocks the Medical shops do not stock veterinary medicines like veterinary
vaccines and anthelmintic etc. This is a great constraint to obtain vaccines for animals
and anthelmintic by the vaccinators and thus disadvantage to the poor farming
community.
Low volume of poultry Vaccination and low margins not sustaining
It was learnt from the experiences of various projects in Orissa that the CLW based service
delivery system is not sustaining on its own. It is due to low volume of vaccination of poultry
and also low margins to the CLWs from vaccination. Initially, each village in Orissa has 200
to 800 poultry population for vaccination and as the vaccination of the poultry is carried out
in the late evening when the poultry go to their night shelter one Vaccinator works for 2
hours and thus vaccinates 200 to 300poultry per day. Again the vaccinators charge Rs 2/ per
poultry for Ranikhet disease and Fowl pox vaccination. Before vaccination of the poultry it is
mandatory that the birds are de wormed with suitable anthelmintic and each is charged a
service fee of Rs 1/. All young and old a charged with one rate.The cost of the single dose
Lasota vaccine is Rs. 0.28/ and the Thermostable Lasota dose cost is Rs. 0.75/. Some are of
the opinion that this is low margin and it should be enhanced to Rs.5/ per vaccination. This
shall improve the sustainability of the CLW institution. This will definitely will depend on
the purchasing capacity of the poor. They will pay an enhanced service charge to adult birds
but will decline to pay for the chicks. It is our experience that in the Banspal block of
Kenjhore district the people were so poor that they could not pay Rs.2/ per vaccination of
bird and got into debt which the project had to waive it out.
A vaccinator can travel about 7 Kms per day ifa bicycle has and if the person has Motorcycle
than can go round a radius of15 to 20 Kms a day. The former vaccinator covers about 6 to 12
villages and the later covers 15 to 20 villages. This is the optimum. On an average a
Vaccinator vaccinates about 2500 to 3500 poultry in a month. This can further be enhanced if
vaccinators are allocated villages based on mobility facilities. There are two scenario, one
with more vaccinator allocated in a cluster of villages and the other where few Vaccinator in
a large cluster of villages. Both have their operational advantages and disadvantages. The
lady vaccinators are effective but have constraint of travelling to neighboring villages in the
411

late evening. They need the help of their family members for this. It is practically observed in
the field that at the first instance about 35 percent of the CLWs drop out and slowly in two to
three years it touches to about 50 percent and above; but incidentally it is seen that the CLWs
that continue in servicegradually extendtheirservices to the villages where the drop outs were
serving. The service delivery becomes rather more efficient.
Viability of the business by CLWs
There are also suggestion that the CLWs should generate demand for their business in the
villages, asof now this is created by the NGO partners. In future the NGO and Government
Department should continue to train the newly inducted CLWs in new areas. It is essential
that the CLWs should have a portable and efficient Cold Box to carry vaccine from the
Medical Shop to home and then to villages. This is being supplied by the NGO partners to the
CLWs but in some institution the CLWs are also purchasing themselves but in poverty prone
area this equipment be supplied as an assistance.
As said above the CLWs should charge higher service charges to the client like Rs 5 per
vaccination for adult birds and Rs. 2 to chicks.
It is the opinion of BMPCs Team in Mayurbhanj that BYP vaccination and de worming
alone will not be sufficient to retain the CLW in business. It is essential that they should do
the de worming of sheep, goat and pigs in the rural sector along with veterinary first aid. The
CLW should be attached to the local VAS/LIs for sustainability. It is working in practical and
is successful.
Monitoring of Vaccine Supply Chain vital
It has been observed that if the medical shop retailers are given the insight into business of
small animal vaccination including BYP and couples of Vaccinators are attached to them and
once they find potential profit even a sum of Rs 1500 per month they keep vaccines for sale.
Generally they receive 10-20 % margin per vial of the vaccine sold. It is the experience of
GALVmed that the vaccine supply chain monitoring needs to be at the manufacturer end also
and this ensures regular supply to the district store and then to the retailer in the block, failing
which the system does not work. So who shall do this function? Now it is the NGOs who are
doing this job in future the Vaccinators as body has to take care of it.
On an average a Vaccinator uses 25-30 vials of 100 dose LaSota vaccine per month but some
even use 50 vials per month. On an average a Vaccinator earns 2,500 to Rs. 3,000 per month
from poultry vaccination in villages. Those who are doing Veterinary First Aid including
deworming of small animals they get additional Rs. 2,000 to Rs.4, 000 per month.
Increased volume of income essential for sustainability of CLws
The sustainability of the Vaccinator depends on increased income from poultry and small
animal practice. In the process of service delivery to small animals their social status is
elevated in their society. I have seen CLWs occupying important jobs in the ground level
democracy institutions. Families in villages are immensely benefited due to control of ND
and Fowl pox. It has been observed in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha that after 5 rounds of
vaccinations of LaSota ND vaccine the families registered an average of 600 to 700 percent
increase in poultry population compared to the initial base population before ND vaccination.
412

In some cases it has been observed that the poultry population growth touched more than
1900 %, where the farmers have improved poultry nutrition due to feeding of white ants to
chicks and Fishmeal feed to all others and have reduced chick mortality (GALVmed, Orissa).
Nonexistence of Private Sector Services: The services rendered by the private persons is
rudimentary. Most of the Veterinarians prefer government jobs but in recent years it is seen
that the about 40 percent of the veterinary graduates are going into Business Management and
other non-veterinary sector. It is seen that the veterinary institutions in backward area are not
cost effective. Thus the thinkers have been proposing a livestock services that is lean and is
able to meet the primary services in livestock sector of the poor and needy. So the CLWs suit
well to the backyard village for livestock services and the poor.
Rudimentary NGO Services: The NGO sector in India is not keen to work in livestock
sector. This is because the success rate in the sector is very low and also the Donors are not
supporting livestock sector ventures due to past experiences and low success rate. Moreover
the NGOs are not comfortable to work with Government Livestock department. This is also
true to the AHD. The NGOs need the support of Veterinary department for success. This is
the problem.
People not aware of Animal Health opportunities: People in rural areas are not aware of
the opportunities in livestock sector. They are utilizing the sector for their livelihood and
agriculture from centuries but are not aware of the benefits the modern technologies can
offer. They are ignorant of their rights to obtain services from government institutions. They
are only worried lot at the losses of livestock at home and most consider it to be a part and
parcel of life. This ignorance and their inability to demand services has led to misery in their
life. They do not know the media to focus their problems that leads to the fact that all is well.
The AHD all over the country avoids disease outbreak reporting. There is no outbreak report
of ND throughout the country thus in government records. The reporting of diseases is
discouraged by superiors and this is only appearing when the media is reporting. The
government officials should record truth and encourage field veterinarians to repot out breaks
and this will ensure solution and the problems of diseases can be controlledeffectively.
The Extension departments should be further strengthened in all states. They should reach
out throughout the country with suitable messages to create awareness among communities
by various tools. The people should repot the occurrence of animal diseases in their localities
and adopt preventive measures to contain them. If disease losses of animals is contained the
animal wealth will grow due to reduction of losses from sickness and deaths. This will
improve their income.
The ILDP, Koraput was using various methods to create awareness on animal health and
technologies in the communities. They were employing the PRA analysis, pamphlets. Village
meetings, exposure visits, trainings, periodical livestock exhibitions etc. But in recent years
the electronic media is playing important role and BMPCs is using video films on BYP,
Sheep and goat etc. to motivate people in villages. These videos are technology and problem
specific and run for 15 to 18 minutes. They are operated by portable LCDs and where
electricity is not available batteries do the job. This is reducing the time, number of visits to
the villages and the adoption rateis high. The acceptance of technologies and messages is
quick.
413

Biosecurity measures in veterinary preventive medicines and its application in villages:

It is essential that people are knowledgeable in bio-security measures to prevent the spread of
infectious diseases among livestock and poultry in the villages. After a infectious diseases is
identified in a village the CLW or the village representative should bring this to the notice of
the concerned veterinary department and it should be informed through letter. The village
should know that they should not buy animals from weekly market during the period when
outbreak of diseases is known in neigbouring village or the block. The dead birds and animals
should be disposed off properly through burial or burning the carcases. The animals at home
can be secured from contact of sick animals by retaining them at home or village. These
simple measures will prevent serious loss to the families.
414

Fig-1
Poor Livestock Health

Care Delivery System
Inadequate AHD staff
with poor mobility
Policy lacks rural poor focus
Poor focus and vision in small animal

Vaccine research
Vaccine development research
neglected for Backyard/rural Ventures
that targets poor.
Vaccine Research & producing targets
commercial sector
Research and supply demand for
thermostable vaccines not met with.
Research not serious on demand for
easily administrable oral, nasal or eye
route vaccine production.
Focus on sheep, goat,pig, backyard
poultry and duck common disease
vaccine development & supply.
Absence of cold chain link up to

village level
No Vaccine / dewormers Supply chain to

Farmers door
All Livestock & Poultry Vaccines are

cold chain dependent.
State vaccine production & supply

influences by Central Govt. Policy
Poor cold chain infrastructure by AHD
Poor vaccine supply system by AHD
Irregular electricity supply
AHD vaccine supply focus large

ruminants
Village/ Community Vaccinators

cannot afford to buy cold box and
refrigerators
AHD vaccine supply chain inadequate

and poor reach to farmers door.
Inefficient cold chain spells doom

and loss of faith on vaccination by
farmers
Commercial vaccine manufacture 500

-1000 dose poultry vaccine, wastage
is high in villages.
Nonexistence of Medicine shops at
even block sub block levels.
Medicine shops at blocks not stocking
veterinary vaccine and anthelmintic.
Focus Public Private (Commercial)

/foreign collaborative vaccine research
and development.
Low margin in small animal

vaccination discouraging vaccinators.
Develop multiple disease single dose

administration vaccines for small
animals to reduce multiple visits of
vaccinators.
Low volume of vaccination in small

animals, especially BYP discouraging
vaccinators.
AHD Vaccine manufacturing

technologies outdated.
415

Fig-2
Poor Livestock Health Service Delivery System

Unawareness of People
Inadequate AHD
services by Government
Non existence of Private

Sector Services
Rudimentary NGO
Services
People Ignorant of
Services
Donors not interested

in AHD sector
Not aware of rights
for services
Hospital based in
Block & urban sector
Inadequate
Mobile Services
No regular AHD
services at village
level
People not aware of

Animal Health
opportunities
Rural and
Backward area
Ineffective Preventive Health care

in Livestock & poultry
Inadequate Vaccinators
& Vaccines
Short immunity
period
Repeated visit to
administer
Cold chain
dependent
vaccines
Most vaccine to
be administered
as injection
Bio-security
measures not
known to people
Irregular
Electricity supply
Quality indicator
on vaccine vials
not introduced
Non-availability of
most animal
vaccines in open
market
Vaccine
production not
modernised
416
Multiple disease single

dose vaccines not
produced by research
Inadequate
vaccine Research
in tropical animal
diseases
Large dose pack

(vial) vaccines
not suitable for
villages

Fig-3
Improved Livestock Health Service Delivery

People knowledgeable
Adequate AHD service in
rural area for small animals
instituted by Government
Private Sector Cooperation in AHD service

delivery promoted
NGO services in AHD sector

recognized as partner to
Govt.
People know livestock&
poultry vaccines & use
Mechanism to reach
Livestock Service
Delivery to villages
at Farmers door
step developed
Policy to have livestock

service delivery up to village
level agreed by Govt.
ICAR/Universities/Private Drug Co.

develop multi-disease single dose
vaccine & thermostable vaccines
Target for research in Animal

vaccine development with
time frame fixed
Vaccine supply
chain functional
Community Animal Health
workings (CAHWs) as
service Delivery agents in
villages
CAHWs charge for

services as private agent
Training of CAHWS, curriculum etc.

developed & training instituted
Vaccine vials have quality

indicators
417
Cold chain developed

& under use
Rural people aware

of animal health
opportunities
People aware of right

for AHD services
Bio-security
measures known
Livestock & Poultry

vaccines are available at
Private Medical stores in
Block/Sub-block level
Small dose
regular pack of
vaccine is
available in
market

GALVmed vaccine Supply Chain Model is Sustainable in Mayurbhanj district

GALVmed in Odisha supported a NGO partner in Mayurbhanj district and they
worked for 60,000 families spread across 3 blocks. The CLWs were trained in BYp
vaccination, deworming of sheep,goat and village pigs and Veterinary First aid. The
agriculture skills and fodder growing skills were deleted in this model. The target
group were BPL families and mostly poor tribals. The model of service delivery was
modified looking at the constraints faced in the vaccine supply system. During the year
2014, Hester Biosciences, Ahmedabad with the technical assistance of GALVmed has
come up with Thermostable LaSota ND vaccine into Indian market. This vaccine can
be maintained under 37* C , room temperature for 9 days and after reconstitution with
its dilutor it can be used within 24 hours where as in the conventional cold chain
dependent LaSota vaccine it should be used within 2 hours of reconstitution. So the
Thermostable LaSota vaccine is most advantageous in backward area like Mayurbhanj
where electricity supply is frequently disrupted and there is chronic Cold
chainmaintenance problem. As of July 2015 the project has vaccinated above 9 lakh
number of poultry in two years period. The vaccine is highly successful with no single
out-break of ND in the 350 villages covered so far. This vaccine has removed the Cold
Chain dependency and is a boon in alleviating poverty in the region. (GALVmed,
Odisha).
Private Sector Vaccine Supply Chain
The project has steam lined the vaccine supply chain. The vaccine is dispatched by
Hester Biosciences to Bhubaneswar State Distributor by air cargo. After arrival the
vaccine dispatched to one District level Distributor called Mayur Agencies located in
Baripada the District headquarters form where the vaccines are dispatched to Block
level Medical shops. There are couples of medical shops who keep ND vaccine and
Veterinary medicines in the respective 3 blocks. The CLWs (Community Animal
Health Workers or Vaccinators) of the project are introduced to the nearest Medical
shop where from they buy the Thermostable LaSota Vaccines and take to their
respective villages for vaccination of poultry. They carry the number of vaccine vials
as per their action plan. Some of the CLWs also buy vaccine from Mayur Agency,
Baripada directly.
Earlier, the LaSota vaccine was supplied by the NGO partner to the CLWs directly,
later in 3 locations the project established refrigerators as cluster approach and supply
of vaccine continued. The refrigerators were with CLWs. This system was satisfactory
but doubt was casted on long term sustainability.
The vaccine supply system through a supply chain along with block or village level
Medical store is sustainable and hope inlong term it will serve the purpose.
418

Fig.-4Private sector ND vaccine supply Chain
Manufactures
Private sector
manufactores like
Hester,Venture and
indovac produce poultry
vaccine in India with a
share of above 90%
They focus mostly
commercial poultry
sector
State Wholesale dealer
State Wholesale dealer/

distribution who buy
vaccines directly from
manufacturers and sell
to district level dealer.
They are located in
Bhubaneswar and
Cuttack
One state wholesale
dealer may be an agent
to multiple companies
District level dealer
District level dealers are

located in district
headquarters who
procure vaccine from
state wholesale dealers
directly.
District level dealers to
sale vaccines to
different medicine
shops located in Blocks
Hqs to sub- block level,
that are located 2580km
419
Block level dealer
The block and sub block

medical shops forms the
final link to village
community / farms.
Farmers/CLWS/CAHWS
Farms buy vaccine and

administrative to poultry
CAHWS & CLWS buy
vaccines and administer
to poultry.

Project Operational details

It has been observed in 2015 that one CLW having Motorbike can cover 15 to
20 revenue villages viz. 20 kms radius villages and with bicycle shall cover an
area of 7 kms with 5 to 10 villages. But on an average a male CLW covers 5
villages and maximum of 10 villages for service delivery in small animal
sector. The women CLW have limited mobility unless the husband or any other
family member volunteers to take by motorbike they cover 3 to 5 villages at the
maximum. A village here means revenue village with average of 3 hamlets.
For every 30 CLWs one Facilitator is required. A Facilitator can be a graduate
or college dropout who can monitor the CLWs, assist them in service delivery
in other words a Facilitator can look after 10 Gram panchayats viz. a Gram
panchayat has about 12 revenue village in Mayurbhanj. The Facilitator should
have a motorbike for travelling and supervising the villages. They will link the
CLWs to the local Medical stores for supply of vaccines and medicines to the
CLWs in time on cash payment. The Facilitator terms should not exceed more
than 2 years for best results. In future the hand holding can be limited to one
working year. This will bring out high confidence level to the CLWs thus
increase in income there by the sustainability.
It is seen that CLWs perform satisfactorily without any remuneration by the
project. They should start charging user fees from the day one. It works.
It has been observed in GALVmed projects in Odisha that a 35 percent of the
trained CLWs drop out in 6 months to a year; thus provision should be reserved
for accommodating replacement.
The average income of the CLWs in 2015 is Rs.5, 000/ per month some even
touch Rs.10, 000/ (2015 AD).
It is now recommended that CLWs may be supplied with one Vaccine Cold box
only and the Veterinary First aid and Poultry Vaccination kit may be foregone.
This they can afford to buy.
It is better to have one Facilitator, a graduate who can supervise and assist the 30
CLWs. This works satisfactorily in initial years, may be for two years and gradually
the Facilitator can be replaced.
CLW selection process in 2014
1. It is advantageous to select a CLWs from the same community
2. They should be qualified and have at least 9th class pass and above. It is seen
that the knowledge of English helps to read the levels of vaccine and medicine
vials.
3. The person should have experience of farming small animals at home
4. Female CLWs cover 1 to 3 villages and the male CLWs cover 8 to 10 villages
5. In the interview if the expectation of the candidate is enquired and those have
moderate expectation are better to select and they perform sustainability is the
experience
420

6. CLWs with motorbike are covering a radius of 10 kms per day and earning Rs
10,000/ per month.
7. It is also seen that success and sustainability of CLWs are dependentent
onmultispecies services rather than the poultry alone.
In one of the workshops with the supervisors of the CLWs it came out that the
success of the GALVmed led ND control was due to the following
1. Video show in villages impacted high to the adaptation rate of skills in ND
control in BYP and feeding andhousing.
2. The CLWs were given 2 days training in BYP including vaccination, de
worming, feeding and housing, one day in goat and pig. It is followed by
Veterinary First aid for 3 days. Both the training is supported by practical
training and video shows. At the end they are given 3 days of entrepreneur
training so that they will look the opportunity as business. This module is
acclaimed to be effective in bring sustainability.
3. Supply chain functionality: The supply of ND vaccines through medical
shops in the block/sub-block level has contributed to the success of the
programme.
4. The ND vaccination was very successful as the out breaks contained in
villages where vaccine is administered. This has created demand thus
success.
5. The income of the CLWs has increased substantially along with demand
therefore their living standard has improved. Moreover, their reputation in
other villages have improved and are popular. This has contributed to their
sustainability.
421

Vision on Livestock Service Delivery
At present the Govt. of Orissa, through the Animal Husbandry Department, operates
LACS (Livestock Aid Centres), from where Veterinary and Para-veterinary staff are
solely responsible for Livestock Services Delivery like Animal health, Breeding (Al)
and various extension activities. All services are meant to cost. The Units operate on
outreach basis and have the mandate to attend all animals in the state. The AHD is
poorly facilitated due to which it is not able to reach all farmers.
Govt.
AHD
VET
Farmers
Centre
BET
Govt.
CLW
AHD
ILDP
Communitynity
It is, however, less likely that the same level of privatisation will be possible in the
remote and lesser developed, thinly populated and pre-dominantly tribal districts. With
the help of NGOs, the communities will be sensitised to assume the responsibility for
the demand of services, for which Community based animal health workers will be
trained. The Govt. will operate the Veterinary Centres, offering services like training,
medicine dispensary and complicated services, like surgery, etc. on demand basis only.
422

NGO
Internatio
nal NGO
Govt.
Community
AH
AHD
VET
Centre
M/F
Worker
Farmers
The system will ideally be linked to at a larger scale operating area development
programmes. NGOs will have catalyst function in a gradual withdrawal process (a->c).
DANIDA
Watershed
NGO
ILDP
AHD
CLW
DANIDA Watershed Project, Koraput was implemented through NGOs and

technically supported by Government Agency of Watershed. The NGO partner was
directly funded by DANIDA Watershed. The NGO with the help of AHD and ILDP,
Koraput trained CLWS. The AHD supplied vaccines to CLWs. Whereas the NGO
procured vet, first aid medicines & anthelmintic from market and supplied to the
CLWs on charge basis.
AHD Expert Trainer
Pharmacies
GALVmed
CLW/
NGO
CLW
NGO is funded by GALVmed to establish CLW institution in villages. AHD trainer

trains CLWS in skills. The CLW/CLW purchase medicines and vaccines from local
Pharmacy shop for practice.
423

Program Schedule for Backyard Poultry Management Training, NGO of

GALVmed
Day & date and Subject / Topic
time
Day 1 Prelunch session
Methodology/
Materials
Introductions
Overview of the three day training program
Brainstorming with the participants importance
of poultry rearing in the local livelihoods,
linkages to socio cultural aspects
Diversity of backyard poultry breeds, the

importance of local poultry breeds
Family Income per annum derivation from the

trainees
Income from Backyard poultry to a familyinteractive session
Risk analysis understanding production losses in

back yard poultry through exercises and case
studies
Listing out the reasons for the losses
Post lunch
session
Video films on Traditional Poultry in Koraput

and Gajapati district of Odisha
LCD projector,
Laptop
Video film on Backyard Poultry skillsGALVmed video

Modern Poultry Farm, Raipur experience , a
Video film
Day 2
Pre-lunch
session
Important diseases affecting poultry (Identifying

prevention, first aid)
Ranikhet/New castle disease
Fowl pox
Salmonellosis
Diarrhea
Internal parasites
Ectoparasites
424
Power point -different

infectious
diseases of
poultry

Vitamins and calcium deficiency

Bird flu
Importance of vaccinations to prevent
contagious diseases in poultry
Power point on
Cold chain,
maintaince etc
(Raniket and Fowl pox),

Knowledge on Vaccine preparation,
vaccine handling, different vaccines in
RD and Fowl pox, dose, routes of
administration,
Importance of anthelmintic,
administration and dose- frequency
deworming and vaccination Schedule
cold box , ice

packs ,
thermometer ,
bubble wrap
COLD CHAINimportance, process,

procedure etc
Cold Chain maintenance of poultry
vaccines
How to monitor the vaccine

temperature
Post lunch
session
Day 3
Morning
session
How to monitor the fridge

temperature
Importance of fridge cleanliness
How to manage vaccine stocks
Vaccine transport (from retailers
shop to farmers house)
Vaccine storage at the farm
Knowledge on Syringe and needle, S/C
injection for Fowl pox and R2B
injection
Regular management tips for preventing the

production losses(measures to be taken every
day, once a week, once in 2 weeks and once a
month)
Good Housing
425
Practice to handle
vaccines, practice
to inject vaccine
on banana leaves
, syringe
gradation etc
Power point on
housing, feeding,
white ant
production etc

Correct hatching methods

Better feeding methods
White ant growing method
Low cost feed preparation
Use of Fish meal in poultry ration, Use of Azola
in feed
Practical
preparation of
poultry feed: Rice
bran-1kg, Wheat
bran 1kg, broken
rice kg, Maize
crushed -1/2 kg,
Oil cake-1kg,
Soybean cake
1/2kg, Dal chuni
1/2kg, Fish meal
kg, Mineral
mixture
One earthen pot
of 4 lit size
Post lunch
session
Evening
Theoretical Tips on method of

vaccinating the birds
How to advice farmers
Planning with the farmers for
vaccinations
Field visit and carry out vaccinations practically
in one village, vaccinate the entire poultry
population of the village.
Review of the practical vaccinations, identifying

problems, discuss solutions
Recap through quiz program or a small exam
Feedback and conclusion
426
Lasota vaccine
sample, R2B
vaccines with
diluents in cold
box, syringe
needle and other
required
equipment as
above.
Albendazole
medicine bottle
and droppers

LIVESTOCK LADDER AND SUCCESS STORIES IN ILDP

Credit to buy small animals including deshi poultry by the rural poor is a major
constraint. The banks do not forward pretty loans and are more skewed towards Dairy
and large poultry farm loan components thus poor are devoid of this opportunity. The
poor are very keen to build their livestock asset once they are convinced of the fact that
the risk factors are reduced and animal husbandry is safe, that means they are receiving
preventive medicine assistance and have tried or else have seen others. This induces
them to venture into livestock sector fearlessly. They generally start with a chicken,
especially a hen and slowly build a flock of poultry and then buy goats or pigs and at
the end cattle. The cattle form a storing device for them. It gives calf, manure for
agriculture and income through employment as labour in others field particularly where
cattle are required. This process is called Livestock Ladder. Many poor after gaining
income from small animal go to mortgage others land or buy land for agriculture and it
is followed by purchase of gold. Many do invest in education of children equally. This
starts the development. In ILDP, Koraput the poor obtained small loans from their
SHGs and initiated the income generation venture and slowly built the assets for good
living.
Livestock are reproducible assets, once it is established in a family it keeps on
reproducing adding to the scale without much external assistance. The credit is
required at the initial investment, there after short time credits for operational costs is
not essential except for dairy and small broiler poultry unit at family level. The later
has acted against the poor who are unable to meet the operational costs from their
resources. Further the banks hesitate to advance livestock loans to poor and ask for
collaterals and in the back of mind both the parties fear the hazards due to livestock
diseases and mortality. The following stories were collected during 2001-02 from
ILDP villages.
Story No.1
This is the story of Sri.Madhava Poraja, Jhilligaon of Kundra block. The family
depends on daily wage labour. Srimati.M.Poraja, regularly dewormed chicks and
vaccinated the poultry at home with the help of Community Link Worker. She has
increased her hen units to four. Thus she could get Rs.800/- per hen unit, per clutch
and it fetched the family about Rs.2, 400/- per annum X 4. Thus they continued the
said business and after 3 years:
Purchased two year old female calves from the sale of poultry costing
Rs.1, 500/- in total.
Sri Madhava Poraja started cultivating other farmers field with the above heifer, and
gained access to labour and earned Rs.10 to 20 per ploughing fields in the forenoon
427

during agriculture season. They have now 3 calves at home from the cows. Encouraged
by regular income from poultry and ploughing other peoples field.
The, family took 2 acres of cultivable land on mortgage for Rs.1, 600/- and purchased
gold worth Rs.1200/- for wife and Rs.1, 400/- for daughter. They have one son and a
daughter, the son is reading in class-V in the village school.
This is a successful story where a landless family could slowly build the income source
and assets through simple backyard poultry. The family very wisely invested their
earnings gradually created assets, which has increasing value.
Story No.2
This is a story of a very small Sano Poraja village, on the road side of Kundra.
Residents of this village were extremely poor, often found suffering from ill health and
scabies. They are friendly and good people; as all Sano Poraja are.
Sri Barkajodia, three years back purchased 2 ewes at Rs.600/- each. He has sold three
female and four male lambs off springs of the two mother ewes. These were born due
to breeding with large size Malpura sheep breed Ram. He got Rs.5, 600/- from the
sale.
The family, thus purchased 6 acres of upland for Rs.2, 000/- where they have
cultivated, improved ragi (Finger millet) and local arhar (Pigeon pea) as inter crop in
the newly planted cashew plantation. They claimed 8 bags (70 kgs) each of ragi per
acre due to improved ragi seeds and technology provided by Danida, Integrated
Livestock Development Project (ILDP), and Block Extension Team of Kundra. From
harvest of arhar (Cajunus cajunus) (kandula) in the same plots they got 2 quintals of
seeds which they sold at Rs.22/- per kg and received Rs.4,400/-.The family further took
interest in pigs and added one more sow for Rs.150/- (female piglet) thus operated on
two sow unit. One sow gave 10 piglets of which 2 died and 8 sold at Rs.1200/-.
This is a story, where a poor family could build sustainable livelihood through sheep
rearing, then adopted diversified agriculture and horticulture benefits through
investment in land.
428

Story No.3
Jhilligaon, Kundra
Ghasi Nayak has adopted piggery to increase his family income. He has two sow units
of local breed. He has adopted regular deworming of his pigs through village
deworming programme implemented by Danida, Integrated Livestock Development
project (ILDP), Kundra.
The pigs after deworming are gaining visible growth and body weight. The piglet
mortality has also decreased. The pigs have been also vaccinated with Swine fever
vaccines. This has visually reduced pig deaths in the village. Looking at these efforts
Ghasi took more interest in pig rearing. Now, he has 12 pigs at home from two sow
units.
He has earned Rs.6,000/- due to piglet sale last year and has purchase one acre of land
and one pair of female cows, which he is using for earning wages as well as cultivating
their own land. The cows have produced 2 calves too.
Ghasi has also constructed one additional pig house to accommodate and improve
management of additional piglets.
Story No.4
Jhilligaon, Kundra
Jhilligaon is dominated by Sano Poraja tribes. During the inception of DanidaIntegrated Livestock Development Project (ILDP), Jeypore, the people were very poor.
There were in total 55 households in this village.
Sri.Mali Nayak is the elected member to Gram Panchayat. He is receptive, cool
natured and has positive attitude towards development. The community marches on
equal steps with him, in development activities.
He was one among the first farmers who adopted sheep development through
Rajasthan sheep breed supported by ILDP.
He had tried mixed cropping in demonstration plot. It was high yielding Jowar with
local Arhar. He got 8 quintals of jowar, and then he had cut the plants. There was a
rain immediately. There was ratoon crop from the jowar again. So in total he had
harvested 9.5 quintals of jowar grains in 0.3 hectare land. The arhar was 1.5 quintals.
He had sold Rs.800/- per quintals of jowar, receiving a total of Rs.7, 600/- for 0.3
hectare. He sold arhar at Rs.1, 500/- per quintal, thus got Rs.2, 200/- from 0.1 hectare
of land.
429

He has maintained arhar seeds, and distributed seeds to 20 houses of the villages and
they are now cultivating. He has been cultivating Bodie beans from the ILDP
introduced seeds over bunds of his field. Bodie beans are grown in coast districts of
Orissa. This year he has 10 kilos of Bodei bean seeds.
2)
All 55 households have now improved high yielding ragi variety seeds supplied
by Danida (ILDP). It is giving twice the yield over the local type as is the general
report. This is under their no use fertilizer level.
Komar is behind this artistic endeavour. The value of this house of Sri Jagabandhu
might be Rs.50, 000/-.
Employing traditional methods of farming, Sri Jagabandhu was reaping a yield of 15
bags of paddy per acre from his land but now he boasts of having harvested 25 bags per
acre. This comparative increase of 10 bags per acre is possible due to use of high
yielding seeds and improved methods of cultivation including application of exact
doses of right type of fertilizers. He attributes the spectacular increase in production to
his training at Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack organized and supported by Danida
(ILDP). He has also nursed a vision to become a progressive farmer like Bangladeshi
farmers of Umerkote who have adopted composite farming of paddy, maize and
vegetable had also been on a study trip to Umerkote again encouraged by Danida
(ILDP).
He also attended three days training in broiler production and management at Koraput
in a private farm arranged by Danida (ILDP). He is also using his skills to generate
income from his six hen units he has kept in his home and from four hen units under
partnership with others. After selling off his sheep flock he now plans to purchase ewes
of large size and body weight for rearing with a motive to get high price from sale of
its lambs. He feels paddy cultivation is not profitable any more. The amount of
investment and labour put forth in it is not equal in output like that in Cuttack and other
places. Hence he is eager to switch over to vegetable growing and is looking for a
suitable plot of land to purchase, since vegetables cannot be raised in paddy lands. His
wife is an active member of village SHG and in course of their interaction with other
families and friends they have inspired many to improve their standard of living by
adopting various income generating schemes advanced by development agencies and
improved method of agriculture.
430

Story No.5
Jhilligaon, Kundra
Pigs:
In this village Piperazine was administered to pigs for 4 years on trial. Then some
Albendazole was also administered. This has totally changed the health status of pigs
and also profit due to quick growth, better body weight among piglets. The piglet
mortality has also decreased. There were about 10 households keeping pigs, now there
are about 25 household keeping pigs.
Sri.Ghasiram Nayak, a young man has improved his livelihood; it is admitted by all
villagers. He started keeping pigs at home, and then he added one sow, thus two units.
He enlarged the pig sty. He has at present 12 pigs at home, including piglets. During
last year out of pig sales to purchase one acre of land and a pair of young female heifer
from Rs.6,000/-. They are being utilized by him to cultivate the land and also to get
labour work from others from land ploughing. These two heifers have added 3 calves
to his team.
Story No. 6
Sri.Jagabandu Bhumia of Gondaguda village in Jeypore block is by nature a simple
human being but with a strong conviction to choose right type of activities which
would generate income as well as be beneficial to his family. He is also the
Community Link Worker of the village, has a 3 year old son and a 7 year old daughter
studying in class-IV in the village primary school.
He has kept six hens in his house and placed four with another resident on 50%
partnership. He sold five adult sheep at average cost of Rs.500/- each and has a pair of
bullock for cultivation purposes and also reared 4 desi cows with two calves which
meet the milk requirement of his family. This season he had also harvested paddy
from his five acres of land.
He has constructed a small house from his own resources with carved wooden doors
and pillars. A highly skilled engraver Sri.Dhanpati
431

Story No.7
Village Committee fertilizer shop of Goudaguda village

(Hundi Thakurani Gram Samiti)
Trinath Bhumia, Laxman Gadaba, Laxman Bhumia and Baidya Pujari were advanced
loan of Rs.30, 000/- by Village Committee for organizing sale of fertilizers to farmers
of the villages and others.
Last summer they sold 150 bags of chemical fertilizer to farmers apart from single
fertilizers like urea and potash. This is the first time when the farmers of the village
had placed indent for their fertilizer requirement well in advance. Use of high yielding
variety of seeds of paddy and improved methods of cultivation has taught them the
optimum use of right type of fertilizer at the right time. Previously fertilizer
application to crops was negligible in tribal villages because many of them use to stick
to traditional methods of cultivation and home grown seeds and used small quantity of
fertilizer without proper knowledge of application. The cost of transporting fertilizer
from town to their villages was also too heavy for an average farmer to bear. Now that
fertilizer of their choice and requirements are available at their doorsteps, many
farmers are availing this opportunity to adopt improved methods of cultivation and
their successful endeavour of this village has set an example to be followed by others
in due course.
Story No.8
The Bayaguda village of Jeypore block is heading towards a revolutionary change in its pursuits to
improve the living conditions of its residents by supplementing income from other sources. One of its
residents Shrimati Bati wife of Sri.Komal Lochan hails from a landless schedule caste family and both
were struggling to earn their livelihood from labour and casual small business till they adopted for the
first time home rearing of Muscovy ducks with persuasion by advices of Danida (ILDP).
A pair of Muscovy ducks bought by them and reared laid 30 to 33 eggs per clutch at
the first instance and the female duck unlike the indigenous specie hatched all the eggs
during months of March April and pairs will soon be sold off. These four months old
duckling weighs 2.50 kg each and is found to have high adoptability and growth
oriented. This schedule caste family was feeding the brood with paddy and rice bran
and also supplementing the feed at times with leftover of family food. According to
Bati rearing this particular specie of ducks is far more profitable than poultry and has
also plans to sell her stocks to interested breeders through ILDP. Many more tribal and
SC families including women Self Help Groups in the country side are impressed with
432

the success story of this single women and appreciating the initiative took by her in
adopting this species without the least apprehensions, have shown keen interest for
breeding this species. Another schedule tribe woman Smt.Raimati Bhumia who is also
impressed with the growth rate and prolific breeding capacity of this Muscovy ducks
says, generally these ducks lay eggs up to 15 per clutch thrice in a year but Bati prefers
only two hatches in a year which will limit her to full time occupation.
Considering the economic equations of this duck rearing scheme Bati is getting
Rs.4,000/- from sale of Muscovy ducks reared by her from one clutch from eggs of a
single duck in six months, finally working out to Rs.8,000/- per annum. Since the
family utilized homemade feeds for the brood, the feeding cost have not exceeded
Rs.800/- in total.
Story No.9
Patraput, a small village situated midway on Jeypore-Boipariguda state high way is
dominated by Bhumia tribe, who largely make out their living as agricultural labourers
through some of them own small patches of land and take up agricultural activities.
This village was adopted by Danida (ILDP) in 1995 and a tribal youth Komal Lochan
Majhi, who elected by villagers as their Community Link Worker besides a young
progressive tribal women as the women Community Link Worker.
In course of time after Majhi was imparted training in vaccination of poultry birds,
disease control, treatment process by veterinary experts of ILDP, Majhi could develop
his own skills in these subjects and has earned the distinction of being the leading
CLW in Jeypore block. By extending services to farmer families in up keep of poultry
birds in 6 to 7 villages around Patraput, he is being remunerated from the services
rendered.
Through ILDP he has also received practical training in Broiler production at Koraput
in a private farm which has largely helped him in advising others for better
performance in Broiler production.
The Patraput village has also been adopted by M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Jeypore which have provided financial assistance both in cash and kind to 16 member
women Self Help Group to start a poultry farm in the village. The group constructed a
poultry farm house with locally available building material and other items like one
day old chicks nets, feed channel, water toughs which were supplied by the foundation.
The group spent Rs.6, 500/- for electrification of the poultry farm house.
The farm started with 500 one day old Banaraja breed chicks but due to high mortality
rate amongst the chicks, they lost 200 chicks before any remedial measures could be
433

taken. The remaining flock was fed with poultry feed consisting of broken wheat with
assistance from the promoters and as the chicks grew up the consumption of feed also
increased. The group fed 10 to 12 bags of feed to the flock within a period of 6 months
and feeding including management brought in more problems and financial strains on
the group since income from production has not started yet.
The Danida Block Extension Team (BET) frequently visited this village to study the
functioning of Self Help Groups formed by it. The CLW, Komal Lochan brought the
plight of the group manning the poultry farm in the village to the notice of visiting
BETs. They in turn discussed the problems with the local representatives of MSSRF
and ultimately it was decided to dispose off the stock gradually and replace it with
commercial broiler chicks. This suggestion was agreed upon by all the parties and the
stock was sold for Rs.16, 000/- in July 2002 and 103 one day old commercial broiler
chicks were introduced. Komal Lochan with his acquired practical skill and
knowledge took the initiative of helping this group to bring up the broiler stock and the
chicks with in a period of 7 to 8 weeks attained 1 to 1 kg body weight. The group
was surprised at the fast growth rate and increase of body weight for comparatively
less expenses towards feed. The mortality rate was also very low compared to
Banaraja breed. From all the groups they had lost 20 chickens. The demand for broiler
is high and is being sold both in Boipariguda and Jeypore markets. The group has now
has received another new lot of 100 one day chicks on 20th July from Visakhapatnam
through railway delivery. They had also plans to add another 100 chicks in the next
fortnight. Even though the group had the bad luck of losing heavily in the first round,
they were able to withstand the shock by adopting commercial broiler variety which
compensated the loss and provided the much needed confidence and courage to expand
the poultry venture since they had developed the skill, application of routine medicine
acquired knowledge about source of chick supply and availability of feed in the
market, and take precautions such as cleaning the farm with antiseptic lotions and paint
the farm chambers with lime before bringing in new one day chicks.
This is a glazing example of a fellow worker like Komal Lochan inspiring others in the
village and assists them with his practical skills and knowledge acquired from
extension agencies committed for development of people and amelioration of poverty,
so that they also learn these skills for their own benefits. The aim of the extension
agencies was not to impose any idea or concept from their side on the tribal but help
them to develop their need based resources in their own way but on planned
programme.
434

VILLAGE COMMITTEE
Das Kornel
The project document, 1992 envisaged the Village Committee (VC), as a forum, which
is people oriented. The target group is engaged to participate in decision making and
the project implementation process. Village Committees consisting of 6 members with
2 village elders (including village headman) and 4 youths (preferably2 males and 2
females) were formed in 25 villages of the project. The project document advocated
the provision of a revolving fund for initiating economic activities in the 4 th year of the
project and the management thereof by the VC with help of the BET. The review team
in 1996 observed that while the task of establishing the VCs in all the target villages
was accomplished, the involvement of the VC in the implementation of the field
activities was lacking. An important reason for this was lack of awareness in the
communities about their intended role in the project. The Review Team 1998 also
advised to implement VRF through VCs at least on trial basis.
The project has adopted a SHG concept and the VRF is being implemented through
the SHGs. The Management Service Group (MSG), New Delhi consultants 1999
agreed to the present concept of SHGs.
It was decided to initiate the formation of New VCs in about 25 ILDP villages in ILDP
adopted villages. The new VCs thus have 15-20 elected members by the villagers with
40 percent or above women participation. The VC include the village born panchayat
elected persons and traditional village council as members; and 4 persons from each
SHG along with other village members. All VC members electeda chairperson for one
year at a time.
The allocation of duties of the VCs is as per demand. The VC is held responsible and
accountable to the sub-committee of the traditional village council and also the general
village assembly. The VC isthe entry point to all development activities in the village.
The VCs for each of village should mainly be concerned with:
Formulation (annual) ILDP village plans and budget
Allocation of user rights and beneficiary grants i.e. ILDP activities
Administration of the Village Development Fund (VDF)
Review and monitoring of implementation plans and budgets
Overall responsibility for livestock related development in their communities
Supervision, support and monitoring of CLWs
Support function to SHGs
Responsibility for planning project interventions in their villages i.e. pasture
development, breeding livestock etc.
Extension point for AHD messages
As per understanding the VC shall preferably meet on a monthly/bimonthly
basis or as often as required and based on seasonal activities. The VC shall
435

function on participatory development plan and implementation as well as

follow up principle.
The VC will collect Rs 10,000/- or less from the village households as the case
may be and the VC will received a maximum of Rs 20,000/- as a matching
grant of VRF from the ILDP. The total fund thus collected shall remain with
VC kept in the bank under joint account of the panchayat member of the village
and the VC chairperson. If panchayat member is not available, then one of the
SHG leaders of the village be co-signatories. This will be the village
development fund to be used as per approval of the annual plan of the village
meeting.
The ILDP shall institute VRF for VDF as per the rules and procedure followed
in ILDP SHGs.
Linkage of VC to village panchayats: The VC and panchayat linkage is
established. It is desirable to orient panchayat members regarding ILDP and VC
activities. It is also important to introduce the VC members to panchayat
members. This will provide information on livestock development and
Government Schemes in the sector, if any.
The formulation of village development plan shall detail out the needs and
requirements of the grants. During appraisal it is important that the
requirements so denoted needs be assessed whether the proposed activity to be
financed or not.
At the end of the project it was seen that the VCs are sustainable and very
effective in Village development. This model can be replicated in the country.
We have given a full VC plan of one village in Jeypore Block where the VC
was implemented. We have used the Geographical Information System (GIS)
software to develop the asset identification of each of the household in the said
village, Gadiaguda. This we learned from MSSR, Chennai who had applied this
tool in Puduchery villages.
References
1985 DANIDA Pre-appraisal Mission, September
1988 Project proposal from GoO
1989 DANIDA Appraisal Mission, April
1989 DANIDA Reformulation Mission. July
1991 DANIDA Supplementary Mission, Plan of Operation Team, December
1992 DANIDA Plan of Operation, September
1996 First Review, April
1997 DANIDA Project Action Plan March- April 1996
1998 Second Review, November
1999 Project Action Plan, March-April 2000 and March 2000-April 2002
2000 Phasing out Plan, August 2000
436

ILDP- DANIDA
VILLAGE MICRO PLAN
OF MAA BHANDARUNI VILLAGE COMMITTEE
GADIA GUDA
2000-2001
437

438

MICRO PLAN
OF VILLAGE COMMITTEE - GADIAGUDA
01.
INTRODUCTION
Koraput district is in the southern region of Orissa State. The district is known
for Tribals. As per the 1991 census, the total population of the district is
10,29,986, out of which the tribal groups constitute 50.6% and 13.7% are
Scheduled Castes. There are 62 indigenous tribal groups inhabiting the district,
of which the main = tribal communities are Bhattra, Bhumia, Bada Poraja,
Parenga, and Kondha. The tribal people are a section of humanity, simple tough
and hardy, convinced of the wholesomeness of its own way of life. For
centuries they exist and live in the forest and mountains with friendly
challenges with the nature. Population is hard working particularly women. A
majority of the population, say 87%, lives below the poverty line (income less
than Rs.l 1,0007- per annum), as per District Statistical Hand book, 1993. Now
the poverty line is at Rs.l8,0007. The tribals of Koraput find no gain and
interest in sending their children for education. On the other hand, they send
their children for collecting firewood and by selling it they fetch some money.
The district literacy rate is 20 % and only 8% of the tribals are literate. Among
the Scheduled Tribes, 4% men and 2% women are literate (1991). They depend
upon the money lenders who exploit them by charging exorbitant rates of
interest. For the tribals the main crops are small millets, finger millet (ragi),
maize, rice, alsi, arhar, rice bean etc. The main livestock are cattle, buffalo,
sheep, goat, poultry and pig in some villages.
Danida intervention with Integrated Livestock Development Project (1LDP) in
the four blocks of this district since 1993.
02.
OBJECTIVES OF 1LDP
The aim of the project is the overall socio economic development of the tribals
including fodder cultivation, livestock management and taking up income
generating activities by making the village the focal point and ensuring
intensive involvement of target group in achieving the objectives. The
immediate objective of the project is to provide an effective extension approach
439

aimed primarily at raising awareness a number of visits to Gadiaguda village

have been made by the BET staff. A village committee was formed in the
village. With the help of village committee, SHG, CLWs and other villagers the
plan for the village was developed.
03.
BACKGROUND OF THE VILLAGE (GADIAGUDA)

The village Gadiaguda is situated 27 kms away from Jeypore. It is one of the
tribal source village of Bhatra community. The main source of income is
agriculture. Most of the cultivated urea is irrigated since 1997. Paddy is their
main crop. Vegetables and pulses are also grown to some extent. Farmers
areaccustomed to high yielding varieties. The average paddy yield per acre is
about 15 bags and now it is at. about 20 bags per acre.
They have cattle, buffaloes, sheep, ducks and poultry. Most of the households
are rearing poultry ranging from 2 to 20 birds. During 1995 survey, they had
goat, but is now totally eliminated. The livestock management is now
improving. The farmers are conservative in animal development and are
watching development around. They have accepted vaccination against diseases
and deworming against worms. They are principal paddy farmers. They look
forward for vegetable cultivation. Women are interested in poultry and ducks.
GENERAL INFORMATION AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE VILLAGE

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Name of the village
Gadiaguda
Name of the village Panchayat
Jamunda
Name of the Block
Jey pore
Total no. of households
50
Scheduled Tribe (ST)
43
Others
07
Total population
194
Male
104
Female
90
Literate male
58
Literate female
10
440

4.5
Anganwadi Centre
Drinking water bore well
SHG
2 (women groups, total
41 members)
2 (1 male, 1 female)
CLW
VC
4.6
1 (newly formed)
Cow
41
Calf
38
Bullock
71
He buffalo
32
She buffalo
06
Sheep
108
Goat
Poultry
378
Duck
45+81=126 (81 given by ILDP)
The literacy exposure of this village is very poor. The school is far away from
the village and one big pond is situated in the entrance of the village for which
the parents are not interested to send their children to the far away school.
05.
SOURCES OF CREDIT
The people of this village were taking loan from moneylender earlier. It was
about 124% interest rate. Presently after intervention oflLDP, they have formed
2 Nos. of SHGs and they take loan from their SHG now.
06.
ILDP ACHIEVEMENT
A set of activities was started in the middle of 1994. Different orientation and
skill transfer trainings were imparted to people. The skill transfer training
which was given to CLWs in particular are of useful in their personal life also.
By virtue of vaccination training which they receive, they are doing vaccination
(poultry) in their village and at the same time they are attending their nearby
441

villages on payment basis. As a result the Self Help Groups and the present
village committee, two institution rushed into the programme. This village had
successfully raised 10 acre fodder plot and maintained for 2 years (1994-96).
After a lapse of 4 years, the women S11G group members have started growing
fodder by planting lily.Napier and Guinea grass on 4 acre common village land.
They have also adopted successfully the new method of bamboo propagation at
the village farm. There are 6 men and 2 women fanners of the village who have
undergone rice production technology training at CRRK Cuttack recently. The
line transplanting of paddy is taken up on trial basis. They are now preparing to
raise vegetables and seed collection. the village is training to improve duck
production.
07.
PURPOSE OF PREPARING MICRO PLAN

In order to identify the specific problems and its solution, a micro plan is
prepared. The micro plan is prepared by active participation of villagers. PRA
is used as an important technique to prepare micro plan.
08.
OBJECTIVE OF MICRO PLAN

To improve the health condition of livestock and to reduce mortality rate
To increase productive animals in order to raise family income from A.M.
sector
To continue fodder cultivation
To impart adult education and the education of the children in their own village
To improve the health condition of the villagers and children
To enhance knowledge of modern agriculture practices
To strengthen and organize SHGs
To cultivate the local varieties of paddy and ragi and to preserve for the future
09.
EXPECTED RESULT BY THE END OF THE PLAN

The VC is capable to join with various Govt. Departments and a leader in
development
442

Livestock health is improved and poultry mortality is reduced

Unproductive animals are reduced
The community land is for fodder, green manure seed production,
maintenance of azola culture and vermiculture seed materials
Literacy level is increased
Human health condition is improved
Agriculture inputs and improved technology acceptability is increased
All village women members are SI IG members
CLWs are serving as para-veterinary workers
Frield Gene Bank for 10 to 15 paddy varieties are maintained in situ.
Village Seed Bank is functional
10.
ROLE OF VILLAGE COMMITTEE

The village committee is a forum for overall development of the village. At
present the village has 50 households. 20 persons have been selected including
50% women to take the managerial responsibility of VC. The VC organises the
selection of beneficiaries, resource mobilization, implementation and
monitoring and evaluation of micro plan.
The duties of the VC are as follows:

(1)
Collect savings from the members and to use it for common activities
(2)
Maintenance of fodder plots, vermiculture seed materials, green manure seed

production and azola culture and for village farm
(3)
Provide funds for purchase of vaccination, do worming
(4)
Pay honoraria to CLWs and a tutor
(5)
Supports women to be empowered by organizing them into SHOs
(6)
Organize meetings, trainings and health camps etc. with Govt.Deptts.
(7)
Assist in Field Gene Bank for paddy
(8)
Assist in Village Seed Bank for the farmers
(9)
Regulate input supply for farming for the village

443

(10)
Contact point with development agencies and Govl. Deplt. as DRDA,

Agriculture, BDO etc.
11.
LIST OF PLANNED ACTIVITIES
0.1
Animal Health
0.2
0.3
1.1
Poultry vaccination
1.2
Deworming poultry and small ruminants
1.3
Upgrading livestock for the village
1.4
Disease control (MIX US, BQ)
1.5
Duck rearing
Human Health
2.1
Malaria control programme in the village
2.2
Deworming above the age of 5 years
2.3
T. Toxide for all
2.4
Awareness regarding HIV
Agriculture
3.1
Papaya cultivation
3.2
Azola culture, vermiculturc, maintenance for village farmers
*3.3
Maintenance of local varieties of rice seeds (Field Gene Bank)
3.4
Fodder cultivation
3.5
Agri inputs like chemical fertilizer, improved seeds supply
3.6
Bio-fertilizer including green manuring plant seeds production
3.7
Sprayer for pesticide application
*3.8
Village Seed Bank
3.9
Pisci-culture in the existing village pond

444

*NB: Field Gene Bank:
The Gadiaguda has about 7 to 8 indigenous paddy variety. The details of the variety
and its awareness arc given below:
S.No.
Name of the farmers
Name of the seeds
Duration
Yield
Gopinath Bhatra
Bayagunda
110 days
14-15 days
Praladha Bhatra
Sunaseri
120 days
14-15 days
After formation of the Village Committee, they have decided to adopt Badamakada,
Grindi, Padhangudakula, Bausagandhi, Assam Chudi, Umuria Chudi.
The VC shall encourage in situon farm conservation of the rice varieties. This in future
shall work with co-operation of Bio-diversity and Protection of Plant Varieties and
Farmers' Rights Bills.
Village Seed Bank:
The villagers are keen to go into vegetable cultivation also. They are very much
interested in off season, as well as kharif tomato and other vegetable growing. They do
not have skills to do this.
The non-availability of good quality seeds of the right varieties at the right time is the
most serious constraints in the farming. This includes green manuring plant seeds,
vegetable seeds, the existing local landracc.
The VC will encourage and support the above endeavour for supply of seeds.
0.4
Education
4.1
Children education and adult education
12.
TRAINING PLAN
12.1
The VC shall undergo 'orientation training' regarding VC role

445

12.2
12.3
The Book Writers training shall he imparted

The persons concerned with 'Fund Management* shall be trained on accounts
management, responsibility, bank account and management -transparency to the village

members. Leadership, conflict management will be covered
12.4
Training of farmers in various technologies
i)
Vermiculture
ii)
Azola culture
iii)
Use of bio-fertilizer
iv)
Use of pesticides and spraying techniques
v)
Village livestock development etc.
vi)
Pisci-culture
vii)
Duck rearing
446

ACTION PLAN WITH L.F.A.

Sl
Activity
No
1 1.1 ANIMAL
HEALTH
a. Poultry
vaccination
Indicators
* Mortality rate reduced

* Economic status increased
* Rearing cost reduced
b.Deworming small * Small animal health

animal & poultry
improved
* Increase in income
* Quality of life improved
* Mortality rate reduced
c. Herd & flock
development
* Upgrade the stock
d. Disease control & * Health status increased

first-aid (FMD. HS.
BQ)
e.Duck rearing
* Mosquito control
* Increase in income
* Availability of village pond
Means of verification
Strategy
Physical verification
Verification of old
records
Conducting
vaccination
regularly
Verification of old
records
Conducting
de worm ing
,
447
Time frame
Respon
sibilitv
Twice in a
year
VC
CLW
VC will provide
vaccine
Twice in a
year
VC
CLW
VC will provide
de worm ing
medicine
Whole year VC
Management of
bull/ram
Twice in a
Conducting
year
vaccination through
LI
Encourage duck
rearing through
training.
establishment of
one kerosene/
electric operated
200 egg incubator
Remarks
VC
SHG
Whole year members
VC will provide
bull
VC will provide
vaccine

Sl
Activity
Indicators
No
2 HUMAN HEALTH
a.Deworming
*Health condition improved
Physical. Anganwadi
b T. Toxide.
*Health status increased
old records & ANM
c. Malaria control
*Reduced incidence of malaria
Physical Anganwadi
old records & ANM
AGRICULTURE
a. Papaya cultivation * Economic status increased
b. Fodder cultivation Utilization of community land
* Animal health condition
c. Green manure
improved * Fodder plots
plant cultivation for developed
seed production
d.Azola culture and *Sun hump and Dhanicha
vermiculture
cultivation
e.. Bio-fertilizer
Chemical fertilizer utilization
purchase and sale to decreased
farmers
*Soil quality improved
*Decreased use of chemical
fertilizer
Strategy
Time frame
Responsibilitv
1. Mosquito control
programme Duck
rearing for
biological control
2. Treatment
ofcarriers, clinical
case
Supply of seeds
Once in a
Supply of root slips year
Once in a
Supply of seeds.
year
labour
Maintenance of
Whole year
Azola culture
Whole year
For more
Whole year
production
Remarks
With the supervision of Medical

Deptt.
With the supervision of Medical
Deptt.
vc
vc
vc
(individ
ual)
VC
VC will provide
good quality of
seeds
VC will maintain
and supply root
slips Executive
Committee will
supervise
VC will purchase
biofertilizer
before farming
448

l
No
Activity
g.New Agri.Tech.
adoption
Line sowing, line
transplanting
Indicators
Strategy
Encourage through
demonstration and
contd. discussion
h. Field Gene Bank The farmers maintain tradition Registration of variety Maintenance of
Collection of local in situ the landraces
with Farmers Rights landraces
variety of paddy
seeds
Seed Bank
Vegetable seed production.
Physical verification Procurement of
purchase and supply
seeds, multiplication with Agr.Dept.
advice
Providing funds to *Quaiity of life improved
VC records
Training of village
VC (working
*Educational level increased Bank account
executive
capital)
*VC strengthened
committee
EDUCATION
a.Children
education
b. Adult education
Formation of
SHGs
Use of small tools to reduce

weeding dragery to women
Education level increased
* Women empowered
*Saving habits built
* Freed from moneylenders
* Quality of life improved
Tutor
Increase of
literacy level
SHG records
Records
Bank account
449
Organising
another SHG
Time
frame
Respon
sibilitv
Remarks
VC shall make
available implementation cost
basis
VC will inspire
the activity
Before
Kharif&
Rabi
Kharif
cultivation
VC,
SHG.
CLW
Village
Rights
farmers
Kharif&
Rabi
season
VC,
SHG,
CLW
VC shall
coordinate
BET.
VC
Already
Rs.20,000/transferred to VC
as working
capital
VC
VC will provide
a tutor
VC
VC will
organize and
motivating
women into
SHG
Whole
year

13.SUPPORT
In addition to the above, ILDP has supported this village. For the fodder cultivation, ILDP
has given/supplied fodder roots, provided Rs.20,000/- to their village fund as working
capital and has ensured lo form another SHG group in their village.
14. BUDGET
Activity
code
1.1
1.2
1.3
Name of the activity
Animal Health
a.Poullry vaccination
b.Deworming small
animal &poultry
c, Breeding bull/ram
d. Disease control (HS.
BQ)
Human health
a.Deworming
b.T.Toxide
Unit
No.
Unit cost
Total cost
Remarks
02
02
01
02
123.00
600.00
3000.00
1000.00
250.00
1200.00
3000.00
1500.00
Twice in a year
Twice in a year
Twice in a year
02
10
350.00
400.00
700,00
400.00
Twice in a year
Once in a year
200 gm
750.00
1500.00
b.Fertilizer application
c.Azola culture/
02
250.00
vcrmiculture
d. Collection of local
genetic resource of
crops(Field Gene Bank)
c.fodder cultivation
04
(fertilizer application)
Fertilizer business
Urea
200 bags 225.00
2000.00
500.00
Purchase of papaya
seeds
Twice in a year
DAP
Super
g.Bio-fertilizer
h. Sprayer
i. Paddy fan
200 bags 450.00

400 bags 150.00
4 Nos.
800.00
90,000.00
60,000.00
3000.00
3200.00
1700.00
j. Cultivation of sun
hump/Dhanicha
Education
a. Children education
b. adult education
2 acres
1500.00
1x12 mts 200.00

1x12 mts 200.00
2400.00
2400.00
Agriculture
a. Papaya cultivation
2 Nos.
850.00
To be met by
farmers
45,000.00
Pertilizer will be
purchased 10 times
on phase by phase
In community land
1.4
450
Remuneration of
the tutor

1.5
Pisci culture
01
10,000.00 10,000.00
1.6
Cultural activities
01 (TV)
3500.00
3500.00
Purchase of 1 TV
LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE BODY OF THE VILLAGE

COMMITTEE
OF GADIAGUDA VILLAGE
Sl.No.
Name of the member
Sex
Remarks
Jhadeswar Dash
Male
Binayak Dash
Male
Rama Bhatra
Male -
Kantha Bhatra
Male
Arjuna Samrath
Male
Padma Bhatra
Male
Jagabandhu Nayak
Male
Jagannath Bhatra
Male
Prahallad Bhatra
Male
10
Tonkodhar Bhatra
Male
CLW
11
Kamala Bhatra
Female
SHGMember(SHG-I)
12
Radma Bhatra
Female
SHGMcmber(SIlG-I)
13
Pakli Bhatra
Female
SHG Member(SHG-I)
14
Bana Bhatra
Female
SHG Member(SHG-I)
15
Gora Bhatra
Female
CLW, SIIG Member (SHG-I)
16
Padma Bhatra
Female
SI 1G Member (SHG-ll)
17
Budai Bhatra
Female
SHO Member (SHG-II)
18
Padmini Bhatra
Female
SHG Member (SFIG-1I)
19
Nila Bhatra
Female
SHG Member (SHG-II)
20
Dalimbo Bhatra
Female
SHG Member (SHG-II)
451
Ward Member

452

453

454

455

Annexure - I
Background of Project Area
The Koraput district is located in the South-Eastern region of Orissa. The geographical
area of the district is 8.38 lakh ha. Which is 5.38 percent of the State. It is situated between
18- 10 and 20- 10 North latitude, and 82-10 and 83-20 East longitude. The district
physic-graphically is contiguous to the main land of Eastern ghat. The district has hilly
region and plain land regions.
The district has two sub-divisions, 14 community development Blocks, 197 Panchayats
and 1997 revenue villages.
Socio-economic features
:
Demographic Pattern
The total population of the district is 10, 29,986 as per 1991 census, of which 83 percent
live in rural areas. The population density per square kilometer is 123 with sex ratio of 991
per 1000 males. The Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled tribe (ST) population constitute
64.08 percent of the district.
The ILDP block-wise area and demographic pattern of the district is given in Table-1.
Table-1: ILDP Block-wise area and demographic pattern of the Koraput district.
Sl.No Block Area Total
S.T.
S.T.
(Sq. km.)
population
population
Literacy
population
rate
(%)
1
Koraput
481.96
85,945
12,817
28,908
21.13
Laxmipur
310.33
49,301
7,239
33,925
17.07
Jeypore
49,184
21.92
Kundra
359.86
535.99
1, 15,88
52,181
456
8,720
423,340
26.198
13.70

Literacy:
The literacy rate in rural areas is 15.89 where as it is 67.17% in urban areas.
Occupation:
Village and households:
Table-2: ILDP Block-wise information on Villages and Households
Sl.NoBlock
No. of villages
inhabited
1 Koraput
Total No. of
un-
house
inhabited
holds
92
92
22,575
Laxmipur
218
227
17,690
Jeypore
113
121
33,484
Kundra
85
85
11,937
Land utilization
Koraput district has a geographical area of 7,897 lakh ha. Out of which 28.43 percent is
net sown area. The area under forest is 24 percent of geographical area which is included
of reserve forests, protected forest, and unclassified and un-demarcated forest area.
Operational Holdings
As per 1991 census report, there are 1, 37,028 operational holdings with 2, 51,045 ha.
under their possession. The Small and Marginal operational holders constitute 69% of total
which is 34% of lands under their possession. The big farmers constitute 31% of total;
they hold 66% of land under their possession.
457

Table-3: Class-wise number and area of operational holdings in Koraput district
Class
Total
Total
area Number
S.C.
Area
in ha. Number
ST Area
in ha.
No.
in ha.
Marginal
(< 1 ha.)
55, 962
31, 726
7, 992
4, 307 33, 478 18, 926
38, 831
54, 521
3, 379
4, 653 24, 379 34, 405
30,202
81, 393
2, 164
5, 693 18, 681 50, 540
(4-10ha.) 10, 949
63, 252
622
3, 380
20, 153
26
313
Small
(1-2 ha.)
Semi-medium
(2-4 ha.)
Medium
6, 543 37, 167
Large
(<10 ha.)
Total
Source:
1, 084
1, 37,028 2,81,045 14, 183
491
6,831
18, 346 83, 572 1, 47,869
District Statistical Hand-book, Koraput 1995
Climate:
The climate of the district is warm and humid with mean maximum and minimum
temperature of 30.6 C and 17.03 C, respectively,
April and May are the hottest period and December, January are the coldest period. The
mean relative humidity recorded in the morning and evening is 51.7% and 26.6%,
respectively. Mean daily evaporation is about 3 mm in the district.
Rainfall (1996-99)
The normal rainfall of the district is 1521.8 mm in 82 rainy days against the state average
of 1502.6 mm and 73 rainy days. The monsoon period is between June to September
where 79% of rainfall is recorded in about 61 days.
458

Soil
The soil of Koraput is mostly red, mixed red and yellow, alluvial and red and black. The
texture is sandy loam to sandy clay loam. The soil is mostly acidic in pH and is normally
deficient in Boron and Zinc and in some places Molybdenum and Copper. Soil acidity,
iron and alumina toxicity are problems in most of the blocks.
Table-5: Information on soil in different blocks.
Sl. Name of
Area in 000ha. Problematic Micronutrient
No Block
Red or
Alluvial
mixed red
soil
soil
(iron toxicity) deficiency
& yellow
1.
Koraput
11.53
500
Bo, Zn
2.
Laxmipur 11.54
415
Bo, Zn
3.
Jeypore
442.1
Bo, Mo (Zn?)
1868
19.98
4. Kundra
18.15
Bo, Mo
Irrigation:
Koraput district has got 35% of the net sown area under different sources of irrigation as
per records. Upper Kolab Project is the major irrigation project of the district which
provides irrigation to 37.29 lakh in Jeypore, Koraput, Boriguma and small area of Kundra
block.
Table-6:
Sl
Block-wise irrigation potential in Koraput district
Name
Major Minor
Wells Other Total % of net
No of Block sources (flow
sources
sown area
&lift)
irrigated
1. Koraput -
0.02
0.04
2.81
2.87 24.9
2. Laxmipur -
0.59
0,03
2.54
3.16 27.5
3. Jeypore 15.67
0.34
0.10
0.44
16.55 82.8
4.
Kundra
2.30
0.64
0.08
459
2.04
5.06
27.9

SKILL DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING FOR STAFF MEMBERS,

FARMERS AND COMMUNITY LINK WORKERS IN ILDP,
KORAPUT
Annexure-II
TRAININGS& WORKSHOPS OF STAFF MEMBERS OF ILDP, KORAPUT

ORGANISED FROM1993-2000
SI.
No.
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
Training
Workshop
DANIDA
Institute
on
ILDP, Xavier institute of

Management,
Bhubaneswar
Cultivation of fodder crop Regional station for
processing
and forage production
establishment of silvi- and demonstration.
Hyderabad
pasture system
Internal orientation of ILDP, Jeypore
BRT staff on project
blocks
Harijan
National training course as Tribal
and
tribal women & socio- Research
Training Institute.
economic development
THRTI.
Bhubaneswar
Project
implementation Gopabandhu
monitoring & evaluation
Academy
of
Administration.
Bhubaneswar
Participatory
rural SPEECH, Madurai
appraisal
training
at
(PRA) project complex
Objective oriented process Xavier Institute of
(POPP)
for
project Management,
planning, monitoring & Bhubaneswar
evaluation
Rural development for NIRD, Hyderabad
Project Directors
Participatory
rural Rajasthan
appraisal,
Jaipur,
Rajasthan
Trainers training in paddy Subject
matter
straw treatment with urea
specialist from A.P
Workshop on advances in Danida,
ILDP,
cattle
&
buffalo Jeypore
460
Period
23.08.9325.08.93
11.08.9317.08.93
Staff
SDVO/BDO/VAS/A
VAS/ AFDO of
project block
AFDO-2
10.01.9415.01.94
All BET/ETM staff
07.02.9421.02.94
Team
Leaders-2
Community
Organisers-4
(all
lady officers)
04.07.9408.07.94
Project
Director,
Monitoring
Specialist
04.10.9409.10.94
07.11.9412.11.94
All BETs, ETM and

PFD, one AHD
officer
Monitoring
Specialist
Dec'94
Project Director
Jan'95
Team
Leaders-2
Community
Organisers-2
All
BETs,
ETM,PFD and AHD
All AH Ext. staff
19.02.95
09.05.9510.05.95

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
reproduction
Staff
development Dr. M K Sethu Rao,
"training
course
on Extension
Consultant,
extension management"
Bangalore
Aids in extension
Xavier Institute of
Management,
Bhubaneswar
Orientation
training COATS, Koraput
programme to undertake
bench mark survey
Organising extension and National
Dairy
input services
Development Board
(NDDB), Anand.
Gujurat
Training
of
trainers Xavier Institute of
development management Management,
Bhubaneswar
practioners
Trainers
training
on A.D.R.I.
transfer of technology in Phulnakhara
poultry (RD and fowl pox)
to tribal farmers
Training on HRD and
HRM economies rural
development
and
extension
and
communication
Workshop
on
development of basic skill
training curriculum and
training modules in village
fodder/pasture
development
and
environment protection for
CLWs
Workshop on village
revolving fund-ILDP
16.05.9521.05.95
All project
22.08.9524.08.95
All project staff
27.08.9531.08.95
All project staff
11.09.9529.09.95
All
JVOs
and
training Specialists
09.10.9514.10.95
Training Specialist-2
&
Extension
Specialists-2
All AHD, ILDP
Veterinarians
Training Specialist
&
Extension
Specialist
Line
Deptt.
Veterinary
Extension Officers
16.10.9520.10.95
In-service training 17.10.95personnel institute, 21.10.95

Laxmisagar.
Bhubaneswar
At Advisory Office, 20.12.95Jepore
21.12.95
All AFDOs Fodder

Supervisors (BET).
Extension Specialist
03.01.9606.01.96
All AH BET, AHD

and ETM including
Project Director
All Staff
Xavier Institute of
Management,
Bhubaneswar
Office,
Workshop on training Advisory
need
assessment
of Jeypore
CLWs- Logical Frame
Approach (LFA)
Office,
Workshop on curriculum Advisory
development
in
soil Jeypore
fertility
&
fodder
production
Workshop on curriculum Advisory
Office,
461
01.02.9603.02.96
14.02.9616.02.96
All
Fodder
Supervisors
&
AFDOs
20.03.96
All AHD Officers

24
25
development in poultry Jeypore

vaccination for CLWs
Training
on
embryo Central
transfer
Breeding
Sunabeda
Workshop on veterinary Advisory
first-aid
curriculum Jeypore
development
and CLWs
Cattle 01.03.96Farm. 07.03.96
Office, 31.03.9603.04.96
Advisory
Jeypore
Office, 08.04.96
Advisory
Jeypore
Office, 21.04.96
28
Workshop on staff self Advisory,

assessment
Joypore
Office, 24.04.96
29
Workshop on duties and Advisory

responsibilities of BET Jeypore
officials
Office, 15.05.96
30
Workshop on village
revolving fund
Workshop
with
line
department
on
strengthening of village
extension institution &
cooperation
Workshop on Action Plan
(PAP) for 1996 to 1999
for ILDP
Office, 24.05.96
26
27
31
32
33
34
35
Workshop identification
of local plant genetic
resources as fodder and
fuel trees and shrubs by
CLWs
Workshop
on
skills
interest group farmers
Advisory
Jeypore
Advisory
Jeypore
Review
Team,
Project Director &
Danida Advisor
Review Team, Vo
I/C, BETs, FS ST &
CO
Dr.
Sivaram
Nisonko,
HRD
Consultant, all FS,
TL, CO, Vets, ETM,
Project Director and
Danida Advisor
All BET & ETM
CDVO(K), SDVO2, Project Director,

Danida
Advisor
Vest,
Livestock
Inspectors
Advisory
Office, 22.06.96Dr. S K Ranjan, RH
Jeypore
24.06.96
Consultant,
Dr.
Sivaram FS, TL,
CO, Vets, ETM,
Project Director &
Danida Advisor
week Prof. S P Das &
Workshop on trainers Xavier Institute of One
Team BET, AHD &
during
training
Management,
ETM
Oct'1996
Bhubaneswar
BET, ETM & AHD
Computer
application Orissa
Computer 29.10.96staff
training
Application Centre, 06.11.96
(Govt. of Orissa)
Bhubaneswar
Prospectus of sheep & Dr. B C Pattnayak, Nov.1996
All BET staff
462
Office, 31.05.96
I/C
Veterinary
Officer, Veterinary
Officer-Kundra
CDVO,
Nowrangpur, Project
Director, VO I/C,
JVOs and Danida
Advisor
Mr. Tirupati Behera,
Forest
Consultant
and all BET

goat development
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Ph. D Ex-Director,
CSWRI
Workshop on 1997 ILDP XIM, Jeypore
23.12.96plan of action
27.12.96
Dev.
Of
extension Indian society for Four days in
Dec'96
strategy in the context of extension
globalization
of education,
Bangalore
agriculture
Village Revolving Fund MYRADA,
3
weeks
application
Bangalore
(Feb-Mar'97)
Participatory learning & NDDB at PMU
20.05.97planning
26.05.97
Management information NIRD, Hyderabad 15.09.97system
at PMU
18.09.97
Indigenous medicine
BAIF, Pune
Nov'1997
Agriculture management
Nordic Agriculture Nov'97
College. Denmark
i) Extension management Xavier Institute of Jan'1998
Management,
in tribal villages
ii)
Extension
aid Bhubaneswar
development in tribal
villages
Computer application
Orissa
Computer Feb'1998
Application Centre,
GOO,
Bhubaneswar
Urea
treatment
and Dr. S K Ranjan, 03.03.98mineral mixture
consultant,
New 10.03.98
Delhi at Randapalli
Fodder Farm
Village Revolving Fund MYRADA,
10.03.98(for
application
Bangalore
three weeks)
Multiple
Cropping Mr.
B
M 27.05.98practice
Samantroy & Mr. 30.05.98
Simanchal
Hota,
Agriculture
Consultants
Economical
Livestock Asian Institute of 22.2.999.4.99
Production and Extension Technology,
Thailand
Techniques
Agricultural
Extension Nordic Agricultural 5.4.99
for
Management
College, Denmark
4months
Training programme on XIM, Bhubaneswar 23.8.99MIS in developmental
28.8.99
organizations
SHG
concept
of MYRADA,
21.10.99MYRADA, Bangalore
Bangalore
30.10.99
SHG
concept
of MYRADA,
15.11.99463
Prof. S P Das, All

ILDP staff
Trg. Specialist-1
Team Leader-1 Co's3

All staff members
All staff members
Project Director
Dr. G C Kar, VAS,
Kundra
JVO's-2, LI's-2, Mo1, PO-1, To-1
AO-1, JVO's-2, LI's2, MO-1, PO-1, To1

All staff members
TL-2 CO-1
PMU &
TCSCs
in
all
TS-1, VO-2, LI-1
CO-1
MS-1
MS-1, TL-1, CO-1

TS-1, FS-3, Vo-5,

MYRADA, Bangalore
Bangalore
19.11.99
LI-2
53
Workshop on GIS
DANLEP, New
14.2.2000
PD,MS,TS,MS
Delhi
54
Workshop on MIS
Bangalore by a 2-4.4.2000
PD, MS, TS, MS
Consultant
19-26.200
TL-1, 2-Cos
55
Training
on
village MYRADA,
planning
Bangalore
at
Jagdalpur (M.P)
56
Gender Workshop
Advisory
Unit, 7-8.7.2000
TL-4,Cos-3
Jagdalpur (MP)
N. B. ILDP had Veterinary staff from the Orissa Government Department, and rest of
the staff like Mointoring specialist(MS), Team Leader(TL), Fodder Supervisor(FS),
Community Organisers(CO) were on contract service. The Community Organisers were
all women and it was for the first time in the history of AHD that women were employed.
Now AHd employs 33 percent women in all posts. The FS are mostly in research and
University jobs and have obtained PhDs in their sphere. All most all Vets of ILDP are in
key positions in the department and one or two in University. All the CO and TL are in
important posts in UNOetc and are adding to the nation building.
464

ANNEXURE -III
LINE DEPARTMENT OFFICERS TRAINING
S.N
Training
Institute
01
Extension Management
02
Field aspects of frozen semen CFSP

technology
03
Management
Extension in AH
04
NDRI, Karnal
Period
April 97
Staff
VAS-4
&
TI, 25.05.98 to VAS-4

Hessargatta
09.98
Participatory NIRD,
Hyderabad
Extension Management and BAIF, Pune

Refresher Course in AI
16-20
CDVO, SDVO &
June'27
VAS
01.09.98 to LIs-10
12.09.98
LIs-10
05.10.98 to
17.10.98
05
Buffalo
Management
Breeding Central Institute 02.02.99 to VAS-2

on
Buffalo 03.03.99
(ICAR), Hisar,
Haryana
06
Training on development of Maharashtra

25.03.99 to VAS-9
Goat & Sheep 27.03.99
goats
Research
&
Development
Institute, Phaltan
07
Training on management of Shivaji

Estate 02.11.1999
Livestock Farms to
goat
Pvt. Ltd.(SELF), 06.11.1999
Nagpur
465
LIs-8

ANNEXURE -IV
TRAINING OF FARMERS AND LINK WORKERS OF ILDP FROM 1995-2000
SI
No
1
6
7
10
Name of the
Training
programme
CLW
Orientation
training
VC members
orientation
training
Skill
development
training for
CLWs (Agric
& follows)
Grafting
technology
Year
Month
Venue
Duration
Male
Female
Total
95-96
May
June
July
Aug
Sept.
Oct
Feb
Mar
April
TCSCs
3days
100
100
200
No of
villages
covered
100
TCSCs
2 days
400
200
600
100
RFF
3 days
97
94
191
100
96-97
Mar
3days
Skill
development
training on
poultry
disease
control
for
CLws
Vety,
First
aid for CLWs
Feed
and
fodder
conservation
& utilization
Book
Keepers
training for
the
book
writers of the
SHGs
Bee keeping
training
at
OUAT,
BBSR,
for
farmers
of
ILDP
Improvement
of
the
96-97
Mar
April
May
June
Forest,
Dept.
Bangalo
re
RFF.
2 days
93
19
112
100
96-97
Jan Feb
RFF
3days
94
18
112
100
97-98
Mar
April
May
RFF
2days
92
94
186
100
97-98
July
RFF
TCSCs
3 days
45
54
23
97-98
Feb
OUAT
8 days
15
17
14
98-99
May
TCSCs
RFF
2 days
192
197
62
95-96
96-97
466

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Crop/Fodder
production
for
the
farmers
of
the project
Poultry
disease
control
retraining for
the
weak
CLWs
Book keepers
training for
the
book
writers of the
SHG
Pig
management
training for
the farmers
of ILDP
Goat
management
training
Sheep
management
training
Pig
management
training
Training on
crop
&
fodder
development
for
the
farmers
Crop
and
fodder
development
for the CLWs
Youth
facilitators
CWDP
Poultry
vaccination
training
Vegetable
cultivation
training
Book writers
training SHG
Weak CLW
retraining
98-99
Jun
July
TCSCs
1 days
72
67
139
69
98-99
Aug
Sept
TCSCs
2 days
46
50
28
98-99
Nov.
Vizanag
ar am
3days
19
12
31
98-99
Feb.
TCSCs
2 days
200
200
98-99
Feb
TCSCs
2 days
200
200
98-99
Feb
TCSCs
2 days
120
120
992000
May
RFF
TCSCs
1 days
200
200
992000
May
RFF
TCSCs
1 days
100
100
200
100
19992000
Oct.
Nov
Koaput
3 days
Soil
conserv
ation on
training
29
17
46
30
19992000
OctDec
PMU
1 days
45
48
14
19992000
20002001
Mar.
TCSCs
2 days
80
April
May
TCSCs
1 days
71
467

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
CLW
retraining on
Vety.
First
aid
CLW s New
skill
development
(Castration
training)
Intensive and
semi
intensive
broiler
farming
training
Rice
production
technology
Training
Rice based
cropping
system
Agriculture
skill
to
improve
lively hood
White
ant
cultivation &
creep feeding
of
chicken
with
white
ant training
20002001
April
May
TCSCs
1 days
100
12
112
20002001
May
TCSCs
1 day
100
12
112
20002001
June to Poultry
Sept.
farm,
Koraput
3 days
15
15
30
15
20002001
June to CRRI
Aug.
Cuttack
3 days
47
51
98
28
20002001
Aug. to CRRI
Oct.
Cuttack
3 days
92
98
20
20002001
Sept. to KVK
Nov.
Semilig
uda
3 days
117
83
200
34
20002001
Sept. to At SHG 1 days

Nov.
level of
respecti
ve
villages
231
1134
1365
68
Abbreviations:
CLW:
Community link worker
CRRI: Cetral rice research institute

CWDP:
Comprehensive watershed development project
KVK:
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
OUAT:
Orissa university of agriculture and technology
PMU:
Project Management unit
RFF:
Rondapali fodder farm
SHG:
Self help group
TCSC: Training cum service center

VC:
Village committee
468

ANNEXURE-V
FARMER'S EXPOSURE VISIT TO LAXMIPUR & UMERKOTE

of Name of Name of the No. of Farmers visited
Village
the
Block
Male Female Total
SI
No
Date
visit
2.8.2000
Koraput
Khariguda
20
25
2
3
4
3.8.2000
17.8.200
18.8.200
0
19.5.200
0
Koraput
Koraput
Koraput
Gopalput
Upper umri
Takumri
10
18
23
15
4
5
25
22
28
Koraput
Putpondi
22
28
5.9.2000
Kundra
Doraguda
Khutuguda
2
1
2
1
Place
visit
of Remark
Dumripada
r
Timajhola
Laxmipur
Laxmipur
Laxmipur
Laxmipur
Dumripada
r
Bandikar
Umerkote
Umerkote
Farmers
shared
their
experien
ce
Famers
Learned
the
Technolo
gy
of
maize
cultivatio
n
for
bumper
yield
Jhiligan
1
1
Umerkote
Nuaguda
2
2
Umerkote
Kenduguda
1
1
Umerkote
Majurgola
1
1
Umerkote
Somrathguda 1
1
Umerkote
Gunthaguda 1
1
Umerkote
Jhologuda
2
2
Umerkote
Ghumar
2
2
Umerkote
Pokhnaguda 1
1
Umerkote
Mundiguda
1
1
Umerkote
Gundal
1
1
Umerkote
Hantalguda
2
2
Umerkote
Kaudiaguda 1
1
Umerkote
Jeeraguda
1
1
Umerkote
N.B. The exposure visits have opened the minds of people and they are investing in
education and new knowledge. The impact is very high.
469

ANNEXURE-VI
EXTENSION OF SELF HELP GROUP CONCEPT IN TO GOVERNMENT OF
ORISSA AND BANK
SI
No
1
Name of the Year

training
programme
Training
on 1999SHG
for 2000
Bankers (RRB,
IOB, NABARD)
Book
keepers
training
to
District.
Administration
(All 14 blocks
officers
of
Koraput
District)
SHG
Implementation
training Koraput
District
Training
on
SHG for officers
of Nawarangpur
district
Month
Venue
Duration
Total
Jan.
PMU,
Jeypore
1 Day
13
20002001
April
May
Respective
Block HQ.
2 day
470
20002001
March
DNK
2 Days
Conference
hall Koraput
20002001
May
DM
Conference
hall
Nawarangp
ur
1 days
Abbreviations:
RRB:
Regional Rural Bank
IOB:
Indian Overseas Bank
NABARD:
National bank for agriculture and rural development
470
No
of
blocks
covered
Banker of
Branches
of ILDP
operation
are
All
14
Blocks of
District
100
All
14
Blocks of
District
30
Block
level
officers

ANNEXURE-VII
LIST OF EXTENSION MESSAGES AND TRAINING MANUALS PREPARED BY

ILDP
ENGLISH
1.
Hay Making
Extension
Message
Urea Treatment of Paddy Straw/Hay
Extension
Message
3.
No.3
Creep Feeding of chicks up to eight weeks
Extension
Message
4.
Fodder Tree Harvesting
Extension
Message
Administration of Medicine
Extension
Message
Control of Internal & External Parasites
Extension
Message
Treatment of wounds
Extension
Message
Extension
Message
Hay Making
Extension
Message
Urea Treatment of Paddy Straw/Hay
Extension
Message
How to get more yields from rice crop
Extension
Message
No. 1
2.
No.2
No.4
5.
No.5
6.
No.6
7.
No.7
8.
White ant collection and creep feeding of
No. 1
Chicken with white ants (Termite)
ORIYA
1.
No. 1
2.
No. 2
3.
No. 8
471

4.
Mixed cropping Rice + Arhar
No. 9
Extension
Message
5.
Mixed cropping Ragi + Arhar/Bailo
Extension
Message
Mixed cropping Maize + Arhar
Extension
Message
Mixed cropping Jowar + Arhar
Extension
Message
No.
6.
No.
7.
No.
EXTENSION MANUALS
1.
Veterinary First Aid Skills at village for Community Link Workers (English)
2.
Tribal Village Poultry Disease Control Package (English/Oriya)
3.
Fodder Production in Tribal Villages (Module-1) (English/Oriya)
4.
Fodder Production in Tribal Villages (Module-II) (English/Oriya)
5.
Training Manual on Pig Rearing in Tribal Villages (English/Oriya)
6.
Training Manual on Tribal Family Poultry Management
7.
Training Manual on Tribal Family Duck Management
8.
Training Manual on Tribal Sheep Management (Oriya)
9.
Training Manual on Tribal Goat Management (Oriya)
472

Poverty Tribal Women Self Help Group Livestock

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POVERTY TRIBAL WOMEN SELF HELP GROUP LIVESTOCK

First published 2016

Research Foundation, Center for research on sustainable agriculture and rural

Animal Disease Research Institute