Orbital Mechanics

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BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

ISRO Satellite Center
Table of Contents
1.
Introduction to Space Mechanics .................................................................................................4
2.
Conic Sections.............................................................................................................................4
3.
Orbital Elements .........................................................................................................................5

Inclination ......................................................................................................................................5
4.
Types Of Orbits ...........................................................................................................................7

Geosynchronous orbits ...................................................................................................................7
Polar orbits.....................................................................................................................................7
Walking orbits ................................................................................................................................7
Sun synchronous orbits ...................................................................................................................7
Molniya orbits ................................................................................................................................8
Hohmann transfer orbits .................................................................................................................8
5.
Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation .....................................................................9
6.
Uniform Circular Motion............................................................................................................ 10

PROBLEM 4.1................................................................................................................................ 10
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 10
7.
Motions of Planets and Satellites ............................................................................................... 12

PROBLEM 4.2................................................................................................................................ 13
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 13
PROBLEM 4.3................................................................................................................................ 13
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 13
PROBLEM 4.4................................................................................................................................ 16
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 16
PROBLEM 4.5................................................................................................................................ 16
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 16
PROBLEM 4.6................................................................................................................................ 17
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 17
PROBLEM 4.7................................................................................................................................ 17
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 18
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8.

Launch of a Space Vehicle .......................................................................................................... 18

PROBLEM 4.8................................................................................................................................ 19
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 19
PROBLEM 4.9................................................................................................................................ 20
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 20
PROBLEM 4.10 .............................................................................................................................. 21
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 21
9.
Position in an Elliptical Orbit ...................................................................................................... 23

PROBLEM 4.11 .............................................................................................................................. 23
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 24
PROBLEM 4.12 .............................................................................................................................. 24
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 25
PROBLEM 4.13 .............................................................................................................................. 26
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 26
10.
Orbit Perturbations................................................................................................................ 27
Third-Body Perturbations .............................................................................................................. 27

PROBLEM 4.14 .............................................................................................................................. 28
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 28
Perturbations due to Non-spherical Earth....................................................................................... 28
PROBLEM 4.15 .............................................................................................................................. 29
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 29
Perturbations from Atmospheric Drag............................................................................................ 29
PROBLEM 4.16 .............................................................................................................................. 31
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 31
Perturbations from Solar Radiation ................................................................................................ 32
11.
Orbit Maneuvers ................................................................................................................... 32
Orbit Altitude Changes .................................................................................................................. 32

PROBLEM 4.17 .............................................................................................................................. 33
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 33
PROBLEM 4.18 .............................................................................................................................. 35
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SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 35
Orbit Plane Changes...................................................................................................................... 37
PROBLEM 4.19 .............................................................................................................................. 37
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 37
PROBLEM 4.20 .............................................................................................................................. 38
PROBLEM 4.21 .............................................................................................................................. 40
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 40
PROBLEM 4.22 .............................................................................................................................. 41
SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 41
Orbit Rendezvous ......................................................................................................................... 42
Launch Windows........................................................................................................................... 42
Orbit Maintenance........................................................................................................................ 42
V Budget ...................................................................................................................................... 42
12.
Escape Velocity...................................................................................................................... 43
PROBLEM 4.23 .............................................................................................................................. 43

SOLUTION, ................................................................................................................................... 43
13.
Appendix I BASIC CONSTANTS .............................................................................................. 43
14.
Appendix II WEIGHTS & MEASURES ...................................................................................... 45
15.
Appendix-III ATMOSPHERE PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 46
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1. Introduction to Space Mechanics

Orbital mechanics, also called flight mechanics, is the study of the motions of artificial
satellites and space vehicles moving under the influence of forces such as gravity,
atmospheric drag, thrust, etc. Orbital mechanics is a modern offshoot of celestial mechanics
which is the study of the motions of natural celestial bodies such as the moon and planets.
The root of orbital mechanics can be traced back to the 17th century when mathematician
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) put forward his laws of motion and formulated his law of
universal gravitation. The engineering applications of orbital mechanics include ascent
trajectories, reentry and landing, rendezvous computations, and lunar and interplanetary
trajectories.
2.
Conic Sections
A conic section, or just

conic, is a
curve
formed by passing a
plane through a right
circular
cone.
As
shown in Figure 4.1,
the
angular
orientation
of
the
plane relative to the
cone
determines
whether
the
conic
section is a circle,
ellipse, parabola, or
hyerbola. The circle
and the ellipse arise
when the intersection
of cone and plane is a
bounded curve. The
circle is a special case
of the ellipse in which
the
plane
is
perpendicular to the axis of the cone. If the plane is parallel to a generator line of the cone,
the conic is called a parabola. Finally, if the intersection is an unbounded curve and the
plane is not parallel to a generator line of the cone, the figure is a hyperbola. In the latter
case the plane will intersect both halves of the cone, producing two separate curves.
We can define all conic sections in terms of the eccentricity. The type of conic section is also
related to the semi-major axis and the energy. The table below shows the relationships
between eccentricity, semi-major axis, and energy and the type of conic section.
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Conic Section Eccentricity, e Semi-major axis Energy

Circle
= radius
<0
Ellipse
0<e<1
>0
<0
Parabola
infinity
Hyperbola
>1
<0
>0
Satellite orbits can be any of the four conic sections. In this section we will discuss bounded
conic orbits, i.e. circles and ellipses.
3. Orbital Elements
To mathematically describe an orbit one must define six quantities, called orbital elements.
They are
Semi-Major Axis, a
Eccentricity, e
Inclination, i
Argument of Periapsis,
Time of Periapsis Passage, T
Longitude of Ascending Node,
An orbiting satellite follows an oval shaped path

known as an ellipse with the body being orbited,
called the primary, located at one of two points
called foci. An ellipse is defined to be a curve with
the following property: for each point on an ellipse,
the sum of its distances from two fixed points,
called foci, is constant (see Figure 4.2). The longest
and shortest lines that can be drawn through the
center of an ellipse are called the major axis and
minor axis, respectively. The semi-major axis is
one-half of the major axis and represents a
satellite's mean distance from its primary.
Eccentricity is the distance between the foci divided
by the length of the major axis and is a number
between zero and one. An eccentricity of zero
indicates a circle.
Inclination is the angular distance between a

satellite's orbital plane and the equator of its primary (or the ecliptic plane in the case of
heliocentric, or sun centered, orbits). An inclination of zero degrees indicates an orbit about
the primary's equator in the same direction as the primary's rotation, a direction called
prograde (or direct). An inclination of 90 degrees indicates a polar orbit. An inclination of
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180 degrees indicates a retrograde equatorial orbit. A retrograde orbit is one in which a
satellite moves in a direction opposite to the rotation of its primary.
Periapsis is the point in an orbit closest to the primary. The opposite of periapsis, the
farthest point in an orbit, is called apoapsis. Periapsis and apoapsis are usually modified to
apply to the body being orbited, such as perihelion and aphelion for the Sun, perigee and
apogee for Earth, perijove and apojove for Jupiter, perilune and apolune for the Moon, etc.
The argument of periapsis is the angular distance between the ascending node and the
point of periapsis (see Figure 4.3). The time of periapsis passage is the time in which a
satellite moves through its point of periapsis.
Nodes are the points where an orbit crosses a plane, such as a satellite crossing the Earth's
equatorial plane. If the satellite crosses the plane going from south to north, the node is the
ascending node; if moving from north to south, it is the descending node. The longitude of
the ascending node is the node's celestial longitude. Celestial longitude is analogous to
longitude on Earth and is measured in degrees counter-clockwise from zero with zero
longitude being in the direction of the vernal equinox.
In general, three observations of an object in orbit are required to calculate the six orbital
elements. Two other quantities often used to describe orbits are period and true anomaly.
Period, P, is the length of time required for a satellite to complete one orbit. True anomaly,
, is the angular distance of a point in an orbit past the point of periapsis, measured in
degrees.
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4. Types of Orbits
For a spacecraft to achieve Earth orbit, it must be launched to an elevation above the
Earth's atmosphere and accelerated to orbital velocity. The most energy efficient orbit, that
is one that requires the least amount of propellant, is a direct low inclination orbit. To
achieve such an orbit, a spacecraft is launched in an eastward direction from a site near the
Earth's equator. The advantage being that the rotational speed of the Earth contributes to
the spacecraft's final orbital speed. At the United States' launch site in Cape Canaveral
(28.5 degrees north latitude) a due east launch results in a "free ride" of 1,471 km/h (914
mph). Launching a spacecraft in a direction other than east, or from a site far from the
equator, results in an orbit of higher inclination. High inclination orbits are less able to take
advantage of the initial speed provided by the Earth's rotation, thus the launch vehicle must
provide a greater part, or all, of the energy required to attain orbital velocity. Although high
inclination orbits are less energy efficient, they do have advantages over equatorial orbits
for certain applications. Below we describe several types of orbits and the advantages of
each:
Geosynchronous orbits
(GEO) are circular orbits around the Earth having a period of 24

hours. A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero degrees is called a geostationary
orbit. A spacecraft in a geostationary orbit appears to hang motionless above one position
on the Earth's equator. For this reason, they are ideal for some types of communication and
meteorological satellites. A spacecraft in an inclined geosynchronous orbit will appear to
follow a regular figure-8 pattern in the sky once every orbit. To attain geosynchronous orbit,
a spacecraft is first launched into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 35,786 km (22,236
miles) called a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The orbit is then circularized by firing
the spacecraft's engine at apogee.
Polar orbits (PO) are orbits with an inclination of 90 degrees. Polar orbits are useful for
satellites that carry out mapping and/or surveillance operations because as the planet
rotates the spacecraft has access to virtually every point on the planet's surface.
Walking orbits: An orbiting satellite is subjected to a great many gravitational influences.
First, planets are not perfectly spherical and they have slightly uneven mass distribution.
These fluctuations have an effect on a spacecraft's trajectory. Also, the sun, moon, and
planets contribute a gravitational influence on an orbiting satellite. With proper planning it is
possible to design an orbit which takes advantage of these influences to induce a precession
in the satellite's orbital plane. The resulting orbit is called a walking orbit, or precessing
orbit.
Sun synchronous orbits (SSO) are walking orbits whose orbital plane precesses with the
same period as the planet's solar orbit period. In such an orbit, a satellite crosses periapsis
at about the same local time every orbit. This is useful if a satellite is carrying instruments
which depend on a certain angle of solar illumination on the planet's surface. In order to
maintain an exact synchronous timing, it may be necessary to conduct occasional propulsive
maneuvers to adjust the orbit.
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Molniya orbits are highly eccentric Earth orbits with periods of approximately 12 hours (2
revolutions per day). The orbital inclination is chosen so the rate of change of perigee is
zero, thus both apogee and perigee can be maintained over fixed latitudes. This condition
occurs at inclinations of 63.4 degrees and 116.6 degrees. For these orbits the argument of
perigee is typically placed in the southern hemisphere, so the satellite remains above the
northern hemisphere near apogee for approximately 11 hours per orbit. This orientation can
provide good ground coverage at high northern latitudes.
Hohmann transfer orbits
are interplanetary trajectories whose advantage is that they

consume the least possible amount of propellant. A Hohmann transfer orbit to an outer
planet, such as Mars, is achieved by launching a spacecraft and accelerating it in the
direction of Earth's revolution around the sun until it breaks free of the Earth's gravity and
reaches a velocity which places it in a sun orbit with an aphelion equal to the orbit of the
outer planet. Upon reaching its destination, the spacecraft must decelerate so that the
planet's gravity can capture it into a planetary orbit.
To send a spacecraft to an inner planet, such as Venus, the spacecraft is launched and
accelerated in the direction opposite of Earth's revolution around the sun (i.e. decelerated)
until it achieves a sun orbit with a perihelion equal to the orbit of the inner planet. It should
be noted that the spacecraft continues to move in the same direction as Earth, only more
slowly.
To reach a planet requires that the spacecraft be inserted into an interplanetary trajectory
at the correct time so that the spacecraft arrives at the planet's orbit when the planet will
be at the point where the spacecraft will intercept it. This task is comparable to a
quarterback "leading" his receiver so that the football and receiver arrive at the same point
at the same time. The interval of time in which a spacecraft must be launched in order to
complete its mission is called a launch window.
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5. Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation

Newton's laws of motion describe the relationship between the motion of a particle and the
forces acting on it.
The first law states that if no forces are acting, a body at rest will remain at rest, and a
body in motion will remain in motion in a straight line. Thus, if no forces are acting, the
velocity (both magnitude and direction) will remain constant.
The second law tells us that if a force is applied there will be a change in velocity, i.e. an
acceleration, proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the direction in which the
force is applied. This law may be summarized by the equation
where F is the force, m is the mass of the particle, and a is the acceleration.
The third law states that if body 1 exerts a force on body 2, then body 2 will exert a force of
equal strength, but opposite in direction, on body 1. This law is commonly stated, "for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction".
In his law of universal gravitation, Newton states that two particles having masses m1 and
m2 and separated by a distance r are attracted to each other with equal and opposite forces
directed along the line joining the particles. The common magnitude F of the two forces is
where G is an universal constant, called the constant of gravitation, and has the value
6.67259x10-11 N-m2/kg2 (3.4389x10-8 lb-ft2/slug2).
Let's now look at the force that the Earth exerts on an object. If the object has a mass m,
and the Earth has mass M, and the object's distance from the center of the Earth is r, then
the force that the Earth exerts on the object is GmM /r2 . If we drop the object, the Earth's
gravity will cause it to accelerate toward the center of the Earth. By Newton's second law (F
= ma), this acceleration g must equal (GmM /r2)/m, or
At the surface of the Earth this acceleration has the valve 9.80665 m/s2 (32.174 ft/s2).
Many of the upcoming computations will be somewhat simplified if we express the product
GM as a constant, which for Earth has the value 3.986005x1014 m3/s2 (1.408x1016 ft3/s 2).
The product GM is often represented by the Greek letter .
For additional useful constants please see the appendix-I Basic Constants.
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For a refresher on SI versus U.S. units see the appendix-II Weights & Measures.
6. Uniform Circular Motion

In the simple case of free fall, a particle accelerates toward the center of the Earth while
moving in a straight line. The velocity of the particle changes in magnitude, but not in
direction. In the case of uniform circular motion a particle moves in a circle with constant
speed. The velocity of the particle changes continuously in direction, but not in magnitude.
From Newton's laws we see that since the direction of the velocity is changing, there is an
acceleration. This acceleration, called centripetal acceleration is directed inward toward the
center of the circle and is given by
where v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius of the circle. Every accelerating
particle must have a force acting on it, defined by Newton's second law (F = ma). Thus, a
particle undergoing uniform circular motion is under the influence of a force, called
centripetal force, whose magnitude is given by
The direction of F at any instant must be in the direction of a at the same instant, that is
radially inward.
A satellite in orbit is acted on only by the forces of gravity. The inward acceleration which
causes the satellite to move in a circular orbit is the gravitational acceleration caused by the
body around which the satellite orbits. Hence, the satellite's centripetal acceleration is g,
that is g = v2/r. From Newton's law of universal gravitation we know that g = GM /r2.
Therefore, by setting these equations equal to one another we find that, for a circular orbit,
PROBLEM 4.1
Calculate the velocity of an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth in a
circular orbit at an altitude of 200 km above the Earth's surface.
SOLUTION,
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From Basics Constants,

Radius of Earth = 6,378.140 km
GM of Earth = 3.986005x1014 m3/s2
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
Equation (4.6),
v = SQRT[ GM / r ]
v = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 6,578,140 ]
v = 7,784 m/s
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7. Motions of Planets and Satellites

Through a lifelong study of the motions of bodies in the solar system, Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) was able to derive three basic laws known as Kepler's laws of planetary
motion. Using the data compiled by his mentor Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Kepler found the
following regularities after years of laborious calculations:
1.
All
planets
move
in
elliptical
orbits
with
the
sun
at
one
focus.
2. A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of any planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the
planet's mean distance from the sun.
These laws can be deduced from Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.
Indeed, Newton used Kepler's work as basic information in the formulation of his
gravitational theory.
As Kepler pointed out, all planets move in elliptical orbits, however, we can learn much
about planetary motion by considering the special case of circular orbits. We shall neglect
the forces between planets, considering only a planet's interaction with the sun. These
considerations apply equally well to the motion of a satellite about a planet.
Let's examine the case of two bodies of masses M and m
moving in circular orbits under the influence of each other's
gravitational attraction. The center of mass of this system
of two bodies lies along the line joining them at a point C
such that mr = MR. The large body of mass M moves in an
orbit of constant radius R and the small body of mass m in
an orbit of constant radius r, both having the same angular
velocity
. For this to happen, the gravitational force
acting on each body must provide the necessary centripetal
acceleration. Since these gravitational forces are a simple
action-reaction pair, the centripetal forces must be equal
but opposite in direction. That is, m 2r must equal M 2R.
The specific requirement, then, is that the gravitational
force acting on either body must equal the centripetal force
needed to keep it moving in its circular orbit, that is
If one body has a much greater mass than the other, as is the case of the sun and a planet
or the Earth and a satellite, its distance from the center of mass is much smaller than that
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of the other body. If we assume that m is negligible compared to M, then R is negligible

compared to r. Thus, equation (4.7) then becomes
If we express the angular velocity in terms of the period of revolution,
=2
/P, we obtain
where P is the period of revolution. This is a basic equation of planetary and satellite
motion. It also holds for elliptical orbits if we define r to be the semi-major axis (a) of the
orbit.
A significant consequence of this equation is that it predicts Kepler's third law of planetary
motion, that is P2~r3.
PROBLEM 4.2
Calculate the period of revolution for the satellite in problem 4.1.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = 6,578,140 m
Equation (4.9),
P2 = 4
r3 / GM
P = SQRT[ 4
P = SQRT[ 4
P = 5,310 s
2
2
r3 / GM ]
6,578,1403 / 3.986005x1014 ]
PROBLEM 4.3
Calculate the radius of orbit for a Earth satellite in a geosynchronous
orbit, where the
Earth's rotational period is 86,164.1 seconds.
SOLUTION,
Given:
P = 86,164.1 s
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Equation (4.9),
P2 = 4
r3 / GM
2
r = [ P2 GM / (4
) ]1/3
2
r = [ 86,164.1 3.986005x1014 / (4
r = 42,164,170 m
) ]1/3
In celestial mechanics where we are dealing with planetary or stellar sized bodies, it is
often the case that the mass of the secondary body is significant in relation to the mass
of the primary, as with the Moon and Earth. In this case the size of the secondary
cannot be ignored. The distance R is no longer negligible compared to r and, therefore,
must be carried through the derivation. Equation (4.9) becomes
More commonly the equation is written in the equivalent form
where a is the semi-major axis. The semi-major axis used in astronomy is always the
primary-to-secondary distance, or the geocentric semi-major axis. For example, the
Moon's mean geocentric distance from Earth (a) is 384,403 kilometers. On the other
hand, the Moon's distance from the barycenter (r) is 379,732 km, with Earth's counterorbit (R) taking up the difference of 4,671 km.
Kepler's second law of planetary motion must, of course, hold true for circular orbits. In
such orbits both
and r are constant so that equal areas are swept out in equal times by
the line joining a planet and the sun. For elliptical orbits, however, both
and r will vary
with time. Let's now consider this case.
Figure 4.5 shows a particle revolving around C along
some arbitrary path. The area swept out by the radius
vector in a short time interval t is shown shaded. This
area, neglecting the small triangular region at the end, is
one-half the base times the height or approximately r(r
t)/2. This expression becomes more exact as
t
approaches zero, i.e. the small triangle goes to zero
more rapidly than the large one. The rate at which area
is being swept out instantaneously is therefore
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For any given body moving under the influence of a central force, the value
r2 is constant.
Let's now consider two points P1 and P2 in an orbit with radii r1 and r2, and velocities v1 and
v2. Since the velocity is always tangent to the path, it can be seen that if is the angle
between r and v, then
where vsin is the transverse component of v.

Multiplying through by r, we have
or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path
Note that at periapsis and apoapsis, = 90 degrees.

Thus, letting P1 and P2 be these two points we get
Let's now look at the energy of the above particle at points P1 and P2. Conservation of
energy states that the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a particle
remains constant. The kinetic energy T of a particle is given by mv2/2 while the potential
energy of gravity V is calculated by the equation -GMm/r. Applying conservation of energy
we have
From equations (4.14) and (4.15) we obtain
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Rearranging terms we get
PROBLEM 4.4
An artificial Earth satellite is in an elliptical orbit which brings it to an
altitude of 250 km at perigee and out to an altitude of 500 km at apogee.
Calculate the velocity of the satellite at both perigee and apogee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Rp = (6,378.14 + 250) 1,000 = 6,628,140 m

Ra = (6,378.14 + 500) 1,000 = 6,878,140 m
Equations (4.16) and (4.17),

Vp = SQRT[ 2 GM Ra / (Rp (Ra + Rp)) ]
Vp = SQRT[ 2 3.986005x1014 6,878,140 / (6,628,140 (6,878,140 +
6,628,140)) ]
Vp = 7,826 m/s
Va = SQRT[ 2 GM Rp / (Ra (Ra + Rp)) ]
Va = SQRT[ 2 3.986005x1014 6,628,140 / (6,878,140 (6,878,140 +
6,628,140)) ]
Va = 7,542 m/s
PROBLEM 4.5
A satellite in Earth orbit passes through its perigee point at an altitude of
200 km
above the Earth's surface and at a velocity of 7,850 m/s. Calculate the
apogee altitude
of the satellite.
SOLUTION,
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Given:

Rp = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

Vp = 7,850 m/s
Equation (4.18),
Ra = Rp / [2 GM / (Rp Vp2) - 1]
Ra = 6,578,140 / [2 3.986005x1014 / (6,578,140 7,8502) - 1]
Ra = 6,805,140 m
Altitude @ apogee = 6,805,140 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 427.0 km
The eccentricity e of an orbit is given by
PROBLEM 4.6
Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the satellite in problem 4.5.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Rp = 6,578,140 m
Vp = 7,850 m/s
Equation (4.20),
e = Rp Vp2 / GM - 1
e = 6,578,140 7,8502 / 3.986005x1014 - 1
e = 0.01696
If the semi-major axis a and the eccentricity e of an orbit are known, then the periapsis and
apoapsis distances can be calculated by
PROBLEM 4.7
A satellite in Earth orbit has a semi-major axis of 6,700 km and an
eccentricity of 0.01. Calculate the satellite's altitude at both perigee and
apogee.
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SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 6,700 km
e = 0.01
Equation (4.21) and (4.22),

Rp = a (1 - e)
Rp = 6,700 (1 - .01)
Rp = 6,633 km
Altitude @ perigee = 6,633 - 6,378.14 = 254.9 km
Ra = a (1 + e)
Ra = 6,700 (1 + .01)
Ra = 6,767 km
Altitude @ apogee = 6,767 - 6,378.14 = 388.9 km
8.
Launch of a Space Vehicle
The launch of a satellite or space vehicle consists of

a period of powered flight during which the vehicle
is lifted above the Earth's atmosphere and
accelerated to orbital velocity by a rocket, or launch
vehicle. Powered flight concludes at burnout of the
rocket's last stage at which time the vehicle begins
its free flight. During free flight the space vehicle is
assumed to be subjected only to the gravitational
pull of the Earth. If the vehicle moves far from the
Earth, its trajectory may be affected by the
gravitational influence of the sun, moon, or another planet.
A space vehicle's orbit may be determined from the position and the velocity of the vehicle
at the beginning of its free flight. A vehicle's position and velocity can be described by the
variables r, v, and , where r is the vehicle's distance from the center of the Earth, v is its
velocity, and is the angle between the position and the velocity vectors, called the zenith
angle (see Figure 4.7). If we let r1, v1, and 1 be the initial (launch) values of r, v, and ,
then we may consider these as given quantities. If we let point P2 represent the perigee,
then equation (4.13) becomes
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Substituting equation (4.23) into (4.15), we can obtain an equation for the perigee radius
Rp.
Multiplying through by -Rp2/(r12v12) and rearranging, we get
Note that this is a simple quadratic equation in the ratio (Rp/r1) and that 2GM /(r1 v12) is a
nondimensional parameter of the orbit.
Solving for (Rp/r1) gives
Like any quadratic, the above equation yields two answers. The smaller of the two answers
corresponds to Rp, the periapsis radius. The other root corresponds to the apoapsis radius,
Ra .
Please note that in practice spacecraft launches are usually terminated at either perigee or
apogee, i.e. =90. This condition results in the minimum use of propellant.
PROBLEM 4.8
A satellite is launched into Earth orbit where its launch vehicle burns out
at an altitude of 250 km. At burnout the satellite's velocity is 7,900 m/s
with the zenith angle equal to 89 degrees. Calculate the satellite's
altitude at perigee and apogee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = (6,378.14 + 250) 1,000 = 6,628,140 m

v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.26),
(Rp / r1)1,2 = ( -C SQRT[ C2 - 4 (1 - C) -sin2
C))
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where

C = 2 GM / (r1 v12)
C = 2 3.986005x1014 / (6,628,140 7,9002)
C = 1.92718
(Rp / r1)1,2 = ( -1.92718 SQRT[ 1.927182 - 4 -0.92718 -sin2(89) ])

/ (2 -0.92718)
(Rp / r1)1,2 = 0.996019 and 1.08252
Perigee Radius, Rp = Rp1 = r1 (Rp / r1)1
Rp = 6,628,140 0.996019
Rp = 6,601,750 m
Altitude @ perigee = 6,601,750 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 223.6 km
Apogee Radius, Ra = Rp2 = r1 (Rp / r1)2
Ra = 6,628,140 1.08252
Ra = 7,175,090 m
Altitude @ agogee = 7,175,090 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 797.0 km
Equation (4.26) gives the values of Rp and Ra from which the eccentricity of the orbit can be
calculated, however, it may be simpler to calculate the eccentricity e directly from the
equation
PROBLEM 4.9
Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the satellite in problem 4.8.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.27),
e = SQRT[ (r1 v12 / GM - 1)2 sin2
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e = SQRT[ (6,628,140 7,9002 / 3.986005x1014 - 1)2 sin2(89) + cos2(89)

]
e = 0.04162
To pin down a satellite's orbit in space, we need to know the angle

from the periapsis point to the launch point. This angle is given by
, the true anomaly,
PROBLEM 4.10
Calculate the angle
in problem 4.8.
from perigee point to launch point for the satellite
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.28),
tan
= (r1 v12 / GM) sin
tan
= (6,628,140 7,9002 / 3.986005x1014) sin(89) cos(89)

/ [(6,628,140 7,9002 / 3.986005x1014) sin2(89) - 1]
= 0.48329
cos
/ [(r1 v12 / GM) sin2
- 1]
tan
= arctan(0.48329)
= 25.79o
In most calculations, the complement of the zenith angle is

used, denoted by
. This angle is called the flight-path
angle, and is positive when the velocity vector is directed
away from the primary as shown in Figure 4.8. When
flight-path angle is used, equations (4.26) through (4.28)
are rewritten as follows:
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9.

Position in an Elliptical Orbit
Johannes Kepler was able to solve the problem of relating position in an orbit to the elapsed
time, t-to, or conversely, how long it takes to go from one point in an orbit to another. To
solve this, Kepler introduced the quantity M, called the mean anomaly, which is the fraction
of an orbit period that has elapsed since perigee. The mean anomaly equals the true
anomaly for a circular orbit. By definition,
where Mo in the mean anomaly at time to and n is the mean motion, or the average angular
velocity, determined from the semi-major axis of the orbit as follows:
This solution will give the average position and velocity, but satellite orbits are elliptical with
a radius constantly varying in orbit. Because the satellite's velocity depends on this varying
radius, it changes as well. To resolve this problem we can define an intermediate variable E,
called the eccentric anomaly, for elliptical orbits, which is given by
where is the true anomaly. Mean anomaly is a function of eccentric anomaly by the
formula
For small eccentricities a good approximation of true anomaly can be obtained by the
following formula (the error is of the order e3):
The preceding five equations can be used to (1) find the time it takes to go from one
position in an orbit to another, or (2) find the position in an orbit after a specific period of
time. When solving these equations it is important to work in radians rather than degrees,
where 2 radians equals 360 degrees.
PROBLEM 4.11
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A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km and an

eccentricity of 0.1. Calculate the time it takes to move from a position 30
degrees past perigee to 90 degrees past perigee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500 1,000 = 7,500,000 m

e = 0.1
tO = 0
/180 = 0.52360 radians
O = 30 deg
= 90 deg
/180 = 1.57080 radians
Equation (4.34),
cos E = (e + cos
) / (1 + e cos
Eo = arccos[(0.1 + cos(0.52360)) / (1 + 0.1 cos(0.52360))]

Eo = 0.47557 radians
E = arccos[(0.1 + cos(1.57080)) / (1 + 0.1 cos(1.57080))]
E = 1.47063 radians
Equation (4.35),
M = E - e sin E
Mo = 0.47557 - 0.1 sin(0.47557)
Mo = 0.42978 radians
M = 1.47063 - 0.1 sin(1.47063)
M = 1.37113 radians
Equation (4.33),
n = SQRT[ GM / a3 ]
n = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 7,500,0003 ]
n = 0.00097202 rad/s
Equation (4.32),
M - Mo = n (t - tO)
t = tO + (M - Mo) / n
t = 0 + (1.37113 - 0.42978) / 0.00097202
t = 968.4 s
PROBLEM 4.12
The satellite in problem 4.11 has a true anomaly of 90 degrees. What will be
the satellite's position, i.e. it's true anomaly, 20 minutes later?
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SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500,000 m
e = 0.1
tO = 0
t = 20 60 = 1,200 s
/180 = 1.57080 rad
O = 90
From problem 4.11,

Mo = 1.37113 rad
n = 0.00097202 rad/s
Equation (4.32),
M - Mo = n (t - tO)
M = Mo + n (t - tO)
M = 1.37113 + 0.00097202 (1,200 - 0)
M = 2.53755
METHOD #1, Low Accuracy:

Equation (4.36),
~ M + 2 e sin M + 1.25 e2 sin 2M
~ 2.53755 + 2 0.1 sin(2.53755) + 1.25 0.12 sin(2 2.53755)
~ 2.63946 = 151.2 degrees
METHOD #2, High Accuracy:
Equation (4.35),
M = E - e sin E
2.53755 = E - 0.1 sin E
By iteration, E = 2.58996 radians
Equation (4.34),
cos E = (e + cos
) / (1 + e cos
Rearranging variables gives,

cos
= (cos E - e) / (1 - e cos E)
= arccos[(cos(2.58996) - 0.1) / (1 - 0.1 cos(2.58996)]

= 2.64034 = 151.3 degrees
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At any time in its orbit, the magnitude of a spacecraft's position vector, i.e. its distance from
the primary body, and its flight-path angle can be calculated from the following equations:
And the spacecraft's velocity is given by,
PROBLEM 4.13
For the satellite in problems 4.11 and 4.12, calculate the length of its
position vector, its flight-path angle, and its velocity when the satellite's
true anomaly is 225 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500,000 m
e = 0.1
= 225 degrees

r = a (1 - e2) / (1 + e cos
)
r = 7,500,000 (1 - 0.12) / (1 + 0.1 cos(225))
r = 7,989,977 m
= arctan[ e sin
/ (1 + e cos
)]
= arctan[ 0.1 sin(225) / (1 + 0.1 cos(225))]
= -4.351 degrees
Equation (4.39),
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v = SQRT[ GM a (1 - e2)] / (r cos

)
v = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 7,500,000 (1 - 0.12)] / (7,989,977 cos(4.351))
v = 6,828 m/s
10.
Orbit Perturbations
The orbital elements discussed at the beginning of this section provide an excellent
reference for describing orbits, however there are other forces acting on a satellite that
perturb it away from the nominal orbit. These perturbations, or variations in the orbital
elements, can be classified based on how they affect the Keplerian elements. Secular
variations represent a linear variation in the element, short-period variations are periodic in
the element with a period less than the orbital period, and long-period variations are those
with a period greater than the orbital period. Because secular variations have long-term
effects on orbit prediction (the orbital elements affected continue to increase or decrease),
they will be discussed here for Earth-orbiting satellites. Precise orbit determination requires
that the periodic variations be included as well.
Third-Body Perturbations
The gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon cause periodic variations in all of the
orbital elements, but only the longitude of the ascending node, argument of perigee, and
mean anomaly experience secular variations. These secular variations arise from a
gyroscopic precession of the orbit about the ecliptic pole. The secular variation in mean
anomaly is much smaller than the mean motion and has little effect on the orbit, however
the secular variations in longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee are
important, especially for high-altitude orbits.
For nearly circular orbits the equations for the secular rates of change resulting from the
Sun and Moon are
Longitude of the ascending node:
Argument of perigee:
where i is the orbit inclination, n is the number of orbit revolutions per day, and
and
are in degrees per day. These equations are only approximate; they neglect the variation
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caused by the changing orientation of the orbital plane with respect to both the Moon's
orbital plane and the ecliptic plane.
PROBLEM 4.14
Calculate the perturbations in longitude of the ascending node and argument
of perigee caused by the Moon and Sun for the International Space Station
orbiting at an altitude of 400 km, an inclination of 51.6 degrees, and with
an orbital period of 92.6 minutes.
SOLUTION,
Given:
i = 51.6 degrees
n = 1436 / 92.6 = 15.5 revolutions/day
Equations (4.40) through (4.43),

Moon
Moon
Moon
Sun
Sun
Sun
Moon
Moon
Moon
Sun
Sun
Sun
= -0.00338 cos(i) / n
= -0.00338 cos(51.6) / 15.5
= -0.000135 deg/day
= -0.00154 cos(i) / n
= -0.00154 cos(51.6) / 15.5
= -0.0000617 deg/day
= 0.00169 (4 - 5 sin2 i) / n
= 0.00169 (4 - 5 sin2 51.6) / 15.5
= 0.000101 deg/day
= 0.00077 (4 - 5 sin2 i) / n
= 0.00077 (4 - 5 sin2 51.6) / 15.5
= 0.000046 deg/day
Perturbations due to Non-spherical Earth

When developing the two-body equations of motion, we assumed the Earth was a
spherically symmetrical, homogeneous mass. In fact, the Earth is neither homogeneous nor
spherical. The most dominant features are a bulge at the equator, a slight pear shape, and
flattening at the poles. For a potential function of the Earth, we can find a satellite's
acceleration by taking the gradient of the potential function. The most widely used form of
the geopotential function depends on latitude and geopotential coefficients, Jn, called the
zonal coefficients.
The potential generated by the non-spherical Earth causes periodic variations in all the
orbital elements. The dominant effects, however, are secular variations in longitude of the
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ascending node and argument of perigee because of the Earth's oblateness, represented by
the J2 term in the geopotential expansion. The rates of change of
and
due to J2 are
where n is the mean motion in degrees/day, J2 has the value 0.00108263, RE is the Earth's
equatorial radius, a is the semi-major axis in kilometers, i is the inclination, e is the
eccentricity, and
and
are in degrees/day. For satellites in GEO and below, the J2
perturbations dominate; for satellites above GEO the Sun and Moon perturbations dominate.
Molniya orbits are designed so that the perturbations in argument of perigee are zero. This
conditions occurs when the term 4-5sin2i is equal to zero or, that is, when the inclination is
either 63.4 or 116.6 degrees.
PROBLEM 4.15
A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km, an inclination
of 28.5 degrees, and an eccentricity of 0.1. Calculate the J2 perturbations
in longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500 km
i = 28.5 degrees
e = 0.1

J2
J2
J2
J2
J2
J2
= -2.06474x1014 a-7/2 (cos i) (1 - e2)-2

= -2.06474x1014 (7,500)-7/2 (cos 28.5) (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= -5.067 deg/day
= 1.03237x1014 a-7/2 (4 - 5 sin2 i) (1 - e2)-2
= 1.03237x1014 (7,500)-7/2 (4 - 5 sin2 28.5) (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= 8.250 deg/day
Perturbations from Atmospheric Drag

Drag is the resistance offered by a gas or liquid to a body moving through it. A spacecraft is
subjected to drag forces when moving through a planet's atmosphere. This drag is greatest
during launch and reentry, however, even a space vehicle in low Earth orbit experiences
some drag as it moves through the Earth's thin upper atmosphere. In time, the action of
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drag on a space vehicle will cause it to spiral back into the atmosphere, eventually to
disintegrate or burn up. If a space vehicle comes within 120 to 160 km of the Earth's
surface, atmospheric drag will bring it down in a few days, with final disintegration occurring
at an altitude of about 80 km. Above approximately 600 km, on the other hand, drag is so
weak that orbits usually last more than 10 years - beyond a satellite's operational lifetime.
The deterioration of a spacecraft's orbit due to drag is called decay.
The drag force FD on a body acts in the opposite direction of the velocity vector and is given
by the equation
where CD is the drag coefficient, is the air density, v is the body's velocity, and A is the
area of the body normal to the flow. The drag coefficient is dependent on the geometric
form of the body and is generally determined by experiment. Earth orbiting satellites
typically have very high drag coefficients in the range of about 2 to 4. Air density is given by
the appendix-III Atmosphere Properties.
The region above 90 km is the Earth's thermosphere where the absorption of extreme
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun results in a very rapid increase in temperature with
altitude. At approximately 200-250 km this temperature approaches a limiting value, the
average value of which ranges between about 600 and 1,200 K over a typical solar cycle.
Solar activity also has a significant affect on atmospheric density, with high solar activity
resulting in high density. Below about 150 km the density is not strongly affected by solar
activity; however, at satellite altitudes in the range of 500 to 800 km, the density variations
between solar maximum and solar minimum are approximately two orders of magnitude.
The large variations imply that satellites will decay more rapidly during periods of solar
maxima and much more slowly during solar minima.
For circular orbits we can approximate the changes in semi-major axis, period, and velocity
per revolution using the following equations:
where a is the semi-major axis, P is the orbit period, and V, A and m are the satellite's
velocity, area, and mass respectively. The term m/(CDA), called the ballistic coefficient, is
given as a constant for most satellites. Drag effects are strongest for satellites with low
ballistic coefficients, this is, light vehicles with large frontal areas.
A rough estimate of a satellite's lifetime, L, due to drag can be computed from
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where H is the atmospheric density scale height. A substantially more accurate estimate
(although still very approximate) can be obtained by integrating equation (4.47), taking into
account the changes in atmospheric density with both altitude and solar activity.
PROBLEM 4.16
A satellite is in a circular Earth orbit at an
satellite has a cylindrical shape 2 m in diameter
of 1,000 kg. The satellite is traveling with its
the velocity vector and it's drag coefficient
perturbations due to atmospheric drag and estimate
altitude of 400 km.

The
by 4 m long and has a mass
long axis perpendicular to
is 2.67.
Calculate the
the satellite's lifetime.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = (6,378.14 + 400) 1,000 = 6,778,140 m

A = 2 4 = 8 m2
m = 1,000 kg
CD = 2.67
From Atmosphere Properties,

= 2.62x10-12 kg/m3
H = 58.2 km
Equation (4.6),
V = SQRT[ GM / a ]
V = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 6,778,140 ]
V = 7,669 m/s
arev = (-2
arev = (-2
arev = -16.2 m
CD A
a2 ) / m
2.67 8 2.62x10-12 6,778,1402) / 1,000
2
Prev = (-6
CD A
a2) / (m V)
2
Prev = (-6
2.67 8 2.62x10-12 6,778,1402) / (1,000 7,669)
Prev = -0.0199 s
Vrev = (
CD A
a V) / m
Vrev = (
2.67 8 2.62x10-12 6,778,140 7,669) / 1,000
Vrev = 0.00914 m/s
Equation (4.50),
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L ~ -H /
arev
L ~ -(58.2 1,000) / -16.2
L ~ 3,600 revolutions
Perturbations from Solar Radiation

Solar radiation pressure causes periodic variations in all of the orbital elements. The
magnitude of the acceleration in m/s2 arising from solar radiation pressure is
where A is the cross-sectional area of the satellite exposed to the Sun and m is the mass of
the satellite in kilograms. For satellites below 800 km altitude, acceleration from
atmospheric drag is greater than that from solar radiation pressure; above 800 km,
acceleration from solar radiation pressure is greater.
11.
Orbit Maneuvers
At some point during the lifetime of most space vehicles or satellites, we must change one
or more of the orbital elements. For example, we may need to transfer from an initial
parking orbit to the final mission orbit, rendezvous with or intercept another spacecraft, or
correct the orbital elements to adjust for the perturbations discussed in the previous
section. Most frequently, we must change the orbit altitude, plane, or both. To change the
orbit of a space vehicle, we have to change its velocity vector in magnitude or direction.
Most propulsion systems operate for only a short time compared to the orbital period, thus
we can treat the maneuver as an impulsive change in velocity while the position remains
fixed. For this reason, any maneuver changing the orbit of a space vehicle must occur at a
point where the old orbit intersects the new orbit. If the orbits do not intersect, we must use
an intermediate orbit that intersects both. In this case, the total maneuver will require at
least two propulsive burns.
Orbit Altitude Changes

The most common type of in-plane maneuver
changes the size and energy of an orbit, usually
from a low-altitude parking orbit to a higheraltitude mission orbit such as a geosynchronous
orbit. Because the initial and final orbits do not
intersect, the maneuver requires a transfer
orbit. Figure 4.9 represents a Hohmann transfer
orbit. In this case, the transfer orbit's ellipse is
tangent to both the initial and final orbits at the
transfer orbit's perigee and apogee respectively.
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The orbits are tangential, so the velocity vectors are collinear, and the Hohmann transfer
represents the most fuel-efficient transfer between two circular, coplanar orbits. When
transferring from a smaller orbit to a larger orbit, the change in velocity is applied in the
direction of motion; when transferring from a larger orbit to a smaller, the change of
velocity is opposite to the direction of motion.
The total change in velocity required for the orbit transfer is the sum of the velocity changes
at perigee and apogee of the transfer ellipse. Since the velocity vectors are collinear, the
velocity changes are just the differences in magnitudes of the velocities in each orbit. If we
know the initial and final orbits, rA and rB, we can calculate the total velocity change using
the following equations:
Note that equations (4.53) and (4.54) are the same as equation (4.6), and equations (4.55)
and (4.56) are variations of equations (4.16) and (4.17) respectively.
PROBLEM 4.17
A spacecraft is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km.
Calculate the velocity change required to perform a Hohmann transfer to a
circular orbit at geosynchronous altitude.
SOLUTION,
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
From problem 4.3,

rB = 42,164,170 m
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atx = (rA + rB) / 2
atx = (6,578,140 + 42,164,170) / 2
atx = 24,371,155 m
ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s
VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxA = SQRT[ GM (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]
VtxA = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxA = 10,239 m/s
VtxB = SQRT[ GM (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxB = 1,597 m/s
VA = VtxA - ViA
VA = 10,239 - 7,784
VA = 2,455 m/s
VB = VfB - VtxB
VB = 3,075 - 1,597
VB = 1,478 m/s
VT =
VA +
VB
VT = 2,455 + 1,478
VT = 3,933 m/s
Ordinarily we want to transfer a space vehicle

using the smallest amount of energy, which
usually leads to using a Hohmann transfer
orbit. However, sometimes we may need to
transfer a satellite between orbits in less time
than that required to complete the Hohmann
transfer. Figure 4.10 shows a faster transfer
called the One-Tangent Burn. In this instance
the transfer orbit is tangential to the initial
orbit. It intersects the final orbit at an angle
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equal to the flight path angle of the transfer orbit at the point of intersection. An infinite
number of transfer orbits are tangential to the initial orbit and intersect the final orbit at
some angle. Thus, we may choose the transfer orbit by specifying the size of the transfer
orbit, the angular change of the transfer, or the time required to complete the transfer. We
can then define the transfer orbit and calculate the required velocities.
For example, we may specify the size of the transfer orbit, choosing any semi-major axis
that is greater than the semi-major axis of the Hohmann transfer ellipse. Once we know the
semi-major axis of the ellipse, atx, we can calculate the eccentricity, angular distance
traveled in the transfer, the velocity change required for the transfer, and the time required
to complete the transfer. We do this using equations (4.53) through (4.57) and (4.59)
above, and the following equations:
PROBLEM 4.18
A satellite is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km. Using
a one-tangent burn, it is to be transferred to geosynchronous altitude using
and a transfer ellipse with a semi-major axis of 30,000 km.
Calculate the
total required velocity change and the time required to complete the
transfer.
SOLUTION,
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

rB = 42,164,170 m
atx = 30,000 1,000 = 30,000,000 m

e = 1 - rA / atx
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e = 1 - 6,578,140 / 30,000,000
e = 0.780729
= arccos[(atx (1 - e2) / rB - 1) / e ]
= arccos[(30,000,000 (1 - 0.7807292) / 42,164,170 - 1) / 0.780729 ]
= 157.670 degrees
= arctan[ e sin
/ (1 + e cos
)]
= arctan[ 0.780729 sin(157.670) / (1 + 0.780729 cos(157.670))]
= 46.876 degrees
ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s
VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxA = SQRT[ GM (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]
VtxA = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxA = 10,388 m/s
VtxB = SQRT[ GM (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxB = 2,371 m/s
VA = VtxA - ViA
VA = 10,388 - 7,784
VA = 2,604 m/s
Equation (4.63),
VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 VtxB VfB cos
]
VB = SQRT[ 2,3712 + 3,0752 - 2 2,371 3,075 cos(46.876)]
VB = 2,260 m/s
Equation (4.59),
VT =
VA +
VB
VT = 2,604 + 2,260
VT = 4,864 m/s
E = arctan[(1 - e2)1/2 sin
/ (e + cos
)]
E = arctan[(1 - 0.7807292)1/2 sin(157.670) / (0.780729 + cos(157.670))]
E = 2.11688 radians
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TOF = (E - e sin E) SQRT[ atx3 / GM ]

TOF = (2.11688 - 0.780729 sin(2.11688)) SQRT[ 30,000,0003 /
3.986005x1014 ]
TOF = 11,931 s = 3.314 hours
Another option for changing the size of an orbit is to use electric propulsion to produce a
constant low-thrust burn, which results in a spiral transfer. We can approximate the velocity
change for this type of orbit transfer by
where the velocities are the circular velocities of the two orbits.
Orbit Plane Changes

To change the orientation of a satellite's orbital
plane, typically the inclination, we must change
the direction of the velocity vector. This
maneuver requires a component of
V to be
perpendicular to the orbital plane and,
therefore, perpendicular to the initial velocity
vector. If the size of the orbit remains constant,
the maneuver is called a simple plane change.
We can find the required change in velocity by
using the law of cosines. For the case in which
Vf is equal to Vi, this expression reduces to
where Vi is the velocity before and after the burn, and
is the angle change required.
PROBLEM 4.19
Calculate the velocity change required to transfer a satellite from a
circular 600 km orbit with an inclination of 28 degrees to an orbit of equal
size with an inclination of 20 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 600) 1,000 = 6,978,140 m

= 28 - 20 = 8 degrees
Equation (4.6),
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Vi = SQRT[ GM / r ]
Vi = SQRT[ 3.986005x1014 / 6,978,140 ]
Vi = 7,558 m/s
Equation (4.67),
V = 2 Vi sin( /2)
V = 2 7,558 sin(8/2)
V = 1,054 m/s
From equation (4.67) we see that if the angular change is equal to 60 degrees, the required
change in velocity is equal to the current velocity. Plane changes are very expensive in
terms of the required change in velocity and resulting propellant consumption. To minimize
this, we should change the plane at a point where the velocity of the satellite is a minimum:
at apogee for an elliptical orbit. In some cases, it may even be cheaper to boost the satellite
into a higher orbit, change the orbit plane at apogee, and return the satellite to its original
orbit.
Typically, orbital transfers require changes in both the size and the plane of the orbit, such
as transferring from an inclined parking orbit at low altitude to a zero-inclination orbit at
geosynchronous altitude. We can do this transfer in two steps: a Hohmann transfer to
change the size of the orbit and a simple plane change to make the orbit equatorial. A more
efficient method (less total change in velocity) would be to combine the plane change with
the tangential burn at apogee of the transfer orbit. As we must change both the magnitude
and direction of the velocity vector, we can find the required change in velocity using the
law of cosines,
where Vi is the initial velocity, Vf is the final velocity, and is the angle change required.
Note that equation (4.68) is in the same form as equation (4.63).
PROBLEM 4.20
A satellite is in a parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km and an
inclination of 28 degrees. Calculate the total velocity change required to
transfer the satellite to a zero-inclination geosynchronous orbit using a
Hohmann transfer with a combined plane change at apogee.
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

rB = 42,164,170 m
= 28 degrees
From problem 4.17,

VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxB = 1,597 m/s
VA = 2,455 m/s
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Equation (4.68),
VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 VtxB VfB cos
]
VB = SQRT[ 1,5972 + 3,0752 - 2 1,597 3,075 cos(28)]
VB = 1,826 m/s
Equation (4.59),
VT =
VA +
VB
VT = 2,455 + 1,826
VT = 4,281 m/s
As can be seen from equation (4.68), a small plane change can be combined with an
altitude change for almost no cost in
V or propellant. Consequently, in practice,
geosynchronous transfer is done with a small plane change at perigee and most of the plane
change at apogee.
Another option is to complete the maneuver using three burns. The first burn is a coplanar
maneuver placing the satellite into a transfer orbit with an apogee much higher than the
final orbit. When the satellite reaches apogee of the transfer orbit, a combined plane change
maneuver is done. This places the satellite in a second transfer orbit that is coplanar with
the final orbit and has a perigee altitude equal to the altitude of the final orbit. Finally, when
the satellite reaches perigee of the second transfer orbit, another coplanar maneuver places
the satellite into the final orbit. This three-burn maneuver may save propellant, but the
propellant savings comes at the expense of the total time required to complete the
maneuver.
When a plane change is used to modify inclination only, the magnitude of the angle change
is simply the difference between the initial and final inclinations. In this case, the initial and
final orbits share the same ascending and descending nodes. The plane change maneuver
takes places when the space vehicle passes through one of these two nodes.
In some instances, however, a plane change is used to alter an orbit's longitude of
ascending node in addition to the inclination. An example might be a maneuver to correct
out-of-plane errors to make the orbits of two space vehicles coplanar in preparation for a
rendezvous. If the orbital elements of the initial and final orbits are known, the plane
change angle is determined by the vector dot product. If ii and
i are the inclination and
longitude of ascending node of the initial orbit, and if and
f are the inclination and
longitude of ascending node of the final orbit, then the angle between the orbital planes, ,
is given by
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PROBLEM 4.21
A spacecraft is in an orbit with an inclination of 30 degrees and the
longitude of the ascending node is 75 degrees.
Calculate the angle change
required to change the inclination to 32 degrees and the longitude of the
ascending node to 80 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
ii =
i
if =
f
30 degrees
= 75 degrees
32 degrees
= 80 degrees
Equation (4.69),
a1 = sin(ii)cos(
i) = sin(30)cos(75) = 0.129410
a2 = sin(ii)sin(
i) = sin(30)sin(75) = 0.482963
a3 = cos(ii) = cos(30) = 0.866025

b1 = sin(if)cos(
f) = sin(32)cos(80) = 0.0920195
b2 = sin(if)sin(
f) = sin(32)sin(80) = 0.521869
b3 = cos(if) = cos(32) = 0.848048

= arccos(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3)
= arccos(0.129410 0.0920195 + 0.482963 0.521869 + 0.866025
0.848048)
= 3.259 degrees
The plane change maneuver takes place at one of two nodes where the initial and final
orbits intersect. The latitude and longitude of these nodes are determined by the vector
cross product. The position of one of the two nodes is given by
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Knowing the position of one node, the second node is simply
PROBLEM 4.22
Calculate the latitude and longitude of the intersection nodes between the
initial and final orbits for the spacecraft in problem 4.22.
SOLUTION,
From problem 4.21,
a1
a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.129410
0.482963
0.866025
0.0920195
0.521869
0.848048

c1 = a2 b3 - a3 b2 = 0.482963 0.848048 - 0.866025 0.521869 = 0.0423757
c2 = a3 b1 - a1 b3 = 0.866025 0.0920195 - 0.129410 0.848048 = 0.0300543
c3 = a1 b2 - a2 b1 = 0.129410 0.521869 - 0.482963 0.0920195 =
0.0230928
lat1 = arctan(c3 / (c12 + c22)1/2)
lat1 = arctan(0.0230928 / (-0.04237572 + -0.03005432)1/2)
lat1 = 23.965 degrees
long1 = arctan(c2 / c1) + 90
long1 = arctan(-0.0300543 / -0.0423757) + 90
long1 = 125.346 degrees
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lat2 = -23.965 degrees

long2 = 125.346 + 180 = 305.346 degrees
Orbit Rendezvous
Orbital transfer becomes more complicated when the object is to rendezvous with or
intercept another object in space: both the interceptor and the target must arrive at the
rendezvous point at the same time. This precision demands a phasing orbit to accomplish
the maneuver. A phasing orbit is any orbit that results in the interceptor achieving the
desired geometry relative to the target to initiate a Hohmann transfer. If the initial and final
orbits are circular, coplanar, and of different sizes, then the phasing orbit is simply the
initial interceptor orbit. The interceptor remains in the initial orbit until the relative motion
between the interceptor and target results in the desired geometry. At that point, we would
inject the interceptor into a Hohmann transfer orbit.
Launch Windows
Similar to the rendezvous problem is the launch-window problem, or determining the
appropriate time to launch from the surface of the Earth into the desired orbital plane.
Because the orbital plane is fixed in inertial space, the launch window is the time when the
launch site on the surface of the Earth rotates through the orbital plane. The time of the
launch depends on the launch site's latitude and longitude and the satellite orbit's inclination
and longitude of ascending node.
Orbit Maintenance
Once in their mission orbits, many satellites need no additional orbit adjustment. On the
other hand, mission requirements may demand that we maneuver the satellite to correct
the orbital elements when perturbing forces have changed them. Two particular cases of
note are satellites with repeating ground tracks and geostationary satellites.
After the mission of a satellite is complete, several options exist, depending on the orbit. We
may allow low-altitude orbits to decay and reenter the atmosphere or use a velocity change
to speed up the process. We may also boost satellites at all altitudes into benign orbits to
reduce the probability of collision with active payloads, especially at synchronous altitudes.
V Budget
To an orbit designer, a space mission is a series of different orbits. For example, a satellite
might be released in a low-Earth parking orbit, transferred to some mission orbit, go
through a series of resphasings or alternate mission orbits, and then move to some final
orbit at the end of its useful life. Each of these orbit changes requires energy. The
V
budget is traditionally used to account for this energy. It sums all the velocity changes
required throughout the space mission life. In a broad sense the V budget represents the
cost for each mission orbit scenario.
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12.

Escape Velocity
We know that if we throw a ball up from the surface of the Earth, it will rise for a while and
then return. If we give it a larger initial velocity, it will rise higher and then return. There is
a velocity, called the escape velocity, Vesc , such that if the ball is launched with an initial
velocity greater than Vesc , it will rise and never return. We must give the particle enough
kinetic energy to overcome all of the negative gravitational potential energy. Thus, if m is
the mass of the ball, M is the mass of the Earth, and R is the radius of the Earth, the
potential energy is -GmM /R. The kinetic energy of the ball, when it is launched, is mv2/2.
We thus have
which is independent of the mass of the ball.

For a spacecraft launched to escape velocity from a parking orbit, R is the radius of the
orbit.
PROBLEM 4.23
Calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft launched from an Earth orbit
with an altitude of 300 km.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 300) 1,000 = 6,678,140 m
Equation (4.72),
VESC = SQRT[ 2 GM / r ]
VESC = SQRT[ 2 3.986005x1014 / 6,678,140 ]
VESC = 10,926 m/s
13.
Appendix I BASIC CONSTANTS
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Mathematical Constants
3.141592653589793
2.718281828459045
Physical Constants
Speed of light (c)
299,792,458
Constant of gravitation (G)
6.67259x10
Universal gas constant (R)
8,314.510
-11
m/s
N-m2/kg2
N-m/kg-K
-8
W/m2-K4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant ()
5.67051x10
Acceleration of gravity (g)
9.80665
m/s2
Standard atmosphere, sea level
101,325
Pa
Astronomical Constants
Astronomical unit (AU)
149,597,870
km
Light year (ly)
9.460530x10 12
km
Parsec (pc)
3.261633
ly
Sidereal year
365.256366
days
Mass of Sun
1.9891x10 30
kg
Radius of Sun
696,000
km
Mass of Earth
5.9737x10 24
kg
Equatorial radius of Earth
6,378.140
km
Earth oblateness
1/298.257
Obliquity of the ecliptic, epoch 2000
23.4392911
degrees
Mean lunar distance
384,403
km
Radius of Moon
1,738
km
7.348x10
22
kg
Luminosity of Sun
3.827x10
26
Solar constant, at 1 AU
1,358
W/m2
Solar maxima
1990 + 11n
(date)
Mass of Moon
Spaceflight Constants
GM (Sun)
1.32712438x10 20 m3/s2
GM (Earth)
3.986005x10 14
m3/s2
GM (Moon)
4.902794x10 12
m3/s2
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J2 (Earth)
0.00108263
J2 (Moon)
0.0002027
Planet Data
Name
Equatorial
Mass
Radius
(1024 kg)
(km)
Surface
Gravity
(m/s2)
GM
(1015
m3/s2)
Semimajor
Orbit
Sidereal
Axis
Eccentricity Inclination Period
(106 km)
(degrees)
(days)
Sidereal
Rotation
Period
(hours)
Mercury
2,439.7
0.3302
3.70
0.02203
57.91
0.2056
7.00
87.960
1,407.6
Venus
6,051.8
4.8685
8.87
0.3249
108.21
0.0067
3.39
224.701
-5,832.5
Earth
6,378.1
5.9742
9.80
0.3986
149.60
0.0167
0.000
365.256
23.9345
Mars
3,397.0
0.64185
3.71
0.04283
227.92
0.0935
1.850
686.980
24.6229
Jupiter
71,492
1,898.6
24.79
126.686
778.57
0.0489
1.304
4,332.59
9.9250
Saturn
60,268
568.46
10.44
37.931
1,433.53
0.0565
2.485
10,759.2
10.656
Uranus
25,559
86.832
8.87
5.794
2,872.46
0.0457
0.772
30,685.4
-17.24
Neptune
24,764
102.43
11.15
6.835
4,495.06
0.0113
1.769
60,189
16.11
Pluto
1,195
0.0125
0.58
0.00083
5,869.66
0.2444
17.16
90,465
-153.29
14.
Appendix II WEIGHTS & MEASURES
Two systems of weights and measures coexist in the United States today: the U.S.
Customary System and the International System of Units (SI, after the initials Systeme
International). The SI System, commonly identified with the metric system, is actually a
more complete and coherent version of it. Throughout U.S. history, the Customary System
(inherited from, but now different from, the British Imperial System) has been generally
used.
The use of the SI System has slowly and steadily increased in the United States, particularly
in the scientific community; however, the general public still uses, almost exclusively, the
U.S. Customary System. Because this Web site has a large international audience, all
calculations and example problems make exclusive use of SI units, however the formulae
provided will work in either system of units. Whenever a basic constant is given, its U.S.
Customary equivalent is also given in parentheses.
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In the SI System, the basic units are the units of length, mass, and time, and are called
respectively, the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s). The unit of force, called
the Newton (N), is a derived unit and is defined as the force that gives an acceleration of 1
m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg.
In the U.S. Customary System the base units are the units of length, force, and time, and
are called respectively, the foot (ft), the pound (lb), and the second (s). The unit of mass,
called the slug, is a derived unit and is defined as the mass that receives an acceleration of
1 ft/s2 when a force of 1 lb is applied to it.
When working in the U.S. Customary System, it is commonplace to express "mass" in
pounds; however, when doing so, it is necessary to recognize that we are actually
expressing "weight", which is the measure of the gravitational force on a body. When used
in this way, the weight is that of a mass when it is subjected to an acceleration of one g. In
the study of dynamics, where forces, masses, and accelerations are involved, it is important
that we express the mass m in slugs of a body of which the weight W has been given in
pounds. That is, m=W/g, where g is approximately equal to 32.174 ft/s2.
It is sometimes common practice for mathematical equations to be expressed in such a way
that the variable for mass is entered in the unit of pounds. These equations include a term
that converts mass from pounds into its proper unit of slugs. When using these equations,
one must proceed with caution because they are only valid when using U.S. Customary
units. When using SI units, it is necessary to use a different equation that does not contain
the conversion factor. To avoid this problem, all equations used in this Web site require that
mass be expressed in the unit of slugs in the U.S. Customary System, and kilograms in the
SI System.
15.
Appendix-III ATMOSPHERE PROPERTIES

Physical Properties of Standard Atmosphere in SI Units
Altitude
(meters)
Temperature
(K)
Pressure
(Pa)
Density
(kg/m3)
Viscosity
(N-s/m2)
-5,000
320.7
1.778E+5
1.931
1.942E-5
-4,000
-3,000
314.2
307.7
1.596E+5
1.430E+5
1.770
1.619
1.912E-5
1.882E-5
-2,000
-1,000
0
301.2
294.7
288.2
1.278E+5
1.139E+5
1.013E+5
1.478
1.347
1.225
1.852E-5
1.821E-5
1.789E-5
1,000
2,000
281.7
275.2
8.988E+4
7.950E+4
1.112
1.007
1.758E-5
1.726E-5
3,000
4,000
5,000
268.7
262.2
255.7
7.012E+4
6.166E+4
5.405E+4
9.093E-1
8.194E-1
7.364E-1
1.694E-5
1.661E-5
1.628E-5
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6,000
249.2
4.722E+4
6.601E-1
1.595E-5
7,000
8,000
242.7
236.2
4.111E+4
3.565E+4
5.900E-1
5.258E-1
1.561E-5
1.527E-5
9,000
10,000
15,000
229.7
223.3
216.7
3.080E+4
2.650E+4
1.211E+4
4.671E-1
4.135E-1
1.948E-1
1.493E-5
1.458E-5
1.422E-5
20,000
30,000
216.7
226.5
5.529E+3
1.197E+3
8.891E-2
1.841E-2
1.422E-5
1.475E-5
40,000
50,000
60,000
250.4
270.7
255.8
2.871E+2
7.978E+1
2.246E+1
3.996E-3
1.027E-3
3.059E-4
1.601E-5
1.704E-5
1.629E-5
70,000
80,000
219.7
196.7
5.520
1.037
8.754E-5
1.999E-5
1.438E-5
1.216E-5
90,000
180.7
1.644E-1
3.170E-6
1.216E-5
See bottom of page for U.S. units
MSISE-90 Model of Earth's Upper Atmosphere

Low Solar Activity
Altitude
Temp.
(km)
(K)
Mol.
Density Pressure
Wt.
(kg/m3)
(Pa)
(kg/mol)
Mean Solar Activity

Temp.
(K)
Mol.
Density Pressure
Wt.
(kg/m3)
(Pa)
(kg/mol)
Extremely High Solar Activity

Mol.
Temp.
Density Pressure
Wt.
(K)
(kg/m3)
(Pa)
(kg/mol)
0
20
40
300.2511 1.17E+00 1.01E+05 28.9502 300.2511 1.17E+00 1.01E+05 28.9502 300.2511 1.16E+00 9.98E+04 28.9502
206.2085 9.48E-02 5.62E+03 28.9502 206.2085 9.49E-02 5.62E+03 28.9502 206.2085 9.41E-02 5.57E+03 28.9502
257.6979 4.07E-03 3.01E+02 28.9502 257.6979 4.07E-03 3.02E+02 28.9502 257.6979 4.04E-03 2.99E+02 28.9502
60
80
244.1212 3.31E-04 2.32E+01 28.9502 244.1212 3.31E-04 2.32E+01 28.9502 244.1212 3.28E-04 2.30E+01 28.9502
203.1065 1.69E-05 9.81E-01 29.1353 196.3636 1.68E-05 9.45E-01 29.0175 172.2146 1.68E-05 8.42E-01 28.5290
100
120
140
168.7219 5.77E-07 2.89E-02 28.0036 184.0160 5.08E-07 2.81E-02 27.7137 297.3338 2.78E-07 2.63E-02 26.1997
356.8669 1.70E-08 1.92E-03 26.3948 374.9715 1.80E-08 2.17E-03 25.8745 430.8385 2.34E-08 3.55E-03 23.6456
545.8594 2.96E-09 5.37E-04 25.0665 635.5703 3.26E-09 7.03E-04 24.5349 875.9174 4.93E-09 1.61E-03 22.3209
160
180
630.0652 9.65E-10 2.13E-04 23.7884 787.5532 1.18E-09 3.31E-04 23.4225 1,143.5426 2.23E-09 9.90E-04 21.4577
667.8662 3.90E-10 9.62E-05 22.5037 877.6729 5.51E-10 1.80E-04 22.4106 1,314.3427 1.28E-09 6.76E-04 20.7706
200
220
240
684.9187 1.75E-10 4.70E-05 21.2516 931.2806 2.91E-10 1.05E-04 21.4734 1,423.6469 8.28E-10 4.86E-04 20.1836
692.6487 8.47E-11 2.43E-05 20.0935 963.2701 1.66E-10 6.44E-05 20.6108 1,493.7864 5.69E-10 3.60E-04 19.6664
696.1697 4.31E-11 1.31E-05 19.0789 982.4191 9.91E-11 4.09E-05 19.8292 1.538.9154 4.08E-10 2.72E-04 19.2046
260
280
697.7811 2.30E-11 7.31E-06 18.2300 993.9173 6.16E-11 2.66E-05 19.1337 1,568.0294 3.00E-10 2.08E-04 18.7901
698.5220 1.27E-11 4.20E-06 17.5402 1,000.8427 3.94E-11 1.77E-05 18.5256 1,586.8613 2.25E-10 1.61E-04 18.4178
300
320
698.8644 7.22E-12 2.47E-06 16.9830 1,005.0267 2.58E-11 1.20E-05 18.0015 1,599.0743 1.71E-10 1.26E-04 18.0839
699.0233 4.21E-12 1.48E-06 16.5214 1,007.5620 1.72E-11 8.20E-06 17.5537 1,607.0154 1.32E-10 9.93E-05 17.7852
47 | P a g e V e r s i o n 1 . 0
M
MEECCH
HAAN
NIICCSS

340
699.0973 2.50E-12 9.01E-07 16.1147 1,009.1030 1.16E-11 5.69E-06 17.1721 1,612.1920 1.03E-10 7.86E-05 17.5186
360
380
699.1320 1.51E-12 5.57E-07 15.7219 1,010.0423 7.99E-12 3.98E-06 16.8449 1,615.5751 8.05E-11 6.26E-05 17.2812
699.1483 9.20E-13 3.50E-07 15.3028 1,010.6166 5.55E-12 2.81E-06 16.5597 1,617.7916 6.35E-11 5.01E-05 17.0699
400
420
440
699.1561 5.68E-13 2.23E-07 14.8185 1,010.9688 3.89E-12 2.01E-06 16.3044 1,619.2476 5.04E-11 4.02E-05 16.8818
699.1597 3.54E-13 1.45E-07 14.2332 1,011.1853 2.75E-12 1.44E-06 16.0669 1,620.2062 4.02E-11 3.25E-05 16.7142
699.1615 2.23E-13 9.61E-08 13.5181 1,011.3190 1.96E-12 1.04E-06 15.8360 1,620.8390 3.23E-11 2.63E-05 16.5643
460
480
699.1623 1.42E-13 6.54E-08 12.6581 1,011.4014 1.40E-12 7.55E-07 15.6008 1,621.2577 2.60E-11 2.13E-05 16.4297
699.1627 9.20E-14 4.59E-08 11.6594 1,011.4526 1.01E-12 5.53E-07 15.3508 1,621.5354 2.10E-11 1.73E-05 16.3079
500
520
540
699.1629 6.03E-14 3.32E-08 10.5547 1,011.4845 7.30E-13 4.07E-07 15.0760 1,621.7200 1.70E-11 1.42E-05 16.1967
699.1630 4.03E-14 2.49E-08 9.4006 1,011.5043 5.31E-13 3.03E-07 14.7669 1,621.8430 1.38E-11 1.16E-05 16.0940
699.1630 2.75E-14 1.94E-08 8.2657 1,011.5168 3.88E-13 2.27E-07 14.4148 1,621.9253 1.13E-11 9.50E-06 15.9980
560
580
699.1631 1.93E-14 1.55E-08 7.2141 1,011.5245 2.85E-13 1.71E-07 14.0125 1,621.9803 9.21E-12 7.81E-06 15.9067
699.1631 1.39E-14 1.28E-08 6.2904 1,011.5294 2.11E-13 1.31E-07 13.5547 1,622.0172 7.55E-12 6.44E-06 15.8187
600
620
640
699.1631 1.03E-14 1.09E-08 5.5149 1,011.5325 1.56E-13 1.01E-07 13.0389 1,622.0421 6.20E-12 5.31E-06 15.7321
699.1631 7.90E-15 9.40E-09 4.8864 1,011.5345 1.17E-13 7.89E-08 12.4665 1,622.0588 5.10E-12 4.40E-06 15.6457
699.1631 6.24E-15 8.27E-09 4.3891 1,011.5357 8.79E-14 6.24E-08 11.8428 1,622.0702 4.20E-12 3.65E-06 15.5578
660
680
700
699.1631 5.06E-15 7.36E-09 4.0012 1,011.5365 6.65E-14 5.01E-08 11.1779 1,622.0778 3.47E-12 3.03E-06 15.4672
699.1631 4.21E-15 6.62E-09 3.6999 1,011.5370 5.08E-14 4.07E-08 10.4854 1,622.0830 2.88E-12 2.52E-06 15.3725
699.1631 3.58E-15 6.00E-09 3.4648 1,011.5374 3.91E-14 3.36E-08 9.7818 1,622.0865 2.38E-12 2.11E-06 15.2723
720
740
699.1631 3.09E-15 5.48E-09 3.2789 1,011.5375 3.04E-14 2.82E-08 9.0847 1,622.0890 1.98E-12 1.76E-06 15.1653
699.1631 2.70E-15 5.02E-09 3.1289 1,011.5377 2.39E-14 2.39E-08 8.4111 1,622.0906 1.65E-12 1.48E-06 15.0503
760
780
800
699.1631 2.39E-15 4.63E-09 3.0049 1,011.5377 1.90E-14 2.06E-08 7.7753 1,622.0918 1.37E-12 1.24E-06 14.9260
699.1631 2.13E-15 4.28E-09 2.8996 1,011.5378 1.53E-14 1.79E-08 7.1884 1,622.0925 1.15E-12 1.05E-06 14.7912
699.1631 1.91E-15 3.96E-09 2.8075 1,011.5378 1.25E-14 1.58E-08 6.6572 1,622.0930 9.59E-13 8.84E-07 14.6447
820
840
699.1631 1.73E-15 3.68E-09 2.7249 1,011.5378 1.03E-14 1.40E-08 6.1849 1,622.0934 8.04E-13 7.48E-07 14.4854
699.1631 1.56E-15 3.43E-09 2.6492 1,011.5379 8.64E-15 1.26E-08 5.7711 1,622.0936 6.74E-13 6.36E-07 14.3123
860
880
900
699.1631 1.42E-15 3.21E-09 2.5784 1,011.5379 7.32E-15 1.14E-08 5.4132 1,622.0939 5.67E-13 5.42E-07 14.1244
699.1631 1.30E-15 3.00E-09 2.5113 1,011.5379 6.28E-15 1.04E-08 5.1066 1,622.0940 4.77E-13 4.63E-07 13.9210
699.1631 1.18E-15 2.81E-09 2.4470 1,011.5379 5.46E-15 9.47E-09 4.8460 1,622.0940 4.03E-13 3.97E-07 13.7015
Atmospheric Scale Height & Density, to 35,786 km

Atmospheric Density
Mean
Maximum
(kg/m3)
(kg/m3)
Altitude
(km)
Scale Height
(km)
8.4
1.225
1.225
100
150
200
5.9
25.5
37.5
5.25E-7
1.73E-9
2.41E-10
5.75E-7
1.99E-9
3.65E-10
48 | P a g e V e r s i o n 1 . 0
M
MEECCH
HAAN
NIICCSS

250
44.8
5.97E-11
1.20E-10
300
350
50.3
54.8
1.87E-11
6.66E-12
4.84E-11
2.18E-11
400
450
500
58.2
61.3
64.5
2.62E-12
1.09E-12
4.76E-13
1.05E-11
5.35E-12
2.82E-12
550
600
68.7
74.8
2.14E-13
9.89E-14
1.53E-12
8.46E-13
650
700
750
84.4
99.3
121
4.73E-14
2.36E-14
1.24E-14
4.77E-13
2.73E-13
1.59E-13
800
850
151
188
6.95E-15
4.22E-15
9.41E-14
5.67E-14
900
950
1,000
226
263
296
2.78E-15
1.98E-15
1.49E-15
3.49E-14
2.21E-14
1.43E-14
1,250
1,500
2,000
408
516
829
5.70E-16
2.79E-16
9.09E-17
2.82E-15
1.16E-15
3.80E-16
2,500
3,000
1220
1590
4.23E-17
2.54E-17
1.54E-16
7.09E-17
3,500
4,000
4,500
1900
2180
2430
1.77E-17
1.34E-17
1.06E-17
3.67E-17
2.11E-17
1.34E-17
5,000
6,000
2690
3200
8.62E-18
6.09E-18
9.30E-18
5.41E-18
7,000
8,000
9,000
3750
4340
4970
4.56E-18
3.56E-18
2.87E-18
3.74E-18
2.87E-18
2.34E-18
10,000
15,000
5630
9600
2.37E-18
1.21E-18
1.98E-18
1.16E-18
20,000
25,000
30,000
14600
20700
27800
7.92E-19
5.95E-19
4.83E-19
8.42E-19
6.81E-19
5.84E-19
35,000
35,786
36000
37300
4.13E-19
4.04E-19
5.21E-19
5.12E-19
Physical Properties of Standard Atmosphere in U.S. Units

Altitude
(feet)
49 | P a g e V e r s i o n 1 . 0
Temperature
(oR)
Pressure
(psia)
Density
(slug/ft3)
Viscosity
(lb-s/ft2)
M
MEECCH
HAAN
NIICCSS

-15,000
572.2
24.626
3.610E-3
4.031E-7
-10,000
-5,000
554.3
536.5
20.847
17.554
3.155E-3
2.745E-3
3.935E-7
3.835E-7
0
5,000
10,000
518.7
500.8
483.0
14.696
12.054
10.108
2.377E-3
2.048E-3
1.756E-3
3.736E-7
3.636E-7
3.534E-7
15,000
20,000
465.2
447.4
8.297
6.759
1.496E-3
1.267E-3
3.431E-7
3.326E-7
25,000
30,000
35,000
429.6
411.8
394.1
5.461
4.373
3.468
1.066E-3
8.907E-4
7.382E-4
3.217E-7
3.107E-7
2.995E-7
40,000
45,000
390.0
390.0
2.730
2.149
5.873E-4
4.623E-4
2.969E-7
2.969E-7
50,000
55,000
60,000
390.0
390.0
390.0
1.692
1.332
1.049
3.639E-4
2.865E-4
2.256E-4
2.969E-7
2.969E-7
2.969E-7
65,000
70,000
75,000
390.0
392.2
395.0
0.826
0.651
0.514
1.777E-4
1.392E-4
1.091E-4
2.969E-7
2.983E-7
3.001E-7
80,000
85,000
397.7
400.4
0.406
0.322
8.571E-5
6.743E-5
3.018E-7
3.035E-7
90,000
95,000
100,000
403.1
405.8
408.6
0.255
0.203
0.162
5.315E-5
4.196E-5
3.318E-5
3.052E-7
3.070E-7
3.087E-7
150,000
200,000
479.1
457.0
0.020
0.003
3.456E-6
5.270E-7
3.512E-7
3.382E-7
250,000
300,000
351.8
332.9
0.000
0.000
7.034E-8
4.625E-9
2.721E-7
2.593E-7
50 | P a g e V e r s i o n 1 . 0

Orbital Mechanics

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M

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Introduction to Space Mechanics .................................................................................................4

Orbital Elements .........................................................................................................................5

Types Of Orbits ...........................................................................................................................7

Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation .....................................................................9

Uniform Circular Motion............................................................................................................ 10

Motions of Planets and Satellites ............................................................................................... 12

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Launch of a Space Vehicle .......................................................................................................... 18

Position in an Elliptical Orbit ...................................................................................................... 23

Third-Body Perturbations .............................................................................................................. 27

Orbit Maneuvers ................................................................................................................... 32

Orbit Altitude Changes .................................................................................................................. 32

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

PROBLEM 4.23 .............................................................................................................................. 43

Appendix I BASIC CONSTANTS .............................................................................................. 43

Appendix II WEIGHTS & MEASURES ...................................................................................... 45

Appendix-III ATMOSPHERE PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 46

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

1. Introduction to Space Mechanics

A conic section, or just

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Conic Section Eccentricity, e Semi-major axis Energy

An orbiting satellite follows an oval shaped path

Inclination is the angular distance between a

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

(GEO) are circular orbits around the Earth having a period of 24

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Hohmann transfer orbits

are interplanetary trajectories whose advantage is that they

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

5. Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

6. Uniform Circular Motion

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

From Basics Constants,

r = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

7. Motions of Planets and Satellites

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

of the other body. If we assume that m is negligible compared to M, then R is negligible

If we express the angular velocity in terms of the period of revolution,

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

More commonly the equation is written in the equivalent form

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

where vsin is the transverse component of v.

or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path

Note that at periapsis and apoapsis, = 90 degrees.

From equations (4.14) and (4.15) we obtain

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Rearranging terms we get

Rp = (6,378.14 + 250) 1,000 = 6,628,140 m

Equations (4.16) and (4.17),

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Rp = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

The eccentricity e of an orbit is given by

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Equation (4.21) and (4.22),

Launch of a Space Vehicle

The launch of a satellite or space vehicle consists of

BY P K Mohanta, M.E.(Space Engineering & Rocketry)

Multiplying through by -Rp2/(r12v12) and rearranging, we get