East Europe Paleogeographic Hisotry With Tectonics May Help

Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences (Turkish J. Earth Sci.),A.M.
Vol.NIKISHIN
20, 2011, pp.
Copyright TBTAK
ET571634.
AL.
doi:10.3906/yer-1005-22
First published online 28 February 2011
Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic Evolution of the Black SeaSouthern Eastern Europe Region:
A View from the Russian Platform
ANATOLY M. NIKISHIN1, PETER A. ZIEGLER2,
SERGEY N. BOLOTOV1 & PAVEL A. FOKIN1
1
Geological Faculty, Moscow State University, Vorobyevy Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russia
(E-mail: nikishin@geol.msu.ru)
2
Geological-Palaeontological Institute, University Basel, Bernoullistr. 32, 4065 Basel, Switzerland
Received 21 May 2010; revised typescript receipt 13 January 2011; accepted 15 February 2011
Abstract: A synthesis of the Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic evolution of the Black Sea region and the southern parts
of the East European Platform (EEP) is presented. During Carboniferous to Early Permian times the Cordillera-type
Euxinus Orogen evolved along the southern margin of the EEP in response to progressive closure of the Rheic and
Palaeotethys oceans and the accretion of Gondwana-derived continental terranes. Permian development of the northdipping Palaeotethys subduction system along the southern Pontides margin of these terranes was accompanied by
important compressional intraplate deformation on the EEP. The Mesozoic to Palaeogene evolution of the southern
parts of the EEP, was goverened by closure of Palaeotethys, accretion of the Gondwana-derived Cimmerian terrane
and gradual closure of the Neotethys, involving repeated opening and closure of back-arc basins. Five discrete tectonic
subduction-related cycles are recognized, each commencing with back-arc extension and terminated with back-arc
compression. The timing of these cycles is: (1) latest Permian to Hettangian, (2) Sinemurian to early Callovian, (3) late
Callovian to Berriasian, (4) Valanginian to Paleocene and (5) Eocene to Recent. The duration of the individual cycles
was of the order of 3050 My. During back-arc extension, rifted basins developed along the southern margin of the
EEP whilst during back-arc compression compressional stresses were exerted on it, albeit at varying levels during the
different tectonic cycles. On the EEP, Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic intraplate tectonics are expressed by such
phenomena as rifting, extrusion of plateau basalts, inversion of pre-existing tensional basins, gentle lithospheric folding,
regional uplift and subsidence.
Key Words: East European Platform, Black Sea, Caucasus, Turkey, geological evolution, dynamics, subduction, rifting,
intraplate tectonics
Karadeniz ve Gneydou Avrupann Ge PaleozoyikTersiyer Evrimi:

Rus Platformundan Bir Bak
zet: Bu almada Karadeniz blgesi ve Dou Avrupa Platformunun (EEP) gney kesiminin Ge PaleozoyikTersiyer
evrimi ile ilgili bir sentez sunulmutur. Karbonifer ve Erken Permiyende EEPnin gney kenarnda Reik ve Paleotetis
okyanuslarnn kapanmasna ve Gondwanadan gelen paralarn Avrasyaya eklenmesine bal olarak Kordillera tipi
ksenus orojeni gelimitir. Permiyende Paleotetisin Pontidlerin gney kenar boyunca kuzeye doru dalmasna bal
olarak EEP iinde nemli levha-ii skmal deformasyonlar meydana gelmitir. EEPnin gney kenarnn Mesozoyik
ve Paleojen evrimi Paleotetisin kapanmas, Gondwana kkenli Kimmeriyen ktasnn Avrasyaya eklenmesi, Neotetisin
tedrici olarak kapanmas ve yay-ard havzalarn almas ve kapanmas ile denetlenmitir. Bu dnemde be tane dalmabatma ile ilgili, yay-ard genileme ile balayan ve yay-ard skma ile biten evrim tanmlanmtr. Bunlar: (1) en Ge
PermiyenHettanjiyen, (2) Sinemuriyenerken Kalloviyen, (3) Ge KalloviyenBerriaziyen, (4) ValanjiniyenPaleosen,
(5) Eosengnmz. Bu evrimlerin sresi 3050 milyon sene mertebesindedir. Yay-ard genileme srasnda EEPnin
gney kenar boyunca rift havzalar alm, yay-ard skma srasnda EEPnin gney kenar deiik derecelerde
skma tektoniine maruz kalmtr. EEPdeki Ge Paleozoyik, Mesozoyik ve Tersiyer levha-ii tektonii, riftleme, plato
bazaltlarnn k, genilemeli havzalarn inversiyonu, yumuak litosferik kvrmlanma, rejyonal ykselme ve kme
ile karakterize olur.
Anahtar Szckler: Dou Avrupa Platformu, Karadeniz, Kafkasya, Trkiye, jeolojik evrim, dinamiks, dalma-batma,
riftleme, levha ii tektonii
571
GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE
Introduction
Whereas the Mesozoic and Cenozoic evolution of
basins occurring on the Peri-Tethyan shelves of
Western and Central Europe is well documented
(Ziegler 1989, 1990; Dercourt et al. 1993, 2000; Golonka
2000, 2004; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b), little information
has so far been published on the Peri-Tethyan basins
of Eastern Europe. However, Russian geologists have
assembled a large database in collaboration with
colleagues from countries surrounding the Black Sea,
partly within the framework of such international
projects as EUROPROBE, PeriTethys, IGCP-369, ILP,
MEBE, DARIUS (see Dercourt et al. 2000; Stampfli
et al. 2001a, b; Gee & Stephenson 2006; Barrier &
Vrielynck 2008).
In this paper we summarize the palaeogeographic
and palaeotectonic evolution of the southern part of
the East-European Platform (EEP) and discuss the
potential relationship between observed intraplate
deformations and the development of the Tethyan
belt, drawing on recent compilations and syntheses
(Nikishin et al. 1996, 1997, 1998a, b, 1999, 2000,
2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2010; Ziegler et al.
2001; Stephenson et al. 2001; Golonka 2004; Moix
et al. 2008; Okay et al. 2008; Robertson & Ustamer
2009; Kalvoda & Babek 2010).
The area addressed includes the Precambrian
East-European Craton (EEC), the Late Palaeozoic
Scythian Orogen and the Uralian domain which
fringe it to the south and east, respectively, and the
Mesozoic to recent orogenic systems of the BalkanBlack Sea-Scythian-Caucasus region (Figures
13). The palaeotectonic and palaeogeographic
restorations of this area presented in this paper are
based on a compilation of all available geological
and geophysical data. These maps form the base
for assessing the relationship between intraplate
deformations observed on the EEP and changes
in plate boundary conditions in the Tethyan and
Uralian belts.
The EEC and the Scythian Platform formed
together the EEP. During Late Palaeozoic times the
EEC was bordered, in recent coordinates, to the
southwest by the Variscan Orogen, to the south by
the Euxinus Orogen (new name, see below), and to
the east by the Uralian Orogen, all of which were
tectonically active. The EEC was bounded to the
572
west and northwest by the Arctic-North Atlantic

Caledonides, and to the northeast by the Baikalian
Timan-Pechora-Eastern Barents Sea Province (or
Timanides). During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times,
the evolution of the western and northern margins of
the EEP was mainly controlled by processes related
to the opening of the Arctic-North Atlantic Ocean,
whereas development of its southern margin was
controlled by processes governing the evolution of
the Tethyan system.
Late Palaeozoic Euxinus Orogen
The Early Permian setting of the EEC and the
orogenic system, which was active along its southern
margin during Carboniferous to Permian times,
is summarized in Figure 4. This orogenic system,
which extended from the Rhodope-Moesia area into
the Caucasus-Turan area, parts of which are exposed
in areas flanking the Black Sea, is here termed the
Euxinus Orogen, referring to Pontus Euxinus, the
ancient Greek name for the Black Sea (Nikishin et al.
2005).
The Euxinus Orogen, similar to the Variscan
Orogen forming its western prolongation, contains
a number of Gondwana-derived continental terranes
(e.g., Belov 1981; Ziegler 1989, 1990; Dercourt et al.
1993, 2000; Robinson 1997; Pharaoh 1999; Golonka
2000; Yanev 2000; Nikishin et al. 2001; Stampfli et al.
2001a, b; Vaida et al. 2005; Zakariadze et al. 2007;
Moix et al. 2008; Kalvoda & Babek 2010). However,
unlike the Himalaya-type continent-to-continent
collisional western parts of the Variscan Orogen,
the Euxinus Orogen remained in Late Palaeozoic
times in an Andean-type continent-ocean collisional
setting (Ziegler 1989; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Ziegler
& Stampfli 2001). The evolution of Euxinus orogenic
system was governed by subduction of the Rheic
Ocean and the accretion of Gondwana-derived
continental fragments to the southern margin of
Baltica. This subduction system was apparently
activated in Ordovician times, controlling the
accretion of such terranes as Eastern Avalonia,
Armorica and Moravo-Silesia to Baltica during the
Caledonian orogeny (Ziegler 1989; Pharaoh 1999;
Cocks & Torsvik 2006). During the Devonian,
intermittent cycles of back-arc extension and
compression controlled the opening of the oceanic
East-Barents Sea
A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.
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Figure 1. Index map of East European Platform, showing main rifted basis. Coloured zones denote highly inverted rifts and backarc basins.
Rheno-Hercynian Basin in the Varsican domain and

the evolution of the Dniepr-Donbass-KarpinskyPeri-Caspian rift system on the southern parts of the
EEC, as well as the accretion of additional continental
terranes, such as the Aquitaine-Cantabrian block, to
the Variscan domain. In the Variscan, as well as in the
Euxinus system, orogenic activity sharply increased
during Late Visean times. Crustal shortening
terminated in the Variscan Orogen at the end of the
Westphalian whereas orogenic activity persisted in

the Euxinus Orogen until the Early Permian (Ziegler
1989, 1990; Tait et al. 1997; Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005;
Stampfli & Borel 2004).
Unlike the northern parts of the Variscan Orogen,
and even more than its southern parts, the Euxinus
Orogen was severely disrupted during Mesozoic and
Cenozoic times by repeated phases of back-arc rifting
573
ian foredeep
ob
ro
g
ea
RhodopeThracia terrane
ane
s-A
ge
Rid
o
at
lI
200
Meso-Cenozoic volcanic belts
uc
na
sin
nd
sin
Ba
Ba
AS
PI
AN
aj
-S
irj
an
SE
A
TURAN
PLATFORM
areas with oceanic

or transitional crust
foredeep basins
faults and faulted

scarps
major thrust zones
Abbreviations: Dz Dzirula massif; Kh Khrami

massif; SS Sevan suture;
SO Sevan-Ordubad Basin.
Sa
ra
Ku
Ka
ra
ba
kh
as
us
t C
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-A
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te rme
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ne ian
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400 km
Eas
t-A
acc natolia
retio
n
com nary
plex
ARABIAN
PLATE
suture
Meso-Cenozoic folded belts
Erzincan
SS
Kh
t
-Triale
Dz
Gr
at
Terek-Caspia
e of G
re
Achara
asin
N. s l o p
ni B
Rio
Eastern Pontides
K
BA SEA
SI
N
AC
BL
ky
ats
sin
Figure 2. Schematic tectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
te
rra
Ba
Sh
se
Basi
asin
Kara
kulSmu
shk
ovo
SW
e zo
ne
EL
pian B
sin
Ba
es
Tokat
terrane
Krehir
terrane
ER
ST
EA
Tu
ap
ban
l-Ku
Indo
FOR
KY
INS
RP
KA
Precas
N
PIA
S
CA IN
S. BAS
European Late Palaeozoic

deformed margin
continental terranes
undivided
ide
zmir-Ankara suture
a terr
Sakary
ri
s
r al
CentPontide
S.C
a
me
AN
ASS
PLAT
DONB
CRATON
sh
r
au
Balkanides
Sre
dne
gor
Stra
ie
ndz
ha
WESTERN
BLACK SEA
BASIN
Lomonoso
SCY
I
TH
EAN
en
it Grab
Karkin
Odessa shelf
T-E
O
UR
W. Pontides
EAS
MOESIAN
PLATFORM
a
Carp
th
574
IANS
PATH
ov
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r
d
An
e
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Ri
ly
Ta
CAR
rz
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Dniepr
Basin
Precambrian continental lithosphere
Lithosphere of Precaspian region
EURASIAN PLATE
PRECAMBRIAN & PALAEOZOIC CRUST +
MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC DEFORMATIONS
ophiolites
Mz-Eo inverted
backarc basin
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ARABIAN PLATE
Mesozoic oceanic lithosphere

Precambrian continental lithosphere
AFRICAN PLATE
Figure 3. Main crustal units of the Black Sea-Caspian region. 1 Mesozoic to Paleocene subduction zone, 2 Recent subduction zone,
3 thrust belt with detached subducted slabs (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
and was overprinted by multiple orogenic pulses

(Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005). This renders it difficult
to reconstruct its architecture and to correlate its
now dispersed components. In the following we
review the different elements of Euxinus Orogen and
the characteristics of allochthonous terranes they
include.
Dobrogea Orogen
The Dobrogea Orogen forms the suture between
the EEC and the Late Precambrian Moesian
micro-continent (Figure 2) and consists of Upper
Ordovician to Devonian accretionary complexes
and Carboniferous to Early Permian marine to
continental molasse-type sediments (Carapelit

Formation). The main folding phase occurred
probably during the Visean, prior to the deposition
of the Carapelit formation (Kruglov & Tsypko 1988;
Sandulescu et al. 1995; Pharaoh 1999). The Carapelit
Formation was intruded by Upper Carboniferous
Permian granitoids (Sandulescu et al. 1995; Seghedi
2009; Balintoni et al. 2010). In the Pre-Dobrogea
Depression, corresponding to the northern foreland
basin of the Dobrogea Orogen, Upper Carboniferous
and older EEC passive margin sequences are overlain
by synorogenic Upper ViseanSerpukhovian greycoloured, coal-bearing lower molasse series, derived
from the rising orogen to the south. These grade
upward into Stephanian to Permian red-coloured
575
UR
St.Petersburg
AL
Kazan
IA
Early Permian,
Sakmarian- Oslo
Artinskian
N
O
R
Riga
Moscow
ary
goj
Mu
IC
NIDE
Warsaw
S
VA
R
Precaspian
basin
Volgograd
Ustyurt
Kiev
IS
CI
Donbass
foldbelt
DE
Ukrain
ian Ar
ch
200 0
EDO
Minsk Voron
ezh
Arc
h
CAL
Do
bro
200 400 km
gea
Moesia
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
Balkan
Rh
od
op
.P
W
on
U
tid
XI
es
Karpinsky
foldbelt
Scythian
orogen
Kara-Bogaz
O R O G E N I CGrB E L T
eat Cauc
US
And
ruso
asus orogen
Shats
ky
Dzirula
E. Pontides
Kura
Karaba
kh
PALAEOTETHYS OCEAN
continental sands and shales

shallow marine, sands and
shales
shallow marine, carbonates mainly
evaporites and dolomites
I I I I I
deeper marine clastics and shales

deeper marine shales and carbonates
tectonic symbols:
eroded land:
cratonic areas and inactive
foldbelts, low to intermediate relief
active foldbelts, high relief
normal faults
subduction zones
active thrust fronts
Precambrian terranes
within collisional belts
intraplate volcanism
oceanic floor
hypothetic Devonian oceanic crust
Figure 4. Early Permian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the southern parts of the Eastern Europe Platform (modified after
Nikishin et al. 2005).
continental clastics, which contain Lower Permian

(?) volcanics, ranging from basalts to andesites and
rhyolites to ignimbrites (Belov et al. 1987, 1990;
Kruglov & Tsypko 1988).
During the Visean docking of the Moesian
Platform against the southern margin of the EEC the
Dobrogea Orogen underwent its main deformation
phase (Yanev 2000). Subsequently, Dobrogea was
repeatedly affected by compressional events until
Early Permian times; however, the timing and scope
576
of these late phases of the Dobrogea orogeny are still

poorly constrained.
Moesian Terrane
The Moesian terrane, which is located southward
adjacent to the Dobrogea Orogen (Figure 2), is
characterized by a Upper Precambrian Panafrican
basement that is covered by an up to 10 km
thick, nearly continuous Cambrian to Neogene
sedimentary sequence (Tari et al. 1997; Yanev

2000; Vaida et al. 2005; Seghedi 2009; Kalvoda &
Babek 2010). The Gondwana affinity of this microcontinent is evidenced by the faunal content of
its CambroOrdovician series, as well as by the
occurrence of Upper Ordovician glacio-marine
deposits. The Moesian terrane was probably detached
from Gondwana at the end of the Ordovician, was
transferred across the Palaeotethys and began to
collide with the Rheic arc-trench system at the
transition from the Devonian to the Carboniferous.
During its accretion to the EEC, the Moesian Platform
was subjected to repeated compressional events until
Middle Permian times (Yanev 2000).
Balkan Terrane
The Balkan Terrane is located southward adjacent
to the Moesian Terrane and is characterized by
deformed Ordovician to Upper Carboniferous
sediments (Figure 2). As Ordovician to Devonian
series of the Balkan Terrane differ from those of the
Moesian Platform, Yanev (2000) suggested that it
represents a separate entity that probably collided
during the Early Carboniferous (intra-Visean Sudetic
event) with the Moesian terrane. Subsequently
both terranes underwent further compressional
deformation until mid-Permian times.
Rhodope Terrane
The Rhodope or Rhodope-Thracian Terrane is located
to the south and southwest of the Balkan Terrane
(Figure 2) and is characterized by a very complex
pre-Mesozoic structure. Yanev (2000) shows that its
basement consists of a Precambrian (?) and a Variscan
metamorphic complex, which underwent polyphase
orogenic deformation. The Palaeozoic sedimentary
record of the Rhodope Terrane is poorly constrained
(Moix et al. 2008). However, the occurrence of
granitoids, ranging in age between 340 Ma and 320
Ma, indicates that during Carboniferous times it was
affected by major orogenic activity. This suggests
that during the Late Palaeozoic the Rhodope and
Balkan terranes were incorporated, into the branch
of the Euxinus Orogen, which fringed the Moesian
Platform to the south (Ziegler 1989; Stampfli et al.
2001a, b).
Western Pontides
The Western Pontides or stanbul Terrane, located
in northwestern Turkey (Figure 2), probably formed
during pre-Cretaceous times the eastern prolongation
of the Moesian Terrane (Okay et al. 1994). Similarly
to the latter, the basement of the Western Pontides
Terrane was consolidated during the Panafrican
Orogeny (Okay et al. 2008). Moreover, the Palaeozoic
sedimentary sequences of both terranes show
considerable similarities (Okay et al. 1994, 2008;
engr 1995; Ylmaz et al. 1997; Kozur & Stampfli
2000; Kalvoda & Babek 2010). The stanbul Zone
of the Western Pontides is characterized by a nearly
complete Lower Ordovician to Upper Carboniferous
sedimentary sequence, which was deformed during
the Hercynian Orogeny (Okay & Tysz 1999;
Okay et al. 2008). Visean pelagic sediments, grading
laterally into shallow water carbonates, are overlain
by Visean to Bashkirian flysch and shales and grade
upwards into Upper Carboniferous coal-bearing
series (Kozur & Stampfli 2000; Okay et al. 2006,
2008). This suggests that the stanbul Zone formed
part of a Carboniferous foreland basin that was
associated with the eastern prolongation RhodopeBalkan branch of the Euxinus Orogen.
Eastern Pontides and Sakarya Terrane
Southward adjacent to the stanbul Terrane, and
separated from it by the Intra-Pontide suture, lies the
Hercynian-deformed Sakarya Terrane which extends
eastward over a distance of some 1500 km into the
Eastern Pontides (Figure 2). Its basement consists
of Precambrian (?) to Palaeozoic metamorphic
rocks that were intruded by Devonian and Early
Carboniferous to Early Permian granitoids (Okay
et al. 2008). Thick Upper Carboniferous to Lower
Permian (?) shallow marine to continental, molassetype sediments unconformably overlay this basement
complex (Okay & ahintrk 1997; Okay 2000; Okay
et al. 2008).
Great Caucasus Orogen
The Palaeozoic basement exposed in the central parts
of Great Caucasus (Figures 2 & 4), can be subdivided
into the following units (Letavin 1980, 1987;
Belov 1981; Somin 2007, 2009): (1) a Palaeozoic
577
metamorphic sequence that is intruded by Palaeozoic

granitoids; (2) Upper Palaeozoic, mainly deep-marine
sediments containing intersliced ophiolites and arcrelated volcanics; (3) a Middle to Upper Devonian
subduction-related magmatic island arc complex of
unknown subduction polarity. Isotopic zircon data
(Somin 2007, 2009) document exclusively Palaeozoic
ages (460, 450280 My) for these metamorphic,
intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
According to stratigraphic and structural data,
a main phase of folding and large-scale thrusting
occurred during the early(?) Visean (Belov 1981).
Upper Visean strata are mainly developed in a
continental molasse-type facies. The Middle to Upper
Carboniferous is represented by coal-bearing grey
clastics containing andesites, rhyolites and basalts.
Lower Permian continental red-beds contain flows of
andesites, dacites and trachytes. The Upper Permian
is partly represented by shallow-marine sediments.
During Middle Carboniferous to Early Permian
times the setting of the Great Caucasus segment of
the Euxinus Orogen was probably akin to an Andeantype magmatic belt (Mossakovsky 1975; Somin 2007,
2009). There are considerable similarities between
the basement of the Great Caucasus and the Eastern
Pontides.
Pre-Caucasus or Scythian Orogen
In the Pre-Caucasus area, located to the north of
the Great Caucasus, the Palaeozoic and older(?)
basement is concealed by Mesozoic and Cenozoic
sediments (Figures 2 & 3). Thus, its evolution is only
constrained by subsurface data. Numerous deep
wells penetrated below Mesozoic sediments highly
folded, thrusted and regionally up to greenshist facies
metamorphosed Palaeozoic black shales, cherty
shales, chloritic shales, phyllites and silty shales
that contain rare carbonates (Letavin 1980, 1987;
Belov 1981). Limited palaeontological data give Late
DevonianEarly Carboniferous ages, and in a few
cases possible Early Palaeozoic to Middle Devonian
ages. In some zones, possibly corresponding to a
volcanic arc or a rift, andesitic and basaltic volcanics
were encountered (Belov 1981). The main phase of
folding, thrusting and uplift occurred during late
ViseanSerpukhovian times (Letavin 1987). The
pre-Caucasus segment of the Euxinus Orogen, also
578
referred to as the Scythian Orogen, was intruded

by many CarboniferousLower Permian granitoids
(Letavin 1980, 1987; Belov 1981). During Middle
to Late Carboniferous and Permian times, some
minor molasse-type basins developed within the preCaucasus segment of the Scythian Orogen (Belov
1981). Although Kostyuchenko et al. (2004) and
Chalot-Prat et al. (2007) argue for a Precambrian age
of the Scythian Orogen, there is no hard data that it
contains some Precambrian terranes. Nevertheless,
our new, still unpublished age determinations
on detrital zircons from Cretaceous to Paleocene
turbiditic sandstones of the Great Caucasus
yielded numerous ages of 613 Ma. This suggests
that the Scythian Orogen may indeed contain a
so far unidentified Late Neoproterozoic terrane,
comparable to stanbul and Moesian terranes.
Crimea
Also in Crimea, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments
largely conceal the Palaeozoic and older basement
(Figure 2; Muratov 1969; Letavin 1980; Gerasimov
1994; Nikishin et al. 2005). Nevertheless, borehole
data permit to define four basement units. The
South Crimean unit is buried beneath the Mesozoic
South Crimean Orogen; however, along its northern
boundary a metamorphic zone contains remnants of
Upper Precambrian(?)Palaeozoic ophiolites (mainly
talc-bearing shales and serpentinites; Muratov 1969;
Gerasimov 1994). The northward adjacent Simferopol
unit consists of a metamorphic, possibly Upper
Precambrian complex (Muratov 1969; Kruglov &
Tsypko 1988). Further north, the Novoselovskoe unit
represents a fold belt, which contains metamorphosed
DevonianLower
Carboniferous
deep-marine
mudstones and volcanics, including remnants of
a volcanic arc (Muratov 1969; Gerasimov 1994);
however the presence of Lower Palaeozoic sediments
cannot be excluded (Kruglov & Tsypko 1988).
In the Crimean segment of the Scythian Orogen
the main orogenic event, though only poorly
constrained, presumably occurred during Visean,
pre-Serpukhovian times. Lower Jurassic flysch,
exposed directly to the south of the Simferopol unit,
contains in a few places huge olistoliths, the oldest
of which consist of Serpukhovianlower Bashkirian
shallow-water limestones and Upper Permian
bioherms (Muratov 1969; Mazarovich & Mileev

1989a, b). Although the source of these olistoliths
is unknown, Serpukovian development of shallowwater conditions suggests that by this time the preexisting Early Carboniferous deep-water trough had
been closed. This is compatible with the postulated
Visean main deformation phase of the Crimean
segment of the Scythian Orogen, the most external
unit of which may correspond to the very poorly
controlled Late Palaeozoic Sivash molasse basin
(Letavin 1980).
Unfortunately, available lithological data and
age constraints provide only a fragmentary picture
of evolution of the Palaeozoic Crimean basement
that was severely overprinted by Mesozoic orogenic
activity.
Dzirula and Possibly Related Terranes
The Dzirula Terrane, which is located in Georgia
just to the south of the Great Caucasus (Figure 2),
is characterized by a Upper Precambrian basement
that yielded isotopic ages in the range of 800540 Ma
and contains Neoproterozoic (800 Ma) ophiolites,
as well as by deformed, probably Lower Palaeozoic
sediments (Zakariadze et al. 2000, 2007). These
complexes are covered by an up to 1300-m-thick
ViseanBashkirian volcano-sedimentary sequence
that contains rhyolitic lava flows and pyroclastics.
Similar to the Great Caucasus, also the Dzirula
Terrane was intruded by PermoCarboniferous
granitoids, which yielded isotopic ages in the 330280
Ma range (Zakariadze et al. 2000, 2007). Geochemical
data show that the PermoCarboniferous granitoids
were intruded under a supra-subduction setting
(Zakariadze et al. 2000, 2007).
With its PanafricanUpper Neoproterozoic
basement, the Dzirula Terrane was probably derived
from Gondwana and was accreted during the Early
Carboniferous to the southern Great Caucasus
segment of the Euxinus Orogen. This is compatible
with the occurrence of subduction-related K-granites
in the Trans-Great Caucasus area, which yielded ages
in the range of 330280 Ma (Zakariadze et al. 2007;
The basement of the Karabakh Terrane (Figure
2), which is located to the southeast of the Dzirula
Terrane, is exposed in small areas only. However, as
it is very similar to that of the Dzirula Terrane it may

actually form part of it (Milanovsky 1996; Zakariadze
et al. 2007).
Thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments cover the
basement of the Shatsky, Kura and Andrusov blocks
(Figure 2). Geophysical data indicate that the Shatsky
Block forms the offshore prolongation of the Dzirula
Terrane. No data are available on the pre-Mesozoic of
the Kura and Andrusov blocks, which probably also
formed part of Precambrian or Palaeozoic terranes
prior to the Late Cretaceous to Palaeogene opening
of the Eastern Black Sea.
Karpinsky Fold Belt
The Karpinsky Swell bounds the pre-Caucasus
segment of the Scythian Orogen to the North (Figures
2 & 4). It represents the inverted southeastern
part of the Devonian Dniepr-Donbass-Karpinsky
rift (Milanovsky 1996; Sobornov 1995; Nikishin
et al. 1996, 2001, 2005; Stephenson et al. 2001;
Kostyuchenko et al. 2004). According to reflectionseismic data, the Karpinsky Swell involves a nearly
1520-km-thick sequence of folded sediments, the
bulk of which is Carboniferous in age (Brodsky et
al. 1994; Kostyuchenko et al. 2004). However, no
strata older than Bashkirian have been penetrated
by wells (Letavin 1980). BashkirianAsselian series
consist mainly of claystones, shales and siltstones.
An angular unconformity is evident at the base of
the Artinskian molasse (Nikishin et al. 2001). This
indicates that the main deformation phase of the
Karpinsky Basin, involving folding and thrusting
of its sedimentary fill, occurred in pre-Artinskian
times, possibly during the Sakmarian.
Wells and reflection-seismic data from the
northern flank of the Karpinsky Swell indicate
that it was thrust northwards by at least a few tens
kilometres over the margin of adjacent peri-Caspian
Basin (Kapustin 1982; Brodsky et al. 1994). Well
data from this external Karakul-Smushkovoe thrust
belt and its associated foredeep basin show that
Tournaisian(?), Visean and lower Serpukhovian
series are developed in a relatively shallow-marine
carbonate facies and contain bioherms. By contrast,
upper SerpukhovianBashkirian sediments consist
of deep-water cherty carbonates and radiolarites,
containing volcanic ash. Mainly argillaceous
579
sediments represent Moscovian and Gzhelian

series, whereas the Asselian is developed in a flyschtype facies (Nikishin et al. 2001). The rapid late
SerpukhovianBashkirian subsidence of the North
Karpinsky zone probably reflects tectonic loading
of the southern margin of the peri-Caspian Basin by
the evolving Karpinsky-Karakul-Smushkovoe thrust
belt, the main deformation of which occurred during
the Early Permian (Sakmarian), as evidenced by
borehole and seismic data (Kapustin 1982; Brodsky
et al. 1994; Volozh et al. 1999; Nikishin et al. 2001).
From Late Visean times onwards, the evolution
of the Karpinsky Basin was paralleled by orogenic
activity in the Caucasus and pre-Caucasus segment of
the Scythian Orogen. During Visean to Asselian times
the Karpinsky Basin was gradually incorporated into
the flexural foreland basin of the Scythian Orogen
from which clastics were shed into it (Letavin 1987).
Similarly, the Dniepr and Donbass segments of the
Devonian Dniepr-Karpinsky rift experienced during
their Carboniferous post-rift evolution repeated
phases of accelerated subsidence (Nikishin et al. 1996;
Stovba et al. 1996; van Wees et al. 1996) that probably
can be related to the development of the Scythian
Orogen. This suggests that large flexural foreland
basins developed during Carboniferous times along
the northern flank of the evolving Scythian Orogen,
remnants of which are now only preserved in the
inverted Donbass and Karpinsky Basin.
Cordilleran-type Euxinus Orogen
The Euxinus Orogen, as summarized in Figure 4,
was characterized by a very complex structure and
included a number of continental Gondwana-derived
allochthonous terranes. These terranes formed part
of the composite Hunic Terrane that was detached
from Gondwana during the Late OrdovicianEarly
Silurian, components of which were incorporated
into the Euxinus Orogen during Late Devonian to
Carboniferous times in conjunction with progressive
closure of the Rheic Ocean and opening of the
Palaeotethys (Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Stampfli &
Borel 2004; Cocks & Torsvik 2006). Within the
Euxinus Orogen well-defined allochthonous
continental terranes are the Moesian-West Pontides,
Rhodope, and the Dzirula (Balkan, Eastern Pontides,
Shatsky, Karabakh, Kura - ?) terranes. In the Turan
580
area possible allochthonous continental terranes

are the Kara-Bogaz and Usturt blocks (Golonka
2000). The Euxinus Orogen contains also Lower
Palaeozoic ophiolites (Great Caucasus), Ordovician
(?) to Devonian subduction-related accretionary
complexes (Dobrogea), Devonian volcanic arcs
(Great Caucasus) and Carboniferous to Lower
Permian molasse basins and widespread granitic
plutons.
The Early Permian southern margin of the
Euxinus Orogen is thought to coincide with the
ophiolitic suture which extends from the Vardar
zone on the Balkan Peninsula via the zmir-AnkaraErzincan zone of Turkey to the Sevan zone of
Armenia and Azerbaijan (Robinson 1997; Okay
2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Nikishin et al. 2005).
Continental terranes and fragments of Upper
Palaeozoic basement blocks, which are interpreted
as forming part of the Euxinus Orogen owing to
their PermoCarboniferous deformation, are all
located to the north of this suture. On the other
hand, continental terranes located to the south of this
suture were not affected by PermoCarboniferous
orogenic processes and therefore are attributed to the
composite Cimmerian terrane, which was rifted off
the northern margin of Gondwana during Permian
times and was accreted to the Euxinus Orogen during
the Mesozoic Cimmerian orogenic cycle, involving
closure of the Palaeotethys Ocean (e.g., Ziegler 1989;
Dercourt et al. 2000; Golonka 2000; Stampfli et al.
2001a, b; Stampfli & Borel 2004; Cocks & Torsvik
2006).
During the Early Permian the southern margin
of the Euxinus Orogen was associated with the
Palaeotethys arc-trench system that fringed the
southern margin of the accreted Gondwana-derived
Moesia-Rhodope, Pontides and Dzirula terranes. The
tectono-stratigraphic record of the Euxinus Orogen
is, however, too fragmentary to determine the
docking age of its different allochthonous terranes
and of potential suture sealing overstep sequence.
Nevertheless, there are indications that the evolution
of this orogen involved multiple deformation phases,
going back as far as the SiluroOrdovician, as evident
in the Great Caucasus. Orogenic activity apparently
increased sharply during the Early Carboniferous
(Late Visean?), presumably in response to closure
of the Rheic oceanic basin and the docking of e.g.,

the Moesia, Balkan, Western Pontides terranes to
the southern EEC margin. This was accompanied
and followed by rapid subsidence of the Scythian
foreland basin in the Donbass-Karpinsky-PeriCaspian domain, of molasse basins in the Caucasus
and Balkan domains and the onset of flyschtype sedimentation in the Western Pontides. Late
Carboniferous and Early Permian orogenic phases
controlled the further evolution of these basins and
ultimately the suturing of the accreted terranes to the
southern margin of the EEC. This is exemplified by
the Early Permian regional compressional event that
caused, amongst others, large-scale thrusting in the
Karpinsky Basin, inversion of the Dniepr-Donbass
rift and final folding of the Dobrogea belt. Moreover,
Upper CarboniferousLower Permian subductionrelated granitoids occur throughout the Euxinus
Orogen.
By Early Permian times, the megatectonic setting
of the Euxinus Orogen was of an Andean continentocean collisional type with the Palaeotethys
subduction zone dipping northward beneath it
(Figure 4). Westward the Euxinus Orogen graded
into the Variscan Orogen, the western parts of which
had entered a Himalaya-type continent-to-continent
collisional stage already during Early Carboniferous
times (Ziegler 1989, 1990; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b;
Cocks & Torsvik 2006). Northeastward the Euxinus
Orogen graded into the Uralian Orogen the southern
parts of which had entered a Himalayan-type
collisional stage during the Late Carboniferous
Early Permian (Bogdanov & Khain 1981; Milanovsky
1996).
During Sakmarian to Artinskian times the
Euxinus Orogen was regionally uplifted and subjected
to erosion. Its post-orogenic collapse commenced
during the KungurianLate Permian (Nikishin et al.
1996 2001, 2005; Afanasenkov et al. 2008; Murzin
2010).
Triassic to Hettangian Early Cimmerian Tectonic
Cycle
During the Early and Middle Triassic, the area
of the former Euxinus Orogen was affected by a
major cycle of back-arc rifting, resulting in the
opening of the presumably oceanic South Crimea-
Kre-Svanetia Basin (Ustamer & Robertson 1994;

Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b).
At the same time rifting affected Western Siberia
and the Urals, the Pechora Basin, the Arctic-North
Atlantic domain, the Western Tethys belt as well
as Western Europe (Ziegler et al. 2001; Nikishin et
al. 2002). Moreover, the Teisseyre-Tornquist line,
which extends from Denmark to the Black Sea and
marks the boundary between the Precambrian EEC
and the West and Central European domains of
Caledonian and Variscan crustal consolidation, was
tensionally reactivated (Ziegler et al. 2001; Nikishin
et al. 1998b, 2001, 2002) (Figure 5). Whilst elsewhere,
crustal extension persisted to various degrees into
Early Jurassic times, the Black Sea domain was
affected during Carnian to Hettangian times by a
major compressional pulse, referred to as the Early
Cimmerian Orogeny. At the same time a major
orogenic pulse affected the northernmost Urals and
Novaya Zemlya. Below we review the TriassicEarly
Jurassic evolution of the EEP and its southern and
eastern margins.
Scythian Platform
On the Scythian Platform, Upper Permian(?), Lower
and Middle Triassic sediments are preserved in the
East pre-Caucasus area in the East Manych, Kayasula,
South Buzachi and Mozdok troughs, and in the West
pre-Caucasus-Crimea area in the Northern CrimeaAzov and Novo-Fedorovsk troughs (Figures 5 & 6;
Slavin 1986; Lozovsky 1992; Nikishin et al. 1998a,
b, 2001; Dercourt et al. 2000). The Stavropol High
of the central pre-Caucasus domain separates these
areas. Further to the west, the extensional system
of the Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone extends from the
North Danish Basin through the Polish Trough
under the Carpathians and reappears in the Triassic
Dobrogea rift (Kutek 2001; Seghedi 2001). On the
Scythian Platform, un-metamorphosed Triassic (or
PermoTriassic) sediments rest unconformably on
deeply truncated greenshist facies Palaeozoic strata.
This significant metamorphic step indicates that the
Scythian Orogen was deeply eroded during Permian
times.
The stratigraphic and magmatic record of
the Scythian Platform indicates that it was
compressionally deformed during late Carnian to
581
Early Triassic
200 0
Barents Sea
Basin
KR
ra
ho
c
Pe asin
B
200 400 km
W.Siberia
Rift
System
?
Baltic Shield
Mezen
Basin
R
A
L
St.-Petersburg
N.Sea
Basin
Riga
ow
osc
EAST -EUROPEAN CRATON
Oslo
in
Bas
Moscow
Minsk
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
deeper marine,
mainly shales
carbonates,
mainy shallow marine
deltaic and coastal
clastics
shallow marine,
mainly shales
continental alluvial
and lacustrine
non-deposition areas:
mainly low relief
volcanics and
volcaniclastics
m
he sif
o
B as
M
Turan
Platform
iep
Kiev
Paris
Dn
ug
Massif
Precaspian
Basin
Warsaw
o
Tr
B
P
M raba Amsterdam Berlin olish
as n
sif t
an
Armorican
r B
as
in
tectonic symbols
rift basins
continental slope
subduction zone
asin Kar
EMT
Moesian
Platform
NF
Do
bro
S.Crimea-Kure-S
ge
East-Srednegorie
Basin
pinsky Bas SBuz

in
PK
St
a
Kayasula
Hi vro
Basin
gh po
l
NCA
N.
oceanic floor
abbreviations:
rift basins: K Korotaikha,
KR Kosyu-Rogovaya,
NCA North Crimea-Azov
NF Novo-Fedorovsk
EMT East Manych Trough
Sbuz South Buzachi
PK Pre-Kuma uplift
Donets B
Ukrainian Shield
s-Tr
tide
P on
vanetia
B
Mozdok
Basin
asn
i
anscaucasus terran ?
e(-s)
PALAEOTETHYS
Figure 5. Early Triassic palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
Hettangian Early Cimmerian Orogeny with main

deformations occurring during late CarnianpreNorian times, at the Rhaetian/Hettangian transition
and during the Hettangian (Nikishin et al. 1998a, b,
2001). Moreover, during the Late Triassic a broad,
EW-trending calc-alkaline magmatic belt developed
on the Scythian Platform.
On the Scythian Platform, Upper Triassic
sediments occur in four main regions, namely in
the Nogaisk Basin of the East pre-Caucasus area, in
the Kuban basins of the West pre-Caucasus area, in
the Karpinsky Basin, and in a system of smaller, ill582
defined basins of the Crimean-Azov region (Figures

6 & 7). In these basins, Norian-Rhaetian series rest
unconformably on early Carnian and older strata,
indicating that these precursor basins were inverted
prior to the resumption of sedimentation (Nikishin
et al. 2001). So far, Hettangian sediments have not
been identified on the Scythian Platform and appear
to be regionally missing. Moreover, a regional
unconformity separates Late Triassic from younger
strata, with all Triassic basins of the Scythian Platform
showing evidence for inversion during the final
pulses of the Early Cimmerian orogeny (Nikishin et
al. 1998a, b, 2001).
Kungurian-U. PermianTriassic(?)
Jurassic
L. Cretaceous
U. Cretaceous
Kungurian salt(?)
10 20
30
Devonian(?)
Carbon-Low. Permian(?)
Figure 6. Geological interpretation of a seismic line through the South Buzachi Basin (modified after Afanasenkov et al. 2008; Murzin 2010). For location see Figure 5. The
South Buzachi Basin is a partly inverted Permian (Kungurian?) to Triassic graben. Triassic sediments are calibrated by wells. Interpreted Kungurian salt is typical
for the adjacent Precaspian Basin.
Palaeozoic
basement(?)
Cz
Kurmangazy High
South Buzachi Basin
rift-postrofit megasequence
583
Pay-Khoy Orogen
Barents Sea
Basin
Late Triassic,
Norian
Pec
hor
aS
we
AL
nS
UR
ll
Tim
a
we
IA
ll
W. Siberia
N
M
OU
BE
LT
St.-Petersburg
Vyatka Swell
AI
NT
EAST - EUROPEAN CRATON
Oslo
N.Sea
Basin
Oka-Tsna
Swell
Riga
Moscow
o
Tr
Bas
ug
in
n
ia
em sif
h
s
Bo Ma
Armorican
Massif Paris
Precaspian
Basin
Donets
Basin
Karpinsky Basin
Ukrain
ian Ar
ch
Tuarkyr S
NB
continental alluvial
and lacustrine
deltaic and coastal
clastics
shallow marine,
mainly shales
shallow marine,
mainly carbonates
intraplate volcanics
and volcaniclastics
Moesian
calc-alkaline
Massif
volcanics
intracontinental
swells and foldbelts,
mainly moderate relief
Shatsk
W
.P
on
tid
es
evaporite
deeper marine,
mainly shales
areas of non-deposition
Dzirula
Kura
Kara
bakh
s
ic
ias accretion co
Cimme
mplexes andte
Tr
rrane rian
s (?
)
active foldbelts,
high relief
E. Pontides
tectonic symbols
rift basins
well
?
KB
palaeoenvironments
low relief
DonMedveditsa
Swell
Em
ba
Vor
one
zh A
Dn
rch
Kiev iepr
Warsaw
Po
Berlin lish
S.
B
M raba
as nt
sif
S we
ll
Minsk
Amsterdam
transcurrent
faults
subduction
zone
continental
slope
main collision
suture
thrust
zones
oceanic
floor
abbreviations:
KB Kuban Basin;
NB Nogaysk Basin
zmir-Ankara-Sevan
ocean
200
Elbor
accreted Iranian
terrane
200 400 km
Figure 7. Norian palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
East Pre-Caucasus Area

For the East pre-Caucasus area reliable stratigraphic
data show that sedimentation resumed during the
Early Triassic under marine conditions and persisted
at least until early Carnian times. Rifted basins were
characterized by deeper-water conditions whereas
intervening unextended areas were occupied by
reef-fringed carbonate platforms (Nikishin et al.
1994, 1998a, b, 2001; Dercourt et al. 2000). For
instance, in the East Manych Trough, located along
the southern flank of the Karpinsky Swell, shallowwater carbonates grade upwards into deeper-water
clays, marls and carbonates. Subsidence of this
584
basin was accompanied a mafic-felsic bimodal riftrelated volcanism (Nikishin et al. 1998a, b). Similarly,
sedimentation in the Kayasula Basin was carbonate
dominated. The high, separating the East Manych
and Kayasula troughs, was covered by a reef fringed
pre-Kuma carbonate platform. Preliminary data from
the Mozdok Basin indicate the presence of turbiditic
sediments, suggesting that this trough may have
formed part of an Early to Middle Triassic passive
margin (Nikishin et al. 2001). The partly inverted
South Buzachi Basin in the Northern Caspian Sea area
represents the eastern prolongation of the Karpinsky
Swell (Figures 6 & 7). Recent drilling data indicate
that the South Buzachi Basins contains Lower(?)Middle Triassic shales, siltstones and sandstones,
and Upper Triassic(?) carbonates (Afanasenkov et al.
2008; Murzin 2010).
poorly known. Correspondingly, the Early Triassic

palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic reconstruction of
the EEP, as given in the Figure 5, must be considered
as tentative.
Following late Carnian partial inversion and

erosion of the East Manych-Kayasula-Mozdok
system of basins, the Nogaisk Basin developed on
top of them during the Norian and Rhaetian. This
basin contains an up to 1.5-km-thick continental
to shallow-marine sequence of silts, sands and
conglomerates that includes a significant amount of
calc-alkaline andesite and rhyolite flows, ignimbrites,
tuffs and reworked volcanic rocks (Nikishin et al.
2001; Tikhomirov et al. 2004). In the southern parts
of this basin, volcanic rocks attain thicknesses of up
to 1.5 km.
Similarly the Kuban Basin underwent significant

structural changes during the Late Triassic (Figure
7). In its different parts, Norian and Rhaetian series
consist variably of flysch, bioherms and shallowmarine clastics (Boiko 1993; Prutsky & Lavrischev
1989), whilst in the vicinity of the Great Caucasus a
reef belt developed (Boiko 1993). In the Crimea-Azov
region, Upper Triassic strata are mainly developed in
a flysch-type facies in the Novo-Fedorovsk, South
Crimea and Azov-North Crimea troughs. In these
basins, a possible unconformity separates Triassic
from Lower Jurassic strata, reflecting their partial
inversion at the transition from the Triassic to the
Jurassic (Slavin 1986; Nikishin et al. 2001). In Central
and Northern Crimea, a few wells penetrated poorly
dated possibly Upper Triassic dacites, andesites and
diorite intrusions (Slavin 1986).
West Pre-Caucasus Crimea

Although the biostratigraphic control on Triassic
sediments occurring in the West pre-Caucasus Crimean area is less reliable (Nikishin et al. 1998a,
b, 2001), it is obvious that the Northern CrimeaAzov and Novo-Fedorovsk troughs contain Lower
Triassic(?) to lower Norian turbiditic clastics, clays
and carbonates (Figure 5; Slavin 1986; Boiko 1993).
In the Kuban Basin, Early to Middle Triassic series
consist of carbonates and clastics. Overall, palaeowater depths apparently increased towards the Great
Caucasus area (Boiko 1993). Triassic development
of the South Crimean Trough is indicated by the
accumulation of the thick, though poorly dated
Tavric flysch that finds its equivalents in the Central
Pontides Kre Basin (Ustamer & Robertson 1994,
1997; Robinson & Kerusov 1997; Nikishin et al. 2001,
2005) and possibly also the Karakaya Zone of Turkey
(Okay et al. 1996; Ylmaz et al. 1997).
Quantitative subsidence analysis carried out on
selected wells from the East pre-Caucasus area and
Crimea show that both areas subsided rapidly during
the Early and Middle Triassic (Bolotov 1996; Nikishin
et al. 1996). This rapid subsidence and the occurrence
of LowerMiddle Triassic basalts and bimodal
volcanics are consistent with intracratonic or backarc rifting. However, due to insufficient geochemical
data on these volcanic rocks, we cannot discriminate
between these two types of rifting. Moreover, it must
be realized that the outlines of the respective rifts is
In the Kuban Basin, some wells penetrated

beneath Cretaceous strata thick calc-alkaline
volcanic sequences of a possible, though not proven,
Late Triassic age. Upper Triassic volcanics occurring
in the Nogaisk-Kuban-Crimea region indicate that a
large calc-alkaline magmatic province had developed
on the Scythian Platform during the early phases
of the Early Cimmerian Orogeny (Khain 1979).
These volcanics were deeply eroded during Jurassic
times. Although available geochemical data suggest
this magmatic activity was subduction related
(Tikhomirov et al. 2004), this has to be confirmed by
additional analyses.
On the Odessa Shelf of the Black Sea, just west of
Crimea, a deep well penetrated a few hundred metres
thick Norian flysch-type, sequence containing
some tuff horizons and andesitic and rhyolitic
volcanicalstics (Ulanovskaya & Shevchenko 1992).
This suggests that a more or less continuous Norian
volcanic belt extended from the East pre-Caucasus
area to the Odessa Shelf and possibly to Dobrogea.
Great Caucasus
The highly deformed Dizi complex, which outcrops
on the southern slope of the Great Caucasus in
585
Svanetia (Georgia), consists of a Devonian to Triassic

sediments and volcanics. It is commonly assumed
that the Dizi Basin came into existence during the
Devonian and persisted until it was closed at the
Triassic/Jurassic transition (Belov 1981; Kazmin
& Sborschikov 1989; Somin 2007). Devonian
Carboniferous shales and sandstones, containing
some volcanics and carbonate blocks (olistoliths?),
are unconformably overlain by Permian shales and
sandstones and Triassic clastics. Triassic sediments
are in tectonic contact with older ones. According
to our interpretation, the Dizi complex represents
a Devonian to Carboniferous accretionary prism
that, upon closure of the Dizi suture, was covered by
Permian marine molasse-type sediments (Nikishin
et al. 2001). During the Triassic, this suture was
tensionally reactivated and developed into a rifted
basin. The occurrence of Sinemurian sediments,
which rest unconformably on strongly deformed
Triassic series (Belov 1981; Kazmin & Sborschikov
1989; Somin 2007), indicates that the Triassic Dizi rift
was strongly inverted during the Early Cimmerian
orogeny, involving the collision of the Dzirula
Terrane with the Scythian Platform (Figures 7 & 8;
Kazmin & Sborschikov 1989; Nikishin et al. 1998b;
Somin 2007).
Dniepr-Donets Basin and Karpinsky Swell
Triassic continental clastics, attaining thicknesses of
up to 500 m in the Dniepr Basin (Figures 1 & 5), and
rest unconformably on Permian and Carboniferous
sediments (Lozovsky 1992; Kabyshev et al. 1998;
Dercourt et al. 2000). Subsidence analysis show
that the Dniepr-Donets Basin experienced a phase
of accelerated subsidence during the Triassic (van
Wees et al. 1996). Although there is no evidence for
syndepositional Triassic extensional faulting, this
subsidence phase may be tensional in origin.
Around the Triassic/Jurassic transition, the
Karpinsky Swell was reactivated and thrust over the
southern margin of the Precaspian Basin (Sobornov
1995; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b). This was paralleled
by a phase of partial inversion of the Donbass Basin
(Figure 8; Stepanov 1944; Stovba & Stephenson 1999;
Stephenson et al. 2001; Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005).
586
Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone
The Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone (Figures 1 & 5) was
reactivated during latest Carboniferous and Early
Permian times as a major dextral wrench zone that
terminated in the Oslo Graben of Norway (Ziegler
1989, 1990). Superimposed on the TeisseyreTornquist Zone, the tensional North Danish Basin,
the Polish Trough and the Dobrogea Basin (Kutek
2001; Nikishin et al. 2001; Seghedi 2001, 2009)
developed during Late Permian and Triassic times,
forming part of a large rift system.
The Dobrogea Orogen, that experienced a last
compressional deformation during Middle Permian
times (Sandulescu et al. 1995), was disrupted by
rifting starting in the Late Permian (Seghedi 2009).
Magmatic activity commenced at the same time
with the extrusion of felsic and basic volcanics and
culminated during the late Early and early Middle
Triassic (Spathian to middle Anisian) when E-MORBtype pillow basalts were extruded in the axial parts of
this basin (Sandulescu et al. 1995; Nicolae & Seghedi
1996; Seghedi 2001; Stampfli et al. 2001a). Whether
these pillow basalts, which were extruded in a basin
characterized by pelagic Hallstatt-facies carbonates,
indicating considerable water depths, represent true
oceanic crust, is uncertain. During the Anisian, the
North Dobrogea Basin entered its post-rift stage that
lasted till the late Carnian onset of Early Cimmerian
orogeny (Seghedi 2001, 2009; Nikishin et al. 2000).
During the late Carnian, compressional
deformation of the North Dobrogea Basin
commenced, as evidenced by the deposition of
flysch-types series, locally resting unconformably on
truncated lowest Triassic sediments or the basement
(Seghedi 2001; Nikishin et al. 2000). This deformation
is taken as a far-field effect of the Early Cimmerian
Orogeny, which affected particularly the southern
margin of the Moesian Platform.
Moesian Platform
During the earliest Triassic and again during the
early Carnianearly Norian the southern parts of the
Moesian Platform were affected by intracontinental
rifting, leading to the subsidence of the east
Pay-Khoy Orogen
Barents Sea
Basin
Pe
ch
nS
Sw
we
ell
W. Siberia
N
IA
AL
Tim
a
ora
UR
Main tectonic structures of

Norian
Hettangian
transition
ll
UN
MO
Riga
oceanic or microoceanic basin

intraplate volcanics
Kiev
Dn
iep
remnant flysch
basin
long-wave cratonic
arche
rift basin
low relief uplifts
continental slope
intraplate inversion
swells and orogens
subduction zone
active orogenic
belt
main collision
suture
Ukrain
ian Ar
nez
Vyatka Swell
DonMedveditsa
Swell
hA
r B
asi
Precaspian
Basin
S.
Em
Vor
o
LEGEND
intracontinental
,ntracontinental
sedimentarybasins
basins
sedimentary
n
ia
m if
e
h ss
Bo Ma
ug
Armorican Paris
Massif
Warsaw
Po
Berlinlish
o
Tr
B
M raba
as n
sif t
Sw e
l
Minsk
Amsterdam
ba
Moscow ?
Oka-Tsna
Swell
N.Sea
Basin
LT
St.-Petersburg
BE
Oslo
IN
TA
EAST - EUROPEAN CRATON
rch
Donets
Swell
Karpinsky Swell
ch
And
S
Ar tav
ch rop
rus
ov
Shats
ky
Mangy
shlak S
well
Tuarkyr S
well
ol
Dzirula
Kura
KSC
E. Pontides
cretion
s
Kara
ba
ac
c
omplexes
an
ic
and Cimmeri terran kh Elborz
Po
es (
ss
a
W.
i
?)
Tr
Moesian
Massif
de
nti
zmir-Ankara-Sevan
ocean
accreted Iranian
terrane (?)
abbreviation:
KSC Kure-South Crimea Basin
Figure 8. Norian to Hettangian palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
west-trending East Srednegorie Basin. This was

accompanied by widespread extrusion of volcanics
and a distinct uplift of its northern rift-shoulder.
fringed the Moesian Platform to the south (Tari et al.

1997; Banks 1997; Georgiev et al. 2001).
During the late NorianHettangian Early

Cimmerian Orogeny, this rifted basin was
compressionally deformed and incorporated into
a foreland basin. At the same time, the southern
parts of the Moesian Platform were deformed
into gentle north-verging anticlinal structures and
uplifted, giving rise to the development of a regional
unconformity. These structures form the external
parts of the Early Cimmerian Strandzha Orogen that
Pontides
In the western and central Pontides, evidence for
Scythian to Carnian rifting and associated alkaline
magmatism comes from the stanbul and Devrekani
blocks, respectively. Detachment of these blocks
from the Scythian Platform resulted in the opening
of the presumably oceanic South Cimea-KreSvanetia Basin, the northern parts of which probably
correspond to the South Crimean Trough (Figure
587
5) (Ustamer & Robertson 1994, 1997; Banks &

Robinson 1997; Stampfli 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Stampfli & Borel 2004). In both basins Upper
Triassic and Lower Jurassic flysch-type series were
deposited, partly on oceanic basement.
probably relates to docking of this Cimmerian

terrane complex against the southern, active margin
of Eurasia (Pickett & Robertson 1996; Ylmaz et al.
1997; Ziegler et al. 1998; Okay 2000; Stampfli et al.
2001a, b).
According to Stampfli (2000), Stampfli et

al. (2001a, b) and Stampfli & Borel (2004) late
PermianEarly Triassic steepening and roll-back
of the Palaeotethys subduction zone, located along
the southern margin of the Pontides-Transcaucasus
terrane (Sakarya Zone), was accompanied by backarc rifting controlling early to middle Triassic opening
of the oceanic South Crimean-Kre-Svanetia backarc basin. Geochemical data on ophiolites, derived
from the Kre Basin, indicate that its oceanic crust
was generated under a supra-subduction setting and
thus, cannot be considered as part of Palaeotethys
s.str. (Ustamer & Robertson 1994, 1997; Banks &
Robinson 1997; Stampfli 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Stampfli & Borel 2004). During the late Permian
early Triassic cycle of back-arc extension continental
fragments were also separated from the southern
margin of the Pontides Terrane (engr et al. 1990;
Okay & Mostler 1994; Okay et al. 1996; Ylmaz et
al. 1997), possibly by arc-parallel shear movements
in response to oblique subduction of Palaeotethys
(Natalin & engr 2005). Corresponding Hercyniandeformed continental crustal slices occur in the
PermoTriassic Karakaya accretionary wedge of
the Pontides-Sakarya Zone (Okay et al. 2002).
Development of this accretionary wedge testifies to
continued northward subduction of Palaeotethys
(Okay 2000; Okay et al. 2002; Stephenson et al. 2004).
The Late Triassic to Hettangian zmir-AnkaraErzincan suture, marking the boundary between
the Sakarya and Cimmerian terranes to the south,
is characterized by the PermoTriassic Karakaya,
Orhanlar, al and Kre subduction-accretionary
complexes, the middle to upper Norian syn-collisional
arkosic Aodul unit and the Nilfer ophiolites.
Significantly, Hercynian basement slices occur both
above and below Nilfer ophiolites. Eclogites and
blueschists occurring along this suture yield ages in
the range of 214192 Ma and 205215 Ma (Okay &
Monie 1997; Okay 2000; Okay et al. 2002). The oldest
post-orogenic deposits overstepping this suture are
shallow-marine Sinemurian sandstones (Okay 2000).
Late Triassic (Carnian) collision and subduction

resistance of the Triassic Nilfer oceanic plateau with
the Sakarya arc-trench system may underlay the onset
of the Early Cimmerian Orogeny and the associated
phase of back-arc compression (Ziegler et al. 1998;
Okay 2000). In the course of the Early Cimmerian
orogenic cycle the remnant Palaeotethys was closed
and destroyed by the end of the Triassic (Ylmaz et
al. 1997) in response to its northward subduction
beneath the Pontides-Sakarya terrane and partly by
subduction beneath the Cimmerian Sanadaj-SirjanElborz Terrane (Pickett & Robertson 1996; Okay
2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b). The end Triassic
earliest Jurassic peak of the Early Cimmerian Orogeny
588
The Early Cimmerian orogenic pulse affected

apparently the entire Pontides and probably involved
southward subduction of the South Crimean-KreSvanetia Basin, as a conjugate to the north-dipping
Sakarya Palaeotethys subduction zone (Ylmaz
et al. 1997; Banks & Robinson 1997; Ustamer &
Robertson 1997; Stampfli 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Stampfli & Borel 2004; Nikishin et al. 2001).
East-European Platform
On the EEP, Triassic strata occur in the MoscowMezen Basin, located to the north of Moscow (Figure
5; Lozovsky 1992; Dercourt et al. 2000), and in the
Polish part of the large Northwest European Basin
(Ziegler 1990).
In the Moscow-Mezen Basin, lowest Permian
Lower Triassic strata are dominated by continental
clastics (Milanovsky 1996; Lozovsky 1992; Lozovsky
& Esaulova 1998). Middle and Upper Triassic
deposits are missing and Mid-Jurassic sediments rest
on truncated Lower Triassic clastics. Whether Middle
and Upper Triassic strata were deposited and eroded
prior to the Mid-Jurassic transgression is uncertain.
During Late Triassic and Early Jurassic times the
EEP was apparently uplifted, probably in response
to the build-up of compressional intraplate stresses
originating in the Early Cimmerian Orogen along
its southern margin and in the Uralian Orogen

on its eastern margin. This is compatible with the
development of minor inversion structures, such as
the Vyatka Swell that is superimposed on the Riphean
and Devonian Vyatka rift, the Oka-Tsna Swell along
Riphean Pachelma rift and the Don-Medveditsa Swell
along the Devonian Don-Medveditsa Rift (Figures 7
& 8; Nikishin et al. 1996). However, as these inversion
structures were truncated and unconformably
covered by Mid-Jurassic series, the timing of their
development in not very closely constrained.
On the other hand, the sedimentary record of the
Keuper series (Upper Ladinian to Lower Rhaetian)
in the eastern parts of the Northwest European Basin
clearly reflects an episodic and progressive uplift of
the western parts of the EEP, possibly involving broad
lithospheric folding (Ziegler 1990).
Early Cimmerian Orogeny
During Late TriassicHettangian times, the southern
and northeastern margins of the EEP were sites of
essentially synchronous major orogenic activity
(Figures 7 & 8). Although the evolution of these two
orogenic systems was controlled by widely differing
plate kinematics, they testify to an important phase
of plate boundary reorganization.
The Early Cimmerian Orogeny, which affected the
entire southern margin of the Scythian and Moesian
platforms, the Pontides and the Trans-Caucasus
domain, was associated with an important phase
of back-arc and intraplate compression. In a NS
direction, the area involved in the Early Cimmerian
Orogen extended from the Karpinsky Swell in the
north to the Pontides in the south over a distance of
some 700 km.
In the course of the Early Cimmerian Orogeny,
the Palaeotethys was closed, the Sakarya subduction
system abandoned whilst a north-dipping Neotethys
subduction system developed along the southern
margin of the Cimmerian terranes (Figures 7 & 8;
Nikishin et al. 1998b, 2001b; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Ziegler & Stampfli 2001; Stampfli & Borel 2004;
Ustamer & Robertson 2010). This was accompanied
by the build-up of major compressional stresses in
the back-arc domain of the South Crimea-KreSvanetia Basin, causing its closure. As in the domain
of the Great Caucasus the Early Cimmerian backarc suture forms a linear zone, large-scale strike-slip
movements may have occurred along it during Late
Triassic-Hettangian times (cf. model of Natalin &
engr 2005). Moreover, during the early phases of
the Early Cimmerian Orogeny the north-dipping
Sakarya subduction zone propagated apparently
westwards, activating the southern margin of the
Moesian Platform as evidenced by the development
of the Srednegorie Orogen (Pickett & Robertson
1996; Ustamer & Robertson 1997; Stampfli et al.
2001a, b; Georgiev et al. 2001).
Sinemurian to Mid-Callovian Mid-Cimmerian
Tectonic Cycle
Following the Early Cimmerian orogenic pulse,
the EEP was flanked to the south by the northdipping Neotethys subduction zone along the
southern margin of the Pontides-TranscaucasusCimmerian terrane assembly (Figure 9). Sinemurian
to Aalenian development of a system of rifted basins
on the Scythian Platform, rapid subsidence of the
Great Caucasus-South Crimea Trough speak for a
resumption of back-arc extension. This cycle of backarc extension came to an end at the transition from
the Aalenian to the Bajocian with the onset of the
Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny that terminated towards
the end Bathonianearly Callovian (Nikishin et al.
2001, 2005; Ustamer & Robertson 2010).
Great Caucasus South Crimea
The large Great Caucasus deep-water basin came
into evidence during the Early Jurassic. To the
west it probably linked up with the remnant South
Cimea-Kre and North Dobrogea basins (Muratov
1969; Panov & Guschin 1987; Mazarovich & Mileev
1989a, b; Rostovtsev 1992; Panov et al. 1994, 1996;
Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001). The Early to Middle
Jurassic chrono/lithostratigraphy for the eastern part
of this trough and the adjacent Scythian Platform is
given by Nikishin et al. (2001). A tentative Toarcian
palaeogeographic reconstruction of the area is
provided by the Figure 9.
The Great Caucasus Trough began to subside
during the Sinemurian, as indicated by the occurrence
of shallow-water clastics containing conglomerates.
589
Early Jurassic,
Early Toarcian
Vorkuta
Perm
Oslo
St.-Petersburg
Riga
Precaspian
Basin
Minsk
lis
200 400 km
Tr
o
Warsaw
ug
Volgograd
Dniepr Basin
Kiev
H
AT
RP IN
CA AS
B
I I
I I
I
I I
Moesia
N
IA
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
continental
clastics
Continental clastics
deltaic, coastal and shallow

marine, mainly clastics
shallow marine, mainly clastics
CRIMEA - GREAT CAUCASUS BASIN
Transcaucasus
Pontides
Srednegori
lkan Basin Sakarya

Ba
e-
200 0
Moscow
I I
I
I I
I I I
I I I I
Po
zmir-Ankara-Sevan Ocean
Iran
shalow marine, mainly carbonates
arc-related
volcanism
I I I I
eroded land:
cratonic,
low relief
trough slopes
subsidence
axes
555
tectonic symbols:
normal faults
subduction
zones
spreading
axes
oceanic floor
Figure 9. Toarcian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
Upwards these grade into upper Pliensbachian to

lower Aalenian deeper-water shales (Figure 10a).
Rapid late Sinemurian and Pliensbachian subsidence
of this basin was accompanied by the extrusion
590
of basalts and rhyolites and the emplacement of

numerous dyke swarms (Panov & Guschin 1987).
Although Toarcian dykes consist of MORB-type
basalts, there is no evidence for the occurrence of
Figure 10. Representative outcrops in the western Great Caucasus region. (a) Aalenian deep-water shales to the north of Tuapse city
(Indyuk villiage region). (b) Upper Jurassic carbonate section Malaya Laba River near Psebay City. Upper part layered
carbonate platform, middle and lower parts sedimentary breccia, possible slope of carbonate build-up. (c) Cenomanian
pillow-basalts in Western Caucasus Trough, Agva River, north of Sochi City. (d) Early Oligocene Maykopian sequence
on Agoy Beach near Tuapse City, showing alternation of shales and debris flows. Debris flows contain fragments of
Cretaceous to Eocene Great Caucasus Trough sediments. (e) Chevron folds close to Tuapse City involving Paleocene
pelagic cherts alternating with turbiditic siltstones.
591
Lower Jurassic ophiolites in the Great Caucasus.

This questions whether in the Great Caucasus
Basin Early Jurassic crustal extension had proceed
to crustal separation and the opening of a small
back-arc oceanic basin. The onset of compressional
deformation of the Great Caucasus-South Crimea
Trough was heralded by the upper Aalenian and
Bajocian influx of breccias and coarser clastics along
its southern margin (Nikishin et al. 2001). However,
in its central parts marine sedimentation persisted
until late Bathonian times.
In the Trans-Caucasus area, the occurrence of
very thick island-arc volcanics, dated as Sinemurian
to Hauterivian (Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005; Zakariadze
et al. 2007) with a Bajocian maximum, reflects
increased activity along the Neotethys subduction
zone during the Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny (Figures
11 & 12).
Scythian Platform
The Scythian Platform, forming the northern
shoulder of the Great Caucasus-South Crimea rifted
basin, remained an area of non-deposition during
Sinemurian times. However, during the Pliensbachian
and Toarcian, it was transected by a system of narrow,
probably extensional, shallow-water basins (Panov et
al. 1996). Pliensbachian subsidence of these basins
was accompanied by the extrusion of rhyolites,
dacites, andesites and basalts (Panov & Guschin
1987; Hess et al. 1993). The Scythian Platform was
broadly overstepped during the late Aalenian and
Bajocian by shallow marine sediments, which were
deposited in a foreland-type basin.
The bimodal volcanism occurring in the Great
Caucasus-South Crimea Trough and on the Scythian
Platform was initially interpreted as subductionrelated (Hess et al. 1993), but is now considered as
rift-related (Koronovsky et al. 1997). Nevertheless,
there is some evidence for a possible Early Jurassic
andesitic, probably subduction-related volcanism
in the Transcaucasus region (Lordkipanidze
1980; Knipper et al. 1997; Ustamer & Robertson
2010). According to our interpretation, the upper
Sinemurian to lower Pliensbachian rhyolitic volcanics
of the Great Caucasus area reflect a combination of
subduction- and rift-related magmatism, implying
592
that the Great Caucasus Trough developed by backarc extension involving the disruption of a magmatic
arc.
South Crimea Trough
After its partial inversion at the TriassicJurassic
transition, subsidence of the South Crimea Trough
resumed and persisted until the end of the Early
Jurassicbeginning of Aalenian (Nikishin et al. 2001).
Its earliest Middle Jurassic pre-Aalenian (or intraAalenian) inversion resulted in intense folding of
the Triassic to Lower Jurassic Tavric flysch, which is
unconformably overlain by AalenianEarly Bajocian
paralic and molasse series and Upper Bajocian arcrelated volcanics (Figure 13ac). In turn, these are
unconformably covered by upper Callovian redbeds, giving upwards way to Oxfordian and younger
carbonates. Inversion of the South Crimea Trough
was accompanied (?) and followed by subductionrelated calc-alkaline, mainly Bajocian magmatic
activity, including the intrusion of gabbros, diorites
and plagiogranites (Muratov 1969). The Middle
Jurassic age of this magmatism is supported by
new Ar/Ar datings (~169; 172160 Ma) (Meijers et
al. 2009). The Mid-Cimmerian orogenic belt of the
South Crimea extended westwards into the area of the
North Dobrogea where Middle Jurassic flysch-type
clastics testify to continued inversion movements
(Nikishin et al. 2000; Seghedi 2001, 2009).
Central Pontides
The Kre flysch of the Central Pontides is considered
to be equivalent to the Tavric flysch of Crimea
(Robinson & Kerusov 1997; Ustamer & Robertson
1997). In the Pontides domain, the Kre Basin was
closed during the Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny. This
was accompanied by the obduction of oceanic crust,
and a Middle Jurassic intrusive, subduction-related
magmatism (Ustamer & Robertson 1997; Ylmaz et
al. 1997).
Eastern Pontides
In the external domain of the Eastern Pontides, which
at this time was located adjacent to the Caucasus
area, an EW-trending East Pontides Basin began
Middle Jurassic,
Bajocian
Vorkuta
Perm
in
Pechora
Basin
I I
-M
St.Petersburg
Oslo
Riga
Po
lis
Moscow
Minsk
h
Tr
o
ug
Dn
iep
Precaspian Basin
rB
as
in
Volgograd
Kiev
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I I
I I I I I I
200 400 km
N
IA
TH N
PA I
R S
A A
C B
200 0
I
I I
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
I
I I
I I
I I
CAUCASUS
BASIN
Moesian
Platform
zmir-Ankara-Sevan Oce
an
continental, sands and shales

shallow marine, sands and shales
eroded land:
tectonic symbols:
low relief
normal faults
trough slopes
I I I I
subsidence
axes
subduction
zones
spreading
axes
oceanic floor
arc-related
volcanism
rift-related
volcanism
Figure 11. Bajocian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al. 2005).
593
Middle Jurassic,
Late Bathonian Early Callovian
Vorkuta
Ba
si
Pechora
Basin
Oslo
w-
ez
en
Perm
os
co
St.Petersburg
Riga
Moscow
Minsk
Po
lis
Tr
o
ug
Dni
Warsaw
h
Precaspian Basin
epr
Bas
Volgograd
in
Kiev
I I
I I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I I I I I I I
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
N
IA
TH N
PA I
R S
A BA
200 400 km
200 0
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
EA
DO
IM
BR
Moesian
Platform
CR
OG
S.
EA
CAUCASUS
PO NTIDES
continental to coastal, sands

and shales
shallow marine, sands and shales
ACTIVE OROG
zmir-Ankara-S
ENIC BELT
evan Ocean
shallow marine, shales and carbonates

shallow marine, mainly carbonates
eroded land:
cratonic and inactive foldbelts, low to
intermediate relief
tectonic symbols:
normal faults
I I I I
spreading axes
trough slopes
subduction zones
subsidence axes
oceanic floor
Figure 12. Late BathonianEaly Callovian palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after
594
d
Synrift 2,
carbonates,
olistoliths
~12 metres
Shallow-marine
carbonates
Synrift 1,
conglomerates
Figure 13. Representative outcrops in the Southern Crimea. (a) Lower Jurassic part of the Tavric Flysch, Bodrak River,
Bakhchisaray region, showing alternation of turbiditic sandstones, siltstones and shales and pelagic shales. (b)
Aalenian to Early Bajocian Bitak Molasse near Simpheropol City, Strogonovka Village, consisting of conglomerates
and sandstones. (c) Coastal cliff exposing Bajocan pillow-basalts at Cape Fiolent close to Sevastopol and Balaklava.
(d) Callovian to Oxfordian(?) synrift conglomerates, debris flows and carbonates of Pakhkal-Kaya section close to
Alushta City and Demerdzhi Mountain. (e) Late Jurassic deep-water turbiditic conglomerates, Ordzhonikidze City,
East Crimea, Feodosia region. (f) CallovianLate Jurassic(?) Koba-Kaya carbonate build-up with marginal slope,
close to Nonvyi Svet City, Sudak region.
595
to subside during the SinemurianPliensbachian

and persisted until at least the end of the Bathonian
(Okay & ahintrk 1997). Its sedimentary fill consists
of up to 2000-m-thick paralic and later turbiditic
conglomeratic and sandy series, referred to as the
Kelkit Formation. It contains abundant volcaniclastic
material and intercalations of carbonates in Rosso
Ammonitico facies, and rests unconformably on
Palaeozoic high-grade metamorphic rocks and
locally on Carboniferous conglomerates. Further to
the south, Kelkit equivalent sediments are developed
in finer-grained pelagic facies (Okay & ahintrk
1997). The East Pontides Basin may have formed
a branch of the Great Caucasus-South Crimea rift
system. However, biostratigraphic control on the
Lower Jurassic sediments of the Eastern Pontides
leaves to be desired (Robinson et al. 1995), and
additional data are required to support these tectonic
concepts. The occurrence of significant amounts
of basalts, andesites and tuffs are compatible with
the postulate that the Eastern Pontides and the
Transcaucasus were associated with an EarlyMiddle
Jurassic subduction-related volcanic arc (Robinson
et al. 1995; Banks & Robinson 1997; Nikishin et al.
1998a, b, 2001; Ylmaz et al. 2000). This concept is
compatible with the results of new investigations
on the Jurassic magmatism of the Eastern Pontides
(Moix et al. 2008; Gen & Tysz 2009; Ustamer &
Robertson 2010).
Moesian Platform
On the Moesian Platform, sedimentation was
interrupted during the Early Jurassic and only
resumed during the BathonianCallovian with the
deposition of thin continental and marginal marine
clastics (Harbury & Cohen 1997). However, along its
southern margin, the East Srednegorie-Balkan rift
was reactivated during the Early Jurassic. In this basin
an over 1500-m-thick Lower and Middle Jurassic
deeper-water sequence accumulated, consisting of
PliensbachianToarcian sandy and conglomeratic
turbiditic series, containing olistoliths which consist
of Palaeozoic, Triassic and Lower Jurassic rocks. The
evolving rift included also the Strandzha zone, which
had formed the southern flank of this rift during the
Triassic. During the Aalenian and Bajocian, rifting
activity terminated and the basin subsided probably
596
in response to the build-up of compressional stresses,

receiving an over 1500-m-thick shale dominated
sequence. During the end Bathonian culmination
of the Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny, the SrednegorieBalkan Basin was partly inverted. Along its northern
margin deformed Lower and Middle Jurassic series
are unconformably overlain by CallovianOxfordian
carbonates which broadly overstepped the Moesian
Platform (Banks 1997; Georgiev et al. 2001).
The Srednegorie-Balkan Basin probably extended
eastwards between the stanbul and the Sakarya
blocks where Early Jurassic rifting progressed
to crustal separation and the opening of a small
oceanic basin; this basin was closed again during the
Neocomian (or before Late Eocene?) (Intra-Pontides
suture; Okay & Tysz 1999; Okay 2000).
Great Caucasus-South Crimea Trough
In view of the above, it is compelling to interpret the
Early Jurassic Great Caucasus-South Crimea and
Srednegorie-Balkan troughs as a system of back-arc
extensional basins (Figure 9; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b,
2001, 2005). Main points supporting a rifted origin of
this, now totally inverted basin complex are its rapid
subsidence, the uplift of its northern shoulder at the
beginning of basin subsidence, and the presence of a
bimodal volcanism, which spread onto the Scythian
Platform as the main basins subsided rapidly. The
Early Jurassic Great Caucasus-South Crimea backarc basin, that was probably characterized by a
drastically thinned continental crust, can be readily
compared to recent back-arc basins, such as the
East Black Sea Basin, the width of which is close
to 200 km. In our reconstruction of the area under
consideration we assumed similar dimensions for the
Early Jurassic Great Caucasus-South Crimean deepwater trough.
The Middle Jurassic Mid-Cimmerian phase of
back-arc compression, which affected the Great
Caucasus-South Crimea Trough and the Eastern
and Central Pontides (Figure 11), as well as the
Western Pontides and the Rhodope-Strandzha
domain, can be related to changes in the geometry
of the Neotethys subduction zone and the activation
of subduction processes along the southern margin
of the Pontides. This coincided with a major plate
boundary reorganization involving amongst others,

opening of the Central Atlantic and Alpine Tethys
(Georgiev et al. 2001; Stampfli et al. 2001a; Ziegler
et al. 2001).
12). Correspondingly, we are unable to assess whether

intraplate deformations occurred on the EEP during
the Mid-Cimmerian tectonic cycle.
The Great Caucasus Trough was partially

inverted, mainly along its northern margin, during
late Aalenian to Bathonian times, with most intense
deformation at the Aalenian/Bajocian boundary
and during the Bathonian (Panov & Guschin 1987;
Belov et al. 1990; Koronovsky et al. 1997; Nikishin
et al. 1998a, b, 2001, 2005) (Figures 11 & 12). The
South Crimea Trough underwent a first phase
of compressional deformation during the late
Aalenianearly Bajocian and a second one during the
Bathonianearliest Callovian (Nikishin et al. 1998a,
b, 2001). This coincided with the deformation of the
Central Pontides Kre Basin (Ustamer & Robertson
1997), whilst in the Eastern Pontides and the
Transcaucasus region the main deformation phase is
Aalenian (Robinson et al. 1995) and pre-Bajocian in
age, respectively.
Neo tethys Subduction System
In the North Dobrogea Basin, there is little

evidence for an Early Jurassic extensional phase;
accumulation of flysch-type clastics, derived from
southwestern sources, that had commenced during
the late Carnian, persisted during Early and Middle
Jurassic times, and was accompanied by the MidJurassic propagation of north-verging thrusts into
its sedimentary fill (Nikishin et al. 2000; Seghedi
2001). To the north of the evolving North Dobrogea
orogen, a molasse basin, containing 1600 m of clastic
sediment, developed during the Middle Jurassic
(Kruglov & Tsypko 1988). Also in the Strandzha
Zone of the Balkanides and in the SrednegorieBalkan Basin, a Bathonian compressional event has
been recorded (Banks 1997; Georgiev et al. 2001).
East European Platform
During the Hettangian to Aalenian, nearly all of
the EEP was located above sea level and, thus, was
subjected to erosion (Milanovsky 1996; Dercourt et
al. 2000). Only from mid-Bajocian to Callovian time
onwards did some basins begin to subside again, as
evidenced by the accumulation of shallow-water to
continental sediments in the Dniepr, Precaspian and
Moscow-Mezen-Pechora basins (Figures 8, 9, 11 &
There is considerably controversy about the Early and

Middle Jurassic evolution of active southern margin
of the EEP (Ziegler et al. 2001; Stampfli & Borel 2004;
Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005; Okay et al. 2006; Moix et
al. 2008). One interpretation suggests that during
Early Jurassic times northward subduction of the
Neotethys Ocean beneath the southern margin of
the Cimmerian Menderes, Taurus and SanandajSirjan blocks continued whilst the oceanic zmirAnkara-Erzincan-Sevan back-arc basin opened.
During Middle Jurassic accelerated subduction of the
Neotethys underlying the Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny,
an arc-trench system may have been activated along
the southern margin of the Sakarya-PontidesTranscaucasus terrane in response to back-arc
compression, controlling northward subduction and
partial closure of the zmir-Ankara-Erzincan-Sevan
back-arc basin (Robertson & Dixon 1984; Ylmaz
et al. 1997; Dercourt et al. 2000; Floyd et al. 2000;
Stampfli 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Ziegler et al.
2001; Stampfli & Borel 2004).
On the other hand, Okay (2000), Nikishin et
al. (2001, 2005), Okay et al. (2006) and Ustamer
& Robertson (2010) contend that Cimmerian
continental terranes were docked during the Early
Cimmerian orogeny against the southern margin
of the Sakarya-Pontides-Transcaucasus terrane, and
therefore postulate that along their southern margin
subduction processes were continuously active
during Early and Middle Jurassic times.
Ophiolites and their cover contained in the
Sevan suture consist, according to Zakariadze et al.
(2000), of (a) a complete sequence of island arc type
tholeitic ophiolites (22510 Ma, Sm-Nd, Rb-Sr),
(b) a complete boninitic ophiolite sequence (1604
Ma, U-Pb; 1628 Ma, K-Ar) and (c) a volcanosedimentary sequence consisting of an alternation
of MORB- and OIB-type volcanics and pelagic and
shallow-water sediments ranging in age from Late
Triassic to Coniacian. Moreover, Sm-Nd mineral
597
isochrones obtained on garnet-amphibolites from a

serpentinitic mlange and olistostromes show ages
in the range of 2246 Ma, 15511 Ma, and 8610
Ma. These data show that along the Sevan suture
subduction processes were intermittently active
from Triassic to Late Cretaceous times. Furthermore,
Zakariadze et al. (2000) show that in the Trans-Great
Caucasus region, located northward adjacent to the
Sevan suture, subduction-related magmatic activity
occurred around 230 Ma (tholeiitic basalts), 200 Ma
(calc-alkaline rhyolites, diorites and quartz-diorites),
180160 Ma (island-arc volcanics) and 150140 Ma
(island-arc volcanics). This reflects intermittent, yet
persistent subduction activity in the Sevan sector
of the zmir-Ankara-Erzincan-Sevan suture. This
is compatible with the concepts of Okay (2000),
Nikishin et al. (2001, 2005), Okay et al. (2006) and
Galoyan et al. (2009).
Nevertheless, and in view of unequivocal
evidence for Late Triassic accretion of the Cimmerian
Sanandaj-Sirjan terrane to the southern margin of
Laurasia in Iran, the Mid-Cimmerian tectonic cycle
of the Black Sea domain can be interpreted as having
been controlled by activity along the Neotethyan
subduction system (Stampfli 2000; Sampfli et al.
2001a, b). Following its development during the
Early Cimmerian Orogeny, involving subduction
progradation from the Sakarya arc-trench system
to the southern margin of the East-Cimmerian
terranes, subduction rates apparently decreased
during Sinemurian to Aalenian times, giving rise
to a phase of back-arc extension, including opening
of the oceanic zmir-Ankara Basin (Stampfli &
Borel 2004). However, during Late Aalenian times
subduction rates increased again, controlling the
onset of back-arc compression, culminating during
the Bajocian, causing partial closure of the zmirAnkara Basin, closure of the Srednegorie-Balkan
Basin and inversion of the Crimea-Great Caucasus
Trough. The Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny coincides
with an important plate boundary reorganization in
the Tethyan and Atlantic domains, involving Early
Jurassic termination of sea-floor spreading in the
Neotethys and the onset of sea-floor spreading in the
Vardar Ocean during the SinemurianToarcian, in
the Central Atlantic during the Toarcian and in the
Alpine Tethys during the Bajocian (Stampfli et al.
2001a, b; Ziegler et al. 2001; Stampfli & Borel 2004).
598
Callovian to Berriasian Late Cimmerian Tectonic

Cycle
After the Mid-Cimmerian orogenic phase, the Black
Sea domain was affected by a new rifting cycle that
commenced during the Callovian and terminated
with the Berriasian Late Cimmerian compressional
event (Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001, 2005).
During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous,
a carbonate-shale-evaporite shelf occupied much of
the Scythian Platform. This shelf was disrupted by
Callovian to Late Jurassic rifting, giving rise to the
subsidence of the South Caspian-Great Caucasus
Trough (located mainly in the southern parts of the
present Great Caucasus), the Terek, West Kuban and
East Kuban basins located on the northern shoulder
of the Great Caucasus Trough, as well as the Dobrogea
and the South Crimea basins (Figures 1416).
Similarly, the Pontides and Strandzha-Balkanides
Zone were affected by Late Jurassic crustal extension
that variably terminated during the Kimmeridgian
and Early Cretaceous (Ylmaz et al. 1997; Bank &
Robinson 1997; Georgiev et al. 2001; Uastamer
& Robertson 2010). In the Western, Central and
Eastern Pontides, Upper Jurassic basal clastics,
unconformably overlaying a mosaic of metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks, display rapid lateral thickness
changes related to extensional faulting. Upward these
basal clastics grade into Upper Jurassic and Lower
Cretaceous carbonates, which form a southward
expanding ramp reflecting the development of a
continental margin prism facing the zmir-Ankara
(Neotethys for this times) oceanic basin (Ylmaz et al.
1997; Okay & ahintrk 1997; Nikishin et al. 2001,
2005; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Ustamer & Robertson
2010).
Great Caucasus Trough
In the domain of the Great Caucasus Trough, a regional
angular base Callovian unconformity testifies to the
Mid-Cimmerian inversion of this basin prior to its
renewed CallovianLate Jurassic subsidence (Panov
& Guschin 1987; Milanovsky 1996; Koronovsky et al.
1997). The Callovian to Berriasian series is developed
in relatively deep-water, turbiditic facies and attains
thicknesses of a few kilometres (Milanovsky 1996;
Nikishin et al. 2005). During Callovian to Eocene
Late Jurassic,
KimmerigianTithonian
Abbreviations:
EK - East-Kuban
Basin,
WK - WestKuban Basin,
SB - SrednegorieBalkan Basin,
SC - South
Crimea
Basin
Vorkuta
in
Pechora
Basin
Perm
-M
St.Petersburg
Oslo
Riga
Moscow
Minsk
Precaspian Basin
Po
Warsaw
lis
Dn
h
o
Tr
ug
LEGEND
asi
Volgograd
n
in
Bas
nit
i
k
r
Ka
SC
N
IA
TH N
PA I
R S
A A
C B
200 400 km
rB
Kiev
200 0
iep
EK
Terek Basin
WK
Moesian
Platform
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
deltaic-shallow marine, sands
and shales
shallow marine, mainly shales
E. CAUCASUS
-S.CASPIAN
Transcaucasus a
zmir
-Ank
ara-S
evan
Ocea
n
BASIN
rc
Sa
nan
dajSirja
n
arc

shallow marine, carbonates and clastics
evaporites
eroded land:
cratonic and inactive foldbelt, low relief
tectonic symbols:
normal faults
trough slopes
subsidence axes
spreading axes
subduction zones
oceanic floor
arc-related volcanism;
volcanic arcs
Figure 14. KimmeridgeanTithonian palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonicpaleotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified

after Nikishin et al. 2005).
599
Black Sea region: main terranes
Stable Eastern European Continent

Crimea
Do
br
og
GC
Shatsky
ea
An
dr
Western Black Sea
us
ov
Dzirula
y
let
ria
T
ia
jar
Eastern Black Sea
Kura
Ad
Moesia
EEP
es
Balkanid
Rhodopes
CP
WBSS
Srednogorie
Eastern Pontides
Tokat
stanbul
Sakaria
have been moved terranes,

outlines of seas was not changed
WBSS West Black Sea-Saros Fault
Figure 15. Main continental terranes of the Black Sea domain as used in our palaeotectonic restoration maps given in Figures
1618, 2123, 26 & 27 (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
times the Great Caucasus Trough probably consisted

of two sub-basins with the Central Caucasus High
(corresponding to the present day metamorphic core
of the Great Caucasus) partly separating the Western
Caucasus Basin from the Eastern Caucasus Basin
(Figure 16). Upper CallovianOxfordian alkaline
basalts occur in Georgia to the south of the Great
Caucasus Trough in the Rioni Basin (Topchishvili
et al. 2006). The apparent lack of Upper Jurassic
ophiolites in the Great Caucasus suggests that rifting
may not have progressed to crustal separation and the
opening of an oceanic basin in the Black Sea-Great
Caucasus area. However, further to the east, in the
ultra-deep South Caspian Basin, now containing up
to 25-km-thick sediments, Callovian rifting probably
600
culminated in crustal separation and sea-floor

spreading during the Late Jurassic phase of back-arc
extension (Zonenshain & Le Pichon 1986; Dercourt
et al. 1993; Abrams & Narimanov 1997; Nadirov et al.
1997; Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Brunet et al. 2003). At the Jurassic/Cretaceous
transition the Great Caucasus Trough was affected by
minor compressional deformation, which is not yet
sufficiently constrained.
West and East Kuban and Terek Basins
The West and East Kuban and Terek basins contain
23-km-thick CallovianUpper Jurassic sediments
(Figure 14; Koronovsky et al. 1997; Milanovsky
LATE JURASSIC
eroded land
reef belt
reef belt
Western Caucasus Trough
CCH
carbonate platform
br
h
s, s
og
ea
pe
Moesia
eroded land
ate
on
ic
lag
slope
ale
Do
b
car
Eastern Caucasus Trough
lt
ef be
continental
Shatsre
& shallow-marine
ky
An
dru
rm
sov
tfo
a
E
l
.
P
C.Pont
p
ont
ides
te
na
o
rb
ca
slope
deposits
Rioni Basin
turbidites
basalts
Kura
Volcanic arc
E.E.Pont
stanbul
Sakarya
Neotethys Ocean
300 km
isolated carbonate or
reef build-up
CCH - Central Caucasus High
Figure16. Late Jurassic palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonicpaleotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by
Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
1996; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001; Dercourt et al.

2000). Callovianlower Oxfordian sediments consist
of conglomerates, silts, clays and shallow marine
carbonates. During the middle and late Oxfordian,
reef belts fringed the more rapidly subsiding central
parts of these basins (see Figure 10b). During the
Kimmeridgian and Tithonian, the northern flank
of the Great Caucasus Trough was uplifted, forming
a low relief high (Milanovsky 1996). This caused
restriction of the basins located on the Scythian
Platform in which an evaporite-dominated series
accumulated. Rapid subsidence of these North
Caucasus basins was probably controlled by crustal
extension, related to the re-opening of the Great
Caucasus back-arc trough (Bolotov 1996; Nikishin et

al. 1994, 1998a, b, 2001). At the end of the Tithonian
and during the Berriasian, the North Caucasus
basins were gently deformed and the entire area was
uplifted in conjunction with the Late Cimmerian
compressional event, as evidenced by an angular
unconformity recognized on reflection-seismic lines
that corresponds either to the Jurassic/Cretaceous
boundary or to an intra-Berriasian level (Nikishin et
al. 1998a, b, 2001).
Crimea
During Callovian to Tithonian times, Crimea was
occupied by a shallow-marine carbonate platform.
601
However, crustal extension led to the subsidence of

the South Crimea Basin in which Callovian to lower
Berriasian sediments consist of shallow- to relatively
deep-water conglomerates, carbonates, and turbidite
deposits which attain thicknesses of several 100
metres (Figures 13ef & 14) (Muratov 1969). During
the Berriasian, the South Crimea Basin region was
uplifted and subjected to erosion (Figure 17) possibly
in response to compressional event (Nikishin et al.
2005).
transition from a shallow-water carbonate platform

on the Bulgarian Varna Block to a zone of deeperwater sediment starvation to the east (Dachev et al.
1989).
Although much of the EEP was occupied during
late Jurassic times by sedimentary basins there
is no evidence for contemporaneous intraplate
deformations, apart from a possible minor extensional
reactivation of some Devonian rifts (Figure 14).
Moesian Platform and North Dobrogea Basin

During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the
Moesian Platform was covered by an extensive
carbonate shelf that was fringed to the south in the
Srednegorie-Balkan area by a narrow eastwesttrending, probably rift-induced deeper-water trough
in which thick, coarse turbiditic clastics derived
from a southern source accumulated. Following
a late Kimmeridgianearly Tithonian extensional
event, this basin was converted during the Late
Cimmerian Orogeny into a flexural foreland basin
that was flanked to the south by the rising StrandzhaSrednegorie zone. From the latter up to 3 km of
clastics were shed into this basin, the axis of which
migrated northward until it was completely filled in
late Berriasian times. During the Mid-Cretaceous,
this basin was compressionally deformed, resulting
in the development of the Balkan fold-and-thrust
belt and of a regional unconformity on the Moesian
Platform (Harbury & Cohen 1997; Sinclair et al.
1997; Georgiev et al. 2001).
In the area of the North Dobrogea Basin,
inversion movements had ceased at the end of the
Middle Jurassic, as evidenced by the resumption
of carbonate sedimentation during Oxfordian
Kimmeridgian times. Kimmeridgian basalts,
occurring along its southwestern margin, are
indicative of its transtensional reactivation prior to
the end Jurassicearliest Cretaceous resumption
of inversion movements (Sandulescu et al. 1995;
Seghedi 2001, 2009).
During the Late Jurassic, also the eastern margin
of the Moesian Platform was apparently affected
by crustal extension (Beloussov & Volvovsky 1989;
Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001). This is indicated by the
602
Dynamics of the Late Cimmerian Cycle

Following the Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny, back-arc
extension, probably controlled by rollback of the
Neotethys subduction zone, governed the Callovian
to Late Jurassic evolution of a system of rifted basins
on the southern parts of the Scythian Platform and in
the Black Sea domain, as well as opening of the Great
Caucasus-South Caspian basin. At the same time the
Alpine Tethys seafloor spreading axis propagated
into the Alpine-Carpathian domain (Nikishin et al.
1998a, b, 2001; Golonka 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Stampfli & Borel 2004; Schmid et al. 2008).
The Late Cimmerian compressional pulse
reflects a renewed, short-lived phase of backarc compression, which induced on the Scythian
Platform mild inversion of Late Jurassic tensional
basins, development of a regional unconformity
in the South Crimea Basin region and minor
deformation of the Great Caucasus Trough. Whereas
the Late Cimmerian orogenic pulse was apparently
of relatively minor importance in the Pontides, it is
clearly expressed in the Rhodope-Strandzha zone
(Banks & Robinson 1997; Banks 1997; Georgiev et
al. 2001). During the Late Cimmerian Orogeny,
northward subduction of Neotethys continued, and
the Vardar arc collided with the Rhodope and the
adjacent Carpathian/Dinarides domains (Stampfli et
al. 2001a, b; Schmid et al. 2008).
Valanginian to Palaeogene Early Alpine Tectonic
Cycle
During the Early Cretaceous progressive opening of
the Central Atlantic Ocean and rifting in the Arctic-
Moscow University Poligon

Bakhchisaray region
,
N
SW Crimea
Tectonic
events
PLI
MIOCENE
EOCENE
rapid mountain
uplift
Zanclean
Messinian
Tortonian
Serravalian
Langhian
Burdigalian
Aquitanian
Chattian
Rupelian
main orogenic
phase
0
400
orogenic
phase
sea level
Priabonian
Bartonian
Lutetian
organic
rich
layers
Ypresian
Thanetian
Selandian
Danian
thermal subsidence
PALEOCEN
Paleogene
OLIGOCE
Neogene
QUART .
LATE
Cretaceous
Maastrichtian
Campanian
volcanic
ash
Santonian
Coniacian
Turonian
Cenomanian
organic
rich
layers
rifting
Aptian
Barremian
Hauterivian
thermal subsidence
200 m
EARLY
rift shoulder
uplift,
200 300 m
rift basin
Albian
Valanginian
Berriasian
LATE
Tithonian
Kimmeridgian
vertical
movements-?
ng
rifti
rift basin &

carbonate
shelf
Oxfordian
MIDDLE
Jurassic
Callovian
main orogenic phase
Bathonian
Bajocian
>0.5 km
volcanic arc complex

molasse basin
Pliensbachian
folding
thrusting
deep-water
turbidite
basin
ing
rift
EARLY
Toarcian
0.5 2 km
Aalenian
Sinemurian
orogeny(?)
Hettangian
500
Norian
flycsh
basin
orogeny (?)
Carnian
Ladinian
Anisian
Olenekian
hypothetical
rift complex
in g
rift
EARLY MIDDLE
Triassic
LATE
Rhetian
Indian
Figure 17. Chronostratigraphy of Southwestern Crimea (modified after Nikishin et al. 2008).
North Atlantic, dextral motions between AfricaArabia and Eurasia persisted, causing in the western
Tethys domain transtensional opening of oceanic
basins and transpressional interaction of continental
terranes. Following end-Turonian crustal separation

between South America and Africa, Africa-Arabia
began to converge in a counter-clockwise rotational
mode with Eurasia. With this, closure of the Alpine
603
Tethys and Neotethys basins commenced, initiating

the Alpine tectonic cycle during which compressional
stresses were intermittently exerted on the AfricanArabian and European platforms (Ziegler 1990;
Ziegler et al. 1995, 1998, 2001; Stampfli et al. 2001a,
b; Rosenbaum et al. 2002; Stampfli & Borel 2004;
Schmid et al. 2008).
disrupted by normal faults (Tugolesov et al. 1985;

Robinson et al. 1996, Finetti et al. 1998; Nikishin
et al. 2003; Afanasenkov et al. 2007). This points
towards a tensional origin of this basin (Zonenshain
& Le Pichon 1986; Grr 1988; Dercourt et al. 1993,
2000; Okay et al. 1994; Robinson 1997; Nikishin et al.
1998a, b, 2001, 2003).
Following the Late Cimmerian Orogeny, the

Scythian Platform and the Pontides were tectonically
relatively quiescent during Early Cretaceous times,
whilst orogenic activity persisted in the Balkanides
until Mid-Cretaceous times (Okay et al. 1996;
Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Georgiev et al. 2001) when
far field compressional stresses controlled the final
inversion phases of northern Dobrogea (Seghedi
2001).
During the Late Cretaceous, the area of the

Black Sea Basin was bounded to the south by the
Srednegorie-Pontides-Achara-Trialet-Karabakh
magmatic belt (Lordkipanidze 1980; Zonenshain &
Le Pichon 1986; Dercourt et al. 1993, 2000; Banks
& Robinson 1997; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001,
2003; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b). In the south Bulgarian
Strandzha-Burgas area (Srendnegorie volcanic zone),
arc-related magmatic activity, accompanied by backarc rifting, commenced during the Turonian and
lasted until early Campanian times. During the late
Campanian this back-arc rift was incorporated into
the Alpine flexural foreland basin in which flysch
accumulated until mid-Eocene times (Beloussov
& Volvovsky 1989; Okay et al. 1994; Georgiev et
al. 2001). In Turkey, arc-related magmatic activity
commenced in the southern Pontides perhaps as
early as the AptianAlbian(?), attained regional
dimensions during CenomanianConiacian and
Campanian times and terminated during the
Maastrichtian (Grr et al. 1993; Okay & ahintrk
1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997). In Georgia, the AcharaTrialet (or Adjara-Trialet) magmatic arc was active
from Aptian to the Turonian times, with minor activity
persisting until the Campanian (Lordkipanidze 1980;
Karyakin 1989; Nikishin et al. 2001). Development of
the Late Cretaceous Srednegorie-Pontides-AcharaTrialet-Karabakh magmatic arc can be related to
accelerated and progressive northward subduction
of the Vardar Ocean and the oceanic zmir-AnkaraErzincan-Sevan Basin. Following the final closure of
these basins by Maastrichtian times, this magmatic
arc became inactive (Stampfli et al. 2001a, b).
Although the Early Cretaceous evolution of the

Scythian Platform is poorly constrained, there is
clear evidence that with the beginning of the Aptian
a system of new rifts developed, apparently heralding
opening of the Black Sea Basin (Robinson et al. 1996;
Banks & Robinson 1997; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b,
2001, 2003, 2005).
The Black Sea Basin consists of two sub-basins,
which are separated by the Andrusov Ridge that
is characterized by continental crust covered by
56-km-thick sediments (Figure 2). Whereas the
Western Black Sea Basin is floored by oceanic to
sub-oceanic crust and contains up to 19-km-thick
sediments, the Eastern Black Sea Basin is probably
underlain by thinned continental crust, having a
thickness of up to 10 km, and contains up to 12-kmthick sediments. The sedimentary fill of both subbasins ranges in age from Cretaceous to Recent and
is composed of essentially flat lying pelagic series
that were deposited under deeper-water conditions;
however, the age of their lowermost part is poorly
constrained. These sediments are only deformed
along the southern and northeastern margins of
the Black Sea (Tugolesov et al. 1985; Finetti et al.
1988; Beloussov & Volvovsky 1989; Robinson 1997;
Nikishin et al. 2003, Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
Whether these sediments are underlain by a midCretaceous syn-rift sequence, equivalent to the fill of
the rift systems observed on the Scythian Platform, is
uncertain. Nevertheless, seismic data indicate that the
basement of the Black Sea is, at least in some places,
604
The realization that during the Late Cretaceous the

Black Sea Basin subsided at the rear of the SrednegoriePontides-Achara-Trialet-Karabakh magmatic arc has
led to the widely accepted hypothesis that back-arc
extension controlled its evolution (Zonenshain &
Le Pichon 1986; Grr 1988; Dercourt et al. 1993).
However, there is still considerable controversy about
the timing of opening of the Western Black Sea Basin

(Late Cretaceous) and the Eastern Black Sea Basin
(Late Cretaceous and/or Palaeogene), the kinematics
of their opening (extension directions, main
faults) and their post-extensional tectonic history
(Tugolesov et al. 1985; Finetti et al. 1988; Grr 1988;
Beloussov & Volvovsky 1989; Ziegler 1990; Okay et al.
1994; Dixon & Robertson 1996; Robinson et al. 1996;
Banks & Robinson 1997; Robinson 1997; Ustamer
& Robertson 1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997; Nikishin et al.
1998a, b, 2001, 2003; Dercourt et al. 2000; Stampfli et
al. 2001a, b; Cloetingh et al. 2003; Stephenson et al.
2004; Barrier & Vrielynck 2008).
Below we review the occurrence of MidCretaceous rifted basins on the Scythian Platform
and analyze the timing and kinematics of opening of
the Black Sea Basin (Nikishin et al. 2001, 2003, 2008;
Mid-Cretaceous Rifting in Black Sea Area
Numerous Early and Middle Cretaceous rifted basins
occur in areas surrounding the Black Sea (Figure
18; Muratov 1969; Grr et al. 1993; Okay et al.
1994; Robinson & Kerusov 1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997;
Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2001, 2003).
The Great Caucasus Trough subsided rapidly
during Cretaceous to Eocene times and was the site
of deep-water, partly turbiditic sedimentation (Figure
19). The occurrence of an Albian to Cenomanian
(Turonian?) basaltic magmatism indicates that this
trough was tensionally reactivated (Figure 10c)
(Lomize 1969; Lordkipanidze 1980).
The Kuban Basin, located on the northwestern
flank of the Great Caucasus Trough, subsided
rapidly during the Early Cretaceous and particularly
during the AptianAlbian when its development was
accompanied by poorly dated basaltic and andesitic
volcanism (Figure 18) (Bolotov 1996).
In eastern Crimea, the fault bounded Belogorsk
Basin that contains more than 1 km of sediments,
developed during the AptianAlbian. In the Gulf
of Odessa, the deep Karkinit Trough, that contains
more than 3 km of sediments, began to subside
either during the Barremian or late Hauterivian and
remained active until Albian times. Its middle to
late Albian main rifting stage was accompanied by
volcanic activity (Nikishin et al. 2005; Gnidec et al.

2010; Khriachtchevskaia et al. 2010). Seismic and deep
well data from northern Crimea show that its postrift evolution commenced during the Cenomanian
(Muratov 1969; Chaitsky 1984; Nikishin et al. 2001,
2005).
Along the continental slope to the south and
southwest of Crimea, the so-called Lomonosov Massif
consists of basalts, andesites, shoshonitic basalts and
dacites which are overlapped by Upper Cretaceous
clays and marls (Zhigunov 1983; Shnyukov et al.
1997). The geochemical signature of these volcanic
rocks suggests that they are possibly arc-related. Their
age is constrained by K/Ar dates, ranging mainly
between 150 and 100 Ma and up to 65 Ma (Shnyukov
et al. 1997). Coarse-grained middle-upper Albian
tuffs with lapillis are well documented in Crimea close
to the cities of Balaklava and Sevastopol (Muratov
1969). The latest Albian sandstones of Southern
Crimea contain andesitic tuffs (Mazarovich & Mileev
1989a, b). This is compatible with an Albian age of the
Lomonosov Massif volcanism, the origin of which
is most likely related to rifting in the domain of the
Black Sea along the Albian volcanic arc (Nikishin et
al. 2001, 2003). Field data from southwestern Crimea
show that Albian clastics were deposited in actively
subsiding half-grabens (Figure 20).
Along the eastern margin of the Moesian Platform,
rifting activity commenced in the Romanian and
Bulgarian offshore during the late Albian (Georgescu
1997) and the BarremianAptian (Robinson et al.
1995, 1996), respectively. Immediately north of the
Srednegorie magmatic belt, CenomanianTuronian
rifting, associated with the extrusion of alkaline
volcanics, was probably related to transtensional
shear movements along a fault system paralleling
the western margin of the incipient Black Sea Basin
(Tvalchrelidze & Mikhailov 1985; Banks 1997).
In the external, northern parts of the Western and
Central Pontides, deposition of platform carbonates
terminated at the end of the Barremian with the
onset of a major rifting cycle that lasted until the
early Cenomanian (Grr et al. 1993; Okay et al.
1994; Robinson & Kerusov 1997).
In the Transcaucasus area and the Achara-Trialeti
Basin, the Aptian to Turonian successions consist
of clastic sediments, andesites and andesitic tuffs
605
ALBIAN
eroded land
Kuban Basin
Do
k
ors
log
Be
t rif
kini
Kar
br
Ba
og
lak
lav
ea
E.
an
hl
ed
W.
g
hi
od
on
Bla
ck
dru
C. Pont
ift
sr
Ulu
er
stanbul
Sha
Se
ar
ift
tsky
Dzirula
sov
E. Pontides
rialety
Adj.-T
Kura
E.E. Pont
Tokat
co
lli
si
An
Se
extension
c
Bla
ift
ar
Srednogorie
Rhodopes
Sakarya
Neotethys Ocean
rift basin, clastic deposits,

possible volcanics
proposed rift basin
clastic sediments dominate

shallow-marine
carbonates dominate
shallow-marine deposits,
possible volcanics
continental slope carbonates,
turbidites
eroded highland
and land
oceanic crust
volcanic arc
volcanics
proposed volcanics
Figure 18. Albian palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
of subduction-related volcanic arc (Lordkipanidze

1980; Milanovsky 1996).
Reflection-seismic data from the Russian part of
the Black Sea (Afanasenkov et al. 2007), show that
the Late Jurassic carbonate platform of the Shatsky
Ridge is cut my numerous normal faults, which are
sealed by Upper Cretaceous sediments. New 3D
reflection-seismic data covering the northern part of
the Shatsky Ridge (A.V. Mityukov, Rosneft, personal
communication, 2010) indicate that the rift/postrift
unconformity roughly correlates with the Albian/
Cenomanian boundary. Late Early Cretaceous
right-lateral transtensional faulting on the northern
606
Shatsky Ridge was followed by focus of rifting in the

Eastern Black Sea basin and minor rift shoulder uplift
of the SW Shatsky Ridge margin commencing in the
Cenomanian. Similarly, reflection-seismic data from
the Turkish part of the Western Black Sea document
that the rift-drift transition coincides with an Albian/
Cenomanian boundary (Menlikli et al. 2009).
Opening of Black Sea Basin
Opening of the Black Sea Basin involved the disruption
of a highly heterogeneous crustal domain, which,
following its consolidation during the Euxinian
Figure 19. Representative outcrops of Lower Cretaceous to Eocene deep-water deposits in the Western Great Caucasus area. (a) Aptian
turbidite sandstones north of Tuapse City, Messazhay Village. (b) Hauterivian turbidite section northeast of Lazarevskaya
City, Marino Village. (c) Cenomanian sequence of alternating pelagic carbonates and turbiditic siltstones, Gelendzhik City
region, Shirokaya Schel Village. (d) Slump folds in Cenomanian deep-water deposits, same outcrop as C. (e) Paleocene
turbiditic sandstones, Anapa City region. (f) Eocene deep-water section with turbidite sandstones. Mamayka Fm., Mamayka
Village close to Sochi City.
607
synrift unit 2,
composed by
avalanche
deposits
Albian(?)
rift
fau
lt
U. Jurassic
limestones
ba
se
of
Al
bia
n(
?)
synrift unit 1,
chaotic breccia
composed by
U. Jurassic
limestone
fragments
Figure 20. Outcrop of the Albian synrift sedimentary in Balaklava region, southwestern Crimea. Its age is constrained by correlation
with local fossiliferous outcrops.
orogeny, was repeatedly overprinted by back-arc

extension and compression during the Cimmerian
tectonic cycles (Figure 15). The Early Cretaceous
structural framework of Black Sea domain is known
only in broad outlines (Figure 18). In all likelihood,
reactivation of pre-existing crustal discontinuities
played an important role in the opening of the Black
Sea Basin.
The timing and the kinematics of opening of the
Western and Eastern Black Sea basins has since long
been the subject of multiple, often contradicting
hypotheses, although a back-arc extensional model
was generally accepted (Zonenshain & Le Pichon
1986; Grr 1988; Dercourt et al. 1993, 2000; Okay
et al. 1994; Robinson 1997; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b,
2001, 2002; Cloetingh et al. 2003). A cardinal problem
608
was whether the Western and the Eastern Black Sea

basins developed at the same time, or whether the
Eastern Black Sea Basin is younger (Nikishin et al.
2003).
According to the synthesis of all data available to us
regional crustal extension affected the entire Black Sea
area during Aptian to Albian times (mainly Albian)
and crustal separation was achieved simultaneously
in the Eastern and Western Black Sea basins at the
Albian/Cenomanian transition (Nikishin et al. 2003,
2005, 2008; Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
Figure 18 gives our preferred restoration of the
Black Sea region in Albian times. This restoration is
partly similar to those proposed by Zonenshain &
Le Pichon (1986), Okay et al. (1994) and Robinson
& Kerusov (1997), and is an updated version of our

earlier restorations (Nikishin et al. 1998a, b, 2003,
2008).
As palaeomagnetic data indicate that the
Rhodope Massif has undergone a clockwise rotation
of more than 12 degrees since the middle Oligocene
(Dimitriadis et al. 1998), Figures 15 & 18 shows it in
its pre-rotation position. Based on this restoration,
we suggest that opening of the Black Sea Basin
involved large-scale dextral strike-slip movements
along a northsouth-trending fault that marked the
western margin of the Black Sea Basin, separating the
Western Pontides and Rhodope-Thrace massifs, and
extended southward into the Gulf of Saros (Figure 21;
West Black Sea-Saros fault). Movements along this
fault caused a dextral offset of the Late Cretaceous
Srednegorie and Western Pontides magmatic arc,
and were accompanied by an anticlockwise rotation
of the entire Pontides during the nearly synchronous
opening of the Western and Eastern Black Sea basins.
An advantage of this model is, that it does not require
a disruption of the Central and Eastern Pontides
magmatic arc by hypothetical strike-slip faults, as
postulated by Okay et al. (1994) and Robinson &
Kerusov (1997). Although our model allows for nearly
synchronous opening of the Western and the Eastern
Black Sea Basin during essentially a single tectonic
phase (Figures 2124), its main problem is to explain
the evolution of the areas adjacent to the proposed
West Black Sea-Saros Fault (Pontides-Rhodope area)
during post-Black Sea opening to recent times.
As with the onset of sea-floor spreading, newly
developed passive margins generally become
tectonically quiescent (Ziegler 1996), we assume
that generation of oceanic crust in the Western Black
Sea Basin commenced during the Cenomanian and
lasted until the late Santonian to Campanian, by
which time regional compressional stresses built
up again, as evidenced by intraplate deformations
on the EEP (e.g., inversion of Donbass, Nikishin
et al. 1999; Stovba & Stephenson 1999). Similarly,
during end-Santonian to Maastrichtian times,
several minor compressional events are evident
in Southern Crimea and possibly also in the Great
Caucasus (Markus & Sharafutdinov 1989; Nikishin et
al. 2001). Correspondingly, it is unlikely that during
SantonianCampanian to Paleocene times further
sea-floor spreading occurred within the Black Sea

Basin. Thus, the duration of sea-floor spreading in
the Western Black Sea Basin, paralleled by further
crustal extension in the Eastern Black Sea Basin, was
probably limited to a time span of less than 10 My.
Following the mid-Cretaceous rifting cycle, which
had affected the external parts of the Western and
Central Pontides, these subsided regionally during
the CenomanianTuronian, whereas the Eastern
Pontides were uplifted (Grr et al. 1993; Okay et al.
1994; Robinson & Kerusov 1997; Okay & ahintrk
1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997). During Coniacianearly
Campanian times, the Pontides were affected by
compressional tectonics that accompanied the
obduction of ophiolitic mlange derived from the
zmir-Ankara-Erzincan-Sevan Basin (Ylmaz et al.
1997; Rojay & Altner 1998). This was followed by
the Campanian southward migration of magmatic
activity and tensional(?) collapse of the earlier
volcanic arc (Ylmaz et al. 1997). Whether the latter
can be related to back-arc extension and the opening
of the Western Black Sea Basin, as postulated by
Ylmaz et al. (1997), in uncertain (Nikishin et al.
2003). However, southward displacement of the
magmatic arc probably reflects rollback of the
subducted slab after the early Campanian accretion
of ophiolitic nappes (Rojay & Altner 1998).
During Maastrichtian to early Eocene times,
the Balkanides and Pontides underwent strong
compressional deformation in conjunction with the
closure of the Vardar Ocean and the zmir-AnkaraErzincan Basin, the collision of the Greek-Pelagonia
terrane with the Rhodope-Strandzha zone and the
Menderes-Tauride block (Stampfli et al. 2001a, b),
and the accretion of the Menderes, Krehir, Tauride
and Anatolide terranes to the southern margin of the
Pontides (Ylmaz et al. 1997).
Based on the above, we postulate that the Western
and Eastern Black Sea basins opened simultaneously
during the Cenomanian to Coniacian in a time span
of about 10 My. The controlling mechanism was backarc extension related to the subduction of the Vardar
Ocean and the oceanic zmir-Ankara-Erzincan Basin
(or Neotethys Ocean) beneath the SrednegoriePontides volcanic arc. In the Black Sea area, the buildup of compressional stresses commenced during the
Santonian and reached its peak in Maastrichtian
609
CENOMANIAN
riftin
g, v
olca
nism
auc
a
Wes
te
flysch
rn C
Do
br
sus
Trou
g
Sha
tsky
og
ea
Ce
n-S
e
kS
lac
ant
B
ift
W. ant r
n-S
Moesia
Dzirula
ty
C. Pont
Ce
if
E.
And
Bla ting
rus
c
kS
ov
e
ing
stanbul
Tokat
Srednogorie
W
BS
S
Rhodopes
accreti
onal co
?
ia
ar
mplex
Armenia
terrane
subductio
n zone
Sa
E. Pontides
?
Kura
le
-Tria
Adj.
t
on
.P
E
.
E
Neotethys Ocean
300 km
clastic sediments dominate
shallow-marine
eroded land
carbonates
carbonates dominate
dominate
shallow-marine
shellow-marine deposits,
deposits,
shales
oceanic crust
continental slope pelagic

carbonates, turbidites
ophiolites,
accretional
ophiolites,
accretional
complex
complex
volcanic
volcanicarc
arc
Figure 21. Cenomanian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al.
2007).WBSSWest Black Sea - Saros Fault.
Paleocene times, thus impeding further opening of

this back-arc basin.
SenonianPaleocene Intraplate Deformation of the
During the Neocomian, the EEP was partly covered
by shallow seas with strongly fluctuating outlines
(Baraboshkin et al. 2003). From late Albian until
Eocene times, the peri-Tethyan part of Eastern Europe
developed into a nearly permanent marine shelf
that was affected by numerous transgressions and
610
regressions (Figures 22 & 27; Gerasimov et al. 1962;

Dercourt et al. 2000; Baraboshkin et al. 2003). This
shelf was destabilized by intraplate compressional
stresses during late Senonian and Paleocene times,
giving rise to the inversion of pre-existing tensional
basins, as well as to gentle folding of the lithosphere
controlling the uplift of broad arches and accelerated
subsidence of intervening basins (Nikishin et al.
1999).
Intra-Senonian (Subhercynian) and Paleocene
(Laramide) inversion tectonics affected also large
parts of the northern Alpine and Carpathian foreland
Late Cretaceous,
Late Cenomanian
Vorkuta
Perm
Oslo
North
Sea
Basin
Moscow
Riga
Minsk
lis
hT
rou
Warsaw
Dn
gh
iep
rB
asi
Volgograd
Kiev
Scythian Platform
I
CARPA
THIA
BASIN N
I I I
I
I
I I
I I III
I I
I I I
I
I I I I I I I
shallow marine, mainly carbonates
S. CASPIAN
BASIN
I I I I I I
I
I
II
I I
I I I
I I I
I I
IIII
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I I
deltaic, coastal and shallow

shallow marine, mainly clastics
W. BLACK
SEA
II
Moesian
Platform
I I I
I
III
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
400 km
I
I
I I
I I
I
200
Turan
Platform
I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I
I I I I I
I
I
I I
I I I
I I I
200
Po
zmir-Ankara
-Sevan Ocean
tectonic symbols:
shallow marine, carbonates and clastics
trough slopes
spreading/rifting axes
subsidence axes
oceanic floor
subduction zones
volcanic arc;
active tectonic zone
eroded land:
cratonic,
low relief
active foldbelts,
high relief
Figure 22. Late Cenomanian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et
al. 2005).
of Europe (Figures 25 & 26; Ziegler 1990; Ziegler et al.

1995; Nikishin et al. 1999), as well as the Alpine and
Taurides forelands of Africa and Arabia, respectively
(Guiraud & Bosworth 1997).
Below we review the main Subhercynian and

Laramide intraplate compressional features, which
occur on the EEP and along its margins (Figure 25),
drawing on published data (Arkhangelsky 1922,
611
SENONIAN
challow-marine carbonates dominate
od
er
ed
lan
d
br
og
deep-water carbonates
and turbidites
Ce
ea
ant
An
dr
Moesia
San-Cam
rifting
Srednogorie
us
ov
ng
s
ate
on
t
b
r
n
a
Sa
rc s
nate dite
w
Ce
i
ep rb
de d tu
an
arc
ti
rif
ing
E. B
E. Pontides
in
as
b
arc
for
stanbul
Dzirula
lack
dee
Sea
and p-wat
tur er ca
bid
ites rbona
tes
C. Pont
nic
lca
vo
rift
Kura
Sakarya
Tokat
ety
ial
-Tr
j.
Ad
Rhodopes
Shatsky
n-S
W. Black Sea
nt
Po
.
E.E
Armenia
terrane
Do
accretional complex
Neotethys Ocean
300 km
Figure 23. Senonian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al.
2007).WBSS West Black Sea - Saros Fault.
1923; Milanovsky 1940, 1996; Gerasimov et al. 1962;

Shatsky 1964; Bogdanov & Khain 1981) and results
of our own studies (Nikishin et al. 1999). It should
be noted, however, that the timing of development
of Senonian and Paleocene intraplate compressional
structures on the EEP is generally poorly constrained
as most of them were deeply truncated and in part
reactivated during the Late Cenozoic Alpine orogeny
(Nikishin et al. 1997, 1999).
The different segments of the Pripyat-DnieprDonbass Basin, located in the southern part of the
612
EEC (Figure 1), were to various degrees affected

by Late Cretaceous and Paleocene intraplate
compressional stresses (Stepanov 1944; Milanovsky
1996; Nikishin et al. 1996, 1999, 2001; Stovba et al.
1996; Stephenson et al. 2001).
During the Early Cretaceous, the Dniepr Basin of
the Ukraine subsided only very slowly (Gerasimov et
al. 1962; Kaptarenko-Chernousova 1971; Ivannikov
et al. 1991). During the Cenomanian to Coniacian
subsidence rates increased (up to 280-m-thick
sediment), and accelerated further during the
ALBIAN
ft
init ri
Kark
se
po
pro
n al
nsio
exte zone
LV A
ift
dr
hypothetical volcanic arc,

local geophysical evidence
volcanic arc
Ulus rift
ne
zo Neo tethys Ocean
ion
uc
bd
su
pro
ppoos
seedd
rifrtif
t
transtensional
zone
LVA Lomonosov volcanic arc
CENOMANIAN
300 km
W. Black Sea Basin
E.B
lac
kS
ea
Ba s
in
West Bla
ck
Saros F Seaault
volcanic arc
Neo tethys Ocean
oceanic/transitional
crust
rifting/spreading axis
CONIACIAN
strike-s
lip fault
volcanic arc
Neo tethys Ocean
Figure 24. Kinematic model of Black Sea Basin opening (based

on Nikishin et al. 2003, 2005, 2008).
Santonian to Maastrichtian (up to 700-m-thick

sediments). The CampanianMaastrichtian (or
even Cenomanian to Maastrichtian) increased
subsidence rates can be related to the build-up of
regional compressional intraplate stresses (similar

to the Mid-Polish Trough: Dadlez et al. 1995). In
the Dniepr Basin, an erosional event occurred
at the Maastrichtian/Paleocene boundary. Late
Maastrichtian to early Danian deposits are missing
and late Danian(?)Thanetian marine to continental
deposits rest unconformably on Maastrichtian
sediments (Moroz 1970; Ivannikov et al. 1991).
The Donbass, which underwent several inversion
events during Permian and latest Triassic to earliest
Jurassic times (Milanovsky 1996; Nikishin et al.
1996, 2001), was a relatively uplifted area during the
Early Cretaceous (Gerasimov et al. 1962). During the
Cenomanian to Coniacian, the Donbass formed part
of a large, shallow-water to continental sedimentary
basin with minor evidence of local Cenomanian
uplifting. During the Santonian slow uplift of the
Donbass commenced as evidenced by the occurrence
of clastics sediments in the basin flanking its
southern margin. An important change occurred
during the Campanian, as indicated by large-scale
clastic supply from by the uplifted Donbass to the
carbonate platforms flanking it to the north and
south (Naidin 1960; Gerasimov et al. 1962; Blank
& Gorbenko 1968; Savchinskaya 1982; Ivannikov et
al. 1991). This clastic supply peaked during the late
CampanianMaastrichtian. Main inversion of the
Donbass, involving folding and thrusting along its
northern margin, began at the Santonian/Campanian
boundary and culminated at the Cretaceous/
Paleocene transition. Uppermost Maastrichtian
deposits are missing along the northern margin of
the Donbass (Blank & Gorbenko 1968; Ivannikov
et al. 1991; Milanovsky 1996; Stovba et al. 1996;
Stephenson et al. 2001). On the Rostov High, that is
located southward adjacent to the Donbass fold zone
and forms part of it, lower Eocene marine sediments
rest unconformably on gently folded Cretaceous
strata as young as Maastrichtian (Ulanovskaya 1988).
To the south of the Donbass, the Konka-Yaly
Basin is located on the Ukrainian Shield and trends
nearly orthogonal to the Donbass (Figure 1). The
Molochnaya (or Melitopol) Basin lies directly to
the south of the Konka-Yaly Basin. Both basins are
characterized by a graben-like configuration and
are filled with Cretaceous sediments (Gerasimov et
al. 1962; Kaptarenko-Chernousova 1971; Chekunov
613
10
11
SI
BA
T
F
RI
TS
12
13
VS
Dn
B
nnia
Ukrai
MPT
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Vo
r
e lo
CAR
BAS PATHIAN
IN
Kam
a Hig
KL
OT
on
ez
iep
rB
asi
KC
hH
igh
SiSa
ia n
DMS casp
n
i
e
Pr Bas
Donbass
rus
sian High
Caa
ssppi
iaann
SSea
e
GR
EA
T CA
K
LAC
W. B BASIN
SEA
R
REMNANT AL
PINE
TETHYS
ary
d zh g h
Hi
MOSCOW
SS
go
Mu
E.
BL
AC
K
SE
AB
UCASUS
BASIN
ASIN
S.CASPIAN
BASIN
IAB
KB
MTB
REMNANT
NEOTETHYS OCEAN
ARABIA
Figure 25. Cretaceous/Palaeogene transition palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the European Platform (modified after Nikishin
et al. 1999, 2001). Legend: 1 active orogens, 2 remnant deep-water mainly flysch basins, 3 remnant deep-water backarc basins, 4 oceanic basins, 5 Paleocene sedimentary basins on continental crust, 6 Palaocene positive areas, 7
Paleocene subduction zones, 8 Late Cretaceous subduction zones, 9 thrust belts, 10 Senonian-Paleocene inversion axes,
11 anticlinal lithospheric folds, 12 synclinal lithospheric folds, 13 Late Cretaceous magmatic arc. Abbreviations: H
Hellinides; R Rhodope Block; KB Krehir Block; KC Kerensk-Chembar Swell; KL Klaypeda-Lokno Swell; OT OkaTsna Swell; SS Sukhona Swell; TS Timan Swell; VS Vyatka Swell; DMS Don-Medveditsa-Saratov Swell; AB zmirAnkara Basin; MPT Mid-Polish Trough; MTB Menderes-Tauras Block; SiSa Simbirsk-Saratov Basin.
et al. 1976; Ivannikov et al. 1991). The evolution of

these basins involved minor Albian (or Aptian
Albian subsidence of about 100 m) and Santonian
Maastrichtian rifting events (subsidence 200350
m), during which mainly Precambrian faults
were reactivated (Kaptarenko-Chernousova 1971;
Chekunov et al. 1976). Whereas the AptianAlbian
tensional event may be related to the opening of the
Black Sea Basin (Nikishin et al. 1998b, 2001, 2003),
the SantonianMaastrichtian extension was normal
to the Late Cretaceous compressional stress. Thus, the
Late Cretaceous Konka-Yaly-Molochnaya graben614
like basins can be considered as syn-compressional

impactogen or pull-apart structures.
For the Scythian Platform, reflection-seismic
profiles show that minor inversion features developed
at the Cretaceous/Paleocene boundary (Nikishin
et al. 1998a, b). In Crimea, minor unconformities
are evident at an intra-Santonian level, at the
Maastrichtian/Danian boundary, as well as at the
transition from the Danian to the Thanetian and
the Thanetian to the Ypresian, with the latter being
the most important one (Figure 17; Muratov 1969;
Mazarovich & Mileev 1989a, b; our field data).
PALEOCENE-EOCENE
TRANSITION
eroded land
Azov
Swell
flysch
Simferopol
High
marine clastics & carbonates undivided
Do
br
og
ea
ca
nd
e
od
er
la
W. Black Sea Basin

carbonates & turbidites
Moesia
flysch
st
hru
C. Pont
bel
stanbul
nates
flys
& turb
idites
ch
nt
Po
.
E
E.
E. Pontides
ivided
nds und
d highla
s, erode
st belt
rea, thru
a
orogenic
tsk
carbo
rbo E.
na Blac
An
kS
thtes
ru
dr
ea
st &
us
be tu
rbi Basin
ov
lt
dit
es
Srednogorie
Rhodopes
Sha
main collisional suture
ew
fn
no
o
i
t
tia
ini
Re
a
mn
nt
tem
sys
n
o
ti
uc
bd
su
t
ote
Ne
hy
ce
sO
an
300 km
Figure 26. Paleocene/Eocene transition palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by
Development of these unconformities is probably

related to pulsating compressional phases (Nikishin
et al. 1998a, b).
Eocene Rift Systems
Following Coniacian termination of the opening
phase of the Black Sea Basin, presumably in response
to the build-up of a regional compressional stress
field, the West Black Sea Basin remained tectonically
quiescent until its southern margin became
compressionally deformed during the late Eocene.
By contrast, the southern parts of the East Black Sea

Basin, which show evidence for latest Cretaceous
Paleocene compressional deformation (Nikishin et
al. 1999, 2002b, 2003), were affected by an Eocene
rifting cycle that terminated during the late Eocene
when its southern margin became compressionally
deformed and inversion of the Caucasus and AcharaTrialeti troughs commenced (Robinson et al. 1995;
Banks et al. 1997; Grr & Tysz 1997; Nikishin et
al. 2003, 2005) (Figures 27 & 28).
This rifting cycle is reflected by the middle
Eocene extensional collapse of the Eastern Pontides
615
Abbreviation:
Eocene
Vorkuta
EBS Eastern
Black Sea,
SO SevanOrdubad zone
West
Siberia
Basin
Perm
Oslo
St-Petersburg
Riga
Moscow
Minsk
Warsaw
Precaspian Basin
Dniep
Kiev
km 200 0
200 400 km
Basin
Volgograd
Donbass
High
Ca
rp
Ba athi
sin an
Scythian Platform
LEGEND
palaeoenvironments
and sediments
k
EBS
Blaac
W. S
e
continental sands and shales;
rialet
B
al
kanid
Achara-T
coals
SO
des
i
es
t
n
o
continental coastal and shallow
S. A
W. P
rme
nia
accretion
a
zon
Sakary
shallow marine, sands and shales;
ir
h
e
e
diatomites
r
K
Tauride
shallow marine, mainly shales;
s-Anato
lides
diatomites
Shalow
ARABIAN
CONTINENT
shalow marine,
shallow
marine, shales
shales and
and carbonates;
marles
marbles
volcanic and volcaniclastic sediments
eroded land:
cratonic, low relief
inactive foldbelts, low to
moderate relief; partly drowned
S. Caspian
Basin
Taly
s
Sana
remn
ant N
Sirja
eote
thys
tectonic symbols:
normal faults
arc-related volcanism
trough slopes
subduction
zones
active thrust fronts
oceanic floor
Figure 27. Eocene palaeotectonic map of Eastern Europe (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
616
ndaj-
MIDDLE EOCENE
eroded land
marine clastics & carbonates
shallow-marine carbonates
flysch
NB
Do
br
ea
tsk
y
c E
An arbon. aBlack S
dru
tes ea
& t Basi
so
urb n
v
idit
es
W. Black Sea Basin

Moesia
carbo
tes
rbidi
alet
Tri
ria-
E. Pontides
on
P
.E.
s
ide
& turbidit
es
Sevan Bas
rift basin &
volcanics
rift basin & volcanics

-ma
rine
and
to
is la cont
nds inen
und tal
ivid sedi
me
ed
nts
remnant Neotethys Ocean
llow
Srednogorie
eroded highland
Rhodopes
carbonates
C. Pontides
sha
NB
Adj
s & tu
nate
flysch
Sha
og
stanbul
300 km
NB nummulite bank
Figure 28. Eocene palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
during which a marine volcaniclastic sequence

was deposited (Okay & ahintrk 1997). Similarly,
the Late Cretaceous Transcaucasus subductionrelated magmatic belt and the southward adjacent
South Armenian Terrane were transected during
the Eocene by a system of new rifts, causing their
segmentation (Lordkipanidze 1980; Koronovsky et
al. 1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997). The most important of
these rifts are the Achara-Trialet, Sevan-Ordubad and
Talysh basins (Figure 27). During the Oligocene, the
Eocene rifts of the Transcaucasus area were inverted,
partly disrupted by strike-slip faults, and covered by
Oligocene to Neogene sediments and volcanics. This

renders it difficult to restore their original structure
and geometry.
The Achara-Trialet Basin of Georgia subsided
during Late CretaceousPaleocene times on top
of the AptianTuronian Transcaucasus magmatic
arc. By Paleocene times, it had evolved into a deepwater trough in which flysch-type sediments were
deposited. During the Eocene, this basin was affected
by a new subsidence phase that was accompanied
by large-scale basaltic, alkali-basaltic and andesitic
volcanism and the accumulation of volcaniclastic
617
flysch. Volcanic activity peaked during the middle

Eocene. Eocene series attain a thickness of 35
km (Lordkipanidze 1980; Milanovsky 1996). The
Eocene tensional setting of the Achara-Trialet
Basin is compatible with its intra-basinal volcanism
(Lordkipanidze 1980; Koronovsky et al. 1997) and
the rift-like symmetry of its margins (Salukvadze et
al. 1996). In all likelihood, the Achara-Trialet Basin
linked up to the west with the rifted East Black
Sea Basin (Lordkipanidze 1980; Banks et al. 1997).
During the late Eocene, rifting activity terminated
in the East Black Sea and the Achara-Trialet basins
with the onset of the collisional Caucasus Orogeny
(Monin & Zonenshain 1987; Dercourt et al. 1993,
2000; Milanovsky 1996; Nikishin et al. 1998a, b).
At the transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene
and during the Neogene the Achara-Trialet Basin
was compressionally deformed into a north-verging
thrust belt (Milanovsky 1996; Salukvadze et al. 1996;
Banks et al. 1997). This thrust belt links up to the
west with the external parts of the Eastern Pontides.
The Sevan-Ordubad Basin is located in ArmeniaAzerbaijan, southward adjacent to the ophiolitic
Late Cretaceous Sevan suture, and contains an up
to 23-km-thick sequence of Eocene flysch-type
sediments (Milanovsky 1996). The floor of this basin
is formed by Campanian to Paleocene shallow-water
carbonates. Eocene rapid subsidence of the SevanOrdubad Basin was accompanied by a basaltic,
andesitic and dacitic volcanism, peaking during the
middle Eocene. Moreover, Eocene and Oligocene
granites intruded this basin. At the transition
from the Eocene to the Oligocene, this basin was
inverted (Milanovsky 1996). The tensional origin of
the Sevan-Ordubad Basin is supported by its rapid
subsidence and volcanism (Koronovsky et al. 1997).
Palaeogeographically, it corresponded to a shallowto relatively deep-water trough that was bounded
by uplifted flanks, forming islands (Gabrielyan et al.
1996).
The Eocene Talysh Basin is located in Azerbaijan,
close to the Caspian Sea (Gasanov 1996; Milanovsky
1996; Koronovsky et al. 1997). Although it may
have formed the eastern prolongation of the SevanOrdubad Basin, it is generally assumed that it was
connected to the Achara-Trialet Basin (Milanovsky
1996). Gasanov (1996) showed that the Talysh Basin
618
is floored by SantonianMaastrichtian shallowwater carbonates and DanianPaleocene clastics

containing tuffs. These are overlain by up to 45-kmthick Eocene volcaniclastics, deposited in relatively
deep waters, testifying to the rapid subsidence of
the Talysh Basin. Middle Eocene series contain
olistostroms composed of Cretaceous and Eocene
rocks. Volcanics consist of basalts, andesites, trachybasalts and trachy-andesites; moreover, there is an
intrusive complex consisting of peridodites, gabbro,
gabbro-syenites and serpentinites (Ali-Zade et al.
1996; Gasanov 1996). The tensional Talysh Basin
was inverted at the end of the Eocene and during the
Neogene (Gasanov 1996; Milanovsky 1996).
These Eocene volcaniclastic basins form a belt
that extends from the Eastern Pontides via the
Transcaucasus to the Elborz. A common feature of
these rifted deeper-water basins is their rapid, mainly
middle Eocene subsidence that was accompanied by
a calc-alkaline, trending towards alkaline volcanism.
Development of these basins commenced shortly
after the end of the latest CretaceousPaleocene
orogenic pulse, presumably in response to crustal
extension in the back-arc domain of the Neotethys
subduction zone. Moreover, all of them were
inverted during Oligocene and Neogene phases
of the Caucasus orogeny (Koronovsky et al. 1997;
Okay & ahintrk 1997; Ylmaz et al. 1997; Saidi et
al. 1998; Nikishin et al. 2001, 2005). At the end of
the Paleocene, the Ankara-Erzincan-Sevan-Akera
suture apparently locked whereas activity along the
Neotethys subduction zone, located to the south of
the Menderes-Taurus and South Armenian terranes
and to the north of the Arabian craton, continued
(Dercourt et al. 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Stampfli
& Borel 2004). It is likely that post-collisional rollback
and/or detachment of the Pontides-Transcaucasus
subduction slab played a role in the evolution of
the Eocene rift systems in the Eastern Pontides,
Transcaucasus and Elborz area.
Onset of the Main-Alpine Orogeny
Starting in late Eocene times, the Pontides-Black
Sea-Caucasus-South Caspian area was affected
by increasingly intense compressional tectonics,
culminating in OligoceneNeogene times (see
Figure 10d, e). The Alpine history of this region was
very complex (see e.g., Nikishin et al. 1997, 2001,

2005; Ershov et al. 1999, 2003; Golonka 2000, 2004;
Dercourt et al. 2000; Stampfli et al. 2001a, b; Gee &
Stephenson 2006; Afanasenkov et al. 2007; Barrier &
Vrielynck 2008).
The present-day structural framework of eastern
Black Sea region is summarized in Figure 29 and
supported by regional geological cross-sections given
in Figures 30 and 31. The Cenozoic evolution of the
Western Caucasus and its foreland basins is illustrated
in Figure 32 by a stepwise retro-deformed regional
balanced cross-section. The Oligocene tectonic and
palaeogeographic framework of the Eastern Black
Sea area is presented in Figure 33.
Main Stages in the Evolution of the East-European
Platform
Below we recapitulate the main stages of the Late
Palaeozoic to Oligocene evolution of the EEP and
their relation to Tethys belt dynamics.
(1) During Carboniferous to Early Permian times,
the Cordillera-type Euxinus Orogen evolved
along the southern margin of the EEC in
response to progressive northward subduction
of the Palaeotethys Ocean and the accretion of
Gondwana-derived continental terranes. During
the Permian development of a new subduction
system along the southern Pontides margin
of these terranes compressional stresses were
excerted on to the EEC, giving rise to an important
pulse of intraplate deformations. Stresses related
to the collision of the Uralian orogen with the
EEC contributed to these deformations.
The Scythian Platform, which fringes the EEC
the south, consists of crustal elements that were
consolidated during the Euxinus Orogeny. Since
the Late Permian the Scythian Platform formed
together with the EEC the East-European
Platform (EEP).
(2) The Mesozoic to Palaeogene evolution of the
southern parts of the EEP, as summarized in
Figure 34, can be subdivided into five discrete
tectonic cycles, each of which commenced with
a phase of back-arc extension and terminated
with a pulse of back-arc compression. The
duration of the individual cycles was of the order
of 3050 My. During back-arc extension, rifted

basins developed along the southern margin of
the EEP whilst during back-arc compression
compressional stresses were exerted on it, albeit at
varying levels during the different tectonic cycles.
Conclusions
The EEP forms a natural laboratory for studying the
relationship between plate boundary and intraplate
processes, the cyclicity of tectonic activity and the
origin of intraplate stresses.
Subduction-related Plate Boundary Processes
During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times the evolution
of the southern margin of EEP was governed by five
subduction-related tectonic cycles. From Figure 34
it is evident that each of these cycles consists of the
following three stages: (a) an initial stage of backarc extension accompanied by a low level of arcrelated volcanic activity, (b) a middle stage of backarc compression during which arc-related volcanic
activity sharply increased, and (c) a final stage of
maximum back-arc compression during which
arc-related magmatism decrease and ultimately the
terminated. We suggest that this sequence of events is
controlled by changes in convergence rates and related
changes in the geometry of the subduction systems.
During the initial stage, decreasing convergence rates
result in steepening of the subduction slab, its roll
back and restriction of magmatic activity to a narrow
arc. During the middle stage, increasing convergence
rates are coupled with a decrease in the dip angle of
the slab, the onset of back-arc compression, increasing
subduction-related magmatism and development
of a broad volcanic arc. During the final stage of
maximum back-arc compression, convergence rates
apparently increases, the dip of the subducted slab
decreases again and magmatic activity decreases and
becomes restricted to a narrowing volcanic arc. The
duration of these subduction-related tectonic cycles
was in the range of 3050 My.
Intraplate Tectonics
On the EEP, Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
intraplate tectonics are expressed by such phenomena
619
Northern Shatsky,
system of U. Jurassic
carbonate buildups
Scythian Platform
Karkinit Graben
on
oc
lin
e
We
st-
ea
rim
C
S.
ro
ge
Ku
Kerch-Taman
Basin
So
rok
.
in B
An
West-Black Sea
Basin
Gr
as
in
tC
au
Tu
a
ps
eB
32 assin
ca
su
sO
Mo
rog
30
dr
us
Sha
ov
Hi
Si
no
Ea
gh
Ar
kh
C. Pontide Orogen
an
ra
be
tsky
Rid
ge
stBl
Ba ack S
sin ea
ge
en
no
clin
Southern Shatsky,
U. Jurassic
evaporites, clastics,
basalts
Def
31
orm
C. Shatsky
Gudauta
Oc
ed S
hats
ha
mc
ky m
hir
arg
in
S. Shatsky
lsk
y
Eocene rift
Hi
gh
in
as
lex
nal comp
Accretio
nB
ea
N. Shatsky
Central Shatsky,
U. Jurassic
carbonate platform
ba
ur
ia
Cretaceous volcanic arc

Metamorphic
massif
io
ph
lit
u
es
tur
Figure 29. Tectonic scheme of eastern Black Sea region and location of geological cross-sections (numbers in circles) demonstrated
in Figures 3032.
as rifting, extrusion of plateau basalts, inversion of

pre-existing tensional basins, gentle lithospheric
folding, and regional uplift and subsidence.
thought to related to a super-regional tension event

marking the onset of the Pangea break-up (Ziegler et
al. 2001; Nikishin et al. 2002).
On the EEP, Mesozoic rifting activity was

largely restricted to the Scythian Platform where
it was related to back-arc extension. Only the Late
Cretaceous Konka-Yaly Basin to the south of the
Donbass developed during a pulse of back-arc
compression and collision. Triassic rifting affected
only the marginal areas of the EEP, such as the Polish
Trough, Dobrogea, the Scythian Platform and the
Pechora Basin. However, Triassic rifting played a
major role in Western Siberia, Western Europe and
the Arctic-North Atlantic domain (Figure 5) and is
On the EEP, extrusion of flood basalts occurred

only at the Permo/Triassic transition in the Pechora
Basin close to Pay-Khoy where it is related to
the impingement of the Tunguska mantle plume
(Nikishin et al. 2002).
620
During Permian to recent times, multiple phases

of compression-induced basin inversion are evident
on the EEP (Nikishin et al. 1996, 1997, 1999,
2001; Fokin et al. 2001). Resulting structures are
asymmetric anticlines and thrust-related flexures,
which are superimposed on pre-existing rifted
Eastern Black
Sea Basin
8000
msec
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
10 km
Maikop
megasequence of
regional subsidence
water
K2
highly rifted continental crust
Pal-Eo
Pli
Maikop - Oli-Mio1
Cal
-J3
Shatsky Ridge WBS-02-14
Mio2-3
Eastern Black
Sea Basin
K1
Maikop
K2-Pg2
Tuapse Trough
Caucasian thrust
continental crust
Tuapse Trough
water
Shatsky Ridge
sec 8
Figure 30. Geolocical interpretation of seismic line across the Eastern Black Sea Basin (for location see Figure 29; modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
20 km
Cal-J3
continental crust
K1
Andrusov Ridge
621
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
Time
1000
Sar-1-2
Sar3-Pont
J3
reef
Deep-water basin with

isolated carbonate buildups
May
Tar
Pli1
Pli2
rapid
subsidence
Platform
margin
Tar
K-Pal
Maykop-Mio1
Eo
Po
nt
May
South-Adler carbonate platform
J3
hok
Gadauta High
SE
Figure 31. Geolocical interpretation of seismic line along Shatsky Ridge (for location see Figure 29; modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al. 2007).
NW
Chok-Kon
Ochamchira-4
Pg
J3
Eo
Pal
May
Ng1
Ng2
680
250
4350
4500
3240
1780
1900
2200
1350
meters
622
Ochamchira
High
section compiled
using parallel
seismic lines
Pre-folding width (during Eocene)

Recent width of foldzone
recent section
EastGreat Caucasus
Black Sea
Shatsky Ridge Tuapse Trough
Basin
sea-level
K2
Oli-Mio1
2
10
km
West-Kuban Basin
K1
PliQuaternary
Mio2+3
Pg1+2
J3
g1+
Oli-Mio1
pre-Callovian complexes
undivided
undivided
End-Maikopian restoration
(Early Miocene)
Maikopian covered Great Caucasus(?)
Oli-Mio1
Pg1+2
K2
Oli-Mio1
K1
J3
10
km
Mid-Eocene restoration
(before orogeny start)
Great Caucasus rift basin

Basin width ~ 80 km
0
5
10
km
water depth 1,5 km

Pg1+2
K2
K1
J3
undivided
Figure 32. Balanced restoration of Western Caucasus history, for sedimentary basins based on interpretation of seismic data and on
field data for Caucasus foldbelt (modified after Nikishin et al. 2010).
basins. The main phases of intraplate compressional

deformation coincided with the main orogenic events
that affected the margins of the EEP during the Early
Permian (Sakmarian to Artinskian), Late Triassic to
Hettangian, Santonian to Paleocene and Oligocene
Neogene (Figure 34).
On the EEP, gentle lithospheric folds developed
during the Visean to Early Permian (Nikishin et
al. 1996, 2001; Fokin et al. 2001), Late Triassic to
Hettangian (Figures 7 & 8), Santonian to Paleocene
(Figure 25; Nikishin et al. 1999) and Oligocene to
Recent (Nikishin et al. 1997; Cloetingh et al. 1999).
The typical wavelength of such folds is about 500700
km and their amplitude is of the order of 100700
m. Similar to the main phases of inversion tectonics,

the main phases of lithospheric folding coincide with
main orogenic events affecting the margins of the
EEP.
Dynamic processes controlling regional uplift and
subsidence of the EEP are still poorly understood. For
example, during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, and
again during Oligocene to recent times, large parts of
the EEP were subjected to regional uplift. Although
both uplift periods coincide with eustatic low-stands
in sea level (Haq et al. 1988), they also coincide
with periods during which the EEP was subjected
to regional compression. This raises questions about
processes controlling the syn-compressional uplift of
623
OLIGOCENE
shelf basin,
mainly shales
Indol-K
uban B
shales
& turb
Tuaidpitses
eB
system
E.
asin
Bla
of islan
ck
An
dr
us
ov
Se
eroded highland
Great Caucasus
asin
ds
aB
Shatsky
deep-water basin,
a mainly shales
sin
sediment
supply system
Figure 33. Oligocene palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of eastern Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov
et al. 2007).
a large cratonic area (diameter up to 20002500 km)

by 100400 m. On the other hand, during late Albian
to Eocene times, an about 1000-km-wide belt on the
southern parts of the EEP subsided regionally. As this
belt paralleled the evolving Tethyan orogenic system,
its regional subsidence may be in some way related to
subduction dynamics.
Origin of a High-level Intraplate Stresses
The distribution of intraplate deformations, both of
a tensional and a compressional nature, indicate that
high-level intraplate stresses can apparently affect
specific regions but also entire cratons, and in some
cases several cratons at the same time. In the latter
case we speak of a super-regional stress event. The
origin of stresses controlling such super-regional
events is more problematic, whereas those controlling
regional events can be readily explained.
624
Development of regional tensional stresses, which

intermittently affected the southern margin of the
EEP during the Mesozoic, can be related to backarc extension. On the other hand, development
of regional intraplate compressional stresses,
which intermittently affected the EEP during Late
Palaeozoic to Cenozoic times can be variably related
to its collisional mechanical coupling with orogenic
wedges which evolved along its margins, to back-arc
compression or to the initiation of new subduction
zone (Ziegler et al. 1998, 2002).
Amongst the different pulses of intraplate
compression, the intra-Senonian deformation of the
EEP can be considered as being related to a superregional compressional stress event which affected
at around 84 Ma also Northern Africa, Arabia and
Western and Central Europe. This event coincided
with a global plate kinematic reorganization,
involving the onset of the counter clockwise
M. Y.
PERIOD
CAUCASUS
STAGE
SUBDUCTION
MAGMATISM
BACK-ARC
EXTENSION
BACK-ARC
COMPRESSION
& COLLISION
PONTIDES-BLACK
SEA
SUBDUCTION
MAGMATISM
BACK-ARC
EXTENSION
BACK-ARC
COMPRESSION
& COLLISION
BACK-ARC CYCLE
BACK-ARC STRESS CYCLES
QUAT.
BURDIGALIAN
CHATTANIAN
MAIN ALPINE
L
E
MESSINIAN
TORTONIAN
SERRAVALLIAN
LANGHIAN
MIOCENE
PLIOC.
L
E
PALEOC.
50
RUPELIAN
PRIABONIAN
BARTONIAN
LUTETIAN
YPRESIAN
THANETIAN
SELANDIAN
DANIAN
EOCENE
L
M
OLIG.
AQUITANIAN
TURONIAN
C R E TA C E O U S
CENOMANIAN
Intra-arc
rifting
ALBIAN
EARLY
100
BA
SANTONIAN
CONIACIAN
EARLY ALPINE
RC
-A
CAMPANIAN
CK
LATE
CY
CL
MAASTRICHTIAN
APTIAN
BARREMIAN
VALANGINIAN
MALM
BERRIASIAN
150
TITHONIAN
KIMMERIDGIAN
DOGGER
CALLOVIAN
BATHONIAN
BAJOCIAN
AALENIAN
TOARCIAN
LIASSIC
JURASSIC
OXFORDIAN
PLIENSBACHIAN
Intra-arc
rifting
SINEMURIAN
CL
E
RHAETIAN
C
-A
R
BA
CK
CARNIAN
TRIASSIC
CY
NORIAN
LADINIAN
ANISIAN
OLENEKIAN
INDUAN
EARLY CIMMERIAN
HETTANGIAN
200
250
MIDDLE
LATE
CIMMERIAN CIMMERIAN
HAUTERIVIAN
Figure 34. Subduction related back-arc stress cycles.
625
convergence of Africa-Arabia with Eurasia (Guiraud

& Bosworth 1997; Nikishin et al. 1999; Ziegler et al.
2001; Rosenbaum et al. 2002), and possibly with a
period of true Polar Wander (Sager & Koppers 2000).
This suggests that during a period of global plate
reorganization intraplate compressional stresses may
reach very high levels in more than one plate.
A super-regional tensional event occurred at the
Permian/Triassic transition (Nikishin et al. 2001,
2002), as evidenced by rifting that affected an area,
which extended from the North Atlantic domain to
the Verkhoyansk Range in Eastern Siberia, and from
the Barents Sea and Taymyr to Middle Asia. This
event coincided with the transition from maximum
Pangea amalgamation to the onset of its dispersion
(Nikishin et al. 2002), reflecting a global plate
reorganization. This suggests that during periods of
global plate reorganization also tensional intraplate
stress may reach very high levels.
Acknowledgements
Our compilation work was funded by the Russian
RFFI (08-05-00588, 11-05-00471) grants, supported
by the DARIUS project and sponsored by the Russian

oil company Rosneft. We thank A.S. Alekseev, O.A.
Almendinger, E.Yu. Baraboshkin, A.V. Ershov,
V.V. Gayduk, V.E. Khain, L.F. Kopaevich, N.V.
Koronovsky, M.V. Korotaev, V.A. Lavrischev, N.A.
Malyshev, E.E. Milanovsky, A.V. Mityukov, A.F.
Morozov, Sh.M. Murzin, N.K. Myasoedov, D.I.
Panov, K.O. Sobornov, M.L. Somin, S.N. Stovba,
P.L. Tikhomirov, Yu.A. Volozh, G. Zakariadze, S.
Cloetingh, W. Cavazza, J.-P. Cadet, E. Barrier, M.-F.
Brunet, A. Demirer, J. Dercourt, H. Eichenseer, R.
Guiraud, G. Georgiev, E. Henriksen, J. Lyle, J. Mosar,
A.I. Okay, H. Posamentier, A.H.F. Robertson, A.
Saintot, A. Seghedi, G.M. Stampfli, R. Stephenson,
T. Ustamer and M. Wannier for fruitful discussions
and joint field works. We thank geologists of the oil
companies Rosneft, Total, Shell, ExxonMobile, Statoil,
BP, Chevron, TPAO, Promulgation for important and
stimulating discussions and the exchanges of ideas.
The constructive and critical comments by
T. Ustamer and an anonymous reviewer to our
manuscript were greatly appreciated and helped us
finalizing our paper.
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Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences (Turkish J. Earth Sci.),A.M.

Karadeniz ve Gneydou Avrupann Ge PaleozoyikTersiyer Evrimi:

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

west and northwest by the Arctic-North Atlantic

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

Rheno-Hercynian Basin in the Varsican domain and

Westphalian whereas orogenic activity persisted in

Meso-Cenozoic volcanic belts

areas with oceanic

faults and faulted

major thrust zones

Abbreviations: Dz Dzirula massif; Kh Khrami

Meso-Cenozoic folded belts

European Late Palaeozoic

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

Precambrian continental lithosphere

Lithosphere of Precaspian region

Mesozoic oceanic lithosphere

and was overprinted by multiple orogenic pulses

continental molasse-type sediments (Carapelit

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

continental sands and shales

deeper marine clastics and shales

continental clastics, which contain Lower Permian

of these late phases of the Dobrogea orogeny are still

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

sedimentary sequence (Tari et al. 1997; Yanev

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

metamorphic sequence that is intruded by Palaeozoic

referred to as the Scythian Orogen, was intruded

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

bioherms (Muratov 1969; Mazarovich & Mileev

it is very similar to that of the Dzirula Terrane it may

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

sediments represent Moscovian and Gzhelian

area possible allochthonous continental terranes

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

of the Rheic oceanic basin and the docking of e.g.,

Kre-Svanetia Basin (Ustamer & Robertson 1994;

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

EAST -EUROPEAN CRATON

pinsky Bas SBuz

Hettangian Early Cimmerian Orogeny with main

defined basins of the Crimean-Azov region (Figures

South Buzachi Basin

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

EAST - EUROPEAN CRATON

East Pre-Caucasus Area

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

poorly known. Correspondingly, the Early Triassic

Following late Carnian partial inversion and

Similarly the Kuban Basin underwent significant

West Pre-Caucasus Crimea

In the Kuban Basin, some wells penetrated

GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE

Svanetia (Georgia), consists of a Devonian to Triassic

A.M. NIKISHIN ET AL.

Main tectonic structures of

oceanic or microoceanic basin

low relief uplifts

EAST - EUROPEAN CRATON

west-trending East Srednegorie Basin. This was