Science Readings 3

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CHEMISTRY POINTERS
BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS
Chemistry
Chemistryisthephysicalsciencethatdealswiththecomposition,structure,andpropertiesofsubstancesandalso
thetransformationsthatthesesubstancesundergo.Becausethestudyofchemistryencompassestheentirematerial
universe,itiscentraltotheunderstandingofothersciences.SeveralbranchesofChemistryarethefollowing:
Organicchemistrymostlyconcernedwiththestudyofchemicalscontainingtheelementcarbon
Inorganicchemistrythestudyofallelementsofcompoundsotherthanorganiccompounds
AnalyticalChemistrythestudyofqualitativeandquantitativeanalysisofelementsandcompounds.
PhysicalChemistrythestudyofreactionrates,mechanisms,bondingandstructure
Matter
Matterinscience,isageneraltermappliedtoanythingthathasthepropertyofoccupyingspaceandtheattributes
ofgravityandinertia.
STATESOFMATTER
Plasmaisthecollectionofchargedgaseousparticlescontainingnearlyequalnumbersofnegativeandpositive
ions,issometimescalledthefourthstateofmatter.
Solidischaracterizedbyresistancetoanychangeinshape,causedbyastrongattractionbetweenthemoleculesof
whichitiscomposed.
Liquidshavesufficientmolecularattractiontoresistforcestendingtochangetheirvolume.
Gasmoleculesarewidelydispersedandmovefreely,offersnoresistancetochangeofshapeandlittleresistanceto
changeofvolume.
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CHANGESINMATTER
PhysicalChangeischaracterizedbyachangeinthephaseorstateofasubstance.Somephysicalpropertiesofthe
substancearealtered,butitschemicalcompositionremainsunchanged.Ex.phasechange
Chemicalchangeischaracterizedbyachangeincompositionofitsmoleculeschanges.Thepropertiesofthe
originalsubstancearelost,andnewsubstanceswithnewpropertiesareproduced.Anexampleofachemical
changeistheproductionofrust(ironoxide)whenoxygenintheairreactswithiron.
PhaseChanges
PhaseTransitions
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Matterexistsinvariousforms,orphases.Ifthetemperatureand/orpressureofasampleofmatterisadjusted,themattermayundergoa
phasetransition.Duringaphasetransition,mattershiftsbetweenitsthreestates:solid,liquid,andgas.
ElementsandCompounds
AnElementisasubstancethatcannotbebrokendownintosimplersubstancesbyordinarymeans.Ninety
elementsareknowntooccurinnature,and22morehavebeenmadeartificially.Outofthislimitednumberof
elements,allthemillionsofknownsubstancesaremade.
Compoundsaresubstanceinwhichtwoormoreelementsjoinedbychemicalbonds.Acompoundcanbecreated
orbrokendownbymeansofareactionbutnotbymechanicalorphysicaltechniques
.
WaterMolecule
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Waterisanexampleofacompound.Awatermoleculeconsistsofanoxygenatomandtwohydrogenatoms .
Salt,water,ironrust,andrubberareexamplesofcompounds
Atoms and Molecules
Anatomisthesmallestunitofanelementthathasthepropertiesoftheelement;amoleculeisthesmallestunitofa
compoundortheformofanelementinwhichatomsbindtogetherthathasthepropertiesofthecompoundor
element.
SUBATOMICPARTICLES
Nucleusisverysmallcomparedwiththerestoftheatomandcontainsmostoftheatomicmass(orweight).The
nucleusisabout10
12
cm(3.94x10
13
in)indiameter.Thesizeratiooftheatomtothenucleusis10,000to1.
Electronsisabout10 cm(3.94x10 in).Itcarriesanegativeelectricchargewithanassignedvalueof1.The

atomisdeterminedbythesizeofthiselectroncloud.
Protoncarriesapositiveelectricchargewithanassignedvalueof+1.Themassofaprotonis1836timesthe
massofanelectron.
Neutronhasnearlythesamemassastheproton,buttheneutronhasnoelectriccharge.MassNumberThetotal
numberofprotonsandneutronsinanucleus.
Atomicnumberequalstothenumberofprotoninanelectron
Isotopesatomsofthesameelementhavingthesamenumberofprotonsbutdifferentnumbersofneutrons.The
termisotope(fromtheGreekwordmeaning"sameplace")definesatomsthathavethesamenumberofprotonsbut
adifferentnumberofneutrons.Thatis,theyareatomsofthesameelementthathavedifferentmasses.(Ex.7H 1,
7H1,H71,H1)
AtomicWeighttheaverageweight(morecorrectly,themass)ofanatomofanelement,takingintoaccountthe
massesofallitsisotopesandthepercentageoftheiroccurrenceinnature.
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MODELSOFTHEATOM
Anatomofanelementisdenotedby
a
XbwhereXcorrespondstothenucleusoftheatom(nameof
theatom,e.g.C),isthemassnumberandb,theatomicnumber.Ex.
12
C6
Element
Numberof
Numberof
Numberof
Atomic
Massnumber
Protons
electrons
neutrons
number
Carbon
6
6
6
12
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APPLICATION:
Completethetablebelow.
Element
Numberof
Numberof
Numberof
Atomicnumber
Massnumber
Protons
electrons
neutrons
Na
Na
Cl
ELECTRONCONFIGURATION
Theelectronconfigurationofanatomisthearrangementoftheatom'selectronswithrespecttoits
nucleus.
Anelectronmayoccupyacertainenergylevel(n).Anorbitalisgenerallyvisualizedasacloudwithaspecifiedsize
andshapedetermined,ingeneral,bytheenergyleveloftheelectron.Valenceelectronsareelectronsfoundinthe
highestenergyleveloftheelectroncloud.
Giventheelectronicconfiguration,onecandetermineitspositionintheperiodictable.Theenergylevel
correspondstotheperiodoftheperiodictable(17)whilethenumberofvalenceelectronscorrespondstothegroup
numberofthatelement.Example,theelectronconfigurationofNais1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p,theorbital
numberiswhilethevalencenumberis1.Therefore,SodiumisingroupIperiod.
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ChemicalBonds,Formulas,andEquation
Elementsthatdonothaveanoblegasconfiguration(astableconfiguration)trytoattainsuchaconfigurationby
enteringintochemicalreactions.Stablemoleculesareformedwhenatomscombinesoastohaveoutershells
holdingeightelectrons.
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Ionic Bonds
Intheionicmodel,electronsaretransferredfromoneatomtoanothertoachievenoblegasconfiguration.Anionic
bondisformed.Theatomgivinguptheelectronsbecomepositivelycharge(cation),whiletheatomacceptingthe
electronsbecomesnegativelycharged(Anion).IonicbondsareformedwhenelementsinGroupIAtoIIA(except
hydrogen)combineswithelementsingroupVIAtoVIIAoftheperiodictable.Ionicsolidsformcrystals.Cations
andanionsincrystalsarearrangedinarepeatedfixedmanner(crystalstructure).
Covalent bonds
Whensharingofavailableouterelementsoftheatomsoccur,acovalentbondisformed.Thereisnoelectron
transferincovalentbonding.Therecanbemultiplecovalentbondsbetweentwoatoms.Therecanbeadoublebond
oratriplebond.
Chemical Reactions
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Thereactionistheheartofthestudyofchemistry.Allchemicalreactionsinvolvethebreakageandreformationof
chemicalbondsofmoleculestoformdifferentsubstances.Chemicalreactionscanbeexpressedthroughequations
thatresemblemathematicalequations.Thereactants(thesubstancesthatarecombinedtoreactwithoneanother)
appearontheleftsideoftheequation,andtheproducts(substancesproducedbythereaction)arewrittenonthe
rightsideoftheequation.Thereactantsandproductsaretypicallyconnectedbyanarroworvarioustypesof
doublearrows.Thesinglearrowshowsthatareactiononlyproceedsinthedirectionindicated,whilethedouble
arrowindicatesthatareactioncanproceedineitherdirection(thatproductsarealsoreactingwitheachotherto
reformreactants).
Ex.
TYPESOFCHEMICALREACTIONS
CompositionReaction(synthesisorcombinationreaction)isatypeofchemicalreactionwhereamorecomplex
substanceisbrokendownintotwoormoresimplersubstances.
GeneralForm:A+XAX
e.g.
2H2+O22H2O
Fe+S
FeS
B.
DecompositionReactionisatypeofchemicalreactionwhereamorecomplexsubstanceisbrokendown
intotwoormoresimplersubstances.
GeneralForm:AX
e.g.
A+X
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
Therearefiveclassesifdecomposition,namely:
Decompositionofametalliccarbonate
Decompositionofametallichydroxide
Decompositionofametallicchlorate
Decompositionofsomeacids
Decompositionofmetallicoxides
SingleReplacementReactionisatypeofchemicalreactioninwhichalessreactiveelementisdisplacedfroma
compoundbyamorereactiveelement.
GeneralForm:A
+BX
AX+B
Y
+BX
BY+X
Therearefourclassesofreplacementreactions.Theyareasgivenbelow:
Replacementofalessactivemetalfromacompoundbyamoreactivemetal.
Replacementofalessactivenonmetalfromacompoundbymoreactivenonmetal.
Replacementofhydrogenfromwaterbymetals
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Replacementofhydrogenfromanacidbyamorereactivemetal.
DoubleDisplacementreactionisatypeofreactionwhereincationsoftwocompoundsswitchanionstoformnew
products.
GeneralForm:AX+BY AY+BX
e.g.NaOH+HClNaCl+H2O
EXOTHERMICANDENDOTHERMICREACTIONS
Achemicalreactioneitherabsorbsorreleasesenergy.Theenergyreleasedisintheformofheatenergy.An
exothermicreactionisdefinedasachemicalreactionthatreleasesenergy.Mostoften,theenergyreleasedisinthe
formofheatorlight.Whenabombexplodes,atremendousamountoflightandheatenergyisreleased.Thisisan
exampleofanexothermicreaction.Ontheotherhand,therearechemicalreactionsthatabsorbenergyastheytake
place.Thisreactionisendothermic.Photosynthesisrequireslightfromthesuntoproceedthereaction.Thus,itisan
exampleofendothermicreaction.
FACTORSAFFECTINGTHERATEOFACHEMICALREACTION
Therateofchemicalreactionisaffectedlyseveralfactors:
thenatureofthereactantsthemorereactivethereactantistoanotherreactant,thefasterthereactionwillproceed
temperaturegenerally,thehigherthetemperature,thefasterthereactionwilltakeplace
concentrationofthereactantsthehighertheconcentrationtoreactwithanotherreactant,thefasterthereactionwill
takeplace
surfaceareathesmallerthesurfacearea,thefasterthereaction
effectofcatalystwiththepresenceofacatalyst,thereactionwillbecomefaster
Factor
Example
Natureofreactants
Gold+water=noreaction
Sodium+water=fast
Temperature
Evaporationisfasterwhenitishot
Concentrationofreactants
Wood+diluteacid=slow
Wood+concentratedacid=fast
Surfacearea
Crushedeggshellswilldissolvefastinacid
Wholeeggshellswilldissolveslowinacid
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Presenceofcatalyst
Decompositionofformicacid=slow
Decompositionofformicacidinthepresenceof
sulfuricacid=fast
LAWSOFCHEMICALCOMBINATION
Thelawsofchemicalcombinationwereformulatedintheearlypartofthe19thcentury.Theyarearesultofthefirst
useofquantitativemeasurementinchemistry.
In1799,JosephProustproposedthelawofdefiniteproportions(alsocalledthelawofconstantcomposition).The
lawstatesthatcompoundscontainelementsincertainfixedproportionsandinnoothercombinations,regardlessof
themethodofpreparation.Thus,chalk,orcalciumcarbonate,CaCOO,isalways40%calcium,12%carbon,and
48%oxygen,byweight.
In1803,JohnDaltonarticulatedthelawofmultipleproportions.Thislawstatesthatiftwoelementscombineto
formmorethanonecompound,thentheratiooftheweightsofthesecondelement(whichcombineswithafixed
weightofthefirstelement)willbesmallwholenumbers.Forexample,carbonandoxygencanformtwo
compounds,carbonmonoxideandcarbondioxide.Incarbonmonoxide12gofcarboncombinewith16gofoxygen,
andincarbondioxide,thesameweightofcarboncombineswith32gofoxygen.Thus,theoxygenweightratiothat
combineswith12gofcarbonis(32/16),or2.Thelawofcombiningweights,alsoproposedbyDalton,statesthat
ineverycompound,theproportionbyweightofeachelementinthecompoundmaybeexpressedbytheatomic
weightoramultipleoftheatomicweightofeachelement.(Thislawwasdiscoveredbeforetheatomictheorywas
postulatedandwasthuswordedmoregenerally.)Thelawofcombiningweightscanbeseentofollowdirectlyfrom
theatomictheory.Inthecaseofwater,HMO,eachmoleculeofwateriscomposedoftwoatomsofhydrogen
(atomicweight1)andoneatomofoxygen(atomicweight16).Thus,allmoleculesofwaterconsistof2partsof
hydrogenand16partsofoxygenbyweight.Allothercompoundscanbeanalyzedsimilarly.
Thesethreelaws,proposedfromthefirstuseofquantitativeexperimentaltechniques,resulted(1803)inDalton's
atomictheory.
BalancingEquations
WiththeLawsgoverningchemicalreactions,thenumbersofatomsforeachelementshouldbeequalinthereactant
sideandtheproductside.Weshouldthereforebalanceachemicalreaction.Achemicalequationisconsidered
balanceifthereareexactlythesamenumberofatomsforeachelementonbothsidesoftheequation.
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Stoichiometry
Stoichiometryisthebranchofchemistrythatdealswithquantitativerelationshipsbetweenthereactantsand
productsofachemicalreaction.
Inthereaction
2H2+O22H2O
twomolesofhydrogenisneededtoreactwithonemoleofoxygentoyieldtwomolesofwater.
2H2
+
O2
2H2O
2moles
1mole
2moles
2g/molH2
32g/molO2
18g/molH2O
4grams
32grams
36grams
Thismeansthat4gramsofhydrogenisneededtoreactcompletelywith32gramsofoxygentoproduce36grams
ofwater.
APPLICATION
a.MoletoMole
Combustionofbutaneproducescarbondioxideandwater.Howmanymolesofwaterwillbeproducedif5moles
ofbutaneisusedinthereaction?
Step1:Writethebalancedchemicalequation.
2CH4H10+
13O2
8CO2+
10H20
Step2:Thebalancedchemicalreactionshowsthatforevery2molesofbutane,10molesofwaterwillbeproduced.
Usingtherelationship,multiplythenumberofmolesofbutanetothestoichiometricratio.
5molesCH4H10
10molesH20
25molesH20
2molesCH4H10
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b.MoletoMass
If0.25molesofsodiumcarbonateisheated,whatmassofsodiumoxidewillbeproduced?
Step1:
Writethebalancedequation.
Na2CO3
Na2O
+
CO2
Step2:
DeterminethemolecularweightofNa2Oandanalyzetheproblem.
Na2O=22.99(2)+16
=
61.98g/mol
Step3:Thebalancedchemicalequationshowsthatforevery1moleofsodiumcarbonate,1moleofsodiumoxide
willbeproduced.Usingthisrelationship,multiply0.25molesofsodiumcarbonatetothestoichiometricratio.
0.25molesNa2CO3
x
1moleNa2O
=
0.25molesNa2O
1molNa2CO3
Step4:
Converttheanswerinstep3intorequiredunit(mass)usingtherelationship
m=n
0.25molesNa2O
x
61.98g/molNa2O=15.50gNa2O
c.MasstoMass
Howmanygramsofoxygenwillbeproducedif85.16gofsodiumchlorateisheated?
Step1:Balancethechemicalequation.
2NaClO3
2NaCl
+
3O2
Step2:
Determinethemolecularweightsofthecompoundsinvolvedandanalyzethe
problem.
2NaClO3
2NaCl
+
3O2
MW
=22.00+35.45+16.00(3)
=2(16)
=106.44g/mol
=32g/mole
Step3:Convertgivenmassofsodiumchloratetomoles.
Molesofsodiumchlorate
=
85.16gsodiumchlorate
=
10g/molsodiumchlorate
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0.8001molsodiumchlorate
Step4:Fromthebalancedchemicalequation,2molesofsodiumchlorateheatedwillproduce3molesofoxygen.
Usingthisrelationship,multiplytheresultinStep3withthisratio.
0.8001molsodiumchlorate x
3molsoxygen
2molssodiumchlorate
1.200moloxygen
Step5:Convertmolesofoxygenproducedtomass.
1.200molsoxygenx32.00goxygen=38.40goxygen1moloxygen
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d.Masstomole
Lightingacandleproduces0.13gofwater.Whatisthemassofbutaneused?(Butaneisthefuelusedinmost
lighters)
Step1:Balancethechemicalreaction.Rememberthatthecompletecombustionreactionofahydrocarbonwill
yieldcarbondioxideandwater.
2CH4H10
+
13O2
8CO2
+
10H20
Step2:Analyzetheproblem.
2CH4H10
+
13O2
8CO2
+
10H20
Given:
0.012g
MW
=1.008(2)+16
=18.02g/mol
Step3:Convertgivenmassofwatertomoles
Moleswater
=
0.012gwater
18.02g/molwater
=
0.000666molwater
Step4:Fromthebalancedchemicalequation,wehavethefollowingrelationships:2molesofbutanewillproduce10
molesofwater
2molesofbutaneburnedwillproduce8molesofcarbondioxide
0.000666molofwater
x
2molsofbutane
10molsofwater
=0.0001333molofbutane
Step5:Convertmoletomass:
0.0001333molbutane
x
58.12gbutane
1molebutane
=0.0077gbutane
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Gases
Kinetic molecular Theory
Postulate1:gasesaremadeupofverytinyparticles,calledmolecules.Therearebigemptyspacesbetweenthe
moleculesofgases.Thesizesofthemoleculesareverysmallcomparedtothedistancebetweenthem,thusmaking
themcompressible.Thisalsoexplainswhygaseshavelowdensity.
Postulate2:gaseousmoleculesareinconstantrandommotion.Theseparticlesaremovinginstraightlinesat
differentspeedsanddirection.Sincetheyaremovingconstantly,gasescaneasilyoccupyalargecontainer.Thus,
gaseshavenodefiniteshapeandvolumeandexhibitsexpandability.Therandommotionofthegaseousmolecules
explainsthediffusibilityandeffusibilityofgases.Diffusibilityistheabilityofagastoscatterinspace,while
effusibilityistheabilityofagastoescapethroughasmallopening.
Postulate3:Theintermolecularforcesofattractionbetweengaseousparticles(moleculesoratoms)areveryweak.
ThisattractiveforcebetweenmoleculeswasdiscoveredbyJohannesDiderikvanderWaalsandiscalledtheVan
derWaalsforce.
Postulate4:Thecollisionofgasparticleswitheachotherorwiththewallsofitscontainerisperfectlyelastic.
Thus,noenergyislostuponcollision.Thismeansthatthegasparticlescontinuetomoveeveniftheycollidewith
eachotherorwiththecontainerwalls.Thecollisionofmoleculeswiththewallsexertspressureonthecontainer.
Postulate5:Theaveragekineticenergyofthegasparticlesisdirectlyproportionaltotheabsolutetemperature.As
temperatureincreases,theaveragekineticenergyofthegasparticlesalsoincreasesandviceversa.
The Gas Laws

Thelawsgoverningthebehaviorofgasesaretermedcollectivelyasthegaslaws.
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1.
BOYLESLAW
RobertBoylewasthefirstscientisttomeasuretherelationshipbetweenpressureandvolumeofgases(with
temperatureheldconstant).BoylesLawstatesthatthevolumeofacertainamountofdrygasheldatconstant
temperatureisinverselyproportionaltothepressureexertedbythegas.Thisstatementisexpressedmathematically
as
APPLICATION:
Whatisthevolumeofagasat750mmHgifitexertedpressureof650mmHgat700mL?Assumethattemperature
isheldconstant.)
Given:
V1=?
V2=700mL
P1=750mmHg
P2=650mmHg
P1V1=P2V2
V1
=
P2V2
P1
=
(650mHg)(700mL)
=685.7mL
750mmHg
2.
CHARLESLAW
AlexandreCharlesperformedexperimentsontherelationshipbetweenthevolumeandtemperatureofgases.
CharlesLawstatesthatthevolumeofacertainamountofdrygasatconstantpressureisdirectlyproportionaltoits
absolutetemperature.Thisstatementisrepresentedas
V1/T1=
V2/T2
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APPLICATION:Thevolumeofagasat27Cis400mL.Whatwillbethevolumeofthatgasat47C,ifthe
pressureisheldconstant?
Given:
V1
=
400mL
V2
=
?
T1
=
27C+273
T2
=
47C+273
=
300K
=
320
(NotethattemperatureinCelsiusshouldbeconvertedintoKelvinscale)
Solution:
V1/T1=
V2/T2
V2
=
V1T2
T1
(380mL)(320K)300K
405.33mL
COMBINEDGASLAWS
Givenafixedamountofgasattwodifferentconditionsofpressure,temperatureandvolume,wederivethe
followingrelationship:
PV
1
1
=
PV
2
2
T1
T2
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APPLICATION:
ThevolumeofaGasat37Cand700mmHgis500mL.Whatisthevolumeofthegasat
15Cand600mmHg?
Given:
V1
=
500mL
V2
=
?
T1
=
37C+273
T2
=
17C+273
=
310K
290K
P1
=
700mmHg
P2
=
600mmHg
Solution:
P1V1
=
P2V2
V2
=
P1V1
V
2
T1P2
(700mmHg)(500mL)(290K)(310K)(600mmHg)
545.7mL
4.
AVOGADROSLAW
AmadeoAvogadrointerpretedGayLussacsfindingsongasreactionsatconstanttemperatureandpressure.
AvogadrosLawstatesthatatagiventemperatureandpressure,thesamevolumeofanytwogasescontainequal
numberofmolecules.ThemolarvolumeofanygasatSTP(StandardtemperatureandPressure)is22.4L.
5.
IDEALGASLAW
BoylesLaw,CharlesLawandAvogadrosLawcanbecombinedsuchthatthevariablesV,P,Tandnareall
equatedtoasingleconstant,R(theuniversalgasconstantoridealgasconstant).The
combinedequationbecomes:
PV
nRT
orPV=nRT
whereR=0.0821atmL/molK
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APPLICATION:
Asampleofoxygenoccupies8.0LofspaceatSTP.Howmanymolesofoxygenarepresentinthesample?
Given:
AtSTP,P=1atm
T=
273K
V=
8.0L
n=
?
Solution:
Usetheformula,PV=nRT
n
=
PV/RT
=
(1atm)(8.0L)
(273K)(0.0821atL/molK)
=
0.36moloxygen
6.
GRAHAMSLAW
ThomasGrahamdiscoveredtherelationshipbetweentheabilityofagastopassthroughasmallopeningandits
molecularweight.Hefoundoutthattherateofeffusionofanygasisinverselyproportionaltothesquarerootofits
molecularweight.Thus,theheavierthegasmoleculeis,theslowertheeffusionofthatgas.
7.
DALTONSLAWOFPARTIALPRESSURE
AccordingtoJohnDalton,thepressureexertedbyamixtureofnonreactinggasesisthesumofthepartial
pressuresthateachgasinthemixtureexertsindividually.Mathemetically,thislawisexpressedas:
Pt=P1+P2+P3.+Pn
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SOLUTION
Asolutionisahomogeneousmixtureoftwoormoresubstanceswhosecomponentsareuniformlydistributedall
throughout.Solutionshavetwocomponents,asolute,thesubstancetobedissolvedandthesolvent,thedissolving
medium.Usually,thesolventisgreaterinquantitythanthesolute.Inasolutioncontainingsugarandwater,the
soluteisthesugarandthesolventisthewater.
Properties of Solutions
Concentrationisthemeasureofthequantityofasoluteinagivenamountofsolutionorsolvent.Itcanbe
expressedqualitativelyandquantitatively.Aconcentratedsolutioncontainsalargeamountofsolutepervolume
ofsolvent.Adilutesolutioncontainsasmallamountofsolutepervolumeofsolvent.Saturatedsolutioncontains
asmuchsoluteasitcandissolve.Inasaturatedsolution,dissolvingandcrystallizingoccuratequalrates.An
equilibriumexistsbetweensoluteandsolvent.Whenasolutioncanstillholdmoresolute,thesolutionisstill
unsaturated.Whenasolutionhasmoresolutethanitshouldnormallyhold,itbecomessupersaturated.Excess
solutewillcrystallize,makingitanunstablesolution.
Forliquidinliquidsolutions,solubilityisdescribedintermsofmiscibility.Whenasoluteandasolventreadily
dissolveinanyamountineachother,theyarereferredtoasmiscible.Whenthecomponentsofasolutiononly
havelimitedsolubility,thenitisonlypartiallymiscible.Substanceswhichareimmiscibledonotdissolveineach
other.Theyformtwophasesorlayers.
Solubility
Solubilityisthemeasureoftheamountofsolutethatcanbedissolvedinagivenquantityofsolventataspecific
temperature.
TEMPERATURE
Thesolubilityofgasesinwaterisinverselyproportionaltotemperature.Thismeansthatanincreaseintemperature
willdecreasethesolubilityofgasesinwater.
PRESSURE
HenrysLawstatesthatthesolubilityofagasinaliquidisdirectlyproportionaltothepressureexertedbythegas
onthesurfaceoftheliquid.
THENATUREOFTHESOLUTES
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Likedissolveslike.Polarsolventswilldissolvepolarsolutesandnonpolarsolutesdissolveinnonpolarsolvents.
Wateristheuniversalsolventbecauseofitsabilitytodissolveagreatnumberofpolarandioniccompounds.
FACTORSTHATAFFECTTHERATEOFDISSOLUTION
Sizeofparticles
Thesmallerthesoluteparticles,thefasteritdissolves.Smallerparticleshavegreatersurfaceareasexposedtothe
solvent.
Rateofstirring
Therateofdissolutionisincreasedbystirringconstantly.Stirringallowsfastercontactbetween
thesoluteandthesolventparticles.Stirringalsoincreasesthekineticenergyofthesystem.
Heating
Heatingalsoincreasesthekineticenergyofthesoluteandthesolvent.Thismeansthatdissolutionincreasesasthe
temperatureincreases.
MODESOFEXPRESSINGCONCENTRATION
Concentrationistheratioofaspecifiedamountofsolutetoaspecifiedvolumeofsolventorsolution.
Concentration=amountofsolute
Volumeofsolute/solvent
Thefollowingarevariousmeansofexpressingconcentration.
PercentConcentrationisthepercentofthesoluteinthesolution.
Percentbymass(Pm)isthemassofsolutedividedbythetotalmassofsolutionmultipliedby100.Themassof
solutionisequaltothemassofthesoluteplusthemassofthesolvent.
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APPLICATION
a.1.Achemistneedstoprepareceramictilecleanserwhichcontains300gramsofhydrogenchlorideand600
gramsofwater.Whatisthepercentbymassofthehydrogenchlorideinthecleanser?
Given:
Massofsolute
=
300g
Massofsolvent
=
600g
Massofsolution
=
300+600
=
900g
=
?
Solution:
Pm
=
massofsolute
x100%
Massofsolution
=
300
x
100%
900
33%
a.2.Howmuchwatermustbeaddedto50gramsofsaltoprepare50%solution?
Given:
Massofsolute
=
50grams
Pm
=
50%
50%
=
50grams
x100%
50+X
0.50
=
50g
50+x
0.50(50+x)
=
50
25+0.50x
=
50
0.50x
=
5025
=
25/0.50
x=50gwater
Percentbyvolume
Todeterminepercentbyvolume,simplydividethevolumeofsolutebythetotalvolumeofthesolutionand
multiplytheresultby100%.Thesoluteandthesolutionvolumeshavetobeexpressedinthesameunits.
/V
solute
solution
x100%
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APPLICATION:
Asolutionispreparedwith15ccand35cchydrocarbontomaketomakeasolution.Determinetheconcentration
ofbenzeneinpercentbyvolume.
Given:
Volumeofsolute=15cc
Volumeofsolvent=35cc
Volumeofsolution=15cc+35cc=50ccsolution
Pv=?
Solution:
Pv=15cc/50ccx100%=
30%
PercentbyMassVolumeisusedwhendealingwithasolidsoluteandaliquidsolvent.Percentagebymass
volumeisobtainedbydividingthemassofsolute,ingramsbythetotal
volumeofsolutioninmLandtheresultismultipliedby100%.Percentbymassvolume=massofsolute(g)x
100%
Volumeofsolution(mL)
APPLICATION
A0.84%(m/v)sodiumchloridesolutionhastobeadministeredapatientintravenously.Determinethevolumeof
thesolutionif208gramsofsodiumchlorideisused.
Given:
Percentbymassvolume=
0.84%
Massofsolute
=
2.8grams
Volumeofsolution=?
Solution:
Pmv
=
2.8g/x*100%
0.84%x
=
2.8g*100%
x
=
280g/0.84
x
=
322mL
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2.MoleFractionistheratioofthenumberofmolesofsoluteinagivenmoleofsolution.
Molefraction=moleofsolute
Molesolution
APPLICATION:Whatisthemolefractionof35gofcalciumhydroxidedissolvedin42gramsofwater?
AnalysisoftheProblem:
Massofsolute
=
35g
Massofsolvent
=
42g
Molefraction
=
?
Solution:
Determinethemolesofsoluteandsolventfromtheirmolecularweight.
Ca(OH)2
=40+2(16)+1(2)=
74g/mol
H2O
=1(2)+16
=
18g/mol
moleCa(OH)2=35g/(74g/mol)
=
0.473moles
molesofH2O
=42g/(18g/mol)
=
2.333mole
molesofsolution=
0.473+2.333
=
2.803moles
molefractionofCa(OH)2=
0.473
moles
2.806moles
=
0.17
3.Molarity
Molarityexpressestheamountofsoluteinmolesperliterofsolution.
M=molesofsolute/volumesoln.liter
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APPLICATION:Calculatethemolarityif45gofsodiumhydroxideispresentin200ccofsolution
Given:
Massofsolute=45grams
Volumeofsolution=200ccor0.200L
M=?
Solution:
Determinethemolecularweightofsodiumhydroxide:
NaOH=23+16+1=40g/mol
Convertthegivenmasstomoles:
45gNaOH?(40g/mol)
=1.125molesNaOH
M=1.125moles/(0.200L)
=5.6molar
Molality
Molalityisbasedonafixedvolumeofasolutionwhilemolarityisbasedonafixedmassofsolvent.Molality=
molesofsolute/masssolvent(kg)
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APPLICATION:
Calculatethemolalityofasolutionthatcontains35gramsammoniain500gramsofwater.Given:
Massofsolute=35g
Massofsolvent=500gramsor0.510kgMolality=?
Solution:
Determinethemolecularweightofammoniaandchangethemassofammoniaintomoles.
NH3=14+1(3)=17g/mole
Molesofammonia=35grams/17g/mole=2.06moles
Molality=2.06moles/0.5kg
=4.1molal
Normality
NormalityisthenumberofequivalentsofsoluteinaliterofsolutionNormality(N)=numberofequivalence/liter
ofsolution
Anequivalentisdefinedasthenumberofmolesofanacidorbasemultipliedbythenumberofreplaceable
hydrogenorhydroxideionsithas.Equivalentweightisthemolecularweightofanacidmultipliedbythenumber
ofequivalentofhydrogenorhydroxideionithaspermolecule.
APPLICATION
Determinethenormalityof1.5Lsolutionthatcontains18.3gofsulfuricacid
Given:
Massofsolute=18.3gramssulfuric
Volumeofsolution=1.5liters
N=?
Solution:
Determinetheequivalentweightofsulfuricacid.Sincetherearetworeplaceable
hydrogenionsinH2SO4,simplydividethemolecularweightofsulfuricacid(98.0734g/mol)by
two.
Convertthemassofsulfuricacidtoequivalence.Thencalculatenormality.
18.3gH2SO4
x(1equivalent/49.0367)=0.373
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N=0.373equivalent/1.5L =0.25normal
AcidsandBases
Definition of Acids and Bases
Acid
Base
Arrhenius
AsubstancethatyieldsH+ions
AsubstancethatyieldsOH ions
inaqueoussolution
inaqueoussolution
BronstedLowry
Protondonor
Protonacceptor
Lewis
Electronpairacceptor
Electronpairdonor
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Properties of Acids and Bases
Acid
Base
Sourtaste
Bittertaste
Irritatingsmell(formostacids)
Slipperyorsoapytouch
Turnsbluelitmuspapertored
Turnsredlitmuspapertoblue
pH<7,pOH>7
pH>7,pH<7
Neutralizesabase
Neutralizesanacid
Goodconductorofelectricity
Goodconductorofelectricity
Classification of Acids and bases
Acidscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothenumberofhydrogenandhydroxylgroup.Amonoproticcontains1
hydrogen,diprotic,2hydrogenandsoon.Amonobasiccontainsonlyonehydroxidegroup,dibasic,2andsoon.
Waterisamphotericbecauseitcanactasanacidorbase.
pH and pOH
ThepHofthesolutionisequaltothenegativelogarithmofitshydrogenionconcentration([h+].pH=log[H+].
pOH=log[OH]pH+pOH=14
*waterhasapHof7.Itisneutral.
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OrganicChemistry
Hydrocarbonscontainonlyhydrogenandcarbonintheirmolecules.Itcanbeclassifiedas alkanes,
alkenes,andalkynes.
ALKANEShydrocarbonsthatcontainonlysinglebondsintheirmolecules.
ALKENESthereisatleastonecarbontocarbondoublebond.
ALKYNEShydrocarbonwherethereisatleastonecarboncarbontriplebond.
Aromatics
Aromaticcompoundsareorganiccompoundshavingcyclicalhydrocarbonringswherealltheatomsaresp
hybridized.
Substitutedhydrocarbons
a.
AlcoholwithOHfunctionalgroup (ROH)
Ethershydrocarbonchainsattachedtoanoxygenatom(ROOR)
aldehydesandketoneshavecarbonylgroup(C=O)
Halogenatedhydrocarbonshydrocarbonswhereoneormorehydrogenisreplacedbyahalogen.
Aminesifyoureplaceahydrogenatomfromanammoniamoleculewithahydrocarbon
Amidescarboxylgroup(C=O)comesbetweenthehydrocarbonchainandthenitrogenofanamine
BiologicalChemistry
Biologicalchemistrydealswiththechemicalsubstancesthatmakeuplivingthingssuchastheirtissues,body
fluids,andothers.
Biological Substances
Carbohydratesincludethedifferenttypesofsugar,starch(likethosefromrice,bread,sweetpotato)andthelike.
Theyareprimarysourcesofenergyinplantbodies.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtothenumberofsimplesugar
unitsorsaccharidesintothefollowing:
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Monosaccharidesmadeofonesimplesugarunit(ex.Fructose,ribose,glucose)
Disaccharidesmadeupoftwosimplesugarunits(ex.Maltose,sucrose)
Polysaccharidesmadeofmorethantwosimplesugarunits.(ex.Glycogen,cellulose)
ProteinsSubstancesclassifiedasproteinsvaryinshapes,sizesandfunctions,buttherearesimilaritiesintheir
chemicalstructures.Theyareallpolypeptides(polymersofaminoacids)
Aminoacidsarechemicallycarboxylicacidswithanaminogroup.Thereareabout20commonaminoacidsfound
inthebody,eachhasadifferentsidechain.Themostcommonsecondarystructuresarethealphahelix,thebeta
pleatedsheetandthetriplehelix.
NucleicAcidsapolymericchainofnucleotides(polynucleotides).Eachnucleotidecomponentismadeupofa
phosphategroup,asugar,andanitrogenbase.Thebasecanbeapurine(adenineorguanine)orapyrimidine
(cytosine,thymineoruracil)derivative.Thesugarfoundiseitherriboseordeoxyribose.Itsthesugarthat
determineswhetherthenucleicacidyouhaveisaDNAorRNA.Ifthesugarusedisribose,yougetanRNA.Ifthe
sugarusedisdeoxyribose,yougetaDNA.
Deoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)
DNAstructureisadoublehelix.ThisisresponsibleforthereplicationofDNA.Thecomplementarybasepairsin
theDNAstructureare:AdenineandThymine,GuanineandCytosine.
RibonucleicAcid(RNA)
InRNA,uracilisusedinplaceofthymine.
MessengerRNA(mRNA)copiesgeneticinformationfromDNAinthecellnucleitotheribosomes(whereproteins
aremade.)
TransferRNA(tRNA)carriesaminoacidstothesiteofproteinsynthesisRibosomalRNA(rRNA)providesthesite
forproteinsynthesis.
Lipidsfattyacidsandtheiresters.Fattyacidsarechemicallycarboxylicacids.Ifyoueattoomuch,thefoodyou
overeatwillbestoredaslipidsinadiposetissues.Twotypesoflipidsare:thesimplelipidsandcompoundlipids.
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BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS

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Atoms and Molecules

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Properties of Acids and Bases

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