THE PARTICIPATION FACTORS OF POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS IN EDUCATION

Faizah A Majid
Faculty of Education,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
(Published in The International Journal of Learning. Vol. 16 (5) pp. 357 372. ISSN 1447-9494.
Abstract
This study investigated the factors influencing students participation in a masters programme. The
findings of this study suggested that a majority of the respondents were driven by social, physical,
and psychological factors with psychological factors ranked the highest. The study also sought to
investigate the relationship between the demographic profiles of the respondents with the identified
factors of participation. The findings suggested that age and marital status had an influence on the
students physical factors. Besides confirming relevant past researchs findings, the study also
confirmed the discussions by Knowles (1990) and Imel (1989) on the role of adult learners
characteristics in their learning process. Several implications were discussed and some suggestions
were made based on the findings which all aim to increase the participation of the adults in the
postgraduate programmes. Among others, it is suggested that emphasis on the convenience and
relevance to the potential adult learners profession be addressed in attracting adult learners to enrol
in postgraduate studies.
Keywords: Postgraduate, Participation factors, Adult learners
Introduction
This paper addresses a common yet an influential factor in determining the participation of adult
learners in continuing education. It attempts to do so by investigating the factors which influence
the choice of adults to continue their education. The paper begins with the postgraduate scenario in
Malaysia before discussing the participation factors as found in the literature. It is completed with
the findings from research on Malaysian postgraduate students who were taking up a Master in
Education (TESL) programme in one of the Malaysian public universities and the implications that
they bring.
Literature Review
Postgraduates in Malaysia
In 1991, the then Prime Minister of Malaysia announced Vision 2020. It is a blueprint which serves
to direct the country to what she is aspired to be like by the year 2020. Envisaged in the blueprint is
what was coined as k-economy, an economy which is based on knowledge. K-workers and of late,
Human Capital were identified as the greatest asset which could easily elevate the k-economy. This
in turn, has brought back many adults to continuing their education (Mazanah, 2001).

As a consequence, among those who jump onto the bandwagon are the adult learners who seek
postgraduate degrees. According to the Education Development Plan 2001-2010, and the Malaysian
Education Statistics (November 2005), between 1990 and 1991, the number for degree, master and
doctoral students were 1983, 2643, and 542 respectively. However, between the years 2000 and
2001, the number had increased tremendously particularly in the masters and doctoral
programmes. It was reported that between those years, there were 23 870 master and 3378
doctoral students. Indicating a steady growth, the number rose between the year 2004 and 2005 to
34 969 master students and 6733 doctoral students.
To cater to the rising postgraduate enrolment, existing universities are provided with bigger budgets
and more new universities, public or private alike are established. Additionally, the Ministry of
Higher Education has identified seven strategic thrusts in the nations attempt to lead educational
transformation in the Malaysian public and private higher learning institutions (The National Higher
Education Strategic Plan, Ministry Of Higher Education, 2007). Of late, the parliament has approved
a new higher education act which empowers universities. The empowerment is expected to enable
universities to be more proactive and dynamic in terms of development.
Factors for continuing education
Theories on motivation are perhaps best to be referred to in understanding the factors which lead
the adults to continue their formal education. Motivation has been described as having three
psychological functions; a) energizing or activating behaviour, b) directing behaviour, and c)
regulating persistence of behaviour (Ford, 1992 as cited in Alderman, 2008). In recent years, the
social-cognitive approach has been the major focus in research on motivation (Alderman, 2008).
Under the social-cognitive approach, beliefs and cognitive, and emotional variables as well as
environmental factors are the key influence of involvement and achievement (Bandura, 1997;
Graham & Weiner, 1996; Stipek, 1996; Weiner, 1990).
According to Zemke and Zemke (1995), there are six motivations to learning amongst the adult
learners. First, adult learners are driven to continue their education due to the need to cope with
specific life changing events. The changes would include getting married or divorced, getting hired or
being fired, being promoted or demoted, transferring or retiring, all of which would have an
implication on the adult learners life. Taking up school by adult learners is seen as an alternative in
coping with these changes in order to stay relevant or connected with the society at large.
Second, adult learners are also motivated to continue their studies due to the amount of the life
changing events which they have encountered. Having faced the changes in life would indirectly
2

make the adult learners have a sufficient amount of energy to face the potential new changes they
could face while learning. As Knowles (1990) claims, experiences serve as the rich reservoir of
knowledge for the adult learners. In this context especially, he refers to the ability of the adults to
benefit from their experience when adapting to the learning process and environment.
Third, the reason why adults continue to learn is due to the need to seek solutions to their
immediate problems. Relating this to the reasons mentioned earlier, changes in life are inevitable to
the adults. Consequently, in adapting to the changes, the adults would require new skills or
knowledge. This in turn may cause them to return to continue their education. Knowles (1990)
concurs with this as he claims that in terms of time perspective, adults return to schooling because
they need to find answers to the problems they have from work or home. On the same note, Jarvis
(2004, p. 73) claims that adults participate in learning because it is connected to work.
Fourth, adults return to school since they believe that learning could assist them in coping with
certain changes in their life. The changes include the different roles they play, greater
responsibilities that come with the role(s), and different set of expectations from the society. These
prominent changes would almost instantly require new knowledge, and skills.
Fifth, adults are motivated to continue to learn because they believe that the new knowledge and
skills acquired could benefit them. As it is closely related to the previous factor, the fifth factor
confirms that new knowledge and skills are instrumental in the adults life. As an example, Scott,
Burns and Cooney (1996) discovered from their study that adult learners believe that learning will
increase their employability or chances of promotion.
Finally, the sixth reason why adults continue their schooling is because of their self-esteem and
confidence. In relating this to Maslows theory of motivation, adults may not necessary continue to
learn in a formal setting because they could have achieved specific set of goals in their life, but insist
to do so due to their need to reach self-actualization. Tekinarsalan (2004) further confirms this as
claiming that adults seek learning to gain personal development and fulfilment.
Besides Zemke and Zemke (1995), Carter (1992) postulates that there are six dimensions of
motivation which could cause the adults to continue learning. According to her, the six dimensions
of motivations are: commitment to learning, acceptance and approval, career advancement,
convenience, status of degree, and job expectation.
At this juncture, it is quite obvious to notice the similarities in the factors identified by both Carter
(1992) and Zemke and Zemke (1995). The first factor identified by Carter which is commitment to
learning is seen as closely related to Zemke and Zemkes sixth reason which is self-actualization.
3

Carters acceptance and approval on the other hand could be associated with several factors
identified by Zemke and Zemkes such as coping with changes in life, and meeting the expectations
of the society. Finally, the career advancement and convenience identified by Carter are factors
which could be related to Zemke and Zemkes tool for career and personal advancement.
Apart from Zemke and Zemke and Carter, Lamb and Brady (2005) further add to what was already
known about factors for adults continuing education. Lamb and Brady (2005) claim that there are
three major factors that lead to the adults to continue their education. First would be the benefits
they would get from the education which they categorize as the social factors. In particular, they
suggest that the there are four types of benefits that adults seek when continuing their education.
They are intellectual stimulation, experiencing a nurturing and supportive community, enhancing
self-esteem, and opportunities for spiritual renewal.
Second is the psychological factor. Relating this to Maslows theory of motivation, the intrinsic
motivation is seen as the one of the keys to the adults reason to continue learning. Self satisfaction
and self-esteem as postulated by Zemke and Zemke (1995) provide further elaboration. Besides the
intrinsic motivation, the adult learners belief system also plays an important role in motivating them
to continue their education. In this instance, Lamb and Brady (2005) concur that spiritual renewal is
significant when the adults continue their education. They further elaborate as claiming that adult
learners could explore their needs beyond formal religious training through education. This is seen
as possible since education is associated with religious practice and purity. As claimed by Lamb and
Brady (2005), achieving more in education is a means of fulfilling religious beliefs to the adults.
The third factor according to Lamb and Brady (2005) is the physical factor. In elaborating the factor,
they conclude that the universitys reputation, status of the degree, and job promotion are some of
the obvious examples of the physical factor. To top the list, convenience, and universitys flexibility
in payment method are the other examples.
The characteristics of the adult learners
In his book entitled Adult Learners: The Neglected Species, Knowles (1990) has encapsulated the
distinguished characteristics of the adult learners. He concluded that the characteristics of adult
learners can be understood by considering these three domains; their self-concept, experience and
time perspective. Briefly, self-concept is the image people have of themselves. Knowles adds, as
people grow, their self- concept moves from being a dependent personality to a self-directing one.
This in turn makes them become autonomous. It is no doubt then why some educators believe
that classes for adults should be learner-centred since the learners appreciate autonomy. It is even
4

so when Knowles further claims that no adult learner will learn under condition incongruent with
his (sic) self-concept (1990,p. 236).
However, Hanson (1996) argues that to claim adults are autonomous is inappropriate since it does
not consider the differences between adults and their contexts. He further commented that there
are some adults who re-enter education after some time away from school may want to be treated
as children. In addition, it is quite interesting to notice that autonomy is limited by what the social
culture permits (Rogers, 2002,p. 71). It is generally known that in many societies the local culture
does not encourage the development of autonomy in some groups of people such as the married
women.
In relation to experience, Knowles (1990,p. 237) comments that adults have more experience than
children do, making them a rich resource in the classroom. This notion has been put forward
earlier by Mocker (1980,p. 35) who claims that adults enter an educational activity with a greater
amount of experience from which they can relate new experience. This further explains why there
are suggestions for the classroom activities to be learner-oriented. In other words, most of the
materials for the classes should be generated from the learners themselves. Work conferences,
group discussions, seminars, student demonstrations and consultative supervisions are among the
activities which are claimed to best suit the adult learners needs. Rogers (2002,p. 73) further adds
that while for children, experience is something that happens to them, it serves to determine who
they are, and to create their sense of self-identity for the adults. Hence, when this experience is
devalued or ignored, not only the experience but the person is also rejected.
However, one drawback is also inevitable due to the influence of the adult learners experience. It is
said that with their experience, adult learners can form habits which may not be suitable or helpful
in their learning process (Knowles, 1990,p. 237). For example, the fact that they are so used to
teacher-centred classes, they may have difficulties coping in an adult class which as said, is learnercentred. Other possible negative habits are biases, presuppositions that close ones mind to new,
fresh ideas (p. 59).
Finally, the characteristics of adult learners are also associated with time perspective. Mocker
(1980,p. 35) has mentioned that adults enter (an educational activity) with more specific and
immediate plans for applying newly acquired knowledge. Knowles (1990,p. 237) further clarifies
this idea by stating that due to the fact that adult learners need to be equipped to overcome their
current problems, they want to put to immediate use what they learn. In this instance, adult
learners are perceived as motivated learners who are driven by intrinsic factors rather than extrinsic

ones. As Knowles further elaborates, adult learners are mostly motivated to learn because they are
seeking solutions to the problems they encounter in their roles as parents, workers and so on. Imel
(1989,p. 1) concurs with Knowles when she claims that, The needs of adult learners are very
simple. They do not need the basics; they need answers to particular questionsThe adult learners
want information that is useful immediately. What can be safely deduced from this is that teachers
of adult learners should be people-centred than subject-matter-centred (Knowles, 1990,p.238).
Nevertheless, there is an argument made on the time-perspective of the adult learners. Although
some consider adult learners as highly driven by intrinsic factors in their learning, there are others
who believe that the learners could also be motivated by extrinsic factors (Brookfield, 1986;
Rogers, 2002). This is particularly true amongst adult learners who are put back into education by
their employers. As a consequence, going back to school is seen as a plan for them to fulfil the career
requirements or to be promoted, which may be a common scenario in a country where the study
took place. As such, instead of taking the learning experience as something which could be selfsatisfying and meaningful, these learners tend to make their learning more instrumental
(Brookfield, 1986; Rogers, 2002) or to use a simpler term, as a stepping stone.
The present studys conceptual framework
The present study adopts the work of Lamb and Brady (2005), Zemke and Zemke (1995), and Carter
(1992) in determining the categories of participation factors. The choice of the respective research is
due to the fact that their work encompasses the factors which could be divided into three factors
namely social, psychological, and physical. The following diagram illustrates the conceptual
framework for the present study.

Figure 1
The conceptual framework (adapted from Lamb and Brady, 2005; Zemke and Zemke, 1995; and
Carter, 1992)

Research methodology
Research design
Quantitative research design was adopted and a survey method was employed by the researcher.
The quantitative data was obtained through the administration of a questionnaire which was
distributed to a group of postgraduate students. The questionnaire elicited information such as the
respondents demographic details, and the factors that led them to participate in the programme
which they were in.
Population and sampling
During the conduct of the study, a total of 183 students were enrolled in the Master in Education
(TESL) programme in the university where the study took place. To assist the data collection, a
questionnaire was distributed to all the students. However, only 110 students completed and
returned the questionnaire. Thus, the findings of the study were based on the feedback provided by
the 110 respondents. Out of the 110 students, 32% (n = 35) were male, while 68% (n = 75) were
female. The respondents age ranged between 25 and 45 years old, and there was a mixture of

married and single respondents. Further details on the respondents demographic data are provided
in the discussion on findings.
Method of data collection and analysis
A set of questionnaire was used to elicit relevant information from the respondents.

The

questionnaire was adapted from Carters (1992), Zemke and Zemke (1995), and Lamb and Bradys
(2008) study. There are two sections in the questionnaire; Section A consists of items which elicit the
respondents demographic data while Section B has 50 items which are grouped according to the
three main factors identified which are the social, psychological, and physical factors. Specifically,
there are 15 items under the social factors, 19 items under the psychological factors, and 16 items
under the physical factor. In Section B, the respondents needed to identify the statements that most
accurately reflect them. A Lickert scale which ranked from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)
was used for each item in Section B. The following are some of the items in Section B. Anonymity
and confidentiality were highlighted in the general instruction.
Social factors:
1. I wanted to prove myself to others.
2. It was the thing to do.
3. I wanted to please my family.
4. I wanted to be accepted by others.
5. I wanted to improve my social position.
Psychological factors:
1. It was a personal challenge.
2. I wanted to learn something new.
3. I was seeking different skills.
4. Education is a life-long commitment.
5. I wanted to escape the intellectual narrowness in my occupation.
Physical factors:
1. The degree is prestigious.
2. I couldnt obtain the job I wanted without the degree.
3. It is easy for me to get to campus.
4. I could attend part-time.
5. The university is reputable.
8

The adapted questionnaire was piloted on a group of 30 postgraduate students who were enrolled
in two Masters programmes in the same university. For the analysis purpose, SPSS Version 12 was
used. From the pilot test, it was discovered that the Cronbach alphas value for the items in Section
B was .883. The social factors items had .742 while the psychological and physical factors had .850
and .844 respectively. The values obtained had enabled the data collection to proceed.
Findings
Discussions on the demographic profile
It was discovered from the feedback given by the 110 respondents, 45% of them were between 20
and 29 years old, 25% were between 30 and 39 years old, and 40% were 40 years old and above
(Refer Table 1). Besides this, 45.5% of them were single and 54.5% were married (Refer Table 2). The
majority of them (95.5%) were working in the teaching line while a small percentage of them (4.5%)
were working in the management line (Refer Table 3).
More than half of the total number of the respondents was pursuing their studies on a part-time
mode (59.1%). Only 40.9% of them were on a full-time mode (Refer Table 4). On a similar pattern,
13.6 % of them were on scholarship while 86.4% were self-funded (Refer Table 6). Hence, it could be
deduced that most of the full-time students were on scholarship. Finally, a bigger percentage of the
respondents (63.6%) were taking between 1 and 2 classes per week, compared to only 36.4% of
them who took between 2 and 3 classes per week (Refer Table 5). Similarly, their mode of studies
could be the reason for the number of classes they took.
Table 1: Respondents age range
Age range

Frequency

20-24

4.5

25-29

40

36.4

30-34

20

18.2

35-39

4.5

40-45

40

36.4

Total

110

100

Table 2: Marital status

Marital status

Frequency

Single

50

45.5

Married

60

54.5

Total

110

100

Occupation

Frequency

Teaching

105

95.5

Other than teaching

4.5

Total

110

100

Mode

Frequency

Full-time

45

40.9

Part-time

65

59.1

Total

110

100

Table 3: Occupation

Table 4: Mode of studies

Table 5: Number of classes attended per week

No. of classes per Frequency

week
1-2

70

63.6

2-3

40

36.4

Total

110

100

Source of funding

Frequency

Scholarship

15

13.6

Self-funding

95

86.4

Total

110

100

Table 6: Source of funding

10

Discussions on the factors which influence the respondents participation in the programme
The following are discussions on the factors identified which had influenced the respondents to
participate in the postgraduate programme. The discussion will be presented in the order of the
factors identified in the conceptual framework which are social, psychological, and physical factors
respectively.
Table 7 below signifies the social factors which had influenced the respondents participation. Items
7, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 14 reveal interesting findings as they have a high mean score each. Most of the
respondents claimed to participate in the programme they were in because of the relevant social
factors. Besides setting an example to their immediate family members, the respondents claimed to
enjoy interacting with and meeting people. Additionally, they agreed that the reason why they
participated in the programme was also due to the fact that they wanted a better position in society
as well as to serve the community. It could be suggested that these reasons are those which could
enhance their self-confidence, stimulate their intellectual, and as an opportunity to be involved in a
supportive and nurturing community. Lamb and Brady (2005) claim that the social factors comprise
intellectual stimulation, experiencing a nurturing and supportive community, enhancing self-esteem,
and opportunities for spiritual renewal. Zemke and Zemke (1995) claim adults continue their
schooling because of their self-esteem and confidence. In addition, Maslows theory of motivation
seems to suggest that adults may insist to continue their education due to their need to reach selfactualization. Tekinarsalan (2004) further confirms this as claiming that adults seek learning to gain
personal development and fulfilment. All of the claims made earlier could be referred to in the
attempt to interpret the findings as suggested in Table 7.
Table 7: Social factors
Items

Mean

Std.
Deviation

1. I wanted to prove myself to others.

3.59

1.33

2. It was the thing to do.

3.64

1.39

3. My employer encouraged me.

2.73

1.24

4. I wanted to please my family.

3.09

1.44

5. I wanted a higher degree than my parents.

2.10

1.09

6. My spouse/siblings has/have a masters degree.

1.82

1.18

I wanted to set an example to my 4.14

1.17

7.

children/younger siblings.

11

8. I enjoy the social interaction with other 4.14

.77

students.
9. I wanted to meet people.

3.86

.941

10. I wanted to feel more important.

3.36

1.22

11. I wanted to be accepted by others.

2.64

1.10

12. I wanted to improve my social position.

3.86

.97

13. I wanted to prepare for the service in the 4.29

.46

community.
14. I wanted to improve my ability to serve 4.36

.58

humankind.
15. I wanted to keep up with others.

3.73

1.12

Table 8 summarizes the psychological factors that influenced the respondents to participate in the
programme. It is interesting to note that many of the respondents agreed with most of the items
listed as the mean score for the respective items are above 4.00. Nonetheless, it is fairly important
to also note that there are a few items which have low mean scores such as items 15, 16, and 17.
The respondents denied that the reason why they decided to continue their education was due to
poor relationship and quality of life, and that participating in a programme such as the one they
were in was escapism. This interpretation is further confirmed by the responses the respondents
gave in other items which reflected their intrinsic motivation and keen interest in pursuing their
education. The relevant items which signify that idea would be items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 13, and 14. As
claimed by Zemke and Zemke (1995), adult learners are generally more intrinsically than extrinsically
driven. Lamb and Brady (2005) further elaborate that adults choice to come back to school is often
influenced by their learners belief. According to them, adults often associate education with
religious practice and purity. Hence, it is acceptable that most of the respondents in the study
claimed that education is life-long, and enjoyable. Other than that, they also believed that pursuing
education has a noble intent as it enabled them to enhance self-confidence, acquire new and various
skills, and diversify their way of thinking.
Table 8: Psychological factors
Items

Mean

Std.
Deviation

1. It is a personal challenge.

4.64

.58

2. I want to become self-supporting.

4.18

.73
12

3. Education is a life-long commitment.

4.55

.91

4. I am seeking different skills.

3.91

1.15

5. I want to learn theory to apply to my job.

4.18

.85

6. I want to learn something new.

4.41

.73

7. School is preferable to working.

3.62

1.20

8. I am now focused on what I want to do 3.95

1.00

with my life.
9. I want to become all-rounded.

4.36

.66

10. I want to learn more.

4.50

.74

11. I want to diversify my way of thinking.

4.36

.79

12. I want to escape boredom.

3.00

1.51

13. I enjoy learning.

4.50

.51

14. I want to feel confident.

4.41

.59

15. I want to escape an unhappy relationship.

1.64

1.00

16. I want to overcome the frustration of day- 1.82

1.05

to-day living.
17. I want to get a break in the routine of 2.77

1.38

home and work.

18. I want to stop myself from becoming 3.00

1.57

obsolete.
19. I

want

to

escape

the

intellectual 3.68

1.25

narrowness in my occupation.

The following table reflects the responses given by the respondents with regard to the physical
factors. It was discovered that the respondents were concerned with the benefits they could get
from the masters degree. Items 1, 3, 5, 6, 12, and 16 signify the identified reasons. Although logistic
issues such as distance and availability of various modes of studies were important as well, they
were not as important as the benefit the respondents would get later upon obtaining the masters
degree. Zemke and Zemke (1995) claim that adults are motivated to continue to learn because they
believe that the new knowledge and skills acquired could benefit them. In this instance, the new
knowledge and skills are seen as instrumental in the adults life. For example, Scott, Burns and
Cooney (1996) discovered from their study that adult learners believe that learning will increase
their employability or chances of promotion. The respondents in the study indicated similarities in
the descriptions about the physical factors which had caused them to enrol in the programme.
13

Additionally, the reputation of the university and the degree also played an important role in
influencing the respondents participation in the programme as noted in items 2, and 16. As Carter
(1992) claims, career advancement, convenience, status of degree, and job expectation are some of
the reasons that drive adult learners back to school.
Table 9: Physical factors
Items

Mean

Std.
Deviation

1. I want to make myself more employable.

4.23

.92

2. The M.Ed (TESL) is a prestigious degree.

3.95

1.05

3. I want to specialize.

4.36

.49

4. I couldnt obtain the job I want without the 2.68

1.52

degree.
5. The degree will provide job mobility.

4.18

.80

6. I want to have more influence in my job.

4.00

1.20

7. I need the degree for promotion.

3.59

1.30

8. I will be able to get a more interesting job.

3.73

1.40

9. I could attend part-time.

3.41

1.33

10. It is easy for me to get to campus.

2.86

1.42

11. I will earn more money.

3.82

1.40

12. The programme relates to the job I hold.

4.50

.67

13. I want to change careers.

2.45

1.47

14. My employer expects me to have a 2.68

1.46

masters degree.
15. I want a good job.

4.14

.99

16. The university is reputable.

4.14

.99

To this end, the three factors; social, psychological, and physical have been discussed. It is worth
investigating the differences between the factors in terms of their general influence on the
respondents participation in the programme. Table 10 below signifies the comparison between the
factors. Of the three factors, it was discovered that psychological factor has the highest mean score
indicating higher influence on the respondents participation compared to the social and physical
14

factors. As shown in the table, psychological factor has the highest mean score (3.76) while the
physical and social factors have a mean score of 3.63 and 3.27 respectively. Knowles (1990) and
Imels (1989) theories on the motivation of adult learners could perhaps be referred to in
interpreting this finding. Knowles (1990) perceives adult learners as motivated learners who are
driven by intrinsic factors rather than extrinsic ones. As he further elaborates, adult learners are
mostly motivated to learn because they are seeking solutions to the problems they encounter in
their roles as parents, workers and so on. On the same note, Imel (1989,p. 1) claims that, The
needs of adult learners are very simple. They do not need the basics; they need answers to
particular questionsThe adult learners want information that is useful immediately. Hence, it is
quite acceptable that the psychological factors could be more influential than the social and physical
factors.
Table 10: Comparison between the factors
Factors

Min

Max

Mean

Std. Deviation

Social

2.19

4.00

3.27

.48

Psychological

2.47

4.58

3.76

.52

Physical

2.20

4.93

3.63

.67

The following discussions will focus on the differences between relevant demographic data in terms
of the three factors. As shown in Table 11, no significant differences could be seen between the
genders in terms of the three factors. Purcell et al. (2005) in their study also discovered that there
was little gender difference when it came to adult learners participation in postgraduate studies.

Table 11: Significant difference between genders in terms of the three factors
Factors

Gender

Mean

t-value

Sig

Social

Male

3.32

.298

.769

Female

3.25

Male

3.58

-1.15

.266

Female

3.85

Male

3.31

-1.60

.124

Female

3.80

Psychological

Physical

15

However as shown in Table 12, although there is no significant difference between single and
married respondents in terms of social and psychological factors, there seems to be a significant
difference between the two groups in terms of the physical factors (t-value = 3.81; sig = .001). It was
discovered that single respondents seem to be influenced by the physical factors more (mean score
= 4.12) than the married respondents (mean score = 3.25). It could be interpreted that the single
respondents were more concerned with the physical factors such as career advancement,
convenience, status of degree, and job expectation in deciding for their participation in the
programme.
Table 12: Significant difference between marital statuses with regard to the three factors
Factors

Marital status

Mean

t-value

sig

Social

Single

3.19

-.66

.516

Married

3.34

Single

3.65

-.91

.374

Married

3.86

Single

4.12

3.81

.001

Married

3.25

Psychological

Physical

Table 13 shows the differences between the modes of studies in relation to the three factors. As
indicated, there were no significant differences between the mode of studies and the factors.

Table 13: Significant difference between modes of studies with regard to the three factors
Factors

Mode of studies

Mean

t-value

sig

Social

Full-time

3.31

.29

.776

Part-time

3.25

Full-time

3.80

.28

.785

Part-time

3.74

Full-time

3.76

.71

.487

Part-time

3.55

Psychological

Physical

Table 14 summarizes the differences between the age ranges in relation to the three factors. As
indicated, there were no significant differences between the age range with regard to the social and
psychological factors. However, there seems to be a significant difference between the age range in
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terms of the physical factor (F = 8.61, sig = .002). As indicated, the younger respondents (mean score
= 4.17) seem to be influenced more by the physical factors than did the older respondents (mean
score = 3.17).
Table 14: Significant difference between age ranges in relation to the three factors
Factors

Age range

Mean

Anova

sig

Social

20-29

45

3.23

.300

.744

30-39

25

3.19

40 and above

40

3.38

20-29

45

3.63

30-39

25

3.75

40 and above

40

3.92

20-29

45

4.17

30-39

25

3.44

40 and above

40

3.17

Total

110

3.64

Psychological

Physical

.641

8.61

.538

.002

Implications
The findings from the study could be used as a reference in deciding on the efforts to encourage
adult learners to continue their education. Adult learners themselves could be made more aware of
the potential reasons behind their choice to pursue their studies. The following discussions focus on
the implications of the study.
To begin, it was discovered that the respondents in the study were highly driven by the psychological
factors the most compared to the physical and social factors. Hence, in an attempt to promote the
relevant postgraduate programmes to adult learners, the universities could highlight the relevance
of the programmes with the adults need to apply the new knowledge and skills for their
professional and personal development. As claimed by Knowles (1990), adult learners enter
education for specific reasons; putting what they have acquired to immediate use, and sustaining
their positive self-esteem.
In addition, as relevance of the contents of the programme to their work demand was seen as
necessary before the adults decided to pursue their studies, it is imperative for curriculum designer
to meet these expectations. The contents are expected to be able to provide answers and
alternatives to the adults in meeting the challenges they face at work. This could be done by
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providing hands-on emphasis through programme linkages with the relevant industries as well as
availability for network or collaboration. Additionally, greater emphasis should be given on practical
issues rather than theories as adult learners tend to appreciate the possible transfer of such
knowledge and skills to their work. Stuart et al (2008) also discovered similar findings and suggested
that curriculum designers place great importance on meeting the adult learners expectation when
the adult learners participate in a postgraduate programme.
Besides that, it is also advisable for the universities to consider the fulfilment of the adults selfesteem. As taking up postgraduate programmes could be an opportunity for the adult learners to
enhance positive self-esteem, it is equally important for the curriculum designers to consider means
to promote personal development. It is suggested that this could be done through relevant and
intellectually challenging tasks and assessment.
Apart from that, the study has also discovered that age and marital status are predictors to the adult
learners participation with regard to physical factors. Hence, in attracting younger (i.e. those who
are between 20 and 29 years of age), and single adult learners, the universities could highlight the
physical factor such as the opportunities for career advancement, and the status of the degree
awarded. Anderson et al. (1998) and Barber et al. (2004) concur with this finding when they claim
that that postgraduate study is undertaken for career advancement. Additionally, the adult learners
need to be informed of the convenience they could get by taking up the programme from the
university. Some of the ways to ensure convenience is through the flexibility in mode of studies,
class schedule, and tuition fees payment. Several past research have indicated that physical factor if
not attended to could become barriers to postgraduate studies (Hoad, 2001; Purcell, Elias, Davies,
and Wilton, 2005). As discovered from the research, inflexibilities in timetables and little access to
financial support are some of the possible barriers. Hence, to encourage their participation,
universities could provide the adult learners with flexibility in the relevant areas.
On top of that, as single and young adults tend to participate in postgraduate programmes due to
the physical factor, it is also useful to emphasize on the use of the programme in meeting their job
expectation. According to Havinghurst (1972) young adults, i.e. those between 20 and 29 years of
age are those who are yet to reach stability in their career. Hence, the degree could offer them a
platform to establish the confidence they need which in turn could lead to their career stability.
Stuart et al (2008) concur with this finding when they claim that young adults who are in the
Humanities field of studies tend to participate in postgraduate programmes more than those in the
technical and vocational field of studies. As proposed by them, the reason behind this was due to the

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need of the Humanities graduate to fulfil the expectation of their employers unlike the technical and
vocational students who could fare well in the job market with their first degree only.

Conclusion
This paper has identified the factors that influence the participation of the selected adult learners in
a postgraduate programme in a public university in Malaysia. The findings have yielded interesting
findings which have also confirmed the findings from previous studies (Stuart et al, 2008; Purcell et
al, 2005; Hoad, 2001; Barber et al, 2004; & Anderson et al, 1998). Most importantly, the implications
provided have shed some light on how higher education institutes could encourage the participation
of the adult learners by having a clear picture on the reasons which drive some adult learners back
to school, particularly in pursuing their postgraduate studies. Such an understanding could assist the
universities in planning for the curriculum design and marketing of the programmes.
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