Descriptions of Past Research

Descriptions of Past Research
Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program

3002004151
Descriptions of Past Research

Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program
3002004151
Technical Update, June 2014
EPRI Project Manager

M. Caravaggio
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
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Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
This is an EPRI Technical Update report. A Technical Update report is intended as an informal report of
continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
1300 W.T. Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
Principal Investigator
M. Caravaggio
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Descriptions of Past Research: Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002004151.
iii
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
This document contains summaries of many past Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Boiler
and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program research and development (R&D) efforts.
Results and Findings
Although not all-inclusive, this document will assist utility personnel in quickly identifying
related EPRI R&D products on www.epri.com.
Challenges and Objectives
This document will assist plant personnel who are responsible for boiler and turbine
maintenance, operation, risk management, or troubleshooting in quickly locating the appropriate
EPRI reports on www.epri.com.
Applications, Value, and Use
This document is a useful reference resource for EPRI member organizations that are seeking
past reports on specific topics of interest. EPRI will update this document periodically to include
new research reports and software produced in the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle
Chemistry Program.
EPRI Perspective
The R&D projects completed by the EPRI Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Program provide a comprehensive integration of the knowledge and guidance of disciplines
within the program. This document is a catalogue of the topical reports that will provide
assistance in locating and identifying information in research areas of interest. With such a
reference, chemistry, engineering, managerial, and plant personnel can quickly locate reports of
interest, as well as related material and background research. Such availability greatly enhances
the transfer of research technology to EPRI members.
Approach
A compilation of well over 100 product summaries describing EPRI research performed over the
previous 30 years is contained in this document. The summaries are arranged in the following
categories:
Cycle chemistry
Copper
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC)
Turbine steam chemistry
Corrosion
Boiler corrosion
Deposition
Instrumentation
ChemExpert
Condensate polishing and filtration
Turbine corrosion
Stator cooling
v
Condenser
Value and cost
Reliability and productivity
Proceedings
Keywords
Cycle chemistry
Boilers
Turbines
Steam
Corrosion
Deposition
vi
ABSTRACT
A compilation of over 100 product summaries describing EPRI research performed over the
previous 30 years is contained in this document. The summaries are arranged in the categories of
cycle chemistry, copper, flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC), turbine steam chemistry, corrosion,
boiler corrosion, deposition, instrumentation, ChemExpert, condensate polishing and filtration,
turbine corrosion, stator cooling, condenser, value and cost, reliability and productivity, and
proceedings.
Each product summary contains an abstract; a description of the reports objective, approach,
and results; optionally, the reports application, value, and use; an EPRI perspective; and
keywords. This document is a useful reference resource for EPRI member organizations who are
seeking past reports on specific topics of interest. EPRI will update this document periodically to
include new research reports and software.
vii
CONTENTS BY SUBJECT
1 CYCLE CHEMISTRY GUIDELINES .....................................................................................1-1
2 DAMAGE: THEORY AND PRACTICE .................................................................................2-1
3 COPPER...............................................................................................................................3-1
4 FLOW-ACCELERATED CORROSION (FAC) ......................................................................4-1
5 STEAM CHEMISTRY ...........................................................................................................5-1
6 CORROSION ........................................................................................................................6-1
7 BOILER CORROSION .........................................................................................................7-1
8 DEPOSITION ........................................................................................................................8-1
9 INSTRUMENTATION ...........................................................................................................9-1
10 CHEM EXPERT ................................................................................................................10-1
11 CONDENSATE POLISHING AND FILTRATION ..............................................................11-1
12 TURBINE CORROSION ...................................................................................................12-1
13 STATOR COOLING..........................................................................................................13-1
14 CONDENSER ...................................................................................................................14-1
15 VALUE AND COST ..........................................................................................................15-1
16 RELIABILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY ................................................................................16-1
17 PROCEEDINGS ...............................................................................................................17-1
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 CYCLE CHEMISTRY GUIDELINES .....................................................................................1-1
Boiler Chemical Cleaning Waste Management Manual ................................................1-2
Influence of Cycling and Low-Load Operation on Cycle Chemistry Control and
Requirements ...............................................................................................................1-4
Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline: Revision 2 ...............................................1-6
Open Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline ....................................................................1-8
Primer on Flexible Operations in Fossil Plants............................................................1-10
Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle/Heat Recovery
Steam Generators (HRSGs) .......................................................................................1-11
Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants ....................................1-13
Compilation of EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines ....................................1-15
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment........................1-17
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment........................1-19
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic
Treatment ...................................................................................................................1-21
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment: Revision 1 .................1-23
Selection and Optimization of Boiler Water and Feedwater Treatments for Fossil
Plants .........................................................................................................................1-25
Assessment of Amines for Fossil Plant Applications ...................................................1-27
Interim GuidanceAmine Treatments in Fossil Power Plants ....................................1-29
Thermal Degradation of Amines in Supercritical Water ...............................................1-31
Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for
Operators and Chemists .............................................................................................1-33
Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for
Operators and Chemists .............................................................................................1-35
Shutdown Protection of Steam Turbines Using Dehumidified Air ................................1-37
Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program .....1-39
Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program .....................................................................1-41
Cycle Chemistry Corrosion and Deposition: Correction, Prevention, and Control .......1-43
Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment ................1-45
Interim Guidance on Chemical Cleaning of Supercritical Units ...................................1-47
Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment ....................................................................1-49
Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment ......................................................1-51
Guidelines for Turbine Deposit Collection and Analysis ..............................................1-53
xi
2 DAMAGE: THEORY AND PRACTICE .................................................................................2-1

Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice ......................................................2-2
Plant Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice Volume 1: Turbine
Fundamentals Volume 2: Damage Mechanisms ...........................................................2-4
Field Guide: Turbine Steam Path Damage ...................................................................2-6
Revision of EPRI's Boiler Tube Failure Books ..............................................................2-8
Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures Volume 1:
Fundamentals Volume 2: Water-Touched Tubes Volume 3: Steam-Touched Tubes ..2-10
Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure .................................................................................2-12
Field Guide: Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure .......................................2-14
Feedwater Heater Tube Failure Manual .....................................................................2-16
Condenser Tube Failures: Theory and Practice..........................................................2-18
3 COPPER...............................................................................................................................3-1
Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants ..........................................................................3-2
State-of-Knowledge of Copper in Fossil Plant Cycles ...................................................3-4
Influence of Water Chemistry on Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater......3-6
Influence of Water Chemistry on Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater......3-8
Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater .......................................................3-10
Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater: Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass,
and 90/10 Copper/Nickel at 95 C (203 F).................................................................3-12
Corrosion of Cu-Ni-Zn Alloys in Water-Ammonia Power Plant: Development of
High Temperature Potential-pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams .................................................3-14
Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam Cycles: The Final Report on the
Solubility and Volatility of Copper (I) and Copper (II) Oxides ......................................3-16
Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam Cycles: The Solubility and Volatility of
Copper (I) and Copper (II) Oxides ..............................................................................3-18
Cupric Oxide...............................................................................................................3-20
4 FLOW-ACCELERATED CORROSION (FAC) ......................................................................4-1
Guidelines for Controlling Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Fossil and Combined
Cycle Plants .................................................................................................................4-2
Flow-Associated Corrosion in Power Plants .................................................................4-4
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) Fossil and Combined Cycle Self-Assessment
Guideline ......................................................................................................................4-6
Investigation of Critical Parameters in Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under TwoPhase Flow Conditions .................................................................................................4-8
Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase Flow Conditions .......4-10
Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase Flow Conditions .......4-12
Development of an In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated
Corrosion in Fossil Plant Feedwater ...........................................................................4-14
Development of In-Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated
xii
Development of In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated

Fossil FAC Advisor (FFA) Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Version 1.0............................4-20
CHECUPweb 1.1 - CHECUPweb, Version 1.1 ...........................................................4-21
FAC Wear Rate Assessment Through Insulation ........................................................4-22
New and Emerging Inspection Technologies for Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in
Fossil Power Plants ....................................................................................................4-23
5 STEAM CHEMISTRY ...........................................................................................................5-1
Vapor-Liquid Partitioning of Phosphoric Acid and Sodium Phosphates.........................5-2
The Volatility of Impurities in Water/Steam Cycles ........................................................5-4
Volatility of Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide, Bisulfate and Sulfate .....................................5-6
Volatility of Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide, Bisulfate and Sulfate .....................................5-8
Volatility of Aqueous Acetic Acid, Formic Acid, and Sodium Acetate ..........................5-10
Computer Code for Prediction of Corrosion Fatigue: Life of Steam Turbine Blades
and Disks ...................................................................................................................5-12
Improved Efficiency and Availability of Steam Turbines from Electrostatic
Interactions Within the Steam Flowpath......................................................................5-14
Electrostatic Effects in Nucleating Flows of Steam .....................................................5-16
Investigation of Enhanced Heat Transfer Coefficient with an Electrostatic Grid ..........5-18
Electrostatic Charge and Its Influence on the Condensation of Steam in a Turbine ....5-20
Turbine Steam Chemistry and Corrosion: Electrochemistry in LP Turbines ................5-22
Turbine Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion Generation of Early Liquid Films in
Turbines .....................................................................................................................5-24
Investigation of Electrophysical Effects in the Turbine Exhaust upon Steam Flow
and Power Output ......................................................................................................5-26
6 CORROSION ........................................................................................................................6-1
Low-Temperature Corrosion Problems in Fossil Power Plants: State of Knowledge
Report ..........................................................................................................................6-2
Priorities for Corrosion Research and Development for the Electric Power Industry .....6-4
Characterization of Surface Film Growth During the Corrosion Process .......................6-6
Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Corrosion Product Transport at South Texas
Project Unit 1 ................................................................................................................6-8
Sodium Phosphate Hideout Mechanisms: Data and Models for the Solubility and
Redox Behavior of Iron (II) and Iron (III) Sodium-Phosphate Hideout Reaction
Products .....................................................................................................................6-10
Initiation of Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking in Type 304 Stainless Steel
and Alloy 600..............................................................................................................6-12
On-Line Corrosion Monitoring Using Electrochemical Frequency Modulation (EFM) ..6-14
Corrosion Fatigue Boiler Tube Failures in Waterwalls and Economizers
Volume 5: Application of Guidelines at Hazelwood Power Station ..............................6-16
Erosion-Corrosion of Metals and Alloys at High Temperatures ...................................6-18
7 BOILER CORROSION .........................................................................................................7-1
Heat Flux Electrochemical Studies of Underdeposit Boiler Tube Corrosion ..................7-2
xiii
Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 1: Roadmap for Addressing

Corrosion Fatigue of Boiler Waterwall Tubes ................................................................7-4
Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 2: Roadmap Case Study:
Evaluation of AEP's Big Sandy Unit 1 ...........................................................................7-6
Evaluation of Circumferential Cracking on Supercritical Boiler Waterwalls Volume 1:
Evaluation and Root Cause of Thermal Fatigue Cracking in Supercritical Boilers;
Volume 2: PP&L Brunner Island Power Station (Unit 3) Furnace Wall Scanner
1015314 .......................................................................................................................7-8
Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical Units ...............................7-10
Oxide Scale Growth Characteristics in Waterwalls of Supercritical Steam Boilers ......7-12
Evaluation of Solvent Processes for Chemical Cleaning of Supercritical Waterwalls
and Removal of Duplex Oxides Formed by High Temperature, In-situ Oxidation of
Ferritic Steels .............................................................................................................7-14
Program on Technology Innovation: Oxide Growth and Exfoliation on Alloys
Exposed to Steam ......................................................................................................7-16
Program on Technology Innovation: Development of a Conductivity/Corrosion Probe
for Use in Boiler Water at Temperatures Up to 360C ................................................7-18
Root Causes of Circumferential Cracking in Waterwalls of Supercritical Units:
State-of-Knowledge ....................................................................................................7-20
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques: AVT(R)
Contaminant Limits .....................................................................................................7-22
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques: AVT(O)
Contaminant Limits .....................................................................................................7-24
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques .....................7-26
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques .....................7-28
Assessment of Probes to Measure Waterwall Wastage at American Electric
Power's Gavin Unit 1 ..................................................................................................7-30
Status Review of Initiation of Environmentally Assisted Cracking and Short Crack
Growth........................................................................................................................7-31
Remaining Life Assessment of Austenitic Stainless Steel Superheater and
Reheater Tubes..........................................................................................................7-33
Interfacial Crack Propagation During Compressive Failure of Thin Protective Oxides
and the Fracture of Iron Oxide ScalesAppendix: EPRI/NPL Database on the
Mechanical Properties of Oxide Scales (MPOS).........................................................7-35
Volume 5: Application of Guidelines at Hazelwood Power Station ..............................7-37
Corrosion Fatigue Crack Initiation of Boiler Tubes: Effect of Phosphate in Boiler
Water..........................................................................................................................7-39
8 DEPOSITION ........................................................................................................................8-1
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants: Engineering
Sourcebook for Risk Mitigation .....................................................................................8-2
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants ....................................8-4
Product ID ....................................................................................................................8-4
xiv
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants: Progress on

Enhancement of a Deterministic Model and Development of Risk-Based
Assessment Part 2 ....................................................................................................8-6
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants ....................................8-8
Program on Technology Innovation: Influence of Bubble Dynamics on Surface
Deposition Under Sub-Cooled Boiling Conditions .......................................................8-10
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants ..................................8-12
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants ..................................8-14
Deposition on Drum Boiler Tube Surfaces ..................................................................8-16
Deposition on Drum Boiler Tube Surfaces ..................................................................8-18
Boiler Water Deposition Model Part 1: Feasibility Study ..........................................8-20
State-of-Knowledge on Deposition Part 2: Assessment of Deposition Activity in
Fossil Plant Units ........................................................................................................8-22
Deposition in Boilers: Review of Soviet and Russian Literature ..................................8-24
State-of-Knowledge on Deposition Part 1: Parameters Influencing Deposition in
Fossil Units .................................................................................................................8-26
9 INSTRUMENTATION ...........................................................................................................9-1
Enhanced Chloride Monitoring for Steam Condensate Samples...................................9-2
Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation Validation..................................................................9-3
Instrumentation Validation Manual: Supplemental Report.............................................9-5
Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation and ControlState-of-Knowledge
Assessment ..................................................................................................................9-7
Continuous Fossil Plant Corrosion Product Monitoring and Corrosion Control
Optimization .................................................................................................................9-9
Corrosion Product Transport Monitoring: Continuous On-Line Monitoring
Evaluations for Electric Power Generating Stations ....................................................9-12
On-Line Corrosion Monitoring Using Electrochemical Frequency Modulation (EFM) ..9-14
Optical pH Sensors for High Temperature Environments ...........................................9-16
Development of Steam-Phase Sensors III ..................................................................9-18
Development of Steam-Phase Sensors II ...................................................................9-20
Development of Steam Phase Sensors ......................................................................9-22
Program on Technology Innovation: Development of Steam Phase Sensors .............9-24
Reference Manual for On-Line Monitoring of Water Chemistry and Corrosion:
1998 Update ...............................................................................................................9-26
Development of a Steam Sampling System ................................................................9-28
Guideline Manual on Instrumentation and Control for Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry ...9-30
10 CHEM EXPERT ................................................................................................................10-1
EPRI ChemExpert: Cycle Chemistry Advisor Code, Version 3.1.................................10-2
User's Manual for EPRI ChemExpert Version 3.0: Cycle Chemistry Advisor for
Fossil Power Plants ....................................................................................................10-4
xv
11 CONDENSATE POLISHING AND FILTRATION ..............................................................11-1

Impact of Film-Forming Amines on Condensate Polishing Ion-Exchange Resins .......11-2
Condensate Polishing Guidelines for Fossil Plants .....................................................11-3
Condensate Polishing Guidelines ...............................................................................11-5
Condensate Polishing State of Knowledge Assessment .............................................11-7
Condensate Polishing Training Manual ......................................................................11-9
Condensate Polishing Guidelines: Ammonium Form Operation ...............................11-11
Guideline for Off-Site Regeneration of Condensate Polishing Resins .......................11-13
Condensate Polishing Performance Assessment: Use of Separate Bed Single
Vessel Designs.........................................................................................................11-15
On Demand Condensate Polishing: An Innovative Approach to Maintaining
Condensate Purity ....................................................................................................11-17
Development of a Radial Flow Condensate Polisher Pilot Scale Test Vessel
Design Specification .................................................................................................11-19
Radial Flow Condensate Polishing: Radial Ion Exchange Physical Model
Experiments .............................................................................................................11-21
Radial Flow Condensate Polishing: Radial Ion Exchange Simulation Studies ..........11-23
Field Demonstration of the EPRI Resin Tester: Prototype Development and Initial
Field Usage ..............................................................................................................11-25
EPRI Resin Tester: A Simple Tool for Monitoring Resin Kinetics ..............................11-27
Deoxygenation in Cycling Fossil Plants ....................................................................11-29
Condensate Filtration Technologies for Electric Power Generating Stations .............11-31
Program on Technology Innovation: Assessment of Advanced Feedwater Filtration
for Electric Power Generating Stations .....................................................................11-33
12 TURBINE CORROSION ...................................................................................................12-1
Inhibition of Pitting and Crevice Corrosion by Filming Amines and Vapor Phase
Corrosion Inhibitors ....................................................................................................12-2
Inhibition of Pitting and Crevice Corrosion in Turbine Steels.......................................12-4
Development of Steam Phase Sensors ......................................................................12-5
Development of Model to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion Fatigue
of Low Pressure Turbine Components........................................................................12-7
Development of Code to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion Fatigue
of Low Pressure Turbine Components Electrochemical and Corrosion Properties of
Turbine Steels ............................................................................................................12-9
of Low-Pressure Turbine Components .....................................................................12-11
of Low Pressure Turbine Components......................................................................12-13
Steam Turbine Efficiency and Corrosion: Effects of Surface Finish, Deposits, and
Moisture ...................................................................................................................12-15
Corrosion of Low Pressure Steam Turbine Components ..........................................12-17
xvi
13 STATOR COOLING..........................................................................................................13-1
Prevention of Flow Restrictions in Generator Stator Water Cooling Circuits ...............13-2
Generator Cooling System Operating Guidelines: Cooling System Maintenance and
Performance Guidelines During Start-Up, Operation, and Shutdown ..........................13-5
Conversion to Deaerated Stator Cooling Water in Generators Previously Cooled
with Aerated Water: Interim Guidelines.......................................................................13-7
Preventing Leakage in Water-Cooled Stator Windings (Phase 2) ...............................13-9
14 CONDENSER ...................................................................................................................14-1
Interim Guidelines for Control of Steamside Corrosion in Air-Cooled Condensers of
Fossil Units .................................................................................................................14-2
Update Report on Condenser Air In-Leakage Monitoring ...........................................14-4
Air In-Leakage and Intrusion Prevention Guidelines ...................................................14-6
Condenser Tube Failures: Theory and Practice..........................................................14-8
Control of Biofouling Using Natural Furanones to Eliminate Biofilms ........................14-10
15 VALUE AND COST ..........................................................................................................15-1
Cycle Chemistry Upsets During Operation: Cost and Benefit Considerations .............15-2
Real-Time Cycle Chemistry Excursions: An Approach to Valuation and Decision
Guidance ....................................................................................................................15-4
Valuing Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Power Plants .........................................................15-6
Justifying Cycle Chemistry Upgrades to Improve Availability, Performance and
Profitability ..................................................................................................................15-8
16 RELIABILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY ................................................................................16-1
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants, 2007 .................................16-2
Guidelines for New High Reliability Fossil Plants ........................................................16-4
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants, 2006 .................................16-6
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants 2005: One Hundred
Case Studies ..............................................................................................................16-8
Repairs of Deaerators ..............................................................................................16-10
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants Industry Case Studies .....16-11
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants: Third Edition ..16-13
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants: Second
Edition: Chapters 16 ...............................................................................................16-15
Damage to Power Plants Due to Cycling ..................................................................16-17
Impact of Operating Factors on Boiler Availability .....................................................16-19
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants ........................16-21
Retrofits for Improved Heat Rate and Availability: Circulating Water Heat
Recovery Retrofits ....................................................................................................16-23
xvii
17 PROCEEDINGS ...............................................................................................................17-1
Cycle Chemistry Conferences ..........................................................................................17-2
Ninth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil and Combined Cycle
Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators ............................................................17-2
Proceedings: Eighth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil and
Combined Cycle Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators - June 2022, 2006,
Calgary, Alberta Canada ............................................................................................17-4
Proceedings: 7th International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants.........17-6
Proceedings: Sixth International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry ...........17-8
Proceedings: Fifth International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry ..........17-10
Proceedings: Second Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Conference ..............................17-12
Boiler & HRSG Tube Failure Conferences .....................................................................17-14
Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures
and Inspections November 25, 2004 ......................................................................17-14
Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures and Heat
Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Tube Failures and Inspections ........................17-16
Failures and Inspections of Fossil-Fired Boiler Tubes: 1983 Conference and
Workshop .................................................................................................................17-18
Turbine Steam Chemistry & Corrosion Conferences ......................................................17-20
Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water, Steam, and
Materials During Evaporation, Superheating and Condensation; June 2225,
1999, Frieburg, Germany..........................................................................................17-20
Proceedings: Workshop on Corrosion of Steam Turbine Blading and Disks in the
Phase Transition Zone .............................................................................................17-22
Condenser Conferences ................................................................................................17-24
Condenser Technology Conference .........................................................................17-24
Condensate Polishing Conferences ...............................................................................17-26
Proceedings: 2003 EPRI Workshop on Condensate Polishing .................................17-26
Interactions of Materials, Water, and Steam (Including Organics) Conferences .............17-28
Proceedings: Second International Conference on the Interaction of Organics and
Organic Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam and Materials ....................17-28
Proceedings: International Conference on the Interaction of Organics and Organic
Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam, and Materials .................................17-30
Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water, Steam and
Materials During Evaporation, Superheating and Condensation: June 22-25, 1999,
Frieburg, Germany ...................................................................................................17-32
The Interaction of Non Iron-Based Materials with Water and Steam .........................17-34
xviii
1
CYCLE CHEMISTRY GUIDELINES
1-1
Boiler Chemical Cleaning Waste Management Manual

Product ID
3002000433
Date Published
December 2013
Details
Technical Report Available Online
Abstract
Chemical cleaning to remove tube deposits/oxides that occur during unit operation or scale
during unit commissioning from conventional fossil plants and combined cycle plants with heat
recovery steam generators (HRSGs) will result in the generation of a waste solution. The waste
contains residual solvent and elevated levels of heavy metals (primarily iron and copper) in
addition to rinse and passivation solutions. An earlier manual,Boiler Chemical Cleaning Wastes
Management Manual (EPRI Report TR-101095) provided guidance on managing chemical
cleaning wastes; however, there have been significant changes in environmental regulations
pertaining to disposal of chemical cleaning wastes. In addition, the types of oxide for
supercritical units have changed with the longer intervals between chemical cleanings, there is
more use of organic-based solvents, inhibitor formulations are different, and operation of HRSGs
is more prevalent.
The manual provides a review of the various solvents that may be used to perform chemical
cleanings and characterization of the waste solutions (solvent, rinse, and passivation). The
regulations promulgated by the EPA. Various treatment and disposal options are discussed
including those that have been successfully used for cleaning wastes and others that may provide
alternatives if existing techniques are no longer viable based on changes to environmental
regulations. The manual presents a set of roadmaps to assist plant personnel in the planning
process to evaluate and select the method for disposal of waste solutions generated during the
chemical cleaning process. The results of the utility survey are presented in the Appendix.
The manual was developed to assist power plant personnel in evaluating the options to properly
manage and dispose of wastes associated with chemical cleaning of boilers and HRSGs.
Chemical cleaning of plant equipment is a costly and time-consuming process, most often
performed at the end of unit outages, which may delay the return of the unit to service. In many
cases, chemical cleanings are postponed, and the when ultimately performed, the waste volume
may be greater due to the need for increased solvent use or the multiple solvent stages.
Furthermore, higher chromium content could result in the waste solution being characterized as
hazardous waste. Recent changes to environmental regulations may limit the ability to dispose of
the cleaning waste through thermal treatment or comingling with coal ash ponds. Future
revisions to federal, state, or local environmental regulations may further influence the options
available to handle and dispose of chemical cleaning waste solutions.
1-2

Information in this manual can be used to determine the anticipated waste solution for various
chemical cleaning solvents and techniques for proper handling and disposal. The detailed
environmental regulations pertaining to air, water, and coal ash combustion by-products will
allow plant staff to determine appropriate disposal options and to use roadmaps to assist in the
planning process for a chemical cleaning. Various alternative handling options are presented that
could be evaluated for waste minimization, treatment, beneficial reuse/recycling, and disposal.
Approach
The Electric Power Research Institute held an interest group meeting to discuss chemical
cleaning techniques, environmental regulations, and concerns associated with the process,
handling, and disposal of chemical cleaning wastes. After the meeting, a survey questionnaire
was developed and submitted to program members and nonmember utilities to ascertain
information on cleaning solvents, waste characterization, and disposal techniques and to identify
outstanding environmental issues. The previous manual, information from the survey, and the
interest group meeting were used to formulate the basis for the waste management manual.
Members of the boiler chemical waste management interest team and the Boiler and Turbine
Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program reviewed the draft sections and appendices to provide
feedback.
Program
2013 Program 64 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Keywords
Boiler chemical cleaning waste
Chemical cleaning
Cleaning solvent
Cleaning waste management
Environmental regulations
1-3
Influence of Cycling and Low-Load Operation on Cycle Chemistry Control and

Requirements
Product Number
3002001055
Date Published
December 2013
Details
Abstract
The purity of water and steam is central to ensuring component availability and reliability of
electric steam generating equipment. The objective and focus of cycle chemistry is to prevent or
control and reduce corrosion and the accumulation of deposits in the steam/water circuit of
power plants. Current trends in electricity demand have resulted in changing load dispatch for
coal- and gas-fired assets worldwide and in an increasing need to provide greater flexibility in
the operating patterns of these units in a reliable manner without jeopardizing the integrity of the
units systems and components. This new mode of operation for the aging fossil fleets presents a
multitude of problems including the management of changes of the cycle chemistry demands.
This report examines the influence that the modes of flexible operation have on the ability to
effectively control the cycle chemistry and provide protection against corrosion and deposition in
the steam/water cycle. The findings of this report provide a deeper understanding of the expected
changes of the chemistry requirements and assist operators in avoiding the major damage and
failure mechanisms that often accompany non-base-loaded operation.
The chemistry-related influences of the major systems conventional recirculating drum-type
boilers and combined-cycle heat recovery steam generator evaporators individually exhibit
unique reactions to changes in the operating regimes. Assessment of resulting thermodynamic
and physiochemical changes of operating fluid (water/steam) using technologically and
scientifically based information provides a clear representation of expected conditions.
Changes in pressure, temperature, and water/steam flow alter the efficiency and effectiveness of
major systems components. Condenser and deaerator air-removal capability declines with lower
heat loads and results in higher levels of condensate/feedwater dissolved oxygen. Feedwater
components operate at lower temperatures, which alter the location of corrosion mechanisms,
particularly flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in both the hydraulic sections and steam-touched
portions of feedwater heater systems. Boiler and evaporator pressure changes impact the pH
conditioning of ammonia and phosphate treatments, exacerbating corrosion and deposition
during low-load and shutdown conditions.
The more frequent and longer duration (both as single events and cumulative events) of unit
shutdowns and layups increases the risk of off-line damage and increases the requirement for
judicious layup practices. Proper methods to address layup of standby equipment as well as
addressing transient conditions of variable operation are included in these findings.
1-4
Program
Keywords
Corrosion mechanisms
Cycle chemistry
Flexible operation
Steam/water cycle
1-5
Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline: Revision 2

Product Number
3002000590
Date Published
December 2013
Details
Abstract
This Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline addresses the use of chemicals and monitoring
methods to mitigate corrosion, fouling, and microbiological growth in the closed cooling-water
(CCW) systems of nuclear and fossil-fueled power plants. The chemical additives used for these
purposes depend on plant-design characteristics, water quality, operating parameters, and the
specifications of the Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS) suppliers. The list of chemicals is not
as extensive as that for open cooling-water systems, but it can be confusing to utility CCW
system engineers and chemists. Both generic chemicals and proprietary blends are used in CCW
systems. Acquiring chemicals with sufficiently low levels of contaminants (for example, halides
and metals) to meet NSSS suppliers original specifications is an issue in some nuclear plants.
This concern relates particularly to many of the microbiological control agents. The use of
chemicals in CCW systems may not resolve problems originating from poor design or
operating/maintenance practices that result in excessive system leaks. Excessive leakage makes
consistent chemical control very difficult, and it offsets the ability of the chemicals to provide
adequate protection.
Background
This second revision of the Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline has been endorsed by the
utility chemistry community and represents another step in developing a more proactive
chemistry program to limit or control closed cooling system degradation with increased
consideration of corporate resources and plant-specific design and operating concerns. Each
utility should examine its plant-specific situation to determine which recommendations should be
implemented. These guidelines were developed using laboratory data, operating experience, and
input from organizations and utilities within and outside of the United States of America. It is the
intent of the Revision Committee that these guidelines are applicable to all nuclear and fossilfueled generating stations around the world.
Objectives
This second revision of the Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline is intended to provide
recommendations for chemistry control of closed cooling systems of all manufactures and
designs.
1-6
Approach
A committee of industry expertsincluding utility specialists, Institute of Nuclear Power
Operations representatives, water-treatment service-company representatives, consultants, a
primary contractor, and EPRI staffcollaborated in reviewing available data on closed coolingwater system corrosion and microbiological issues. From these data, the committee generated
water-chemistry guidelines that should be used at all nuclear and fossil-fueled plants.
Recognizing that each plant owner has a unique set of design, operating, and corporate concerns,
the Guidelines Committee developed a methodology for plant-specific optimization.
Results
The guideline provides the technical basis for a reasonable but conservative set of chemical
treatment and monitoring programs. The use of operating ranges for the various treatment
chemicals discussed in this guideline will allow a power plant to limit corrosion, fouling, and
microbiological growth in CCW systems to acceptable levels. The recommended frequencies of
analysis for Control and Diagnostic Parameters document satisfactory chemical control of the
systems.
This guideline will be of value to power plant chemical personnel, engineering personnel with
closed cooling system responsibility, maintenance personnel, and management personnel. It will
assist station management in endorsing a chemistry program to optimize equipment life, reduce
chronic operating problems, and provide assistance with issues regarding regulatory
requirements and plant-life extension. Because of the wide range of operating conditions for
closed cooling-water systems and the differences in materials of construction and chemicaltreatment regimes, each station must develop its own site-specific chemistry program.
Newer Version Of
1007820-Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline, Revision 1: Revision 1 to TR-107396,
Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline
Program
2013 Program 41.09.03 Water Chemistry
Keywords
Chromates
Closed cooling systems
Corrosion
Hydrazine
Lithium hydroxide
Molybdates
Nitrites
Phosphate
1-7
Open Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline

Product Number
1025318
Date Published
September 2012
Details
Abstract
State-of-the-art chemistry programs help to ensure the continued operation of open cooling water
systems while mitigating corrosion and fouling mechanisms. This document, Open Cooling
Water Chemistry Guideline, prepared by a committee of industry experts, reflects field and
laboratory data on corrosion and fouling issues of open cooling systems.
Background
Service Water System Chemical Addition Guideline (Electric Power Research Institute [EPRI]
report TR-106229) was published in 1996. This guideline targeted service water systems in
nuclear power plants and provided guidance for the use of chemicals to treat macrobiological
growth, microbiological growth, corrosion, suspended solids fouling, and scaling within these
systems. A panel of industry experts made the determination that this guideline should be revised
and the scope broadened to include all open cooling systems, at both nuclear and fossil
generating stations.
Objective
To update the Service Water System Chemical Addition Guideline, published in 1996, and
ensure that the updated guideline addresses concerns related to all open cooling systems at
nuclear and fossil generating stations
EPRI Perspective
The Open Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline represents a significant step toward the use of
proactive chemistry programs to mitigate the damage and lost electrical generation that can result
from corrosion and fouling mechanisms common within open cooling systems. The Guideline
also represents the advantages of combined resources and experience of the nuclear and fossil
generating industries. This joint effort has produced a document that contains more robust and
comprehensive experiences; a fruitful demonstration of the benefits possible when all related
knowledge and experience can be combined. With a focus on the optimization of individual plant
open cooling chemistry programs, the Guideline will aid the plants in developing and optimizing
chemistry control to mitigate corrosion and fouling within these systems.
Newer Version Of
TR-106229-Service Water System Chemical Addition Guideline
1-8
Program
2012 Program 41.09.03 Water Chemistry
Keywords
Corrosion
Fouling
Microbiologically influenced corrosion
Open cooling water
Service water
Total suspended solids
1-9
Primer on Flexible Operations in Fossil Plants

Product Number
3002000045
Date Published
September 2013
Details
Abstract
This primer describes the significant changes that have occurred over the past decade in the duty
cycles of fossil power plants and the implications for plant equipment and costs. These changes
include the increasing shift in coal-fired and natural-gas-fired power plants from high-capacityfactor, baseloaded operation to various modes of flexible operation, including load-following and
low-load operation.
The primer reviews the different types of duty cycles, the stresses that the changes in plant
operation put on plant equipment, the potential damage to equipment due to cycling, other effects
of cycling, and the mitigation strategies that plant operators are putting into place.
Program
2013 Program 108 Operations Management & Technology
Keywords
Duty modes
Flexible operations
Heat rate reduction
Long-term damage
Outages
Reliability
1-10
Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle/Heat Recovery

Steam Generators (HRSGs)
Product Number
3002001381
Date Published
November 2013
Details
Abstract
The purity of water and steam is central to ensuring combined cycle/heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) plant component availability and reliability. These guidelines for combined
cycle/HRSG plants provide information on the application of all-volatile treatment (AVT),
oxygenated treatment (OT), phosphate treatment (PT), caustic treatment (CT), and amine
treatment. The guidelines will help operators reduce corrosion and deposition and thereby
achieve significant operation and maintenance cost reductions and greater unit availability.
Background
This is the third revision to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Comprehensive Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle/Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs). These
guidelines include or reference all relevant research results over the preceding 20-plus years that
have led to a comprehensive understanding of chemistry-related damage mechanisms in fossil
and combined cycle power plants. This report is the cornerstone of the EPRI HRSG Cycle
Chemistry Program.
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the comprehensive guidelines to include all pertinent
research results and areas for improvement from the previous revisions of the guidelines
including the EPRI Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guideline for Fossil Plants (1021767). This
was used as the basis for a meeting of the EPRI Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guideline for
Combined Cycle/HRSGs team. Following this meeting, a comprehensive needs assessment
document was drafted, and team members were assigned tasks to address the identified needs.
Subcommittees were struck to write and review chapters and appendices of the guidelines. A
series of conference calls and webcasts was used to consolidate feedback of the team into the
final draft of these guidelines.
Objectives
These guidelines have been developed to address the serious corrosion and deposition problems
that have been experienced in the steam/water cycle of combined cycle power plants. These
problems include chemistry-influenced heater tube failures, turbine corrosion, deposition, and
flow-accelerated corrosion. Compounding these problems is the wide variety in designs and
configurations in combined cycle plants, which can significantly affect the damage mechanisms.
1-11
Results
These guidelines include the following feedwater chemistry control practices for combined
cycle/HRSG fossil power plants:
Oxidizing AVT (AVT[O]), which applies only ammonia (or an amine of lower volatility than
ammonia), does not use a reducing agent, and allows a sufficient oxygen residual to ensure
an oxidizing condition
OT, which adds oxygen and ammonia to the feedwater
These guidelines include the following evaporator/drum water treatment chemistry control
practices for subcritical drum combined cycle/HRSG power plants:
AVT, which covers all feedwater treatments in which no chemical addition to the evaporator
drum is made during normal operation (that is, AVT[O] and OT)
CT, in which caustic NaOH is added to the evaporator/drum to provide solid alkali-based pH
PT, in which trisodium (Na3PO4) is added to the evaporator/drum to provide solid alkalibased pH; small additions of caustic NaOH are also used in this treatment
These guidelines also introduce the potential use of amine treatments, using both neutralizing
and filming amines, within the combined cycle/HRSG plant.
The chemistries in these guidelines can be applied to all combined cycle/HRSG plants to achieve
optimal reliability and performance of the plant. Guidance is provided for the following:
Selecting the most effective treatment for individual units based on the unit configuration and
level of contaminants in the cycle
Optimizing applied feedwater and evaporator/drum water treatments
Applying treatments and customizing the suite of instrumentation used for the applied
treatment depending on unit-specific factors
Identifying and taking corrective action for chemistry upset conditions, including identifying
the potential consequences of inaction
Program
2013 Program 88 Combined Cycle HRSG and Balance of Plant
Keywords
Combined cycle power plant
Corrosion
Cycle chemistry
Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
Power plant availability
Water and steam chemistry
1-12
Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants

Product Number
1021767
Date Published
December 2011
Details
Newer Version of
1004187-Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment: Revision 1
1004188-Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic
Treatment
1004925 & TR-102285Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment
Abstract
The purity of water and steam is central to ensuring fossil plant component availability and
reliability. These guidelines for drum and once-through units provide information on the
application of all-volatile treatment (AVT), oxygenated treatment (OT), phosphate treatment
(PT), and caustic treatment (CT). The guidelines will help operators reduce corrosion and
deposition and thereby achieve significant operation and maintenance cost reductions and greater
unit availability. This is the fourth revision to the EPRI Cycle Chemistry Guidelines. This
revision brings the guidance for the three feedwater and the three boiler drum water treatments
into one comprehensive document. These guidelines include or reference all relevant research
results over the preceding 30-plus years that have led to a comprehensive understanding of
chemistry-related damage mechanisms in fossil power plants. This report is the cornerstone of
the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program.
Objective
These guidelines have been developed to address the serious corrosion and deposition problems
that have been experienced in fossil power plants. These problems include chemistry-influenced
boiler tube failures, turbine corrosion, and deposition and flow-accelerated corrosion.
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the comprehensive guidelines to include all pertinent
research results and areas for improvement from the previous revisions of the guidelines. This
was used as the basis for a meeting of the EPRI Comprehensive Guidelines Team. Following this
meeting, a comprehensive needs assessment document was drafted, and team members were
assigned tasks to address the identified needs. Subcommittees were struck to write and review
chapters and appendices of the guidelines. A series of conference calls and webcasts was used to
consolidate feedback of the team into the final draft of these guidelines.
1-13
Results
These guidelines include the following feedwater chemistry control philosophies for subcritical,
supercritical, drum, and once-through fossil power plants:
Reducing AVT (AVT[R]) uses ammonia (or an amine of lower volatility than ammonia) and
a reducing agent (usually hydrazine or carbohydrazide).
Oxidizing AVT (AVT[O]), which applies only ammonia (or an amine of lower volatility than
ammonia), does not use a reducing agent and allows a sufficient oxygen residual to ensure an
oxidizing condition.
OT adds oxygen and ammonia to the feedwater. (An amine of lower volatility than ammonia
has very limited application.)
These guidelines include the following boiler drum water chemistry control philosophies for
subcritical drum fossil power plants:
AVT covers all feedwater treatments in which no chemical addition to the boiler drum is
made during normal operation (that is, AVT(R), AVT(O), and OT).
CT, in which caustic NaOH is added to the boiler drum to provide solid alkali-based pH.
PT, in which trisodium (Na3PO4) is added to the boiler drum to provide solid alkali-based
pH; small additions of caustic NaOH are also used in this treatment.
Application, Value, and Use

The chemistries in these guidelines can be applied to all conventional fossil power plants to
achieve optimal reliability and performance of the plant. Guidance is provided for the following:
Selecting the most effective treatment for individual units based on the unit metallurgy,
configuration, and level of contaminants in the cycle
Optimizing applied feedwater and boiler drum water treatments
Applying treatments and customizing the suite of instrumentation used for the applied
treatment depending on unit-specific factors
Identifying and responding to chemistry control upset conditions, including identifying

potential consequences of inaction
Program
2011 Program 064.0 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Keywords
Boilers
Corrosion
Turbines
1-14

Treatment
Water chemistry and steam
Compilation of EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines

Product Number
1014105
Date Published
December 2007
Details
Abstract
reliability. This compilation of the programs ten (10) key cycle chemistry guidelines and the
Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program provides
unique guidance to select and continually optimize feedwater and boiler water treatments. These
guidelines will help operators reduce corrosion and deposition and, thereby, achieve and
maintain significant operation and maintenance cost reductions and greater unit availability.
Objective
This suite of guidelines addresses the critical aspects of fossil plant cycle chemistry and
encompasses five (5) boiler chemistry treatments, three (3) feedwater treatments,
shutdown/startup/layup, condensate polishing, makeup, instrumentation and control, chemical
cleaning, copper, and FAC. These guidelines identify important factors involved in the local
assessment and decision process, define treatment operating parameters, provide cost-benefit
evaluation methodologies, and detail methods for customizing application of these guidelines to
specific units.
The Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program (CCIP) represents the culmination of benchmarking
processes and embodiment of research results. To fully use the benefits of CCIP and CCIP
workshops, the program's ten (10) key cycle chemistry guidelines are incorporated into this
complication. CCIP workshops held at member sites reinforce accurate understanding of the
guidelines for proper application and appropriate transfer of technology.
Approach
The program team identified the ten (10) key cycle chemistry guidelines essential to achieving
the benefits of program membership. These benefits included all the complementary guidance
needed to support all aspects of operations.
Results
The ten (10) key cycle chemistry guidelines represent the "Crown Jewels" of the Boiler and
Turbine Steam and Water Cycle Chemistry Program. The guidelines represent over two decades
of research and development to establish a complete approach to fossil plant chemistry that can
be employed in every fossil plant. This suite has three guidelines for the five fossil plant boiler
water treatments and three feedwater treatments: all-volatile treatment (1004187); phosphate
continuum and caustic treatment (1004188); and oxygenated treatment (1004925). Other
1-15
guidelines address controlling flow-accelerated corrosion, or FAC. (1008082); startup,

shutdown, and layup (TR-107754); chemical cleaning (1003994); condensate polishing
(1010181); makeup water treatment (TR-113692); instrumentation and control (1012209); and
copper in fossil plants (1000457). The Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle
Chemistry Improvement Program (1013098) provides tools for utilities to assess, benchmark,
optimize, and improve specific unit chemistry programs.
The EPRI benchmarking process for cycle chemistry clearly shows the enormous benefit of
operation with an optimized chemistry methodology for all types of boiler designs, metallurgy,
and operating conditions. Complete integration of the guidelines for monitoring and control
through appropriate instrumentation and use of condensate polishing and proper makeup water
are essential to successful application of a chemistry program. Implementation of FAC
inspection and cycle-chemistry-based approaches will be a cost-effective method of increasing
personnel safety and plant availability in the approximately 60% of conventional fossil plants
experiencing FAC. Roadmaps and frequently asked question in the guidelines provide a
thorough approach to chemistry control and optimization.
EPRI Perspective
The quality of water and steam is central to ensuring fossil plant component availability and
reliability. Fossil plant equipment availability and performance problems influenced by cycle
chemistry, corrosion, and/or deposition are technically well understood. This compilation of
EPRIs suite of key fossil plant chemistry guidelines can be employed in every fossil plant. In
future research, EPRI's Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program will be
addressing deposition around cycle and boiler corrosion.
Program
Program 064.0 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
1-16
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment

Product Number
1004925
Date Published
March 2005
Details
Technical Report Superseded; This product has been replaced by 1021767
Abstract
reliability. These revised guidelines on oxygenated treatment (OT) for drum and once-through
units will help operators reduce corrosion and deposition and, thereby, achieve significant
operation and maintenance cost reductions and greater unit availability.
Objective
EPRIs first OT guideline, published in 1994 (EPRI report TR-102285), has been used to convert
over 100 once-through and 100 drum units to OT around the world. OT is a remarkable
chemistry treatment that has the ability to make a unit world class in terms of performance,
reliability, and availability. However, after 10 years, organizations have developed a number of
OT hybrids that do not meet the key operational parameter (less than 0.5 ppb Fe at the
economizer inlet) and that require chemical cleaning of the boiler. Also, there are a number of
misunderstandings about exactly what oxygen in the cycle can and cannot do in providing
protection. This revision should correct these deficiencies.
Approach
EPRI reviewed the experience of hundreds of units operating on OT and developed an initial
skeleton of the OT guidelines to include all the recent pertinent research results. Following this,
the EPRI team developed a draft document, which was circulated to 75 members of EPRI's
Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program for review and comment.
Results
These OT guidelines, based on 15 years of experience, include the following new features and
control philosophies:
Control limits and action levels are based on over 14 years of EPRI research into the
partitioning and volatility of salts, oxides, and contaminants between water and steam.
New steam limits are based on the latest EPRI understanding of the phase transition zone
(PTZ) of the low pressure turbine to minimize corrosion of blades and disks.
A feedwater shutdown limit based on cation conductivity has been developed for oncethrough units.
Sections have been included on the science, background, and operating experience of OT, as
well as on the conversion activities.
1-17
The OT guidelines are applicable to baseload, startup, cycling, and peaking operation and
provide corrective actions to be taken when guideline limits are exceeded.
The EPRI benchmarking process for cycle chemistry clearly shows the enormous benefit of
operation with OT. It can be applied to all once-through and drum units meeting the necessary
feedwater cation conductivity limits of less than 0.15 S/cm. The roadmaps and frequently asked
questions in the guidelines provide the approach to optimization.
EPRI Perspective
These OT guidelines will help utilities achieve plant-specific goals in the areas of availability,
reliability, and performance. This revision now becomes part of EPRI's suite of nine key fossil
plant guidelines that can be employed in every fossil plant. EPRI now has three guidelines for
the five fossil plant boiler water treatments and three feedwater treatments: all-volatile treatment
(1004187), phosphate continuum and caustic treatment (1004188), and oxygenated treatment
(1004925). Other guidelines address controlling flow-accelerated corrosion, or FAC (1008082),
startup, shutdown, and layup (TR-107754), chemical cleaning (1003994), condensate polishing
(TR-104422), makeup water treatment (TR-113692), and copper in fossil plants (1000457).
In future research in the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program, EPRI will be
addressing deposition around the cycle and boiler corrosion.
Program
History
1-18
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment

Product Number
TR-102285
Date Published
December 1994
Details
Abstract
Feedwater treatment is central to ensuring fossil plant component availability and reliability.
These guidelines will help utilities reduce corrosion, eliminate chemical cleanings, and reduce
costs.
Background
EPRI's Interim Consensus Guidelines (ICG) on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry (EPRI report CS4629), issued in 1986, provided direction and guidance on the use of all-volatile treatment (AVT)
for feedwater and boiler water. In the United States, the typical practice was to deoxygenate the
feedwater for once-through or drum units either mechanically or chemically through the addition
of an oxygen scavenger such as hydrazine. These treatments result in the generation and
transport of feedwater corrosion products, which are directly responsible for a number of
problems in the cycle such as boiler tube failures and the need to frequently clean the boiler. This
contrasts with international practice where oxygen is added to the feedwater to produce a more
oxidizing environment, thus eliminating the problems associated with feedwater corrosion
products.
Objective
To provide guidance for effective and economical control of corrosion and deposition in
fossil plants using oxygenated treatment
Approach
EPRI and a consultant collected the worldwide literature on oxygenated treatment (OT) and
assembled an outline for a guidance document including the areas needing special investigation
for U.S. units. A project team surveyed and visited units in Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, and
the former USSR that use OT. In 1991 they produced a first draft for once-through units that was
used to convert the first U.S. units at Georgia Power and Ohio Edison in November 1991. An OT
User's Group, consisting of 20 utilities and the major equipment manufacturers, monitored this
experience, and during 1992 and 1993, 19 units were converted to OT using the draft guidelines.
The team incorporated these experiences into a second draft of the guidelines in March 1993.
This draft also included guidance for drum units. During 1994, 15 once-through and one drum
unit were converted to OT. The guidelines were subsequently reviewed by the EPRI Fossil Plant
Cycle Chemistry Group, the EPRI International Cycle Chemistry Group, and members of the OT
User's Group.
1-19
Results
The main characteristics of once-through and drum units that can be converted to OT are an all
ferrous feedwater system and an ability to produce feedwater of purity better than 0.15
microSiemen/cm cation conductivity. For drum units, a sampling point is required on the
downcomer to monitor the boiler water. Oxygen is injected in the range of 30-150 ppb for oncethrough units and 30-50 ppb for drum units, with pHs in the range of 8.0-8.5 for once-through
units and 9.0-9.6 for drum units. Guidance for both once-through and drum units is presented in
a series of cycle diagrams that includes a set of target values and action levels for critical sample
points throughout the cycle. The guidelines also include a detailed road map on how to convert a
unit to OT and how to react to contaminant ingress. The Appendices include detailed information
on several U.S. converted units and survey results from units in Europe and the former USSR.
EPRI Perspective
These guidelines are the second major revision of the ICG. A new phosphate treatment guideline
is now available (EPRI report TR-103665). The OT guidance represents a radical change in
control philosophy for feedwater chemistry. Clearly the addition of oxygen reduces the corrosion
rate and the solubility of the oxide formed, thus producing a major reduction in feedwater
corrosion products that flow into the boiler. Over 40 units have been converted to OT in the
United States. Some immediate benefits include increased periods between condensate polisher
regenerations, reduced boiler deposition rates, and large chemical cost savings. One of the
indirect results of the guideline development has been the recognition that for all-ferrous
feedwater heater systems, the use of an oxygen scavenger should be carefully reviewed. In most
cases a scavenger is not required, but some of the benefits of OT will still accrue.
Program
History
1997 Program T2420 Fossil Steam Boiler O&M Cost Reduction (Domestic)
1997 Program T2423 Boiler Life Optimization/Cycle Chemistry
1-20
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic
Treatment
Product Number
1004188
Date Published
February 2004
Details
Abstract
reliability. These guidelines for drum units provide information on the application of phosphate
and caustic boiler water treatments. The guidelines will help operators reduce corrosion and
deposition, and thereby achieve significant operation and maintenance cost reductions and
greater unit availability.
Objective
These guidelines have been derived to address the serious corrosion problems that have been
experienced in drum units when operating with previous phosphate treatments (equilibrium
phosphate treatment, EPT, and congruent phosphate treatment, CPT). The guidelines also
provide direction for effective economical control of corrosion and deposition in drum units
using solid alkali boiler water treatments (PC and CT).
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the PC and CT guidelines to include all pertinent research
results. This was used as the basis for a meeting of the EPRI guidelines team. Following this
meeting, the team developed a draft document, which was circulated to 75 members of EPRI's
Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target for review and comment.
Results
These guidelines include the following new features and control philosophies:
There are two distinct solid alkali boiler water treatments: phosphate continuum (PC) and
caustic treatment (CT). Examples are provided for the low and high levels of phosphate
addition: PC(L) and PC(H).
The PC is bounded by Na:PO4 molar ratio of 3 and trisodium phosphate plus 1 ppm NaOH.
It has a minimum phosphate level of 0.2 ppm and a minimum pH of 9 to reduce the
possibility of boiler corrosion.
1-21
There are two distinctly different feedwater all-volatile treatments defined by the oxidation
reduction potential (ORP). Feedwater systems having all-ferrous materials and using no
reducing agent will operate with AVT(O). Those systems having mixed metallurgy (copper)
materials and operating with a reducing agent and low oxygen (less than 10 ppb) will operate
with AVT(R).
A separate set of target values and action levels to protect the steam turbine and boiler are
included for both PC and CT.
Examples of specific and cation conductivity curves have been provided for PC and CT and
linked to contaminant (chloride and sulfate) levels in the boiler water.
Correction curves and approaches have been developed for the effects of ammonia and
carbon dioxide on boiler water pH.

The chemistries in these guidelines can be applied to all drum units needing solid alkali
treatments to counteract the effects of contaminants in the cycle. As such, the operator now has
three choices for boiler water treatment. The road maps for selection in the guideline will provide
the optimization required to ensure that boiler corrosion does not occur.
EPRI Perspective
These PC and CT guidelines will help utilities achieve plant-specific goals in the areas of
availability, reliability, and performance. This revision now becomes a part of EPRI's suite of 10
key fossil plant guidelines that can be employed in every fossil plant. EPRI now has three
guidelines for the five fossil plant boiler water treatments and three feedwater treatments -- allvolatile treatment (1004187), phosphate continuum and caustic treatment (1004188), and
oxygenated treatment (TR-102285). Other guidelines address the selection and optimization of
boiler water and feedwater (TR-105040), controlling flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) (TR108859), startup, shutdown, and layup (TR-107754), chemical cleaning (1003994), condensate
polishing (TR-104422), makeup water treatment (TR-113692), and copper in fossil plants
(1000457). In the near future, EPRI will revise the guidelines for oxygenated treatment and FAC
based on the latest research results from the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Program.
Program
History
1-22
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment:

Revision 1
Product Number
1014187
Date Published
November 2002
Details
Abstract
reliability. These revised guidelines on all-volatile treatment for drum and once-through units
will help utilities reduce corrosion and deposition, and thereby achieve significant operation and
maintenance cost reductions and greater unit availability.
Background
Over the last 10 years, EPRI has conducted numerous research activities to understand the many
facets of fossil plant cycle chemistry. Included are corrosion in all-ferrous and mixed-metallurgy
feedwater systems; copper in the fossil plant; volatility and partitioning of salts, oxides, and
contaminants between water and steam; solubility of salts, oxides, and contaminants in water and
steam; and corrosion of blades and disks in the phase transition zone of the low pressure steam
turbine. EPRI's first version of the all-volatile treatment (AVT) guidelines was published in 1996
(TR-105041). A review of the AVT guidelines was required to ensure that utilities have access to
the latest information and control philosophies.
Objective
To provide guidance for effective economical control of corrosion and deposition in drum and
once-through units using AVT
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the AVT guidelines to include all pertinent research
results. This was used as the basis for a meeting of the EPRI guidelines team. Following this
meeting, the team developed a draft document, which was circulated to 75 members of EPRI's
Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target for review and comment.
1-23
Results
The revised guidelines include a number of new features and control philosophies, including the
following:
There are now two distinctly different all-volatile treatments defined by the potential of the
feedwater. Those feedwater systems having all-ferrous materials and using an oxidizing (O)
treatment (no reducing agent) will operate on AVT(O). Those systems having mixedmetallurgy (copper) materials and operating with a reducing (R) agent will operate with
AVT(R).
A separate set of target values and action levels to protect the steam turbine and the boiler are
included. In previous EPRI guidelines, the boiler water limits were derived from the steam
limits.
New guideline values for air in-leakage and a level of 10 ppb oxygen in the condensate have
been introduced to provide optimum performance for both AVT(O) and AVT(R).
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) is now a core parameter at the deaerator inlet for mixedmetallurgy cycles using AVT(R).
A new pH range (9.0-9.3) has been introduced to provide optimum protection for mixedmetallurgy cycles using AVT(R).
The AVT guidelines are applicable to baseload, startup, cycling, and peaking operation, and
provide corrective actions to be taken when guideline limits are exceeded.
EPRI Perspective
These revised AVT guidelines will help utilities achieve plant-specific goals in the areas of
availability, reliability, and performance. This revision now becomes a part of a suite of 11 key
fossil plant guidelines, which should be employed by every fossil plant. EPRI has developed four
guidelines for the five fossil plant boiler treatments and three feedwater treatments -- all-volatile
treatment (1004187), phosphate treatment (TR-103665), oxygenated treatment (TR-102285), and
caustic treatment (TR-104007). Other guidelines address the selection and optimization of boiler
water and feedwater (TR-105040), controlling flow-accelerated corrosion (TR-108859), startup,
shutdown, and layup (TR-107754), chemical cleaning (1003994), condensate polishing (TR104422), makeup water treatment (TR-113692), and copper in fossil plants (1000457). In the
near future, EPRI will revise the guidelines for phosphate, caustic, and oxygenated treatments
based on the latest research results from the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Target.
Program
1-24
Selection and Optimization of Boiler Water and Feedwater Treatments for Fossil
Plants
Product Number
TR-105040
Date Published
December 1996
Details
Abstract
reliability. These guidelines will assist utilities in optimizing the treatment choices for their
specific units.
Background
EPRIs Interim Consensus Guidelines on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry have recently been
superseded by four new guidelines for phosphate treatment, all-volatile treatment, oxygenated
treatment, and caustic treatment. This has resulted in five drum boiler water treatments and three
feedwater treatment choices. A consistent approach was needed to allow a utility to make the
optimum selection.
Objective
To provide guidance for selecting and optimizing boiler water and feedwater chemistries that
effectively and economically control corrosion and deposition in drum and once-through
units.
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the guideline that was used as the basis for a series of
working group meetings with members of the EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group
(FPCCG). Following these meetings, EPRI and five of its cycle chemistry consultants developed
a draft document and circulated it to the 40 members of the FPCCG for review and comment.
Results
The guidelines contain detailed procedures and road maps on selecting and optimizing feedwater
treatments for cycles with all-ferrous alloys and mixed ferrous and copper alloys, and on
selecting the optimum boiler water treatment. The main emphasis for feedwater is to minimize
the transport of feedwater corrosion products, which control the major cycle problem areas. The
choice of boiler water is primarily influenced by the major impurities into the cycle resulting
from cooling water and makeup water; these are delineated for typical cycles.
1-25
EPRI Perspective
While most utilities can meet the new EPRI Guideline limits, a number of problem areas have
been identified that relate to boiler water treatment (boiler tube failures), feedwater (flowaccelerated corrosion (FAC), the generation, transport, and deposition of feedwater corrosion
products), and steam purity (deposits and blade failures). Many of these problems relate to units
not being able to meet the 2 ppb iron and copper limits at the economizer inlet, and not choosing
a boiler water treatment that can neutralize any concentrated impurities. This document will
provide the glue between the new EPRI guidelines. It will also assist utilities in choosing the
chemical additions to the cycle and in eliminating FAC and failures in the feedwater.
The information contained in this document and the guidelines will form the basis for a Cycle
Chemistry Advisor/Expert System that EPRI is developing.
Program
2005 Program SST501 Strategic Science & Technology
History
2002 Program SST501 E501 Strategic Science and Technology
1-26
Assessment of Amines for Fossil Plant Applications

Product Number
1017475
Date Published
March 2010
Details
Abstract
The purity and proper chemical treatment of water and steam are central to ensuring fossil and
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) plant component availability and reliability, which are
critical to the overall economic performance and profitability of plant unit operations. This report
provides a technical assessment of neutralizing amines for application in plant cycles to improve
the pH conditions in the low pressure (LP) evaporators and economizers of HRSGs, the phase
transition zone (PTZ) of the LP steam turbine, the condensing steam in air-cooled condensers
(ACC), and the pH conditions at two-phase flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) locations such as
in feedwater heater drains. Findings from this assessment will aid operators and chemists in
investigating treatments to address specific concerns and to potentially augment the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) continuum of cycle chemistry treatments for fossil plants and
HRSGs.
Objective
This report gives power plant engineers and chemists insight into the properties of neutralizing
and filming amines as applicable to discrete corrosion control issues not adequately supplied by
the current suite of EPRI cycle chemistry treatments. Conditions of low pH in areas of the LP
HRSG components, steam turbine PTZ, feedwater heater drains, and early condensate of ACC,
as well as all areas of two-phase FAC, required excessive dosing of ammonia to address
corrosion mechanisms. Neutralizing amines offer improvements to these conditions, but the
concern for acidic by-products from thermal degradation remains. Film-forming amines have
potential benefit for providing conditioning of equipment for corrosion protection during idle
periods (layup) and might contribute to improved corrosion control in high-susceptible areas
during operation. Continued investigation of actual field conditions is needed to fully assess the
conditions created by the low-level breakdown products.
Approach
The EPRI project team conducted a thorough search of information on the properties and effects
of selected amines. Amines for study were selected on the basis of known properties that would
offer the greatest benefit for use in addressing the specific corrosion and control concerns not
currently being adequately managed. Gaps in the thermal stability data above 300 C were
addressed by preliminary thermal degradation testing.
1-27
Results
A preliminary technical assessment of the attributes and properties of nine selected neutralizing
amines, including thermal stability and decomposition products, water/ steam distribution
coefficients, and impacts on balance-of-cycle components and condensate polishers, has
identified characteristics of five amines that warrant further consideration and evaluation as
conditioning agents in fossil and HRSG plant application. Ethanolamine (ETA),
methoxypropylamine (MPA), and 5-aminopentol (5AP) are currently used in nuclear PWR
systems to improve the pH control of condensing steam and to mitigate FAC in moisture
separator/reheaters. The two attributes most responsible for the success of these amines are the
superior basicity and distribution compared to ammonia. The thermal stability up to temperatures
of 577 C (1070 F) and pressures up to 16 MPa (2350 psi) provided a reasonable residual
concentration in the condensed steam, resulting in the desired pH improvement.
Cyclohexylamine has been used as an alternative for ammonia in fossil plants to reduce ammonia
attack on copper, and properties of dimethylamine (DMA) (high base strength and high
volatility) make it particularly suited for use in combination with other low-volatility amines.
Finally, some polyamine or filming amine might provide hydrophobic conditioning of
components during long outage or storage periods. Results of the assessment of chemical and
thermal properties, in addition to field information on the application of amines, will form the
basis for the development of interim guidelines on applications and techniques for the use of
amines to remediate specific corrosion problems. These problems include first condensate pH in
the PTZ of the LP turbine, pH of the condensing steam in ACC, and pH conditions at two-phase
FAC locations.
Increased demands on cycling operation and low-load operation, increased development of
combined-cycle units, air cooling, and co-generation will increase the requirement for better
corrosion protection in the wet steam and early condensate of power cycles, particularly as
thermal conditions change with variable operation. Current volatile treatments using ammonia
exclusively might be inadequate to meet some of these future challenges. Nuclear power faced
this dilemma nearly two decades ago and has progressively improved the treatment
methodologies to address specific corrosion concerns. Judicious investigation and control of the
application of alternative treatments are achievable with the correct understanding and tools to
manage the chemistry practices employed.
EPRI Perspective
This is the first comprehensive look at alternative treatments by any major organization
worldwide for application to fossil plants and combined-cycle units. Using the strong knowledge
base developed within EPRI's nuclear sector, this academic approach to assessing amines is the
first step in developing this treatment--an augmentation to the EPRI continuum of cycle
chemistry treatments for fossil plants and HRSGs.
Program
2009 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
1-28
Interim GuidanceAmine Treatments in Fossil Power Plants

Product ID
1019636
Date Published
12/23/2010
Details
Technical Report
Abstract
The use of neutralizing amines has been the subject of an evaluation focused on the improvement
of the pH conditions in the low-pressure (LP) evaporators and economizers of heat recovery
steam generators (HRSGs), the phase transition zone (PTZ) of the LP steam turbine, the
condensing steam in air-cooled condensers (ACCs), and the pH conditions at two-phase flow
accelerated corrosion (FAC) locations such as in feedwater heater drains. This report examines
actual field use of amine treatments and the thermal stability and degradation of the amines at the
elevated temperatures and pressures in fossil plant generation. The findings of this report provide
interim technical guidance on the use of neutralizing amines based on previous assessments for
the application of neutralizing amines in fossil and HRSG plant cycles, laboratory studies of the
thermal stability of selected neutralizing amines, and field studies involving the application of
ethanolamine and methoxypropylamine at utility plants. MULTiple EQuilibrium (MULTEQ)
multiphase simulations of chemical conditions in the plant cycle based on field study analytical
results provide a basis for determining the effectiveness of the amine treatment in a two-phase
fluid environment. The interim guidance of this report provides operators and chemists direction
for evaluating whether these potential benefits might be realized under the specific conditions
found at their fossil plants.
The survival of neutralizing amines in the field study fossil and HRSG plants were between 35
and 60% from the condensate pump through the hot reheat, depending on the amine and
temperatures, pressures, and other conditions specific to the studied plants.
In all plant systems tested, ammonia from the decomposition of the applied neutralizing amine
was the primary pH control agent. Evaluations using EPRIs MULTEQ program indicated that
the amine additions (as practiced at the sites tested) had little effect in the two-phase regions for
adjustment of the pHT (pH at operating temperature). In some instances, simulation results
indicated that better performance would have been realized with ammonia alone because of the
presence of excess concentration of acetate and formate (organic acid production from thermal
breakdown of neutralizing amine). Except for increasing the cation conductivity and lowering
the pH, the effect of the increased concentration of acetate and formate is not fully known, but it
has been linked in some research to an increased potential for corrosion fatigue and stress
corrosion cracking of turbine steels.
1-29
More benefit was seen at one of the combined-cycle plants tested, where there was sufficient
amine in the condenser and LP drum to provide a significant increase in pHT of simulated two
phase conditions of early condensate and/or saturate water flashing to steam. Note that the use of
these amines at levels sufficient to significantly increase the pHT also significantly increased the
cation conductivity of the feedwater and steam.
Neutralizing amines might improve conditions of low pH in areas of the LP HRSG, steam
turbine PTZ, feedwater heater drains, early condensate of ACC, and areas of two-phase FAC,
which typically are addressed by excessive dosing of ammonia. Improved pH control can be
recognized only if thermal breakdown of the amine is not excessive. The formation of acidic byproducts from thermal degradation is a critical consideration in the use of amines. The low
quantity of residual amine and nearly equivalent concentration of organics acids resulting from
the thermal instability and breakdown products present a challenge to power plant engineers and
chemists in the successful application and use of amines in fossil plants. The consequences of the
organic acids and removal techniques and methods to effectively increase the amine
concentration represent gaps in the successful use of amine of pH control in fossil plants.
Increased demands on cycling operation and low-load operation, increased development of
combined-cycle units, and air cooling will increase the requirements for corrosion protection in
the wet steam and early condensate of power cycles, particularly as thermal conditions change
with variable operation. Exclusive use of ammonia might be inadequate to meet these future
challenges. Judicious investigation and control of the application of alternative treatments are
achievable with the correct understanding and tools to manage the chemistry practices used.
EPRI Perspective
This is the first series of comprehensive assessments of alternative, neutralizing amine-based
treatments by any major organization worldwide for application to fossil plants and combined
cycle units. This interim guidance document marries existing amine assessments with field study
data to produce a thorough discussion of the expected results from the application of neutralizing
amines in fossil plants and HRSGs.
Approach
The project team conducted field studies of amine treatments at conventional fossil and HRSG
plants. MULTEQ simulations using the study results predicted the chemistry in two-phase
environments and assessed the effect of the amines and thermal breakdown products in the twophase conditions. Amines for study were selected on the basis of known properties offering the
greatest potential benefit for use in addressing the specific corrosion and control concerns.
Program
Keywords
Amines
pH control
1-30

Thermal Degradation of Amines in Supercritical Water

Product ID
1021499
Date Published
11-Aug-2010
Document Type
Technical Report
Abstract
The purity and chemical control of water and steam are essential for ensuring fossil plant
availability and reliability. An assessment of amines to address specific corrosion control issues
(Electric Power Research Institute [EPRI] report 1017475) identified eight amines as alternatives
to ammonia for pH control. Previous research has limited the thermal degradation of the pH
control agents to temperatures less than 300C. This report presents an understanding of the
high-temperature degradation of the selected amines and provides some determination of the
rates of degradation across the temperature range of 257C to 577C. This temperature range is
more in line with the temperature conditions of superheated steam in fossil plants and heat
recovery steam generators (HRSGs).
Objective
This report provides a preliminary understanding of the high-temperature degradation of the selected
amines and the rates of degradation across the temperature range of 250C to 600C. Use of amines
in the power cycle of fossil plants and HRSGs has the potential to address discrete corrosion and pH
control issues not currently addressed by the current suite of EPRI cycle chemistry treatments. The
conditions of thermal degradation of these amines are not fully known at the elevated temperatures
and pressures of fossil power plants and HRSGs. The breakdown of amines in the cycle may
generate an unacceptable concentration of nondesirable organic acids or result in insufficient survival
of the specific amine to provide protection for the targeted component or system.
Approach
The experimental approach determined the degradation of eight selected amines as a function of
temperature based on water chemistry. Test chambers made of 316 stainless steel were prepared
to support supercritical conditions, and testing was conducted by heating the test vessel that
contained a known concentration to the specified temperature for a set time period. The
concentration of amines before and after degradation was measured by gas chromatography (GC)
mass spectroscopy as well as liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy. The derivatization
method was done for GC analysis to stabilize the analyte in order to reduce activity and to add
functionality to improve the detection of the analyte.
The results of amine degradation testing were combined with the use of an Arrhenius equation
assuming a pseudo first order reaction to determine the degradation rates.
1-31
Results
In general, all selected amines were highly degraded at 257C, which represents a two-phase
regime; all other temperatures are representative of superheated steam. At this low temperature,
the maximum quality achieved is 66%, so at least one-third of the total mass remains liquid.
There is a likelihood that reactions--in particular, hydrolysis--could occur in the liquid phase
more readily than in the vapor phase at the same temperature due to the proximity of molecules.
The alternative amines were only slightly degraded at 348C, where the fluid is primarily
superheated steam. The temperature boundary between saturated and superheated (two-phase
and single-phase steam) is determined by the critical temperature. In addition to temperature, a
pressure effect was also found as a function of degradation. In general, the amine degradation
rate was less at high pressure.
This study shows that it is possible to predict amine degradation rates in the laboratory as well as
to provide guidelines for the amine choices at high temperature. Additional guideline details
should consider: the conditions of amines, the cost, the level of base strength, fouling in the
condensate polisher, and environmental and safety issues.
Application, Value and Use
Current volatile treatments using ammonia exclusively might be inadequate to meet the
challenges of corrosion control in present cycles as well as future challenges of unit cycling, lowload operation, and air-cooled condensers. Degradation data of amines as pH control agents are
limited for the elevated temperature and pressure conditions of superheated steam. Knowledge of
the stability of alternative treatment chemicals is critical to their safe and effective application in
order to meet these corrosion and pH control challenges. For use at high temperature, the amines
selected should show low degradation and a high level of thermal stability to be applicable to the
next generation of steam cycle power plants.
EPRI Perspective
This is the first serious consideration of the thermal decomposition of amines in temperature
ranges above 300C. Amine usage in fossil power plants has been rejected by all the major
organizations worldwide on the basis of not being necessary and contributing to contamination
of the steam-water cycle with low molecular weight organic acids. A more exacting knowledge
of the behavior of these chemical agents at high-temperature and high-pressure conditions
represents an essential step in developing the amine treatment as an augmentation to the EPRI
continuum of cycle chemistry treatments for fossil plants and HRSGs.
Program
Keywords
Amines
Thermal degradation
1-32
pH control
Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
for Operators and Chemists
Product Number
1015657
Date Published
March 2009
Details
Abstract
reliability. Complete optimization of cycle chemistry requires protection of the steam-water
cycle during the shutdown, layup, and startup phases of operation. These guidelines will assist
utilities in developing cycle chemistry guidelines for all transient operations and shutdowns.
Background
Planners, operators, and chemists face the challenges of providing equipment protection during
transient operating periods, as well as during unit outages. Compounding these challenges are the
aging of the equipment and the conversion of operation from base-loaded to cycling or peaking
operation. These conditions are highly variable and require specific approaches that depend on
the unit conditions. Provisions are made for changing outage durations and storage conditions to
provide plant personnel with the optimum protection methodologies.
Objective
To provide comprehensive guidelines for cycle chemistry during startup, shutdown, and
layup of fossil plants.
To provide optimum procedures for the boiler, superheater, reheater, turbine, and feedwater
heaters.
Approach
EPRI and the project team familiar with equipment protection requirements and approaches
conducted the project. The project team conducted a kick-off meeting and subsequent web casts
with members of the EPRI Cycle Chemistry Technical Advisors Group to establish the format
and review content. The project team developed draft sections of the document and circulated
them to the 40 members of the Fossil Power Plant Cycle Chemistry Group and five of EPRI's
cycle chemistry consultants for review and comment. Key EPRI reports, including previous
revisions of startup/shutdown/layup guidelines and comprehensive guidelines for cycle
chemistry in conventional fossil and heat recovery steam generator plants, were the major
resource for development of these guidelines.
1-33
Results
These guidelines provide the link needed for comprehensive coverage of cycle chemistry in
fossil plants. It provides specific procedures and advice during cycling, shutdown, startup, and
layup for each of the boiler and feedwater treatments, and covers all major water- and steamtouched surfaces. The guideline is applicable to drum boiler units above 600 psi (4.1MPA),
once-through subcritical and supercritical boiler units, units with and without condensate
polishers, all-ferrous and mixed metallurgy feedwater systems, and superheaters, reheaters and
turbines.
EPRI Perspective
Future changes to the operation of fossil power plants that include more cycling and peaking
operation will demand a greater focus on the transient chemistry to ensure unit availability.
While most utilities can meet the Electric Power Research Institute's (EPRI's) cycle chemistry
guideline limits, a large number of problem areas have been identified that relate to poor
transient (startup/shutdown) operation and improper layup procedures. Two such important
mechanisms are pitting in unprotected reheaters (which can lead to multiple reheater leaks) and
pits on low-pressure turbine blade/disk surfaces in the phase-transition zone. A very low
percentage of utilities currently provide shutdown protection to boilers, feedwater heaters, and
turbines. The guiding principles for equipment protection reflect the findings of EPRI research in
protecting steam- and water-touched surfaces in fossil units. By applying these guiding
principles and the protection options outlined in the report's roadmap and discussion, users may
select and customize shutdown, layup, and startup practices that will meet the unique needs of
their units. This document provides the important interface between plant operation, plant
shutdown, and transient conditions.
Program
1-34
Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
for Operators and Chemists
Product Number
TR-107754
Date Published
December 1997
Details
Abstract
reliability. This report will assist utilities in developing cycle chemistry guidelines for all
transient operation and shutdown.
Background
EPRI has published four operating guidelines for phosphate treatment, all-volatile treatment,
oxygenated treatment, and caustic treatment. These guidelines encompass five drum boiler water
treatments and three feedwater choices that can provide the optimum cycle chemistry for each
unit. A similar, consistent approach was needed for startup, shutdown, and layup. Improper
shutdown of a unit can lead to pitting, which is a precursor to major corrosion fatigue and stress
corrosion damage in the turbine. It can also lead to the development of nonprotective oxides on
copper alloys in the feedwater.
Objective
To provide comprehensive guidelines for cycle chemistry during startup, shutdown, and
layup of fossil plants; to provide optimum procedures for the boiler, superheater, reheater,
turbine, and feedwater heaters
Approach
EPRI developed an initial skeleton of the guidelines that provided the basis for a series of
working group meetings with members of the EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group
(FPCCG). Following these meetings, EPRI and five of its cycle chemistry consultants developed
a draft document and circulated it to the 40 members of the FPCCG for review and comment.
Results
This guideline provides the final link needed for comprehensive coverage of cycle chemistry in
fossil plants. It provides specific procedures and advice during cycling, shutdown, startup, and
layup for each of the boiler and feedwater treatments and covers all major water and steam
touched surfaces. The guideline is applicable to drum boiler units above 600 psi (4.1MPA),
once-through subcritical and supercritical boiler units, units with and without condensate
polishers, all-ferrous and mixed metallurgy feedwater systems, and superheaters, reheaters and
turbines.
1-35
EPRI Perspective
While most utilities can meet EPRI cycle chemistry guideline limits, a large number of problem
areas have been identified that relate to poor transient (startup/shutdown) operation and improper
layup procedures. Two such important mechanisms are pitting in unprotected reheaters, which
can lead to multiple reheater leaks, and pits on low pressure turbine blade/disk surfaces in the
phase transition zone. A very low percentage of utilities currently provide shutdown protection to
boilers, feedwater heaters, and turbines. This document will provide the important interfaces
between plant operation, plant shutdown, and transient conditions.
Program
History
1997 Program T6101 Exploratory Research
1997 Program T6102 Applied Science & Technology
1-36
Shutdown Protection of Steam Turbines Using Dehumidified Air

Product Number
1014195
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
EPRI research has determined that proper protection of the steam turbine during shutdown
periods is essential to the prevention of damage by stress corrosion cracking and corrosion
fatigue. This report provides information on both the incipient damage of improper shutdown
and techniques for assessing and applying dehumidified air for shutdown protection.
Approach
EPRI has developed a preliminary roadmap to understanding the damage mechanisms and
development of an overall dry or dehumidified air layup methodology. Turbine manufacturers
and equipment suppliers were contacted for information on recommendations, design
considerations, and pricing. Utility members were included in the discussions of needs and
approaches. The interface of the operating conditions, residual heat, and operator requirements
were considered in the development of appropriate methods for achieving dehumidification.
Results
Pitting of turbine components is initiated through the synergistic action of oxygen and
contaminants, such as chlorides, in the moist environment occurring in the turbine during
shutdown. Use of dehumidified air, a method advocated by many turbine manufacturers, appears
to be the preferred approach for protection in fossil plant applications. Reduction and elimination
of moisture on surfaces of the turbine components prevent the formation of concentrated
electrolytic films containing oxygen, which are precursors to disruption of the passive films and
pit formation. EPRI research and modeling have demonstrated that stress corrosion cracking and
corrosion fatigue cracks initiate from micropits on the surface of the metal.
The methods and techniques for the use of dehumidified air are applicable to all steam turbines,
regardless of the fuel source. In particular, combined-cycle heat-recovery steam generator
(HRSG) and cycling/peaking fossil units stand to realize the greatest benefit as a result of the
repeated startup and shutdown periods and highly transitional steam quality conditions. Improper
protection of steam turbines and subsequent corrosion damage are estimated to cost the U.S
electric industry in excess of $1 billion annually.
1-37
EPRI Perspective
Application of techniques to reduce and eliminate pitting from improper storage of turbines
during shutdown has the potential to reduce turbine component failure substantially. Most outage
hours for steam turbines are the result of the low-pressure (LP) blades and disks in the phase
transition zone (PTZ). This is the location of the so-called thermodynamic salt zone, and deposit
buildup and behavior in the PTZ influence the major corrosion mechanisms. The latest EPRI
information on the PTZ has confirmed that pitting and corrosion damage is initiated during
unprotected shutdown conditions where oxygen is present in the liquid films. Proper protection
requires elimination of moisture during shutdown and, thus, the elimination of the liquid films
and the associated dissolved oxygen.
Program
Program 088.0 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Dependability
Keywords
Steam turbines
Cycle chemistry
Shutdown
Layup
Corrosion
1-38
Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program

Product Number
1013098
Date Published
May 2006
Details
Abstract
Boiler tube failures (BTF) and cycle chemistry corrosion and deposition problems remain the
leading causes of availability losses in fossil-fired steam plants worldwide. This report describes
techniques developed during a 20-year EPRI project to assist utilities in substantially reducing
availability and performance losses due to these problems.
Objective
The equivalent availability loss due to BTF in coal-fired utility power plants with generation
facilities above 200 MW continues to average around 3%. To address this serious industry
problem, EPRI initiated the first BTFR program in 1985 with the goal of demonstrating that the
availability loss can be significantly improved by the implementation of a formalized BTFR
program. Such a formalized program is directed and supported officially by senior management
through a commitment (mandate) to address the major challenges of determining the BTF
mechanism, solving the root cause, and providing permanent solutions. Cycle chemistry
influenced problems have also increased and represent up to 50% of total fossil plant availability.
Since 1997, the objective of the current activity has been to demonstrate how the optimum
results are produced by combining the BTFR and CCI programs.
Approach
The EPRI team used the BTF Book (EPRI report TR-105261, V1V3, Boiler Tube Failures:
Theory and Practice: V 13 Tubes) and the EPRI Cycle Chemistry Guidelines as the technical
bases for the program. The team developed a five-module multidisciplinary workshop program.
Since 1997, more than 65 utility organizations around the world have received training with
these materials and subsequently implemented the integrated BTFR/CCI program. In many
cases, the individual programs were reviewed on a six-month basis for two years to ensure full
implementation. The final report was assembled using 13 organizations as case studies.
Results
For utilities with high equivalent availability loss (forced and maintenance) due to BTF and/or
cycle chemistry corrosion and deposition problems, tremendous benefits have resulted from
programs that have been implemented for at least two years. In more than 20 years application
of the EPRI program at more than 80 utilities, more than 5000 utility management, operations,
chemical, maintenance, and technical staff have been trained. The results have confirmed that
such an approach can improve availability due to BTF by as much as 4.5% and reduce
generation costs or lost opportunity sales by up to $37 million annually. This report describes the
1-39
program implementation strategy and the methodologies used to benchmark participating utility
performance in both boiler tube failure reduction (BTFR) and cycle chemistry improvement
(CCI). The results of the EPRI program at 13 utilities, ranging in size from 1200 to 34,000 MW,
are included as detailed case studies.
The techniques and processes in the BTFR and CCI program are applicable to all types of fossil
plants. The results have been shown to be independent of plant age, operation (such as cycling
and base load), fuel type, boiler pressure, and geographical location.
EPRI Perspective
BTF and other fossil plant equipment availability and performance problems influenced by cycle
chemistry, corrosion, and/or deposition are technically well understood. An integrated
BTFR/CCI program helps utilities develop a more formalized in-house management approach to
avoiding initial and repeat BTF or other process equipment failures due to these problems.
Essential parts of the program process are a firm management commitment and a team approach
to determining the mechanism, root cause, and permanent solution for every BTF and cycle
chemistry influenced problem and to ensure that optimum boiler water and feedwater chemistry
are selected and maintained over the operating life cycle of each unit.
Program
1-40
Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program

Product Number
TR-106371
Date Published
December 1996
Details
Abstract
reliability. This report, which describes formal cycle chemistry improvement programs at nine
utilities, will assist utilities in achieving significant operation and maintenance cost reductions.
Background
As the first step in improving cycle chemistry, EPRI has published a set of guidelines for each
cycle chemistry. However, cycle-chemistry-influenced problems still occur and are usually a
direct result of repeat incidents of impurity ingress into the steam/water cycle and the subsequent
corrosion and deposition of the heat transfer surfaces. To break this cycle, utilities need to
implement a formalized, utility-wide, cycle chemistry improvement program (CCIP).
Approach
The project team drew upon the technical information and management concepts throughout the
set of cycle chemistry guidelines to develop a five-module training manual (EPRI report TR103038). In August 1991, EPRI asked nine utilities representing about 48,000 MW (75 drum and
20 once-through units), to demonstrate these materials over a five-year period. The project team
visited each utility and trained a multidiscipline group of utility staff in all aspects of cycle
chemistry improvement. Each utility formulated a utility specific CCIP with assistance from
project team members during periodic visits. At the end of the project, the team compiled the
plans.
Results
The CCIP has been used to train more than 800 utility staff. As a result of the CCIP, utilities
have documented up to 4% increase in unit availability and operating cost reductions in excess of
$3 million per year. These savings have accrued from a number of sources, which include
reduction in boiler tube failures influenced by cycle chemistry; reduction in the number or
frequency of boiler chemical cleans; reductions in turbine deposits and problems; elimination of,
or lower frequency of, condenser leaks; and lower system chemical costs. To achieve the benefits
from their CCIP, each utility developed a corporate mandate and philosophy, which provides a
commitment to adopting cycle chemistry limits and procedures together with the EPRI minimum
level of "core" instrumentation. A specification has been developed for this core level.
1-41
EPRI Perspective
Boiler tube failures and turbine problems influenced by cycle chemistry are generally
understood. A CCIP helps utilities develop in-house management programs to avoid initial and
repeat failures. Part of this process is to ensure that the optimum boiler water and feedwater
chemistry is selected for each unit; during this project, 18 units were converted from all-volatile
treatment to oxygenated treatment, and 28 drum boilers were converted from congruent
phosphate treatment to equilibrium phosphate treatment. A new guideline (EPRI report TR105040) provides detailed procedures and road maps for optimization.
A combined CCIP and Boiler Tube Failure Reduction program is currently being developed by
EPRI; this will be available for demonstration by utilities in 1997.
Program
History
1-42
Cycle Chemistry Corrosion and Deposition: Correction, Prevention, and Control

Product Number
TR-103038
Date Published
December 1993
Details
Abstract
reliability. This report will help utilities achieve these goals.
Background
As the first step in improving cycle chemistry, EPRI has published a number of guidelines.
However, cycle chemistry influenced problems still occur and are usually a direct result of repeat
incidents of impurity ingress into the steam/water cycle and subsequent corrosion and deposition
of the heat transfer surfaces. To break this cycle, utilities need to implement a formalized, utilitywide, cycle chemistry improvement program (CCIP).
Objective
To develop and demonstrate the value of a formalized cycle chemistry improvement program
(CCIP).
Approach
The project team drew upon the technical information and management concepts in six EPRI
cycle chemistry guidelines published since 1986 (reports CS-4629, CS-5164, GS-6699, TR100196, TR-102401, GS-7556). Also using findings in two ongoing research projects (RP271210 and RP1403-45) they developed two documents: a five module training manual and a generic
philosophy statement on cycle chemistry improvement. In August 1991, EPRI asked nine
utilities, representing about 48,000 MW, to demonstrate these materials over a four-year period.
The project team visited each utility and trained a multidiscipline group of utility staff in all
aspects of cycle chemistry improvement. Each utility then formulated a utility-specific cycle
chemistry improvement program, with assistance through periodic visits by select project team
members and additional training by the utility CCIP coordinator.
1-43
Results
This program has been used to train more than 800 utility staff. Nine utilities that initiated the
program in 1991 reported significant availability improvements and reduced cycle-chemistryrelated costs within the first year after staff training. From the utility perspective, major
decreases in boiler tube failures, performance losses (BTUs/KWHR) due to corrosion, corrosion
product generation and/or deposition, and high cycle-chemistry-related costs were the result of:
Tailoring the generic corporate philosophy statement to meet utility-specific needs and
having it signed by a senior management representative
Developing a multidisciplinary CCIP team involving corporate and plant personnel
Identifying the major corrosion, corrosion product generation, transport and deposition
problem areas and costs, and prioritizing them by cost-benefit analyses.
This report contains the generic CCIP prevention philosophy statement and the training manual. The
statement indicates corporate commitment to adopting cycle chemistry limits, action levels and
operating procedures with minimum cycle chemistry "core" instrumentation, limiting load or
removing a unit from service after a serious chemical upset (low pH), discouraging operation outside
of limits for all modes of unit operation, and encouraging permanent engineering solutions. The
training manual contains sections specific to four utility groups: management, maintenance,
operations, and engineering. A "how-to-use" section and case studies complete the volume.
EPRI Perspective
Boiler tube and turbine blade failure mechanisms, influenced by operation outside of water/steam
cycle chemistry limits, are understood and the technology to minimize or eliminate activation of
these mechanisms is now available. This report will help utilities develop an in-house management
program to avoid initial and repeat cycle-chemistry-influenced equipment failures. A key step in
implementing such a program is developing and issuing a CCIP prevention philosophy statement
signed by a senior management representative. By referring to the "how-to-use" section, the
functional-specific training modules, and the case studies, any utility can implement a cycle
chemistry improvement program and effectively train staff. The early results and/or demonstrations
described in this report indicate that implementing such a program will result in improved availability
and performance. The full results from the CCIP will be published in 1995.
Program
History
2004 2001 Program 064.0 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
1-44
Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment

Product Number
1003994
Date Published
December 2001
Details
Abstract
One of the overall goals of EPRI's Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Target is to provide operating
guidelines for the majority of fossil plants. Another goal is to extend the period between
chemical cleans, and for units with all-ferrous feedwater systems, to eliminate the need to
chemically clean altogether. These comprehensive, revised guidelines join the suite of 11 key
EPRI documents that assist utilities in achieving these goals.
Background
EPRI published two previous manuals in 1984 and 1993 on chemical cleaning (EPRI reports CS3289 and TR-102401). Since 1993, chemical cleaning technology has undergone numerous
advances, and utilities and cleaning service companies alike have changed the way they do
business. Timely and effective cleans are a very important part of fossil plant programs for
maximizing unit availability, reliability, and performance. Conversely, improperly planned or
conducted cleans can lead to serious problems. A revision of EPRI's chemical cleaning
guidelines was needed to ensure that utilities have access to the latest information.
Objective
To develop comprehensive guidelines on chemical cleaning of fossil plant equipment
Approach
The project team supplemented their knowledge and experience with information from the
published literature. They also contacted organizations and individuals involved worldwide in all
aspects of chemical cleaning. These contacts included members of EPRI's Boiler and Turbine
Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target, as well as chemical cleaning service companies and
consultants. The team then revised the 1993 guidelines and developed new sections on
determining the necessity and timing of cleaning, selecting solvents, and performing heat
exchanger cleaning.
Results
These revised guidelines reflect the spectrum of technology and identify the best practices
available for chemical cleaning of fossil plant equipment. In specific, the guidelines establish a
roadmap methodology for assessing the need to chemically clean boilers and provide the
information required for planning and conducting successful cleanings. The guidelines also
present background information on the impacts of deposits and scale on unit operation and
performance. This revision includes the latest information on solvent selection, as well as the
1-45
cleaning of superheater/reheater surfaces, turbines, and other heat exchangers. The guidelines
strongly suggest that in cases where cycle chemistry is not optimized, it is of paramount
importance that chemical cleaning is conducted at an optimum time using optimum procedures.
Otherwise, there remains an inherent risk of failure and damage during continued operation with
deposits above critical levels.
EPRI Perspective
reliability. These revised guidelines on chemical cleaning of fossil plant equipment surfaces will
help utilities achieve plant-specific goals in the areas of availability and reliability. This revision
to the chemical cleaning guidelines now becomes part of a suite of 11 key fossil plant guidelines,
which should be employed by every fossil plant. EPRI has developed four guidelines for the five
fossil plant boiler treatments and three feedwater treatments -- all-volatile treatment (TR105041), phosphate treatment (TR-103665), oxygenated treatment (TR-102285), and caustic
treatment (TR-104007). Other guidelines address the selection and optimization of boiler water
and feedwater (TR-105040), controlling flow-accelerated corrosion (TR-108859), startup,
shutdown, and layup (TR-107754), condensate polishing (TR-104422), makeup water treatment
(TR-113692), and copper in fossil plants (1000457). In the near future, EPRI will begin revising
the four main treatment guidelines based on the latest research results from the Boiler and
Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target.
Program
History
1-46
Interim Guidance on Chemical Cleaning of Supercritical Units

Product Number
1017476
Date Published
April 2010
Details
Abstract
Waterwall tubes in some of the existing fleet of supercritical steam generators operating with
oxygenated water (OT) treatment are experiencing the growth of duplex oxide scales of similar
morphology to those found in the circuitry of steam touched superheater and reheater tubing.
EPRI Report 1015656, Oxide Scale Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical
Steam Boilers, 2009 examined the conditions at which these oxides are formed. This report
provides guidance on proper monitoring of waterwall tube conditions and chemical cleaning for
oxide and deposit removal.
Background
Fossil power station chemists, operators and engineers involved in the operation and
maintenance of supercritical once-through steam generators must maintain internal tube surfaces
with minimal deposits and in situ grown oxide to allow sufficient conductive heat transfer to
minimize the potential of damage to the tubing. This necessitates periodic chemical cleaning of
the steam generator. After conversion of many once-through steam generators to oxygenated
treatment in the 1990s the interval between cleans increased. The increased interval between
cleans was possible due to a reduction in deposition rates due to improved corrosion control,
however the increase in time period has resulted in an increase in the thickness of in situ grown
oxides formed, with the greatest growth not in the typical locations used for boiler condition tube
sampling. Power stations have had mixed success identifying and removing these in situ grown
oxides with current clean assessment guidance and cleaning procedures and, as such, are faced
with the challenge of developing effective and efficient means to identify and remove in situ
grown oxides prior to damage occurring.
Objective
The objective of this project has been to incorporate previous research into comprehensive
interim guidance for Chemically Cleaning deposits and high-temperature in situ grown oxides in
Supercritical fossil units. Specifically this entailed determining the mechanism and growth
dynamics of in situ grown oxides, developing an assessment methodology to determine when to
chemically clean, development of optimum conditions of solvent concentration, temperature and
time to effect the removal of the oxides, guidance on the selection of solvents for chemical
cleaning and guidance on conducting the cleaning operation.
1-47
Approach
Interim guidance document developed based on the culmination of two independent research
projects:
Supercritical Boiler Chemical Cleaning for Removal of Duplex Oxides formed by High
Temperature In-Situ Oxidation of Ferritic Steel
Oxide Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical Units
Results
The project has developed comprehensive interim guidance for assessing and Chemically
Cleaning Supercritical units for both feedwater corrosion product deposits and high-temperature
oxides formed in situ on the low-alloy ferritic tubing of Supercritical boilers. The growth
dynamics of in situ grown oxides are also detailed as well as methodologies for determining the
most appropriate time to chemically clean Supercritical units based on in situ grown oxide
thickness, deposit loading, tube operating temperatures and tubing metallurgy. Further guidance
is provided for proper selection of cleaning solvents and cleaning processes for the effective and
efficient removal of deposits and in situ grown oxides.
EPRI Perspective
The scientific understanding of the oxide growth mechanism and morphology will provide the
basis for developing specific guidance for managing the oxide growth rate and criteria for
performing boiler maintenance and chemical cleaning. Further research must address concerns
relating the thermal growth of in situ oxide in waterwall with thermal fatigue cracking of
supercritical tubing and knowledge about the properties of these oxide scales that can be used in
the formulation of remedial actions.
Program
1-48
Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment

Product ID
1019635
Date Published
23-Dec-2010
Details
Technical Report Available Online Newer Version of TR-113692-Revised Guidelines for
Makeup Water Treatment
Abstract
The quality of boiler and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) cycle makeup water is central to
ensuring the necessary purity of boiler or HRSG water, feedwater, and steam. It plays an
important role in ensuring component availability and reliability in fossil and combined cycle
plants. This report presents up-to-date guidelines based on proven approaches for producing
makeup water from various raw water supplies.
Major losses of availability in fossil fuel plants are attributable to water and steam
contamination. Various Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) reports provide operating cycle
chemistry guidelines to assist plant personnel in reducing such contamination and the resulting
corrosion, scaling, and deposition. Although these reports present guidance for cycle makeup
water purity, they do not give detailed consideration to actual fossil and combined cycle plant
practice and experience. The EPRI report Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment (TR113692) provided information on makeup equipment and procedures. Since 1999, when that
report was published, there have been numerous advances in makeup water treatment technology
and changes in fossil plant management philosophy.
Objective
The objectives of this project were to develop comprehensive guidelines on the state-of-the-art
design, operation, and performance of boiler and HRSG cycle makeup water treatment systems
and to identify ways to improve performance of existing systems.
Approach
The project team supplemented their knowledge and experience by reviewing published
literature and by contacting organizations and individuals involved with makeup systems around
the world. An Advisory Group of utility members was formed to guide the overall project,
identifying gaps in the EPRI report Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment (TR113692) and reviewing updated drafts developed for this report. The project team contacted
makeup treatment equipment manufacturers and suppliers of related products and services and
used the information they gathered to update the guidelines. Based on the guidance of the
Advisory Group, the primary focus of the update was to revise and update the membrane
treatment technology guidance (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, and electrodeionization).
1-49
Results
This updated report describes state-of-the-art approaches and fossil and combined cycle plant
practices for design, operation, and performance monitoring of makeup water treatment systems.
It outlines ways to assess existing treatment approaches and practices to determine their
suitability for the units served. Guidance is also provided for those considering design of new
systems. The organization of the report facilitates access to specific topics of interest. Individual
sections of the report address the following:
Relationships between water supply characteristics and treatment requirements
Applicability and limitations of the individual unit processes that can be used in makeup treatment
systems
Process selection criteria and treated-water purity guidelines for fossil plants
Guidelines for selecting materials, chemicals, resins, and media used in makeup treatment systems
This report is applicable to fossil and combined cycle plants. It provides state-of-the-art guidance
on the treatment of water for use in high-pressure (>1000 psi [>6.89 MPa]) steam/water power
cycles. The report covers all aspects of the production of makeup water for fossil and combined
cycle plants, including design, operation, maintenance, troubleshooting, evaluation, and
specification of overall systems, as well as all necessary individual treatment processes to
produce high-purity boiler/HRSG cycle makeup water.
EPRI Perspective
One of the overall goals of the EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Program is to provide
guidelines for the majority of currently operating equipment. This updated EPRI report augments
the fossil plant guidelines, which cover every aspect of fossil plant cycle chemistryboiler and
feedwater treatments; startup, shutdown, and layup procedures; condensate polishing; chemical
cleaning; and failure alleviation.
The updated guidelines play a vital part in keeping overall cycle chemistry within the limits
prescribed in the operating treatment guidelines. These guidelines will enable fossil and
combined cycle plants to produce makeup water of the purity required for other sample points
around the cycle. Section 2 provides an important rationale for technical evaluation, which can
be used to configure new systems or to assess and upgrade existing systems. The conditions
imposed on plants during shutdown are as important as the treatment philosophies used during
operation. One part of this relates to the current philosophy of injecting oxygenated makeup
water from open storage facilities. The suggestions to eliminate these practices might be vital for
a number of plants, particularly those with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems.
Program
Keywords
Feedwater
Water chemistry
1-50
Makeup water
Water treatment
Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment

Product Number
TR-113692
Date Published
September 1999
Details
Abstract
Because the quality of boiler cycle makeup water is central to ensuring the necessary purity of
boiler water, feedwater, and steam, it plays an important role in ensuring component availability
and reliability in fossil plants. This EPRI report presents up-to-date guidelines based on proven
approaches for the production of makeup water from various raw water supplies.
Background
contamination. Various EPRI reports contain operating cycle chemistry guidelines to assist plant
personnel in reducing such contamination and the resulting corrosion, scaling, and deposition.
Although these reports present guidance for cycle makeup water purity, they do not give detailed
consideration to actual fossil plant practice and experience. The initial Guidelines for Makeup
Water Treatment (GS-6699) provided information on makeup equipment and procedures up to
1990. Since that document was published, there have been numerous advances in makeup water
treatment technology and changes in fossil plant management philosophy.
Objective
To develop comprehensive guidelines on the state-of-the-art design, operation, and
performance of boiler cycle makeup water treatment systems, and to identify ways to
improve performance of existing systems
Approach
The project team supplemented their knowledge and experience with published literature and by
contacting organizations and individuals involved with makeup systems around the world. These
included members of EPRI's Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group (FPCCG), makeup treatment
equipment manufacturers, and suppliers of related products and services. The team used this
information to update the original guidelines. Members of EPRI's Boiler and Turbine Steam and
Cycle Chemistry Target and of the FPCCG reviewed the document.
1-51
Results
The revised guidelines describe in detail state-of-the-art approaches and fossil plant practices for
design, operation, and performance monitoring of makeup water treatment systems. The
guidelines outline ways to assess existing treatment approaches and practices to determine their
suitability for the units served. Guidance is also provided for those considering design of new
systems. Individual sections of the report address the following:
Relationships between water supply characteristics and treatment requirements.
Applicability and limitations of the individual unit processes that may be employed in
makeup treatment systems.
Process selection criteria and treated-water purity guidelines for fossil plants.
Guidelines for selecting materials, chemicals, resins, and media used in makeup treatment
systems.
Performance monitoring considerations.
The reports content organization facilitates access to specific subjects.

EPRI Perspective
One of the overall goals of the EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Program is to provide
guidelines for the majority of currently operating equipment. This new EPRI report augments the
suite of 10 other fossil plant guidelines, which cover every aspect of fossil plant cycle chemistry:
boiler and feedwater treatments, startup/shutdown/layup, condensate polishing, chemical
cleaning, and failure alleviation.
The revised makeup guidelines will play a vital part in keeping overall cycle chemistry within
the limits prescribed in the operating treatment guidelines. They will enable fossil plants to
produce makeup water of the purity required for other sample points around the cycle. Section 16
of the Guidelines provides an important rationale for technical evaluation, which can be used to
configure new systems or to assess and upgrade existing systems.
It is now clearly recognized that the conditions imposed on plants during shutdown will become
as important as the treatment philosophies used during operation. One part of this relates to the
current philosophy of injecting oxygenated makeup water from open storage facilities. The
Guidelines' suggestions to eliminate these practices will become vital for a number of plants,
particularly those having mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems.
Program
History
1-52
Guidelines for Turbine Deposit Collection and Analysis

Product ID
1023064
Date Published
14-Dec-2011
Details
Technical Report
Abstract
Steam impurities can deposit throughout the steam path, causing a variety of performance issues.
Deposits can result in efficiency losses and component failures through stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) or corrosion fatigue (CF) initiated by corrosive deposits. The potential for each of these
mechanisms can be exacerbated by the reduced frequency of turbine overhauls or opportunities
to conduct an inspection. Sampling and deposit analysis is an integral part of a steam path audit,
as well as a reflection of the steam chemistry history.
An accurate assessment of the condition of the various turbine components for corrosion and
deposition is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of the steam/water cycle chemistry
program. The process requires an evaluation of as-found conditions and photographic records of
the stationary and rotating turbine components, along with proper collection and analysis of
deposits. In addition, in situ testing for pH and qualitative determination of contaminants that can
result in corrosion-related damage is a useful tool. Additional requirements include assessing the
presence of any pitting, as well as the deposit thickness and morphology. Without a standardized
procedure for collecting and analyzing turbine deposits, it is difficult to compare the results with
those from previous inspections.
The objective of this project was to review the published literature on turbine deposit sample
collection testing and develop a standardized guideline for personnel to inspect turbine
components from a chemistry perspective. A suggested detailed methodology is provided to plan
and inspect turbine components, collect and analyze deposits, interpret the results, and make
suggestions to improve the cycle chemistry program based on the data from the inspection. A
standard methodology will allow for maintaining proper historical records and interpretation of
the component condition from one outage to the next.
Program
Keywords
Corrosion
Deposition
pH
Turbine
Water chemistry and steam
1-53
2
DAMAGE: THEORY AND PRACTICE
2-1
Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice

Product Number
AP-108943
Date Published
August 1999
Details
Abstract
Historically, most treatises about steam turbines have concentrated on thermo-dynamics or
design. In contrast, the primary focus of this book is on the problems that occur in the turbine
steam path. Some of these problems have been long known to the industry, starting as early as A.
Stodola's work at the turn of the century in which mechanisms such as solid particle erosion,
corrosion and liquid droplet damage were recognized. What we have tried to do here is to
provide, in a single, comprehensive reference, the current state of knowledge for major forms of
steam path damage. For each problem, topics covered include features (microscopically and
macroscopically) of the damage, common locations and susceptible units, mechanism, root
causes, determining the extent of damage, repairs and immediate actions to be taken, and
longterm actions. There are strong motivations for directing the focus to steam path problems.
Failures of blades and discs in fossil and nuclear turbines represent a serious loss of availability
for power generation suppliers and other energy suppliers worldwide. Other problems such as
deposition onto blade surfaces result in efficiency losses that restrict operation may result in
reduction of maximum capacity, and result in significant economic penalties.
Three strongly held philosophical beliefs underlie the approach taken in this book. First, that
understanding of the mechanism and root cause of each incidence is of paramount importance to
the permanent alleviation of the problem. Second, that by understanding what causes these
problems to occur, it should be possible to anticipate their development, monitor evolving
"precursors" in the unit, and take early action to avoid a significant condition from occurring.
This will become particularly important to turbine operators as the period between planned
overhauls increases, thus placing a premium on detecting developing damage without opening
the turbine. Third, a formalized company-wide program for correction, prevention, and control
can minimize turbine-related problems. Events can emanate from inadequate initial design, from
poor operation and maintenance, cycle chemistry environments, and lack of proper management
support. It is clear that more than just proper technical guidance will be necessary to reduce the
costs associated with turbine damage. Over the last twenty years, many people and groups have
influenced our thinking on this very diverse topic; while a complete listing would cover many
pages; a sample provides a flavor for the breadth of their contributions.
Many excellent papers and design text books have been written on the subject of steam turbines,
including those written by Wilfred Campbell, Ken Cotton, Ralph Ortolano, M. Prohl, Neville
Rieger, J. Kenneth Salisbury, Bill Sanders, George Silvestri, and A. Stodola to name just a few.
Over the last 10 years, tremendous support has also been available internationally, and many
2-2
individuals and organizations have assisted in developing solutions to most of the known steam
path failures. Particular acknowledgment is made of Walter David (Siemens), Joseph Denk
(ABB), Alan Hesketh (Alstom), Stuart Holdsworth (GEC), Markus Speidel (Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology), and Bobby Svoboda (ABB).
Program
2005 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines Generators and Balance-of-Plant Program
History
2003 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance-of-Plant Program
2002 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance-of-Plant
1999 Program 071.0 Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance of
2-3
Plant Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals
Volume 2: Damage Mechanisms
Product Numbers
TR-108943-V1
TR-108943-V2
Date Published
January 2000
Details
Abstract
Steam path damage, particularly of blades, has long been recognized as a leading cause of steam
turbine unavailability for large fossil fuel plants worldwide. It has been estimated that turbine
problems cost the U.S. utility industry as much as one billion dollars per year and that the cost
for industrial turbines, which suffer similar problems, is higher.
Objective
The primary objective of these volumes is to provide the most recent knowledge about steam
path damage in conventional fossil fueled and nuclear power plants. Constituent objectives are:
To provide sufficient theory and background information so that the reader can (i) identify
steam path damage mechanisms, (ii) determine their root cause, and (iii) apply immediate
and longer term strategies to minimize or prevent their reoccurrence.
To provide direct, easy-to-follow actions to be taken in the event that steam path damage or a
precursor has occurred.
Approach
This book contains the damage mechanisms affecting the turbine steam path in fossil fuel and
nuclear power plants. For the first time mechanical aspects have been linked with chemical
environment factors to provide an understanding of the key steam path damage types. This book
also takes a unit wide view of turbine damage. Many problems that occur in the turbine do not
originate there; understanding how to avoid these problems requires a much wider view of what
is occurring throughout the unit.
2-4
Results
Our analysis indicates the following general conclusions:
Damage to steam path components by various mechanisms continues to result in significant

economic impact domestically and internationally.
Corrosion fatigue of blades in low pressure (LP) turbines continues to be the most significant
form of steam path damage. It occurs in the phase (dry-to-wet) transition zone (PTZ); thus
the majority of LP blade damage occurs in the last two rows in fossil fuel units, while in
nuclear units, a greater portion of the damage is in the L- 3 through L-6 rows of LP turbines.
Significant damage occurs by stress corrosion cracking in rotors of both nuclear and fossil
units; increasingly, attention has focused on the disc rim blade attachment region.
Damage in high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) turbines of fossil units caused
by solid particle erosion also continues to be significant, although improved designs and
coatings have decreased the rate of damage accumulation from that seen in the late 1970s and
1980s.
Deposition of copper in the HP and IP sections has seen recent increases in occurrence,
although this phenomenon originally occurred in the late 1950s.
Steam path damage is often concurrent with other problems in the plant; in many cases, more
than one problem is evident in units reporting blade failures.
For many observations of damage, either the root cause is not determined, or it is determined
incorrectly. As a result, corrective actions taken have varying success rates, and the same
types of damage often reoccur. Usually, the final failure is remote enough from the events, or
more normally, series of events, that the true cause is obscured.
Program
Technology Innovation (Long-term R&D)
Keywords
Power Plant Availability
Steam Turbines
Thermodynamic Properties
Thermodynamics
Erosion Corrosion
2-5
Field Guide: Turbine Steam Path Damage

Product Number
1024593
Date Published
12/12/2011
Details
Abstract
Steam path damage, particularly of blades, has long been recognized as a leading cause of steam
turbine unavailability for large fossil fuel plants. Damage to steam path components by various
mechanisms continues to result in significant economic impact domestically and internationally.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report TR-108943, Turbine Steam Path Damage:
Theory and Practice, Volumes 1 and 2, was prepared to compile the most recent knowledge
about turbine steam path damage: identifying the underlying mechanisms, determining their root
cause, and choosing immediate and long-term actions to lessen or prevent recurrence of the
problem. This field guide provides a pocket reference based upon the content of the report.
Objective
Damage to steam path components by various mechanisms continues to result in significant
economic impact domestically and internationally. For many observations of damage, either the
root cause is not determined, or it is determined incorrectly. Usually, the final failure is remote
enough from the events or, more normally, series of events that the true cause is obscured. As a
result, corrective actions taken have varying success rates, and the same types of damage often
reoccur.
As users push for more economic operation of units, a key goal is to move to longer periods
between planned turbine outages. Reaching this goal will require careful analysis of damage,
determination of the underlying mechanism, correction of the root cause, and choice of the
appropriate actions to avoid reoccurrence. This field guide provides guidance on addressing the
contributing causes of each damage mechanism to help eliminate repeat failures.
Approach
This field guide was developed from the content of EPRI Report TR-108943.
Results
Failures of blades and discs in fossil and nuclear turbines represent a serious loss of availability
for power generation suppliers and other energy suppliers worldwide. Other problems such as
deposition onto blade surfaces result in efficiency losses that restrict operation, may result in
reduction of maximum capacity, and result in significant economic penalties.
A formalized company-wide program for correction, prevention, and control can minimize
turbine-related problems. Events can emanate from inadequate initial design, poor operation and
maintenance, cycle chemistry environments, and lack of proper management support.
2-6
This guide provides brief background information and fundamentals on the operating
environments, basic chemistry, and materials. The degradation mechanisms detailed in Volume 2
of TR-108943 are captured in this field guide. For each mechanism, the focus is on helping the
user to identify the mechanisms of failure and the contributing causes and on providing
appropriate mitigating actions.
Steam path damage occurs in the low pressure turbines in nuclear plants and in the high-,
intermediate-, and low-pressure turbines of fossil plants. The information and comprehensive
approach presented in this field guide will help organizations to approach and achieve world
class performance.
EPRI is pursuing a series of field manual-style projects that seek to reformat EPRI and industry
knowledge into a more user-friendly format. This guide is designed to be portable and includes
information useful for personnel seeking to identify failures in the field. By creating guides in a
more portable format that are graphics intensive, while retaining references to more in-depth
sources, EPRI believes that the research done by the Institute will be made more available and
useful to plant staff.
Program
2011Steam Turbines-Generators and Auxiliary Systems
Keywords
Contributing causes
Failures
Fossil plant
Nuclear plant
Steam path damage
Turbine
2-7
Revision of EPRI's Boiler Tube Failure Books

Product ID
1023063
Date Published
12/23/2011
Document Type
Technical Report
Abstract
Boiler and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) tube failures have been the primary
availability problem for operators of conventional and combined cycle plants for as long as
reliable statistics have been kept for each generating source. This book provides owners and
operators with the technical basis to address tube failures and create permanent solutions.
Objective
The majority of tube failures have been repeat failures, indicating that the return to service of a
unit has historically been more important than understanding the mechanism and root cause of
each boiler tube failure (BTF) or HRSG tube failure (HTF). This book provides guidance on
addressing the root cause of each tube failure to help eliminate repeat failures.
Approach
In developing the 2007 version (1012757), EPRI reviewed the experiences of using the initial
BTF book and the HTF manual worldwide and determined that identifying the mechanism and
root cause of all tube failures continues to be the basis for availability improvements. EPRI also
reviewed the research developments and conference proceedings during the last 1015 years and
integrated these into the combined tube failure books. The book was then reviewed by experts in
tube failures, materials, chemistry, and inspection, as well as operators and maintainers.
This update includes new information on damage mechanisms from recent EPRI research on
long-term overheat/ creep, short-term overheat, dissimilar metal welds, oxidation, explosive
cleaning, and graphitization. A new damage mechanism has been added to Volume 3strain
induced precipitation hardeningbased on recent research by Program 87, Fossil Materials and
Repair. Future updates will also include more information on carburization, which is not covered
in this update because information on this damage mechanism is still evolving.
Results
Tube failures emanate from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance, harsh fire-side
and cycle chemistry environments, and lack of management support for comprehensive reduction
programs. The first volume of this book provides background information and fundamentals on
the operating environments, statistics, and the basic chemistry and materials. The second volume
2-8
addresses tube failures in water-touched tubing, and the third volume addresses tube failures in
steam-touched tubing. A total of 47 tube failure mechanisms are comprehensively covered, with
35 addressing conventional fossil plants and 25 addressing HRSGs. In each case, the focus is on
helping the user to identify the mechanism of failure and the root cause.
Tube failures occur in new and old units; in units that cycle and those that operate under
baseload conditions; in supercritical, once-through, and drum units; in HRSGs; and in units
burning every sort of combustible material. The Electric Power Research Institute's (EPRI's)
BTF benchmarking process indicates that the comprehensive approach advocated in this book
will help organizations to approach and achieve world-class performance.
EPRI Perspective
EPRIs comprehensive BTF reduction program has been applied to more than 70 organizations
worldwide since 1997. The program has used the technical basis of the first version of this EPRI
book (TR-105261-V1V3). Substantial availability improvements have been recorded in the tens
to hundreds of millions of dollars per year, and the results of this program have been published in
EPRI report 1013098. A similar program was initiated in 2002 for HRSG tube failure reduction.
This program used the initial EPRI report, Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure Manual
(1004503), with more than 40 organizations worldwide. These two programs have provided
much technical advancement, which has been combined in this new BTF/HTF book.
Program
2011 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement Program
Keywords
Combined cycle plants
Fossil plants
Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs)
Root cause
Tube failures
2-9
Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures

Volume 1: Fundamentals
Volume 2: Water-Touched Tubes
Volume 3: Steam-Touched Tubes
Product Number
1012757
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
Boiler and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) tube failures have been the primary
availability problem for operators of conventional and combined cycle plants for as long as
reliable statistics have been kept for each generating source. This book provides owners and
operators with the technical basis to address tube failures and create permanent solutions.
Objective
The majority of tube failures have been repeat failures, indicating that the return to service of a
unit has historically been more important than understanding the mechanism and root cause of
each boiler tube failure (BTF) or HRSG tube failure (HTF). This book provides guidance on
addressing the root cause of each tube failure to help eliminate repeat failures.
Approach
EPRI reviewed the experiences of using the initial BTF book and the HTF manual worldwide
and determined that identifying the mechanism and root cause of all tube failures continues to be
the basis for availability improvements. EPRI also reviewed the research developments and
conference proceedings over the last 10 years and integrated these into the draft of this combined
tube failure book. The book was then reviewed by experts in tube failures, materials, chemistry,
and inspection as well as operators and maintainers.
Results
Tube failures emanate from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance, harsh fireside
programs. The first volume of this book provides background information and fundamentals on
the operating environments, statistics, and the basic chemistry and materials. The second volume
addresses tube failures in water-touched tubing and the third volume in steam-touched tubing. A
total of 47 tube failure mechanisms are comprehensively covered, with 35 addressing
conventional fossil plants and 25 addressing HRSGs. In each case, the focus is on helping the
user to identify the mechanism of failure and the root cause.
2-10

baseload conditions; in supercritical, once-through, and drum units; in HRSGs; and in units
burning every sort of combustible material. EPRI's BTF benchmarking process indicates that the
comprehensive approach advocated in this book will help organizations to approach and achieve
world class performance.
EPRI Perspective
EPRIs comprehensive BTF reduction program integrated with the cycle chemistry improvement
program has been applied to more than 70 organizations worldwide since 1997. The program has
used the technical basis of the first version of this EPRI book (TR-105261-V1V3). Substantial
availability improvements have been recorded in the tens to hundreds of millions of dollars per
year, and the results of this program have been published in the EPRI report 1013098. A similar
program was initiated in 2002 for HRSG tube failure reduction. This program used the initial
EPRI report, Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure Manual (1004503), with
more than 40 organizations worldwide. These two programs have provided much technical
advancement, which has been combined in this new BTF/ HTF book.
Program
Program 063.0 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement
Keywords
Fossil plants
Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs)
Tubes
Failures
Root cause
2-11
Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure

Product ID
1017471
Date Published
12/22/2009
Details
Technical Update Available Online
Abstract
In conventional and combined-cycle plants, boiler tube failures (BTFs) have been the main
availability problem for as long as reliable statistics have been kept for each generating source.
The three volumes of the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) report Boiler and Heat
Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice (1012757) present an in-depth
discussion of the various BTF and degradation mechanisms, providing plant owners and
operators with the technical basis to address tube failures and create permanent solutions. This
field guide is based on the content of Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures:
Theory and Practice.
Objective
Most BTFs have been repeat failures, indicating that the return to service of a unit has
historically been more important than understanding the failure. This field guide provides
guidance on identifying and addressing the mechanism and contributing causes of each tube
failure to help eliminate repeat failures.
Approach
This field guide was developed from the content of Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator
Tube Failures: Theory and Practice (1012757).
Results
Tube failures emanate from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance, harsh fireside
programs. A total of 35 tube failure mechanisms affecting conventional fossil plants are
described in this field guide.
baseload conditions; in supercritical, once-through, and drum units; and in units burning every
sort of combustible material. The information and comprehensive approach presented will help
organizations to approach and achieve world-class performance.
2-12
EPRI Perspective
Worldwide, EPRI's comprehensive BTF reduction program, integrated with the cycle chemistry
improvement program, has been applied to more than 70 organizations since 1977. A similar
program was initiated in 2002 to reduce heat recovery steam generator tube failures. This field
guide makes the most essential practical information learned from these two programs available
to plant owners and operators in the form of a convenient pocket reference.
Program
Keywords
Contributing causes
Failures
Fossil plants
Tubes
2-13
Field Guide: Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure

Product ID
1021121
Date Published
12/15/2010
Details
Abstract
In conventional and combined-cycle plants, boiler and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
tube failures have been the main availability problem for as long as reliable statistics have been
kept for each generating source. The three volumes of the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) report Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice
(1012757) present an in-depth description of the various HRSG and degradation mechanisms,
providing plant owners and operators with the technical basis to address tube failures and create
permanent solutions. This field guide is based on the content of that report.
Related Material
1012757 - Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice
Objective
Most tube failures have been repeat failures, indicating that returning a unit to service has
historically been more important than understanding the failure. This field guide provides
guidance on identifying and addressing the mechanism and contributing causes of each HRSG
tube failure to help eliminate repeat failures.
Approach
This field guide was developed from the content of the EPRI report Boiler and Heat Recovery
Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice (1012757).
Tube failures result from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance, harsh fire-side and
cycle chemistry environments, and lack of management support for comprehensive reduction
programs. A total of 25 tube failure mechanisms affecting conventional fossil plants are
described in this field guide.
baseload conditions; in supercritical, once-through, and drum units; and in units burning every
sort of combustible material. The information and comprehensive approach presented in this
field guide will help organizations to approach and achieve world-class performance.
2-14
EPRI Perspective
Worldwide, EPRI's comprehensive boiler tube failure reduction program, integrated with the
cycle chemistry improvement program, has been applied to more than 70 organizations since
1977. A similar program was initiated in 2002 to reduce HRSG tube failures. This field guide
makes the most essential practical information learned from these two programs available to
plant owners and operators in the form of a convenient pocket reference.
Program
2010 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Dependability
Keywords
Contributing causes
Failures
Fossil plants
Tubes
2-15
Feedwater Heater Tube Failure Manual

Product ID
1017622
Date Published
30-Jul-2010
Document Type
Technical Report
Abstract
Feedwater heaters are key components in maintaining low unit heat rate (increased cycle
efficiency) in the Rankine steam cycle; therefore, failure or poor performance of feedwater
heaters has a negative effect on plant performance. Although there are numerous Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) reports on the design and performance of feedwater heaters, the few
documents available that include descriptions of damage and failure mechanisms in the
feedwater heater either are incomplete, provide few examples, do not address the materials
currently used in construction, or do not provide the detail needed to clearly identify the
operative failure mechanisms. This manual includes comprehensive information and guidance on
the materials of construction, an advanced understanding of damage (damage mechanisms), and
the technical criteria for mitigation or elimination of damage in feedwater heaters.
Newer Version Of:
1015826-Feedwater Heater Tube Failure Manual
Objective
This report should be read by plant personnel who are required to respond to failures in
feedwater heaters.
Approach
This report drew on the extensive library of information collected in past EPRI reports (GS7930, CS-1776, and others) and conference proceedings, as well as recent examples of failures
provided by EPRI members. The guide was assembled using the same approach as other EPRI
theory and practice resources on the failures of boiler tubes (1012757) and condensers
(1010188).
Results
This report will allow plant engineers, metallurgists, chemists, and laboratory failure analysis
personnel to identify failure mechanisms in feedwater heaters to provide a basis for root cause
analysis and guidance on corrective action.
2-16

This guide is a valuable tool for understanding failure mechanisms observed in both old and new
feedwater heaters and assists in developing corrective actions to mitigate or eliminate damage.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has a strong history of developing comprehensive failure mechanism guides on boiler
tubes, heat recovery steam generator tubes, and condenser tubes. This report should augment
these guides as the state-of-the-art knowledge base for feedwater heater tube failure mechanisms.
Program
2009 Fossil Materials and Repair
Keywords
Cavitation-type erosion
Erosion-corrosion
Feedwater heaters
Flow-accelerated corrosion
Impingement erosion
Stress corrosion cracking
2-17
Condenser Tube Failures: Theory and Practice

Product Number
1010188
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
This report summarizes information on all aspects of condenser tube failure (CTF) including
failure mechanisms, possible root causes, and corrective actions.
Objective
The Volume 1 and 2 reports represent important technology transfer references for generating
plant staff and technical support personnel. The roadmap approach to CTF management
presented in Chapter 2 of Volume 1 and reprised in Chapter 15 of Volume 2 provides clear
guidance on how multidisciplinary teams can take control of ongoing CTF issues and work
together to reduce the risk of future problems. Successful implementation of the roadmap
approach offers opportunities to improve unit availability and performance while helping to
reduce the exposure of steam generators and steam turbines to contamination entering the cycle
during CTF incidents.
Approach
The Volume 1 and 2 reports were developed to serve as comprehensive source of information on
all aspects of CTF and to provide the basics of condenser design and operation needed to
understand the various CTF mechanisms, possible root causes, and corrective actions. Where
possible, the discussions include case studies to illustrate specific aspects of interest. In
developing the reports, the project team considered available information from the published
literature over the last six decades and EPRI research findings from publications dating to the
1970s. In addition, the project team contacted several recognized experts to discuss many aspects
of condenser technology and CTF. Review of draft materials by many of these experts and EPRI
members provided further insights.
Results
The two volumes of this report present a summary of information relevant to the understanding
and mitigation of condenser tube failures. Volume 1 focuses on condenser fundamentals,
providing the information needed by generating plant personnel involved in condenser reliability
and CTF prevention. Volume 2 focuses on the damage mechanisms that lead to damage and
failures, resulting in negative impacts on unit availability and increasing the risk of damage to
other cycle components. Each volume lays out a comprehensive CTF management strategy that
considers the variety of possible damage mechanisms and the needs of plant personnel.
2-18

These reports are designed to facilitate technology transfer to generating plant and technical
support personnel and may be used as manuals. As such, they represent a primary resource that
may be used in CTF management. As a follow-up activity, EPRI plans to provide additional
support in the form of interactive workshops to members seeking to establish Condenser Tube
Failure Prevention Programs.
While the majority of condensers in generating plants are water-cooled, air-cooled condensers
are gradually assuming a larger presence in the power industry due primarily to the scarcity of
water and environmental restrictions at plant sites. These units are included in the Volume 1 and
2 reports. However, it is expected that there will be a need for additional assessments of this
technology as the experience base increases.
EPRI Perspective
The condenser represents an integral part of the steam-water cycle. Its performance has direct
influence on the performance of the cycle. In addition, the condenser serves as the gateway for
most of the contamination that enters the cycle. Contamination includes dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide that enter via air inleakage and, in water cooled condensers, cooling water
dissolved solids that enter via condenser tube leaks.
Unfortunately, the condenser is often the most neglected component in the cycle. Condenser
related contamination problems have become quite serious recent years since many generating
units have now been in service for over 30 years. An additional concern is the change in staff
size and experience levels at many plants.
Program
Keywords
Condenser
Condenser Tube Failure
Damage Mechanism
Condenser Leak
Cooling Water Leakage
Air Inleakage
2-19
3
COPPER
3-1
Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants

Product Number
1000457
Date Published
November 2000
Details
Abstract
For fossil plant units with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems, copper has a major influence on
availability and performance at a number of cycle locations-feedwater, boiler, and high pressure
turbine. Recent utility experiences with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems
illustrate the need to improve the understanding of copper around the plant and develop a set of
guidelines for copper control.
Background
Uncontrolled copper transport activity represents a potentially significant source of performance
and reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. A previous
publication (EPRI report TR-108460) provided information on all aspects of copper and its
relevant oxides in fossil cycles. The document also outlined many areas where deficiencies in the
state of knowledge were limiting the ability of utilities to address and eliminate the effects of
copper corrosion, transport, and deposition. The major identified problem was that the
knowledge at that time was mainly anecdotal, not comprehensive, and not sufficient to develop
guidelines for copper around the fossil plant.
Objective
To develop comprehensive guidelines addressing all aspects of copper in a fossil plant
Approach
EPRI initiated five major research projects within Program Copper to address 1) the corrosion of
copper-based materials in low pressure (LP) and high pressure (HP) feedwater environments, 2)
the solubility of copper and its oxides in boiler water and steam, 3) the volatility of copper and
its oxides between water and steam, 4) high temperature pH-potential diagrams, and 5) the
deposition of copper compounds in the HP turbine. The project team summarized these results,
and developed a completely new understanding of copper around the fossil plant. They then
developed guidelines for the condensate and feedwater, the boiler water, and the steam and
turbine together with 16 solutions to address every aspect of copper in a fossil plant. The draft
guideline document was reviewed by more than 40 members of EPRI's Boiler and Turbine
Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target.
3-2
Results
The key features of the new understanding of copper around the plant can be delineated as
follows:
The feedwater must remain reducing during all periods of operation and shutdown.
The boiler water must remain reducing, with minimum air ingress, during shutdown.
Both cuprous and cupric oxides are very volatile and easily partition from boiler water to
steam as hydroxides, even during early startup periods. The solubility of these copper oxides
(hydroxides) in steam is pressure dependent. Only above about 2400 psi (16.5 MPa) can
steam transport copper as a vaporous compound to the HP turbine.
EPRI Perspective
These guidelines form the initial culmination of Program Copper. In some cases, the research
conducted has confirmed many of the Guiding Principles derived within the State of Knowledge
document (TR-108460). In other instances, the research has expanded the Guiding Principles.
These new guidelines have been designed to address each plant- and unit-specific issue involving
copper transport. EPRI will be conducting a number of demonstration projects with target
members to evaluate copper corrosion, transport, and deposition activity in order to define the
effectiveness, practicality, and any limitations of the new guidelines.
Program
History
3-3
State-of-Knowledge of Copper in Fossil Plant Cycles

Product Number
TR-108460
Date Published
July 1997
Details
Abstract
and reliability loss to fossil plant units with mixed metallurgy feedwater systems. Recent utility
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems illustrate the need to
improve the understanding in this area.
Background
EPRI chemistry guidelines on all-volatile treatment (Report TR-105041), phosphate treatment
(TR-103665), oxygenated treatment (TR-102285) and caustic treatment (TR-104007) provided
direction and guidance on the use of these chemistries to control drum boiler water and steam
chemistry. A further report (TR-105040) provides guidance on selection and optimization of
feedwater and boiler water treatments. In spite of the guidance provided by these documents, it
was apparent that a better understanding of copper corrosion, transport and deposition
phenomena was needed.
Objective
To characterize the state-of-knowledge of copper alloys and copper oxides in fossil plant
cycles.
Approach
The authors developed a draft State-of-Knowledge document based on relevant information
published in the worldwide literature. The draft document was sent to members of the EPRI
Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group for review and comment. Comments received were
considered by the authors and appropriate revisions were made prior to publication of the final
report.
Results
This state of knowledge document provides comprehensive information on all aspects of copper
alloys and the relevant copper oxides in fossil plant cycles:
Corrosion in high purity and contaminated feedwater
Electrochemistry in feedwater environments
3-4
Transport of copper and its oxides in feedwater, boiler water and steam
Volatility and solubility of copper and its oxides in steam
Deposition phenomena in the steam turbine.
The document also provides a section on the known solutions to the various problems, and a
section on step-by-step procedures for assessing and evaluating the problems and implementing
corrective actions. The final section outlines the deficiencies in the state of knowledge and where
further R&D is required.
EPRI Perspective
This is the first time the underlying science for all aspects of copper in the fossil plant cycle has
been assembled. The section on electrochemistry will be further comprehensively reviewed in a
future document.
One of the main conclusions from this work is that the lack of understanding in each of the areas
prevents EPRI from currently developing a guideline to ensure that turbine copper deposition
problems will not occur in a specific unit. However, there is sufficient experience around the
world to delineate a list of "Key Contributing Factors" to this problem. Also a set of "Guiding
Principles" has been developed which if followed by the utility industry will minimize and may
eliminate the problem.
Further work in each of the areas is planned within the Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle
Chemistry Target.
Program
History
3-5
Influence of Water Chemistry on Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater

Product Number
1007612
Date Published
August 2003
Details
Abstract
and reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Continuing utility
experiences with severe copper fouling on high pressure turbines identified the need for
fundamental research to improve control of copper corrosion in low pressure (LP) and high
pressure (HP) feedwater heater environments.
Objective
Copper alloys are used extensively as feedwater heater tube materials in many fossil plants. Due
to the interaction of these alloys with feedwater, copper ions and/or copper oxides are liberated
from the parent material and become the initiating event of an eventual HP turbine copper
deposition problem. This study's objective was to develop a clear link between oxidationreduction potential (ORP) and pH in feedwater and corrosion of copper alloys.
Approach
The project team and EPRI developed a comprehensive matrix of conditions representing those
found in the HP feedwater of fossil plants. The team then conducted corrosion studies using
equipment and techniques developed in an earlier study addressing only admiralty brass (EPRI
report 1004586). This approach allowed them to determine the surface chemistry and structure as
a function of ORP, pH, temperature, and shutdown conditions.
Results
This study was conducted for high pressure feedwater heater materials. It has confirmed that
copper corrosion and corrosion product release and transport into feedwater for admiralty brass,
90/10 copper/nickel alloys, and Alloy 400 at 150C and 250C (302F and 482F) are minimum
under reducing conditions. Under reducing conditions (oxidation-reduction potential, or ORP, of
around -300 to -350mV), the surface oxides are generally cuprous oxide (Cu2O). Under
oxidizing conditions, the surface oxides are less protective and rougher and contain CuO and
Ni2O3. Transient conditions between oxidizing and reducing conditions produce the highest
levels of corrosion and transport.
3-6

Organizations that can apply optimum feedwater conditions confirmed in this study will be able
to minimize the inventory of copper in the cycle, and thus, of deposition on HP turbines.
EPRI Perspective
Research on corrosion of copper materials in LP feedwater environments was one important part
of EPRIs Program Copper. Other research has addressed corrosion of copper materials in LP
feedwater environments (EPRI report 1007391), solubility of copper and oxides in water and
steam, volatility of copper and oxides between water and steam, pH-potential diagrams for fossil
plant conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in HP turbines. Results of this research
have been used to develop a comprehensive guideline addressing copper in fossil plants (EPRI
report 1000457).
Program
History
3-7
Influence of Water Chemistry on Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater

Product Number
1004586
Date Published
October 2001
Details
Abstract
Uncontrolled copper transport represents a potentially significant source of performance and
reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Recent utility
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling identified the need for fundamental research to
improve control of copper corrosion in low-pressure (LP) and high-pressure (HP) feedwater
heater environments.
Background
Copper alloys are used extensively as feedwater heater tube materials in many fossil plants.
Because of the interaction of copper alloys with feedwater, copper ions and/or particulate oxides
are liberated from the parent materials and enter the steam/water cycle. Analysis of published
data within EPRI's Program Copper demonstrated poor scientific understanding with regards to
copper corrosion, release, and transport.
Objective
To establish a clear link between feedwater parameters (oxidation-reduction potential, or
ORP, oxygen, and reducing agents) and corrosion of copper alloys and release of copper
oxides in feedwater
Approach
found in fossil plants. The team then constructed two corrosion loops to simulate feedwater
conditions in LP and HP feedwater heaters. They equipped these apparatus with a range of
electrochemical measuring devices and continuous water chemistry monitoring tools. The team
then observed the metal corrosion processes in situ during simulated water chemistry and
temperature transients at 95 degrees Celsius and 250 degrees Celsius. Finally, the team simulated
various shutdown and startup situations under oxidizing and reducing conditions.
Results
The study reveals that for all materials (admiralty brass, 90/10 CuNi alloys, and Alloy 400) and
conditions tested, material integrity is best maintained by the presence of reducing conditions
(ORP around -350mV). Under these conditions, cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is formed on the surface
of alloys.
Under oxidizing conditions (ORP around +100mV), cupric oxide also is detected, and the
corrosion rates increase markedly
3-8
When ORP is shifted from reducing to more oxidizing, formation of CuO appears to be easier
under these cycling or transient conditions. The most corrosive conditions, or the least protective
surface oxide films, are produced under circumstances where cuprous oxide is not completely
stable and tends to convert into cupric oxide or vice versa.
EPRI Perspective
Research on copper corrosion in feedwater environments was one important part of Program
Copper. The current work supplements previous results on corrosion of copper alloys in LP
feedwater (EPRI Report 1000456) and extends that work into HP feedwater temperatures and
environments. EPRI recently published "Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants" (EPRI Report
1000457), where results from these corrosion studies were combined with results on the
volatility and solubility of copper and oxides in water and steam, pH-potential diagrams for
fossil plant conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in the HP turbine. EPRI will be
conducting a number of demonstration projects with target members to evaluate copper
corrosion, transport, and deposition.
Program
History
3-9
Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater

Product Number
1000456
Date Published
November 2000
Details
Abstract
and reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Recent utility
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling identified the need for fundamental research to
improve the control of copper corrosion in low pressure (LP) feedwater heater environments.
Background
Copper alloys are used extensively as feedwater heater tube materials in many fossil plants.
Because of the interaction of copper alloys with feedwater, copper ions and/or particulate oxides
are liberated from the parent material and enter the steam/water cycle. Analysis of published data
within EPRI's Program Copper demonstrated poor scientific understanding with regard to copper
corrosion, release, and transport.
Objective
To establish a clear link between oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) in the feedwater and
the corrosion of copper alloys and release of copper oxides into the feedwater
Approach
found in fossil plants. The team then conducted corrosion studies using an atomic force
microscope in combination with sensitive surface analytical techniques. This approach allowed
them to determine the surface chemistry and structure as a function of ORP, pH, temperature,
and shutdown conditions. Finally, they presented preliminary results to the Program Copper team
prior to report preparation.
Results
This study reveals that
ORP is most important in determining the surface oxide and morphology on admiralty brass
at temperatures below 100 degrees Celsius
Under reducing conditions (ORP -350 mV), the surface protective oxide is cuprous oxide
(Cu2O).
Under oxidizing conditions (ORP +100 mV), the surface oxide contains increasing amounts
of nonprotective cupric oxide (CuO).
3-10
When a reducing condition (-350 mV) is changed to an oxidizing condition (+100 mV) -- at
an operating temperature of 95 degrees Celsius (203 degrees Fahrenheit) with pH constant at
9 -- the surface layers start to change quickly from Cu2O to CuOAt temperature reductions
(as during shutdown) from 95 degrees Celsius (203 degrees Fahrenheit) to 25 degrees Celsius
(77 degrees Fahrenheit) -- if the ORP continues reducing at -350 mV at a constant pH of 9 -the surface oxide remains Cu2O.
Minimum corrosion and release occurs between pH 9.0-9.5. The introduction of carbon
dioxide has a marked effect on the corrosion and morphology of surface oxides under
oxidizing conditions, when the ORP is greater than 0 mV.
EPRI Perspective
of Program Copper. Other research has addressed the corrosion of copper materials in high
pressure (HP) feedwater environments, solubility of copper and oxides in water and steam,
volatility of copper and oxides between water and steam, pH-potential diagrams for fossil plant
conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in HP turbines. Results of this research have
been used to develop a comprehensive new guideline addressing copper in fossil plants (EPRI
report 1000457). The next stage of Program Copper is to demonstrate the philosophy,
techniques, and processes described in the guideline with target members.
Program
History
3-11
Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater: Admiralty Brass, Aluminum

Brass, and 90/10 Copper/Nickel at 95 C (203 F)
Product Number
1007391
Date Published
May 2003
Details
Abstract
and reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Continuing utility
experiences with severe copper fouling on high pressure (HP) turbines identified the need for
fundamental research to improve control of copper corrosion in low pressure (LP) feedwater
heater environments.
Objective
Copper alloys are used extensively as feedwater heater tube materials in many fossil plants. Due
to the interaction of these alloys with feedwater, copper ions and/or copper oxides are liberated
from the parent material and become the initiating event of an eventual turbine copper deposition
problem. This study's objective was to develop a clear link between oxidation-reduction potential
in feedwater and corrosion of copper alloys.
Approach
found in fossil plants. The team then conducted corrosion studies using equipment and
techniques developed in an earlier study addressing only admiralty brass (1000456). This
approach allowed them to determine the surface chemistry and structure as a function of
oxidation-reduction potential, pH, temperature, and shutdown conditions.
Results
This study has confirmed that copper corrosion and corrosion product release into feedwater for
admiralty brass, aluminum brass, and 90/10 copper/nickel alloys at 95 C (203 F) are minimum
under reducing conditions at pH values between 9.3 and 9.5. Under reducing conditions
(oxidation-reduction potential of around -300 to -350mV), the surface oxide is finely crystalline
cuprous oxide, whereas under oxidizing conditions, the surface oxide is coarsely crystalline
cupric oxide or oxyhydride.
3-12

Organizations that can apply optimum feedwater conditions confirmed in this study will be able
to minimize the inventory of copper in the cycle and, thus, of deposition on HP turbines.
EPRI Perspective
of EPRI's Program Copper. Other research has addressed corrosion of copper materials in HP
feedwater environments, solubility of copper and oxides in water and steam, volatility of copper
and oxides between water and steam, pH-potential diagrams for fossil plant conditions, and
deposition of copper compounds in HP turbines. Results of this research have been used to
develop a comprehensive new guideline addressing copper in fossil plants (EPRI report
1000457).
Program
History
3-13
Corrosion of Cu-Ni-Zn Alloys in Water-Ammonia Power Plant:

Development of High Temperature Potential-pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams
Product Number
TR-113697
Date Published
September 1999
Details
Abstract
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems illustrate the need to
improve the understanding of copper around the plant.
Background
availability and performance at a number of cycle locations: feedwater, boiler, and high pressure
turbine. A previous publication (EPRI report TR-108460) provided information on all aspects of
copper and its relevant oxides in fossil cycles. The document also outlined the many areas where
deficiencies in the state of knowledge were limiting the ability of utilities to address and
eliminate the effects of copper. One identified problem was the lack of high temperature
potential-pH diagrams for the relevant copper alloys.
Objective
To develop a series of potential-pH diagrams for copper alloys used in power plants
Approach
The project team extensively reviewed the available literature for potential-pH diagrams for CuNi-Zn alloys and for their thermodynamic properties. They next developed a series of potentialpH diagrams for copper alloys using commercially available software.
Results
Provisional potential-pH diagrams for Cu-Ni and Cu-Zn alloys in ammoniated water were
constructed for two ammonia concentrations (17 ppm and 17 ppb) for temperatures between 25
degrees and 300 degrees Celsius (77 degrees and 590 degrees Fahrenheit) using the
comprehensive thermodynamic database collected from the literature. These temperatures and
concentrations were chosen to span the operating conditions of copper and copper oxides in
fossil plants.
3-14
EPRI Perspective
This work forms part of a much larger effort, EPRI's "Program Copper," developed by EPRI to
address all aspects of copper and the relevant oxides in the fossil plant:
Corrosion of copper alloys under typical low pressure and high pressure feedwater conditions
Electrochemistry in feedwater environments
Transport of copper and its oxides in feedwater, boiler water, and steam
Volatility and solubility of copper and its oxides in water and steam
Deposition phenomena in the HP steam turbine
Results of each of these studies will be published during 2000. The information will be used to
develop a comprehensive guideline on "Copper in the Fossil Plant."
The results of this current work provide initial confirmation for the corrosion and
electrochemical studies. The work has also identified a number of deficiencies in the basic data,
which can be addressed in future studies. Then the final potential-pH diagrams will be able to
indicate what reactions are possible or prohibited under certain plant conditions.
Program
History
3-15
Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam Cycles: The Final Report on the

Solubility and Volatility of Copper (I) and Copper (II) Oxides
Product Number
1011075
Date Published
December 2004
Details:
Abstract
reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Utility experiences over
the last 10 years with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems identified the
need for basic fundamental research to improve industry understanding of the volatility and
solubility of copper and its oxides.
Objective
The principal objective of this experimental study was to quantify the equilibrium solubility of
cuprous and cupric oxides over the range of temperature, pH, and pressure relevant to the watersteam cycle of fossil plants.
Approach
The project team measured the solubility of cuprous and cupric oxides in liquid water and steam
using three experimental techniques from 25 to 350 C (77 to 662 F). The team also measured
the volatility and partitioning constants of both oxides by sampling the liquid and vapor phases
and analyzing the copper content. The team confirmed the previous measurements of the
solubility of the oxides in steam and compared all results with previously published experimental
and plant data.
Results
The following highlights the experimental results:
The solubility minimum is only 0.02 ppb at 77 F (25 C) for Cu2O at a pH of about 9.2 and
rises to about 0.7 ppb at 212 F (100 C), which is about a factor of two less than the
corresponding value for CuO.
The solubilities of both oxides (CuO and Cu2O) in water exhibit broad minima with respect
to pH at temperatures 167 F (75 C). However, at higher temperatures the minima are
sharp (V shaped) such that the solubility becomes highly pH dependent and the maxima
decrease with increasing pH
3-16
The solubility of CuO in steam, where it exists exclusively as Cu(OH)2, is nearly

independent of temperature (250 350 C, 482 662 F) at saturation vapor pressures (580 2400 psi).
The solubility of Cu2O in steam, where it exists exclusively as CuOH, is virtually identical to
that of CuO at temperatures up to 350 C (662 F). The average solubility is (2.6 1.2) ppb
compared to (1.4 0.6) ppb for CuO.

Understanding the relative solubilities of cuprous and cupric oxides in feedwater and boiler
water and how both oxides partition to steam should help operators substantially reduce the
effects of copper around the fossil plant cycle.
EPRI Perspective
turbine. Research on the solubility and volatility of copper and its oxides was one important part
of EPRI's Program Copper. Other research has addressed corrosion of copper materials in both
low pressure and high pressure feedwater environments, pH-potential diagrams for fossil plant
conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in high pressure turbines. These results were
used to develop a comprehensive guideline for copper in fossil plants (EPRI report 1000457).
Current results do not change basic operating and shutdown philosophies developed in this
guideline, but do confirm that both cuprous and cupric species must be considered in any
approach to address copper problems. This current work now provides a complete picture of the
solubility of these oxides and the speciation of copper dissolved in feedwater, boiler water, and
steam.
Program
History
3-17

Copper (I) and Copper (II) Oxides
Product Number
1003993
Date Published
December 2001
Details
Abstract
reliability loss to fossil plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems. Recent utility
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems identified the need for
basic fundamental research to improve industry understanding of the volatility and solubility of
copper and its oxides.
Background
turbine. A previous publication (EPRI Report TR-108460) provided information on all aspects of
eliminate the effects of copper. This analysis demonstrated poor scientific understanding with
regard to how copper and its oxides partition into steam. Previous work addressed the volatility
and solubility of cupric oxide (EPRI Report 1000455). This current work similarly addresses
cuprous oxide.
Objective
To measure the solubility of cuprous oxide in water and steam.
To measure the volatility of cuprous oxide between boiler water and steam.
To compare the results with similar data on cupric oxide.
Approach
The project team measured the solubility of cuprous oxide, Cu2O, in liquid water and steam
using three experimental techniques from 25 to 350 degrees Celsius (77 - 662 degrees
Fahrenheit). The team also measured the volatility and partitioning constants of Cu2O by
sampling the liquid and vapor phases and analyzing the copper content. The team confirmed the
previous measurements of the solubility of CuO in steam and compared all the results with
previously published experimental and plant data.
3-18
Results
The study found the solubilities of both cuprous and cupric oxides in steam to be independent of
temperature and pH in the range 200 - 350 degrees Celsius (392 - 662 degrees Fahrenheit) and
were of the order of several ppb. Only the neutral hydroxide forms -- Cu(OH) and Cu(OH)2 -exist in steam, and their concentrations are independent of pH in the water phase. However,
partitioning constants for both species show strong pH dependencies because the solubilities of
both oxides in water are strongly pH dependent.
EPRI Perspective
Research on the solubility and volatility of copper and its oxides was one important part of
EPRIs Program Copper. Other research has addressed the corrosion of copper materials in both
low pressure and high pressure feedwater environments, pH-potential diagrams for fossil plant
conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in high pressure turbines. These results have
been used to develop a new comprehensive guideline for copper in fossil plants (EPRI Report
1000457). The current results do not change the basic operating and shutdown philosophies
developed in this guideline, but do confirm that both the cuprous and cupric species must be
considered in any approach to address copper problems. In the boiler water, solubility of Cu2O is
about a factor of two less than for CuO. Solubility of Cu2O in steam is virtually identical to that
of CuO up to 350 degrees Celsius (662 degrees Fahrenheit). The partitioning constant for
Cu(OH) is similar to that of Cu(OH)2 at low temperatures (during startup), but is significantly
smaller at higher temperatures (during normal operation).
The next stage of Program Copper is to demonstrate the philosophy, techniques, and processes
described in the guideline with target members.
Program
History
3-19

Cupric Oxide
Product Number
1000455
Date Published
December 2000
Details
Abstract
experiences with severe copper turbine fouling and other related problems identified the need for
basic fundamental research to improve industry understanding of the volatility and solubility of
copper and its oxides.
Background
turbine. A previous publication (EPRI Report TR-108460) provided information on all aspects of
eliminate the effects of copper. This analysis demonstrated poor scientific understanding with
regard to how copper and its oxides partition into steam.
Objective
To measure the solubility of cupric oxide in water and steam
To measure the volatility of cupric oxide between boiler water and steam
Approach
The project team measured the solubility of cupric oxide, CuO, in liquid water and steam using
three experimental techniques from 100-400 degrees Celsius (212-752 degrees Fahrenheit). The
team also measured the volatility of CuO by sampling the liquid and vapor phases and analyzing
the copper content. The initial results were presented to EPRI's Program Copper team prior to
report preparation.
3-20
Results
This study reveals that
In all the solubility studies, the solid phase recovered was always CuO.
Cu(OH)+ is the dominant copper species in solution over a wide range of acidic pH.
The pH range corresponding to the minimum in liquid-phase solubility of CuO decreases

with increasing temperature. The effect of added ammonia on the solubility of CuO is
greatest at lower pH and lower temperatures and becomes negligible above 200 degrees
Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit
The solubility of the cupric phase in steam is exclusively Cu(OH)2 and is nearly independent
of temperature up to 350 degrees Celsius (662 degrees Fahrenheit).
EPRI Perspective
Research on the solubility and volatility of copper and its oxides was one important part of
Program Copper. Other research has addressed the corrosion of copper materials in both low
pressure and high pressure feedwater environments, pH-potential diagrams for fossil plant
conditions, and deposition of copper compounds in high pressure turbines. These results have
been used to develop a new comprehensive guideline for copper in fossil plants (EPRI Report
1000457). The next stage of Program Copper is to demonstrate the philosophy, techniques, and
processes described in the guideline with target members.
Program
History
3-21
4
FLOW-ACCELERATED CORROSION (FAC)
4-1
Guidelines for Controlling Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Fossil and Combined

Cycle Plants
Product Number
1008082
Date Published
March 2005
Details
Abstract
Feedwater system piping and tubing failures due to flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) have
occurred in conventional fossil plants and economizer/evaporator tubing in heat recovery steam
generators (HRSGs) over at least the last 20 years. Worker fatalities have refocused attention on
controlling damage due to FAC. These guidelines, which describe the tasks and approaches
required for an effective FAC control program in fossil and combined cycle plants, present a
strategy for inspection- and cycle chemistry-based activities.
Objective
The mechanism of FAC is well understood. The majority of FAC susceptible components and
systems, especially those operating in single-phase water, can avoid FAC damage through
operation with appropriate cycle chemistry conditions. A subset of susceptible components will
require periodic inspection and possible replacement, however. The objective of this study was
to consolidate existing information into a comprehensive approach to assist operators in
controlling FAC.
Approach
Since the publication of the initial FAC guideline (EPRI Report TR-108859), EPRI has
conducted FAC workshops and been involved in many FAC incidents with many organizations
around the world. The EPRI team used this large database to assemble case studies to cover as
many fossil and HRSG FAC locations as possible. The team next developed mechanistic
understandings of FAC phenomena and used this knowledge to optimize the cycle chemistry and
inspection approaches described in these guidelines. Finally, the team developed road maps that
describe the tasks and approaches required for an effective FAC control program in both fossil
and HRSG plants.
Results
These guidelines integrate information on FAC in fossil and HRSG plants into a comprehensive
approach. They describe the organization and activities necessary to implement a successful
FAC program. The FAC mechanisms for single- and two-phase flow are described in detail.
Cycle chemistry can be optimized to minimize single-phase FAC in conventional fossil plants,
and both single-phase and two-phase FAC in HRSG plants. The guidelines describe the
management-supported FAC program necessary to manage FAC and link it with an FAC
benchmarking process.
4-2

FAC occurs in about 60% of conventional fossil plants and is the second most important HRSG
tube failure mechanism in combined cycle plants. The implementation of the inspection- and
cycle chemistry-based approaches will be a cost effective method of increasing personnel safety
and plant availability.
EPRI Perspective
FAC damage can be controlled to avoid severe failures by careful implementation of the
activities in the road maps presented in these guidelines. Activities related to cycle chemistry can
significantly reduce susceptibility to future FAC damage while inspection-based activities can
address damage that has already occurred. It is essential that organizations implement a formal
program to control FAC in fossil and HRSG plants and that the EPRI benchmarking process be
used to assess improvements and implementation of FAC activities.
Program
2005 Program 063.0 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement Program
2005 Program 088.0 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Dependability
History
4-3
Flow-Associated Corrosion in Power Plants

Product Number
TR-106611-R1
Date Published
July 1998
Details
Abstract
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) can cause leaks and ruptures in carbon steel piping, vessels,
and equipment. In recent years, it has become a major issue for nuclear power plants. This book,
now in its second edition, provides a detailed overview of predicting, detecting, and mitigating
FAC.
Background
FAC-induced leaks and ruptures have raised concerns for plant and personnel safety in both
nuclear and fossil-fired plants. In response to the 1986 rupture of a high-pressure condensate line
in Virginia Power's Surry nuclear plant, EPRI set up a multidisciplinary response team to work
with the utility. To help EPRI in its investigations, the French utility, Electricite de France
(EDF), provided a large set of flow-accelerated corrosion data they had developed over the years.
Also providing data were Britain's Central Electricity Generating Board and the German vendor,
Siemens AG Power Generation. These international efforts resulted in a wealth of material,
including inspection guidelines, reports, calculations, manuals, and computer programs, such as
EPRI's CHECWORKS (TM), that help utilities diagnose and correct FAC. All were a result of
EPRI's rapid response to the Surry accident and the ensuing international collaboration.
Objective
To provide a detailed description of information available to help power plant owners
predict, detect, and mitigate FAC
To serve as a general reference for utility personnel responsible for FAC-induced wall
thinning of piping, vessels, and equipment
Approach
The authors of the first edition sought to provide a detailed treatment of FAC in a single
document. To achieve this, they reviewed dozens of papers, manuals, reports, data, calculations,
computer programs, and other tools. The first edition's success prompted them to write an update
based on recent technological advancements. EPRI, EDF, and Siemens cosponsored this edition.
4-4
Results
The new, second edition of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Power Plants contains many
enhancements. Among these are new information on the effect of water chemistry on FAC,
descriptions of the latest computer models, expansion of the material on FAC in fossil and
cogeneration plants, and a more improved format. The book also has an updated FAC experience
section and a new glossary.
EPRI Perspective
Information contained in this book together with referenced tools and guidelines have helped
significantly to reduce the occurrence of flow-accelerated corrosion piping failures. However,
FAC-induced leaks and ruptures still occur. Failure to implement full technological know-how is
a key contributor to most of these incidents. Such incidents make it important for utilities to
integrate their decision-making and engineering skills with the up-to-date information contained
in this report.
Program
2005 Program 041.0 Nuclear Power
History
2004 Program 023037 BOP Corrosion
2004 - 2001 Program 041.0 Nuclear Power
2004 - 2001 Program 063.0 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement Program
2004 - 2001 Program 064.0 Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
2002 Program 023037 T041K CHECWORKS
2000 Program 056.0 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement
1998 Program 047 NUCLEAR POWER FULL GROUP PURCHASE
1998 Program 050 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement
4-5
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) Fossil and Combined Cycle Self-Assessment

Guideline
Product ID
1023089
Date Published
12/21/2011
Details
Technical Update
Abstract
The flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) fossil and combined cycle self-assessment checklist
contained in this report is a document that the plant owner and utility engineer can use to gauge
the effectiveness of their FAC program. In addition, the self-assessment will identify the
strengths and potential weaknesses of the FAC program. Through a scoring system, the self
assessment will suggest areas of focus to improve the overall effectiveness of the program.
Background
The flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) fossil and combined cycle self-assessment checklist will
assist the organizationfrom management to the utility engineerin implementing the FAC
program. The checklist will help identify possible enhancements to the program. After
opportunities to enhance and strengthen the FAC program have been identified, the next
challenge will be to determine whether there will be commitment from the organization to
support the recommended enhancements.
Objective
To identify, through a fossil and combined cycle self-assessment, the effectiveness of the plants
or utilitys FAC program
Approach
The FAC fossil and combined cycle self-assessment checklist is straightforward. The assessment
reviews the organizations FAC staffing, the technical aspects of the FAC program, the
documentation of the program, and the responsibilities and communications associated with the
program. Each requirement for staffing and funding under the utilitys FAC program will vary,
depending on the number of units in the organization.
Results
The FAC fossil and combined cycle self-assessment checklist will identify areas to the plant
owner and staff that require additional work and funding to improve the organizations
commitment to their FAC program. The checklist contained in this report is a document that
utility members can use to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their FAC program.
4-6
Program
Keywords
Boiler
Combined cycle
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) program
Fossil plants
Self-assessment
4-7
Investigation of Critical Parameters in Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under TwoPhase Flow Conditions

Product ID
3002001044
Date Published
December 2013
Details
Technical Update
Abstract
Carbon steel components in steam systems frequently sustain flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC).
Under single-phase flow conditions, pertinent to feedwater systems in nuclear and fossil-fueled
power plants, FAC has been widely investigated. Under two-phase flow conditions, however,
FAC has received less attention, even though the phenomenon is widespreadoccurring in
components such as feedwater heaters, turbine exhaust hoods, and steam generators. Of
particular interest are the methods for mitigating two-phase FAC typically found in the steam
side of the feedwater heater and associated drain lines of conventional fossil-fired units and in
heat recovery steam generator low-pressure economizer evaporator tubes.
This progress report provides the findings of research conducted under single-phase FAC
conditions using a film-forming amine (FFA) as a possible FAC mitigation method. The
mechanisms by which FFAs inhibit corrosion are not fully understood, nor have they been
systematically verified, especially under two-phase conditions in which turbulence intensity is
greater than in single-phase flow and the tenacity of the film remains uncertain. Measuring FAC
inhibition in a single-phase fluid has the advantage of greater control of the local pH and FFA
concentrations at the surface of the test specimen and provides information on the application of
FFA as a mitigation technique for single-phase FAC as a precursor to evaluation in two-phase
environments.
The current findings provide a strong indication that the use of an FFA supplements the
inhibition of FAC in conjunction with increases in the bulk fluid pH. The findings of this phase
of the project work will be used to develop a testing protocol in a two-phase environment with
FFA.
This objective of this research project is to evaluate the effects on FAC in two-phase flow of
potential in-plant chemistry parameters such as the application of FFAs and amine breakdown
products (specifically, acetate, formate, and carbon dioxide) to quantify the effects of operating
parameters and evaluate possible mitigation methods. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) report 1023845, Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase Flow
Conditions, increased our understanding of operating parameters such as steam quality and
system chemistry (for example, ammonia versus ethanolamine) on the FAC rate and provided a
mechanistic model for extending the study to other critical parameters present in feedwater and
steam.
4-8
Program
Keywords
Corrosion
Cycle chemistry
Filming amines
4-9
Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase Flow Conditions

Product ID
1023845
Date Published
January 2013
Details
Technical Report
Abstract
Carbon steel (CS) components in steam systems frequently suffer from flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC). Although the mechanism of FAC in fossil plants has been largely understood
for almost 40 years, it remains one of the major safety issues for plant management and
personnel. FAC occurs across the feedwater system from the condensate pump to the economizer
inlet, with the heater drains systems being particularly susceptible. It is equally dangerous in both
the single- and two-phase flow regions. Under single-phase flow conditions pertinent to
feedwater systems in nuclear and fossil-fueled power plants, FAC has been investigated widely.
Under two-phase flow conditions, however, FAC has received less attention, even though the
phenomenon is widespreadoccurring in components such as feedwater heaters, turbine exhaust
hoods, and steam generators.
This report provides the findings of research conducted on the mechanics and factors influencing
two-phase FAC. The main goals of this program are: 1) to improve understanding of CS FAC
under two-phase flow conditions in heat recovery steam generators and feedwater heaters in
fossil plants, 2) to predict the degradation rate and quantify the effects of operating parameters,
and 3) to evaluate possible mitigation methods. In addition, an understanding of the effects of
cycle impurities such as formic acid or acetic acid on single-phase FAC will be gained.
A test loop was developed to provide a simulation of power plant conditions or two-phase steamwater mixtures. A mixture of water and steam was generated with an isenthalpic process, in
which single-phase water at high temperature and high pressure was throttled. Steam quality
obtained by this process is controlled by temperature and pressure drop across the throttle device.
The installation has worked reasonably well, providing by far the best control ever achieved.
Single-phase runs carried out under neutral conditions and at elevated pH with ammonia (pH up
to 9.2) were found to be in good agreement with the published correlations.
The parameters of principal interest described in this report are pH, steam voidage/quality, and
mass flow rate. The temperature/resistivity measurement through the probe provided excellent
correlation of the FAC rate and the localized thinning of the metal of the probe. Additional
measurement of the actual liquid film in contact with the surface of the probe during two-phase
flow conditions provided an accurate assessment of the solution pH and ammonia
concentrations. FAC was found to increase with decreasing condition of steam pH due to the
reduced concentration of ammonia in the liquid films; however, the steam quality and voidage
were found to have a significant impact on the rate of metal loss, impacting both the velocity and
the pH.
4-10
Program
Keywords
Corrosion
Cycle chemistry
FAC
4-11
Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase Flow Conditions

Product ID
1022022
Date Published
16-Dec-2011
Details
Technical Update
Abstract
Carbon steel (CS) components in steam-raising systems frequently suffer from flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC). Although the mechanism of FAC in fossil plants has been mostly understood
for almost 40 years, it remains as one of the major safety issues for plant management and
personnel. FAC occurs across the feedwater system from the condensate pump to the economizer
inlet, with the heater drains systems being particularly prone. It is equally dangerous in both the
single- and two-phase flow regions. Under single-phase flow conditions pertinent to feedwater
systems in nuclear and fossil-fueled power plants, FAC has been investigated widely. Under
two-phase flow conditions, however, FAC has received less attention, even though the
phenomenon is widespreadoccurring in components such as feedwater heaters, turbine exhaust
hoods, and steam generators.
This report provides a review and update of the project described in Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) report 1021202, Investigation of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Under Two-Phase
Flow Conditions, conducted by the University of New Brunswick for EPRI. The main goals of
this program are: 1) to improve understanding of CS FAC under two-phase conditions in heat
recovery steam generators (HRSGs) and feedwater heaters in fossil plants, 2) to predict the
degradation rate and quantify the effects of operating parameters, and 3) to evaluate possible
mitigation methods. In addition, an understanding of the effects of cycle impurities such as
formic acid or acetic acid on single-phase FAC will be gained.
The test loop has undergone further modifications to improve controllability and precision of
measurements. These improvements were necessary because of the unsteady nature of two-phase
flow in the system. A mixture of water and steam is generated with an isenthalpic process, in
which single-phase water at high temperature and high pressure is throttled. Steam quality
obtained by this process is controlled by temperature and pressure drop across the throttle device.
The installation of a new throttle valve has worked reasonably well, providing by far the best
control ever achieved. Fouling in the valve, however, still occurs during throttling and has had to
be counteracted periodically.
Single-phase runs carried out under neutral conditions and at elevated pH with ammonia (pH up
to 9.2) were found to be in good agreement with the published correlations. As the new throttle
valve was installed, corrosion was observed under two-phase conditions with neutral chemistry
and 0-3.5 ppb dissolved oxygen. Scalloped surfaces observed with a scanning electron
microscope are typical of FAC. Laser Raman spectroscopy revealed that oxides are mainly
magnetite.
4-12
Program
Keywords
Corrosion
Cycle chemistry
FAC
4-13
Development of an In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated

Corrosion in Fossil Plant Feedwater
Product Number
3002000621
Date Published
January 2014
Details
Abstract
This report provides the results of the development of an in situ system for monitoring or
indicating flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in fossil plant feedwater. The main goals of this
program were to develop and test a probe, formulate a model based on the existing understanding
and proven mechanisms for extrapolating measurements to actual piping, and evaluate the
effectiveness of a probe to be designed for a side stream in a working plant.
Operation of the experimental test loop under prescribed conditions of both neutral and
ammoniated chemistry indicate that resistance small-bore probes with a stainless steel nozzle that
has an inner diameter that is half that of the probe body have suitable sensitivity for monitoring
FAC online. The accentuation of FAC over that of standard probes is induced by the local
turbulence downstream of the nozzle exit. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis of the
flow patterns in parallel with sectioning and measuring the damage profiles shows that a
localized FAC attack coincides with peaks in mass transfer and wall shear stress.
Apparent FAC rates in nozzle probes, interpreted as the uniform FAC corresponding to the
electrical resistance change, for both chemistries change linearly with the mass transfer
coefficient. The FAC modeling program links the resistance measurement to the actual FAC
penetration via the CFD analysis and will proceed to incorporate mechanistic considerations
from previous modeling into the results.
CFD provides a shear-stress transport turbulence model and provides a fluid velocity and
convergence profile that characterizes the fluid flow in the probe at the location of the greatest
FAC activity. The conclusion of the testing confirms that the nozzle configuration of the small
bore probe is proving to be a sensitive indicator of FAC. The expectation is being confirmed that
the damage profiling and CFD modeling of the location can be accurately identified, which can
then be related to the operating conditions and parameters of the fossil plant feedwater system
via the mechanistic models of FAC.
Related Material
1021770-Development of In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated
3002000619-Development of In-Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated
4-14
Program
Keywords
Corrosion monitoring
Cycle chemistry
FAC
4-15
Development of In-Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated

Product ID:
3002000619
Date Published
May 2013
Details:
Abstract
This report provides an update of the development of an in-situ system for monitoring or
indicating flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in fossil plant feed-water.
The main goals of this program are to develop and test a probe, formulate a model based on
existing understanding and proven mechanisms for extrapolating measurements to actual piping,
and evaluate the effectiveness of a probe to be designed for a side stream in a working plant.
Operation of the experimental test loop under prescribed conditions of both neutral and
ammoniated chemistry indicate that resistance prober of small bore with a stainless steel nozzles
of ID half that of the probe body have suitable sensitivity for monitoring FAC on-line. The
accentuation of the FAC over that of standard probes is induced by the local turbulence
downstream of the nozzle exit. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis of the flow patterns
in parallel with sectioning and measuring the damage profiles show that the localised attack
coincides with peaks in mass transfer and wall shear stress.
Apparent FAC rates in nozzle probes, interpreted as the uniform FAC corresponding to the
electrical resistance change, for both chemistries changes linearly with mass transfer coefficient.
The program is linking the resistance measurement to the actual FAC penetration via the CFD
analysis and will proceed to incorporate mechanistic considerations from previous modelling
into the results.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) provides a shear-stress transport turbulence model and
provides a fluid velocity and convergence profile characterizing the fluid flow in the probe at the
location of the greatest FAC activity. The conclusion of the testing confirms the insert probe in
proving to be a sensitive indicator of FAC. The anticipation that the digitize profiling of the
damage displayed on surface photographs and CFD modeling the location of maximum wall
thinning can be accurately identified which can be related to the operating parameters via
mechanistic models of FAC, is being confirmed.
Related Material
3002000621-Development of an In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated
4-16
Program
Keywords
Cycle chemistry
FAC
4-17
Development of In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated

Product ID
1021770
Date Published
16-Jan-2012
Details
Abstract
This report provides an update of the development of an in situ system for monitoring or
indicating flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in fossil plant feedwater.
The main goals of this research are to develop and test a probe, to formulate a model based on
existing understanding and proven mechanisms for extrapolating measurements to actual piping,
and to evaluate the effectiveness of a probe to be designed for a sidestream in a working plant.
Operation of the experimental test loop under prescribed conditions using a small bore carbon
steel probe with a stainless steel insert to provide a nozzle created an unacceptably high pressure
drop at the pressure and flow conditions of the initial tests. A repeated attempt with lower
pressure continued to exhibit high pressure drop.
Flow conditions have been modified, and Test Run 1.1 using neutral chemistry was started
October 26, 2011, and ended November 9. The results of the first test run and the impact on
temperature and flow are presented in this report. Surface analysis of the probe demonstrated that
single-phase FAC conditions were achieved, and laser-Raman analysis revealed that oxides
downstream of the stainless steel insert where the turbulence is intensified were mainly
magnetite.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) provides a shear-stress transport turbulence model and
provides a fluid velocity and convergence profile characterizing the fluid flow in the probe at the
location of the greatest FAC activity. The conclusion of the early testing confirms that the insert
probe is proving to be a sensitive indicator of FAC. It is anticipated that digitized profiling of the
damage displayed on surface photographs and CFD modeling can accurately identify the location
of maximum wall thinning, which can be related to the operating parameters through mechanistic
models of FAC.
4-18
Program
Keywords
Cycle chemistry
4-19
Fossil FAC Advisor (FFA) Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Version 1.0

Product ID
1021720
Date Published
11/21/2011
Document Type
Software Windows Executable (.exe)
Abstract
Fossil FAC Advisor (FFA) Version 1.0predicts flow-accelerated corrosion in fossil fueled power
plants and manages associated inspection data.
Fossil FAC Advisor (FFA) predicts flow-accelerated corrosion in fossil fueled power plants. It
also manages associated inspection data. FFA is developed with the CHECWORKS SFA v3.0
software platform modified for applications specific to Fossil plants.
Windows 2000, XP, Vista, Windows 7
Helps users identify the most susceptible piping locations for flow-accelerated corrosion
Manages related piping inspection data
Provides the capability to evaluate the effects of changes to water chemistry, system
operation, and configuration
Program
Keywords
FAC
NDE
UT
4-20
CHECUPweb 1.1 - CHECUPweb, Version 1.1

Product Number
1008127
Date Released
December 2004
Details
Software - This product is not available through download. Please contact the Customer
Assistance Center for help accessing this document. 1-800-313-3774 or 650-855-2121
CHECUPweb software Version 1.0 calculates FAC wall loss rate for fossil plant feedwater
piping components.
Description
CHECUPweb software Version 1.0 performs single-phase, flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC)
calculations for fossil plant feedwater system components. The analysis requires the user to
identify component fittings, material type, hydraulic conditions (flow rate and temperature), and
water chemistry parameters.
The results of the calculations allow the user to rank the risks of FAC damage among the various
feedwater subsystems. This information is then used to establish inspection priorities for
maintaining piping integrity.
Benefits and Value
The value and benefits provided by the CHECUPweb software are:
Provides a consistent basis for ranking FAC risks to feedwater piping components
Allows reduction in the number of inspections required to assess piping system condition
Allows the user to vary input parameters to test sensitivity to operating changes and their
impact on FAC risks
Platform Requirements
The following hardware and software are required:
Windows 2000 and XP
Minimum RAM: 128MB

(Recommended Minimum RAM: 256MB)
Minimum Hard Drive Free Space: 100MB (Recommended Minimum Hard Drive Free
Space: 300M
4-21
FAC Wear Rate Assessment Through Insulation

Product Number
1000114
Date Published
December 2000
Details:
Technology Review Available Online
Abstract
The feasibility of applying new technology and changing the flow accelerated corrosion (FAC)
examination practice by estimating the thickness and wear rate through insulation is presented.
The report includes description of the proposed technologies (pulsed eddy current and Compton
backscatter), the evaluation facility, the analysis techniques (Point-to-Point and Extreme Value),
and the evaluation results obtained.
Program
History
2004 Program 023011 NDE Center Inspection Technology Application & Training
2002 Program 023011 T041Z NDE Center Inspection Technology Application & Training
Program
4-22
New and Emerging Inspection Technologies for Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in

Fossil Power Plants
Product Number
TR-114349
Date Published
November 1999
Details:
Technical Progress Available Online
Abstract
This document describes the Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) technologies that are currently
available or under development to help quantify the integrity or the rate of degradation of piping
affected by flow accelerated corrosion in fossil power plants. The report classifies the
technologies into those that require the pipe to be bare (lightly coated) and those that can
measure through insulation or liners. Also, it presents the technologies that are best suited to
perform a local metal loss assessment or provide a more complete or global view of the system.
Program
History
2001 Program 081.0 Fossil NDE Technology and Training Program
2005 Program 008.0 Value & Risk in Energy Markets
Keywords
Corrosion
Fossil-Fuel Power Plants
Inspection
Technology Utilization
Piping Systems
Nondestructive Evaluation
4-23
5
STEAM CHEMISTRY
5-1
Vapor-Liquid Partitioning of Phosphoric Acid and Sodium Phosphates

Product Number
1007291
Date Published
May 2003
Details
Abstract
Purity of water and steam is central to ensuring power plant component availability and
reliability. A key part of developing cycle chemistry guidelines is understanding the impurity
distribution between water and steam. This report provides information on how phosphates
partition from boiler water into steam.
Objective
A quantitative understanding of solute volatilities is needed for better control of potentially
corrosive impurities and water treatment chemicals in all parts of a generating plant and for
development of reliable methods for economical operation of power plants. In drum boilers on
phosphate treatment, sodium phosphate concentration often exceeds significantly the maximum
levels tolerated for any other relatively nonvolatile compound. Under normal operating
conditions, the concentration of phosphoric acid, the most volatile phosphate species, is
suppressed due to high pH. During low-pH excursions, resulting either from ingress of
contaminants or phosphate hideout, phosphoric acid concentration in boiler water and in steam
may increase sharply. Even relatively nonvolatile sodium phosphates could become an additional
source of noticeable vaporous carryover at high temperature and high pH due to their high
concentration. This work's objective was to derive volatility data for both acid and sodium salts
over the entire range of boiler water compositions and operating pressures.
Approach
The team used the same experimental methods and equipment used in the preceding studies (TR102377, TR-105801, TR-112359, TR-113089, and 1000455). Team members conducted very
slow sampling of vapor and liquid phases maintained in isothermal static equilibrium, followed
by analysis of samples for phosphate and sodium content using such methods as alkalimetric or
potentiometric titrations, atomic-absorption spectroscopy, and ion chromatography. The team
used a physical model for data rationalization based on thermodynamic liquid-vapor partitioning
constants, which are dependent on temperature but not concentration. Once the necessary activity
coefficients were obtained, this method overcame the well-known limitations of the ray diagram
method.
5-2
Results
Laboratory measurements of phosphoric acid and sodium phosphate volatilities were made at
temperatures to 350 C / 662 F. Results were correlated with dissociation constants for
phosphoric acid measured earlier in the EPRI program to obtain estimates of vaporous carryover
of phosphate over a wide range of boiler water pH, composition, and operating pressure. Results
indicate that at high boiler pressure/temperature (starting from 16.5 MPa / 2400 psi and 350C /
662F) in the normal pH control range, sodium dihydrogen phosphatewhich is the
predominant phosphate-bearing compound in the liquid phasealso becomes the main source of
vaporous carryover of phosphorus to the steam. Sodium hydrogen phosphate and sodium
phosphate can be considered practically nonvolatile under water/steam cycle conditions, even at
the highest levels of sodium.
This study is part of EPRI's 12-year program to develop a detailed picture of how salts and
impurities partition between boiler water and steam. Compilation of current results with those
produced previously will allow EPRI to ensure that boiler water limits, which are derived to
provide boiler corrosion protection, will not result in steam contaminant levels above those
necessary to protect the turbine.
EPRI Perspective
Research on the volatility and partitioning of salts, impurities, and oxides was needed so that
EPRI could revise the fossil plant and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) cycle chemistry
guidelines. The initial guideline revision for all-volatile treatment has been published (EPRI
report 1004187). Results from the overall work have allowed EPRI to take a radical new
approach that decouples boiler water and steam limits. This makes customizing guidelines for
individual plants a much easier process for their operators. Results from this current work will be
used to revise phosphate guidelines in 2003.
Program
History
5-3
The Volatility of Impurities in Water/Steam Cycles

Product Number
1001042
Date Published
August 2001
Details:
Abstract
The quality of water and steam is central to ensuring power plant component availability and
reliability. A key part of developing cycle chemistry guidelines is an understanding of the
impurity distribution between water and steam. This report summarizes EPRI work conducted
over the last ten years to understand this partitioning process.
Background
Impurities in turbine steam and subsequent deposition and corrosion are due primarily to
mechanical and vaporous carryover of boiler water impurities. Detailed monitoring of plant
conditions has shown that serious discrepancies exist between field data and the historical
representation (ray diagram) of the expected carryover of impurities into steam. A rigorous new
approach was needed to calculate steam and early condensate compositions from a knowledge of
the boiler water composition, and vice versa.
Objective
To summarize detailed partitioning constants for typical impurity compounds and related
species that have been measured in EPRI work.
To provide a qualitative understanding of the ramifications in a fossil plant.
Approach
The EPRI team first developed partitioning diagrams for NH4Cl, NH3, HCl, NH4HSO4, Na2SO4,
NaHSO4, NaOH, H2SO4, organic acids (acetic and formic), Cu(OH)2, H3PO4, NaH2PO4, and
Na2HPO4 from previous EPRI work (EPRI reports TR-102377, TR-105801, TR-112359, TR113089, and 1000455). The team next delineated an understanding of how each compound
partitions from boiler water into steam. They then used a model, containing partitioning
constants and hydrolysis reactions, to predict steam and early condensate compositions for a
range of boiler water chemistries ranging from normal guidelines to upset conditions.
Results
The predictions are generally in agreement with field and model turbine measurements. Chloride
is much more volatile than sulfate. Chloride is transported as hydrochloric acid and sulfate as
sulfuric acid, although ammonium and sodium bisulfates also play a role. Caustic treatment,
5-4
equilibrium phosphate treatment, and phosphate treatment reduce the amount of chloride
transported to steam by vaporous carryover, but increase the amount of sodium in steam. Initial
simulations clearly indicate that even small amounts of mechanical carryover produce more
impurities in steam under most conditions than vaporous carryover.
EPRI Perspective
Results from this 10-year EPRI study are now starting to provide a more detailed picture of how
salts and impurities partition between boiler water and steam. The overall approach needs to be
verified by detailed plant measurements. During the next phase, the model will be refined and
used to revise EPRI treatment guidelines. In particular, new target values for sodium, chloride,
sulfate, and the corresponding cation conductivity in boiler water will have to be derived for each
drum boiler. The model will be incorporated into EPRI's ChemExpert to provide instantaneous
guideline values that will be dependent on chemical parameters as well as unit conditions.
Program
History
5-5
Volatility of Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide, Bisulfate and Sulfate

Product Number
TR-112359
Date Published
March 1999
Details
Abstract
reliability. A key part of developing operating cycle chemistry guidelines is an understanding of
the impurity distribution between water and steam. This study focused on the partitioning of
sulfuric acid and ammonium bisulfate between the liquid and vapor phases.
Background
The presence of impurities in turbine steam and subsequent deposition and corrosion are due
primarily to mechanical and vaporous carryover of boiler water impurities. Detailed monitoring
of plant conditions has shown that serious discrepancies exist between the field data and the
historical representation (ray diagram) of the expected carryover of impurities into steam. The
results in this report on sulfuric acid, ammonium bisulfate, and sulfate build on previous studies
of ammonium salts (EPRI Report TR-102377) and of sodium hydroxide, bisulfate, and sulfate
(EPRI Report TR-105801).
Objective
To conduct detailed laboratory measurements of the volatilities of sulfuric acid and ammonium
sulfate/bisulfate and to incorporate the resulting partitioning constants into a computer code
simulating vaporous carryover in water/steam cycles.
Approach
In work co-sponsored by an international consortium, the project team measured the volatility of
sulfuric acid and ammonium bisulfate by sequentially sampling both liquid and vapor phases
from 50 degrees to 350 degrees Celsius. They analyzed the samples for ammonia and sulfate ions
by ion chromatography. They then used available activity coefficient data for the ionic species to
extrapolate the measured partitioning constants to the dilute conditions encountered in plant.
Results
The partitioning constants of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were determined from the measured
volatilities of sulfuric acid solutions. Using the previously published partitioning constant for
ammonia, estimates were then made of the contributions of sulfuric acid and ammonia to the
volatility of ammonium sulfate and bisulfate. Sulfuric acid is the dominant form of sulfur (VI)
species in steam under most operating conditions. The dominant sulfur vaporous carryover under
mildly reducing conditions is sulfur dioxide (SO2), which may lead to sulfate deposits due to
reoxidation on hot metal surfaces. Vaporous carryover of sulfur species should be minimized
5-6
under oxidizing chemistries, such as oxygenated treatment, due to the mitigation of SO2
formation. Ammonium bisulfate is the other form of sulfur (VI) present in steam at high pH
under all-volatile treatment (AVT) conditions whereas ammonium sulfate is not significant under
any operating conditions.
EPRI Perspective
The results from this overall internationally sponsored volatility study are now starting to
provide a more detailed picture of how salts and impurities partition between boiler water and
steam. Results now exist for ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia (EPRI Report
TR-106017); sodium hydroxide, bisulfate, and sulfate (EPRI Report TR-105801); and in this
report for sulfuric acid, ammonium bisulfate, and sulfate. Continuing work is addressing organic
acids and phosphates. The data continues to be incorporated into a computer code, which will
eventually be able to predict the composition of the steam phase and resulting early condensate
in the phase transition zone for a given boiler water composition.
Program
History
5-7
Volatility of Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide, Bisulfate and Sulfate

Product Number
TR-105801
Date Published
March 1999
Details
Abstract
the impurity distribution between water and steam. This report examines the volatility of some of
the principal cycle chemistry corrodents: sodium hydroxide, bisulfate, and sulfate.
Background
results in this report on sodium hydroxide, bisulfate, and sulfate build on the previous studies of
ammonium salts (EPRI Report TR-102377).
Objective
To conduct laboratory measurements of the volatilities of sodium hydroxide, sodium
bisulfate and sodium sulfate
To characterize these volatilities in terms of appropriate equilibrium constants
Approach
The project team used the same equipment as for the ammonium salt studies to measure the
volatility of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate. They simultaneously sampled both liquid and
vaporous phases up to 350 degrees Celsius. They analyzed the samples by ion chromatography
and acidimetric titration.
Results
The relative volatilities of the electrolytes studied decrease in the order sulfuric acid (H2SO4),
sodium bisulfate (NaHSO4), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). The
partitioning data for NaOH are in good agreement with previous results obtained in various flowthrough systems. Similarly, the data for NaHSO4 are consistent with published results after
correction was made for incorrectly assigned speciation. Reduced sulfur (IV) species were
observed in the vapor phase in all experiments, with their abundance relative to that of sulfur
(VI) species decreasing with increasing pH. However, sulfur (IV) species were only detected in
5-8
the corresponding liquid phase containing sulfuric acid above 300 degrees Celsius. Sodium
sulfate is not believed to be a significant component in steam in a power plant under virtually
any foreseeable operating conditions. It may be concluded that under normal operating
conditions, the principal sulfur-bearing species in the steam will be sulfuric acid.
EPRI Perspective
Previous study results for ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia, when combined
with the present results and those in a parallel report on sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate
(EPRI Report TR-112359), start to provide a detailed picture of how salts and impurities
partition between boiler water and steam. The data continues to be incorporated into a computer
code, which will eventually be able to predict the composition of the steam phase and the
resulting early condensate in the phase transition zone for a given boiler water composition.
Program
History
2004 2001 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines Generators and Balance-of-Plant Program
1999 Program 071.0 Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance of Plant
5-9
Volatility of Aqueous Acetic Acid, Formic Acid, and Sodium Acetate

Product Number
TR-113089
Date Published
January 1999
Details
Abstract
the impurity distribution between water and steam. This report examines the volatility of some of
the principal cycle organic corrodents: acetic acid, formic acid, and sodium acetate.
Background
results in this report on acetic acid, formic acid, and sodium acetate build on previous studies of
ammonium salts (TR-102377), sodium hydroxide, bisulfate, and sulfate (TR-105801), and
sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate (TR-112359).
Objective
To conduct detailed laboratory measurements of the volatilities of acetic acid, formic acid, and
sodium acetate, and to incorporate the resulting partitioning constants into a computer code
simulating vaporous carryover in water/steam cycles.
Approach
The project team measured the volatility of acetic acid, formic acid, and sodium acetate by
sequentially sampling both liquid and vapor phases from 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees
Fahrenheit) to 250 degrees Celsius (482 degrees Fahrenheit). They analyzed the samples for
acetate and formate by ion chromatography or acid-base titration, depending on the
concentration range; for sodium acetate solutions, they determined the vapor-phase molality of
sodium ion by ion chromatography. The team critically assessed the published vapor-liquid
equilibrium data for acetic acid-water and formic acid-water mixtures and used the data to
construct a detailed thermodynamic model. They used this model to determine activity
coefficients of acetic and formic acids under the conditions of the experiments.
5-10
Results
The partitioning constants of acetic and formic acids derived from measured volatilities were
correlated as a function of temperature and the density of water. The temperature dependence is
far less pronounced than that observed for other solutes, and the partitioning constants were not
very different from unity over the entire range of the experiments. Two thermodynamic
treatments are presented for acetic acid. The volatility measurements of sodium acetate solutions
were analyzed according to a speciated model in which hydrolysis of water and acetate ion was
considered, with inclusion of ion-ion, ion-neutral, and neutral-neutral interaction contributions to
activity coefficients. The partitioning constant for sodium acetate at 200 degrees Celsius (392
degrees Fahrenheit) was found to be 1.61 x 10(-6), which is comparable to the partitioning
constant of other simple 1:1-electrolytes under comparable conditions. This partitioning constant
also establishes that the relative volatilities of acetic acid and sodium acetate favor the former by
several orders of magnitude at high temperatures and low concentrations.
EPRI Perspective
The results from this overall 10-year volatility study are now starting to provide a more detailed
picture of how salts and impurities partition between boiler water and steam. Results now exist
for ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia (TR-102377); sodium hydroxide,
bisulfate, and sulfate (TR-105801); sulfuric acid, ammonium bisulfate, and sulfate (TR-112359).
Continuing work is addressing phosphates and copper and its oxides. The data continues to be
incorporated into a computer code, which will predict the composition of the steam phase and
resulting early condensate in the phase transition zone for a given boiler water composition. This
code will be incorporated into EPRI's ChemExpert for fossil plants.
Program
History
5-11
Computer Code for Prediction of Corrosion Fatigue: Life of Steam Turbine Blades
and Disks
Product Number
1014127
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
Over the past decade, EPRI has developed an excellent understanding of steam turbine chemistry
and its effects on pit initiation and growth for steam turbines. With this knowledge, a new code
will be developed to incorporate this new level of understanding with established fatigue data
and algorithms. This report provides the path forward for this work in the form of a white paper.
Objective
To develop a computer code for predicting corrosion-fatigue (CF) life of steam turbine blades
and disks operating under typical environmental conditions.
To verify the predictive capabilities of this code with a program of laboratory tests.
To provide the code in a form suitable for use by utility personnel.
To explain use of the code during a teaching seminar, which will include a user manual.
Approach
A workscope is described for developing and verifying a computer code to predict corrosionfatigue life of steam turbine blades and turbine disk components. The code will account for
corrosion pit development, corrosion crack development, and corrosion-fatigue crack
propagation in the sequence that these mechanisms occur and according to the history of turbine
operation specified by the code user.
Results
This report provides a detailed outline of the activities required for developing a computer code
that will focus on corrosion-fatigue life for steam turbine blades and discs. The code is based on
new fundamental understanding of pit development and growth in the phase transition zone of a
steam turbine.
This white paper will provide the basis for developing a computer code to predict corrosionfatigue life for steam turbine blades and disks.
5-12
EPRI Perspective
The fundamental corrosion studies developed under this project have provided the basis for EPRI
to develop an advanced computer code for corrosion fatigue in steam turbines. The code
incorporates new understanding of corrosion and pit initiation and growth as well as fatigue.
Program
5-13
Improved Efficiency and Availability of Steam Turbines from Electrostatic

Interactions Within the Steam Flowpath
Product Number
1010900
Date Published
September 2004
Details
Abstract
Some major contributors to efficiency loss in a fossil or nuclear plant are associated with
nucleation of moisture from superheated steam, formation and release of liquid films on turbine
surfaces, and flow and condensation of moist steam into the turbine exhaust and condenser. This
report provides information on an attempt to enhance performance of a large steam turbine by
using an electrostatic corona in turbine exhaust and condenser areas.
Objective
The objective was to determine whether performance enhancement could be accomplished with
an electrostatic corona in the exhaust hood of a steam turbine. A previous EPRI study (TR113091) had indicated about a one-percent increase in power output on a small, old 50MW unit
that had similar electrodes installed.
Approach
The project team selected American Electric Power's (AEP's) Conesville Unit 5 as the host plant
for the tests. The team designed and purchased the electrodes, insulators, and generators. AEP
plant staff installed the equipment. Initial tests were unsuccessful. EPRI Solutions (Lenox Test
Center) suggested and tested better insulator designs, which were installed in the plant. The
project team conducted a series of tests at various loads and condenser pressures.
Results
Reliable electrodes and insulators were developed and installed in a 435MW turbine so that
electrostatic fields could be generated in the exhaust hood. No performance improvement could
be measured in any test with the electrostatic field activated compared to tests with the electrodes
inactive.
The key observation was that achievable voltage is proportional to absolute pressure in the
turbine exhaust, hence an electrostatic corona could not be generated.
Wetness losses in a steam turbine can lower turbine efficiency by up to 8 percent. Modifying
moisture nucleation and condensation processes -- as the steam expands through the last few
low-pressure blade stages in a turbine and into the condenser -- is potentially worth major
savings in efficiency improvement.
5-14
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of a large study that EPRI has conducted over the last 7-8 years to investigate
the phase transition zone in low pressure turbines, associated moisture nucleation, and efficiency
improvement. A follow-on study to the tests in the 50MW turbine (EPRI report 1001332)
described the physics of the processes involved. A parallel study (1010738) carefully monitored
effects of electrostatic charge on nucleation and performance in a laboratory blowdown steam
tunnel. A further laboratory study (1010830) investigated effects of an electrostatic field on heat
transfer. All these studies indicate there are major charges generated in nucleating steam; the
charging process is influenced by the steam chemistry; and low condenser pressures cannot
support generation of high-enough corona voltages to influence nucleation and condensation.
Consequently, using an electrostatic field for turbine efficiency enhancement and increased
power output is not an effective approach in practical terms.
Program
History
5-15
Electrostatic Effects in Nucleating Flows of Steam

Product Number
1010738
Date Published
September 2004
Details
Abstract
Some of the major contributors to efficiency loss in a fossil or nuclear plant are associated with
surfaces, and the flow and condensation of moist steam into the turbine exhaust and condenser.
This report confirms that charged droplets of steam are generated by shearing of liquid films
from blade surfaces and that electrostatic charge can affect nucleation behavior. Dramatic
efficiency improvements are possible if nucleation processes can be modified.
Objective
The main objective of this work was to observe the effects of an electrostatic field in nucleating
flows of steam by measuring the charges generated on first nucleation and the impact of those
charges on blade performance. The challenge was to build a measuring device to monitor the
very small levels of charge generated in the laboratory blowdown steam tunnel.
Approach
The project team modified the blowdown steam tunnel used in a previous study (EPRI Report
TR-113524) so that charges could be measured in the wake from the trailing edge of the blades.
They next constructed a Langmuir probe to measure the charges as well as an electrostatic
charging device. Finally, the team conducted experiments in superheated and supercooled steam
and varied the steam chemistry through addition of ammonia.
Results
A Langmuir probeused to determine plasma propertiesindicated that the charges in
superheated and dry supercooled steam are extremely small. In nucleated steam, however, the
charges are considerable in the wake downstream of blades and small in between the blade
trailing edges. The charges in pure steam are negative, and the addition of ammonia makes the
charges less negative. An electrostatic charging device introduced ions into the steam flow,
which affected its nucleation behavior.
The wetness losses in a steam turbine can lower turbine efficiency by up to 8%. Modification of
the moisture nucleation and condensation processes as the steam expands through the last few
low pressure blade stages in a turbine and into the condenser may result in major cost savings
due to efficiency improvement.
5-16
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of a large study EPRI has conducted over the last 7-8 years to investigate the
phase transition zone in low pressure turbines and the associated moisture nucleation. The first
study (TR-113091) showed about a 1% improvement in power output on a small 50-MW steam
turbine when an electrostatic charge was applied to the exhaust of the turbine. A further study
(1001332) described the physics of the processes involved and suggested the current study to
carefully monitor the effects of electrostatic charge on nucleation and performance. A parallel
laboratory study (1010530) investigated the effects of an electrostatic field on heat transfer,
while a further study (1010900) attempted to repeat the performance improvements on a larger
(425-MW) turbine. All of these studies indicate that 1) there are major charges generated in
nucleating steam; 2) the charging process is influenced by the steam chemistry; and 3) low
condenser pressures cannot support the generation of sufficiently high corona voltages to
influence nucleation and condensation.
Program
History
5-17
Investigation of Enhanced Heat Transfer Coefficient with an Electrostatic Grid

Product Number
1010830
Date Published
September 2004
Details
Abstract
surfaces, and the flow and condensation of moist steam into the turbine exhaust and condenser.
This report investigates the possible effect of an electrostatic charge on these processes and
therefore on heat transfer.
Objective
The main objective of this work was to consider whether condenser enhancements could be
achieved through the presence of an electrostatic corona in the turbine exhaust. Previous work by
several authors had documented that the heat transfer rate could be improved by between two
and six times when using condensing Freon in an electrostatic field, but similar work had not
been conducted with condensing steam.
Approach
The project team constructed an apparatus that was similar to that used previously for measuring
increased heat transfer with Freon. They repeated the Freon experiments and tried to conduct a
similar series of tests with steam/water. They were not able to measure any significant change in
heat transfer.
Results
The work confirmed that the limit of achievable electrostatic potential is strongly dependent on
the operating pressure in the steam environment. As a result there was no conclusive evidence of
increased heat transfer rate when condensing steam vapor in the presence of a weak electrostatic
field.
Modifying the moisture nucleation and condensation processes as the steam expands into the
condenser through the last few low pressure blade stages in a turbine could potentially result in
major improvements in efficiency. Wetness losses can lower turbine efficiency by up to 8%.
5-18
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of a large study that EPRI has conducted over the last 7-8 years. The first study
(EPRI report TR-113091) showed about a one percent improvement in power output on a small
50MW steam turbine when an electrostatic charge was applied to the exhaust of the turbine. A
further study (EPRI report 1001332) described the physics of the processes involved and
suggested the current study to carefully monitor the effects of electrostatic charge on heat
transfer. A parallel laboratory study (EPRI report 1010738) has investigated the generation of
charged droplets, and a further study (EPRI report 1010900) has tried to repeat the performance
improvements on a larger (425MW) turbine. All these studies indicate that low condenser
pressures cannot support the generation of high enough corona voltages to influence nucleation
and condensation.
Program
History
5-19
Electrostatic Charge and Its Influence on the Condensation of Steam in a Turbine

Product Number
1001332
Date Published
September 2001
Details
Abstract
surfaces, and flow of moist steam into the turbine exhaust and condenser. This document
provides a state-of-knowledge report on the various electrostatic processes involved.
Background
Earlier EPRI work demonstrated a method to modify the condensation process by applying
voltage to electrodes installed in the exhaust hood (EPRI Report TR-113091). When the positive
charge was eliminated, the power output increased by over one percent for a short period. There
was little quantitative understanding of the phenomenon.
Objective
To determine the source of electrostatic charge in condensing steam in a turbine.
To determine the process by which the application of an electrostatic corona can produce an
increase in turbine output power of commercially significant proportions.
Approach
The researcher first reviewed in detail four tests that have been conducted to date on measuring
the electrostatic charge in condensing steam and on applying voltage to a grid of corona wires in
the exhaust hood. He also reviewed literature describing fundamental experiments on
condensation of atmospheric moisture back to the 1880s, and on theories of condensation in the
presence of electric charge, including cloud physics. He then assembled a draft document that
was reviewed by members of the EPRI Interest Group on LP Turbine Efficiency Improvement.
Results
The review led to conclusions in four areas:
1. Possibility of a power increase. The evidence appears to be strong that the submitted increase
of turbine output power did occur in the Eshkar tests on a utility power turbine when charge
was applied to the electrodes (TR-113091). The actual increase depends on a number of
factors, such as turbine cycle, operating pH level, and surface conditions.
2. Development of charge in condensing steam. The major source of charge appears to result as
the condensate liquid film shears from flowpath surfaces as droplets.
5-20
3. Condensation process. Bulk flow condensation commences as a heterogeneous process at

appropriate levels of supercooling on random ions and particles. Once this process is
complete, the second phase of condensation occurs homogeneously in the condenser by deep
supercooling.
4. Physics of condensation. Homogeneous nucleation requires no nuclei and occurs by
molecular collisions. Increases in pH and larger droplet sizes lead to more positive charges.
EPRI Perspective
Now that the science of various processes associated with condensation and its modification by
electrostatic corona has been assembled, it is hoped that a very positive long-term demonstration
of the technology can be undertaken. EPRI is currently engaged at one of AEP's plants in
Conesville, Ohio, where various electrode arrays have been installed that can independently be
activated to various voltage levels. EPRI also has initiated a number of other project activities to
further understand the condensation process.
Program
History
5-21
Turbine Steam Chemistry and Corrosion: Electrochemistry in LP Turbines

Product Number
1006283
Date Published
September 2001
Details
Abstract
Most outage hours for steam turbines are due to corrosion of low-pressure (LP) blades and disks
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). Development of an effective localized corrosion damage
prediction technology is essential for successfully avoiding unscheduled steam turbine outages.
Background
Researchers have been studying effects of impurities in steam since the 1930s. Early EPRI
reports (TR-108184, TR-108185, and TR-113090) provided information on the physicochemical phenomena involved in impurity concentration and condensation in the PTZ. To
improve this understanding, detailed measurements of the electrostatic charge of steam during
condensation and of the electrochemical potential of liquid films that form on blade surfaces
were needed.
Objective
To measure the electrostatic charge of condensing steam and the potential of liquid films on
turbine blade surfaces
Approach
The project team prepared the model turbine for testing by installing a special nozzle and
working plate to generate and monitor liquid films. They also designed and installed
instrumentation to measure conductivity, pressure, temperature, oxidation-reduction potential
(ORP), and electrochemical potential (ECP) in liquid films that formed during operation. The
team also measured the electrostatic charge within the condensing steam using three different
probes. All measurements were made using six different boiler and steam chemistries.
Results
Electrostatic charges existed in the steam for all chemistries. An increase of steam moisture level
from 1.5 to 4 percent resulted in an increase of the charge by about two orders of magnitude; this
is associated with an increase in the percentage of large moisture droplets. A pH increase
resulted in a decrease in the charge density. The levels of charge measured were generally much
lower, by orders of magnitude, than the charges measured in field turbines (TR-113091 and
1001332). ORP and ECP associated with the liquid films increased with an increase in the level
of impurities. The liquid film's conductivity depended on the impurity level and the cycle
chemistry.
5-22
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of a much larger effort to quantify the PTZ of fossil and nuclear turbines, to
improve understanding of processes in the PTZ, and to show how these influence the major
corrosion mechanisms. In parallel research and development (Report 1000557), EPRI is building
a model to bring together all the latest information on PTZ, which also will address unit
operation and mechanical stress aspects of both corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking.
It recognizes that pitting can initiate during unprotected shutdown conditions. Other
electrochemical data for oxygen, hydrogen and water reduction, and passive corrosion current
density are being derived for typical blade and disk materials. Once the initial model is
developed, the next step will be to test the model on real corrosion situations. The final step will
be to incorporate the model into EPRI's Blade code and ChemExpert.
Program
History
5-23
Turbine Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion Generation of Early Liquid Films in

Turbines
Product Number
TR-113090
Date Published
September 1999
Details
Abstract
Steam turbines have experienced decades of corrosion and deposit buildup. Most outage hours
are due to corrosion of low-pressure blades in the phase transition zone (PTZ). This report
provides comprehensive information on the properties of the liquid films that form on turbine
surfaces in the PTZ.
Background
Researchers have been studying effects of impurities in steam since the 1930s. Two earlier EPRI
reports (TR-108184 and TR-108185) provided information on the physico-chemical phenomena
involved in impurity concentration and condensation in the PTZ. To improve the understanding,
detailed further measurements were needed to characterize the liquid films.
Objective
To conduct measurements of liquid films on a model turbine using a broad range of water
and steam chemistries with controlled additions of impurities to the steam.
Approach
The project team prepared the model turbine for testing by installing specially designed
instrumentation to measure the thickness and composition of liquid films forming on blade
surfaces and the temperature and pressure of the steam, liquid films, and blades. The
investigators tested eight different combinations of chemistries based on phosphate treatment and
oxygenated treatment with various levels of sulfate and chloride impurities.
Results
The report contains very detailed information on all aspects of liquid films as a function of the
inlet steam composition, temperature, and pressure. Key findings include the following:
The concentration of corrosive impurities in the liquid films can be up to an order of
magnitude higher than in the early condensate droplets.
Phosphate chemistry (pH 9.2) produces the highest concentration of corrosive impurities and
oxygenated treatment (pH 8.2) the lowest.
Oxygen does not concentrate in the liquid films. However, liquid films are reduced in
thickness; and maximum supercooling occurs when oxygen is added to steam.
5-24
An elevated sulfate in the turbine inlet stream results in increased contamination of the early
condensate and the liquid films with chloride.
The pH of the early condensate and the liquid films is about 2-3 pH units lower than the pH
of the turbine inlet steam.
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of a much larger effort to quantify the PTZ of fossil and nuclear turbines.
Because field monitoring conducted subsequent to this work indicated that the two-phase media
flowing from the PTZ are charged, further studies have been initiated on the model turbine.
These will measure the charge and electrochemical potential of the liquid films as a function of
steam composition.
EPRI has started to use all this information in two follow-on activities: a) to develop a software
code to assess the corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking potential for blades and disks,
and b) to modify the charged media by application of high voltage electric fields or through
surface tension.
Program
History
5-25
Investigation of Electrophysical Effects in the Turbine Exhaust upon Steam Flow

and Power Output
Product Number
TR-113091
Date Published
September 1999
Details
Abstract
Some of the major contributors to efficiency loss in a fossil or nuclear plant are associated with
surfaces, and flow of moist steam into the turbine exhaust and condenser. These wetness losses
can lower turbine efficiency up to eight percent. This report provides information on a new
method to modify the moisture condensation process and improve unit efficiency and capacity.
Background
Earlier tests on a small 50-MW unit in Ukraine had indicated that moist steam exiting the turbine
was positively charged. Researchers had applied a large positive voltage to electrodes installed
above the condenser and measured about one percent increase in power output. This current
work was designed to confirm these exciting results under controlled test conditions and to
investigate further the effects of electrostatics on the moisture condensation and modification
processes.
Objective
To conduct detailed monitoring and analysis of moist steam exiting a turbine when a highvoltage electric field is applied.
To measure efficiency and capacity changes.
Approach
EPRI performed this second series of tests on the same unit in Ukraine, a 50-MW unit
manufactured in the 1930s. It is used in both condensing and district heating modes. While there
were many problems with the generating unit, which did not allow the test program to be entirely
completed, the contractor was able to install active electrode grids across the turbine exit as well
as at the entrance to the condenser. The contractor then conducted a number of tests where the
applied potential was varied: positive, negative, or to ground. They concurrently measured the
relevant steam moisture, droplet size, and charge as well as the unit parameters.
Results
The positive charge density in the turbine's wet steam reached about 10(-2)C/kg; this is
substantial and can produce significant effects on the unit's operation. By grounding the
electrodes at the turbine exit or applying a negative voltage, it was possible to decrease the
5-26
charge density and even to eliminate it completely. When the positive charge was eliminated, the
power output increased by over one percent. During these periods, the flow velocity increased,
the flow smoothed out, the turbulence decreased, and the moisture level increased without an
associated increase in average moisture droplet size.
EPRI Perspective
Previous EPRI work (TR-108185) measured the size and composition of moisture droplets and
the thickness, composition, and charge/potential of liquid films. Confirmation that the moisture
exiting a turbine and flowing to the condenser is charged opens up a number of possibilities for
modifying the condensation process, improving unit efficiency and output, and reducing wetness
losses. Other parallel EPRI work (WO3849-01) at an 800-MW U.S. plant has demonstrated that
the charge changes from positive with feedwater/steam pH of above 9 to negative with a
feedwater/steam pH of around 8.2.
EPRI has a number of projects within a Strategic Initiative to investigate these effects further:
The effect of surface tension on nucleation of moisture
The effect of varying chemistries on heterogeneous nucleation and blade efficiency
EPRI also will conduct further tests on electrostatic effects on larger, more modern turbines in
the United States and Ukraine. A state-of-knowledge document will be published early in 2000
providing information on the charging process, the effect of electric fields/coronas on moisture,
efficiency, and capacity.
Program
History
5-27
6
CORROSION
6-1
Low-Temperature Corrosion Problems in Fossil Power Plants: State of

Knowledge Report
Product Number
1004924
Date Published
December 2003
Details
Abstract
In 1998, corrosion cost the electric power industry $15.4 billion. Of this amount, at least $2.3
billion can be attributed to corrosion problems in sections of fossil-fueled steam plants operating
at less than 150 C (302 F). This state-of-knowledge report describes these low-temperature
corrosion problems along with their root causes and solutions.
Objective
Often, plant personnel make no attempt to understand or prevent some low-temperature
corrosion problems. Instead, they characterize these problems as annoying maintenance items.
With the understanding of, and solutions to, corrosion provided by this report, plant chemists and
engineers will be better able to eliminate or greatly reduce corrosion problems in their plants.
Even when the threat of corrosion cannot be completely eliminated, corrosion monitoring
techniques described in the report can provide early warning of corrosive conditions.
Approach
The goal of the project team -- a group of ten corrosion specialists from EPRI and other
consulting bodies -- was to provide a central source of information on low-temperature corrosion
in fossil-fueled steam plants. By using this information source, the team believed plant personnel
could reduce corrosion problems and thereby increase availability, reduce cost, and improve
safety.
Results
This report describes low-temperature corrosion problems that occur in the following power
plant systems and components: raw water and pretreatment systems, cooling water systems,
cooling towers, service water systems, auxiliary heat exchangers, fire protection systems,
condensers, feedwater piping systems, low-pressure feedwater heaters, deaerators, low-pressure
steam turbines, electric generators, air heater and ducts, flue gas desulfurization systems, flue gas
ducts, and stacks. In addition, the report describes root causes and solutions for corrosion
problems and, where available, provides case histories. This information will help plant chemists
and engineers identify and understand corrosion occurring in their plants. Plant personnel also
may use solutions in the report to minimize further corrosion or completely prevent its
recurrence.
6-2
The report also includes chapters on the cost of corrosion in U.S. power plants, descriptions of
low-temperature corrosion mechanisms, definitions of corrosion-related terms, and descriptions
of corrosion monitoring techniques.
When correlated with operating parameters, on-line corrosion rate data can be used to understand
why and when corrosive conditions occur and, potentially, they can suggest how to change
operational parameters to minimize corrosion. On-line corrosion rate data also can be used to
predict remaining life, optimize maintenance schedules, and increase plant safety. All of the
benefits gained from this report can result in a significant reduction in the annual cost of
corrosion.
EPRI Perspective
This report provides state-of-the-art knowledge on corrosion problems in sections of fossil power
plants operating at low temperatures (less than 150 C, or 302 F). No other report provides all
this information in a single volume. Corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking in steam
turbines is undoubtedly the most costly low-temperature corrosion problem reported, but
corrosion in condensers and other heat exchangers is the next most costly. Since EPRI's research
and development activity is currently addressing steam turbine problems, a future research focus
on minimizing costly heat exchanger corrosion would be appropriate. For instance, a set of
guidelines on condenser tube failures would be a cost-effective first step. This would supersede
and expand the scope of the "Recommended Practices for Operating and Maintaining Steam
Surface Condensers" (EPRI report CS-5235) published in 1987 and would support and
supplement the "Condenser Application and Maintenance Guide" (EPRI report 1003088)
published in 2001.
NOTE: This document is a key report of EPRI's On-Line Corrosion Advisor (OLCA) project,
which can be accessed at http://www.epri.com/olca.
Program
2005 Program 087.0 Fossil Materials and Repair
History
6-3
Priorities for Corrosion Research and Development for the Electric Power
Industry
Product Number
1007274
Date Published
September 2002
Details
Abstract
This report identifies the specific corrosion problems that result in the largest costs to the electric
power industry. It describes the corrosion-related research and development (R&D) that is
underway to address these problems and also discusses additional R&D that appears warranted.
The report discusses several high-cost areas where new research is judged to be unnecessary as
the problems are well understood, but where improved application of already available
technology seems important.
Background
EPRI report 1004662, "Cost of Corrosion in the Electric Power Industry," published in October
2001, described the results of a study that analyzed costs caused by corrosion in the electric
power industry. This study determined the fraction of the total costs of broad activities that are
due to corrosion, but did not develop a sufficiently detailed breakdown of the specific causes of
the costs within each activity to allow individual specific corrosion problems to be ranked in
terms of their cost impact. This lack of detail was mainly the result of the nature of the available
cost data from utilities and from government reports, which are not structured to quantify costs
by specific corrosion problem. A breakdown of cost by specific corrosion problem would be
useful: it would highlight the high-cost problems, could justify an investment in corrosion
protection methodologies, and provide guidance on future R&D needs.
Objective
To identify the specific corrosion problems in the electric power industry that result in the
highest costs; to identify the additional R&D that should be performed for each of these
problems; to identify the areas where improved corrosion management or technology transfer
should be applied to reduce costs using already available technology.
Approach
The project team reevaluated the cost data in EPRI report 1004662, reviewed relevant literature
including EPRI program documents, and consulted EPRI technical staff and utility
representatives familiar with each technical area in order to develop a ranking of specific
corrosion problems in order of cost to the electric power industry.
6-4
Results
Lists of the highest cost corrosion problems were developed for the fossil generation, nuclear
generation, combustion turbine generation, and transmission and distribution sectors. In a
combined list for all sectors, the fifteen highest cost items, listed in descending order of cost, are
as follows:
Corrosion product activation and deposition (nuclear sector)

Pressurized water reactor (PWR) steam generator tube corrosion (nuclear sector)
Boiler tube waterside/steamside corrosion (fossil sector)
Heat exchanger corrosion (fossil and nuclear sectors)
Stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue in turbines (fossil and nuclear sectors)
Fuel cladding corrosion (nuclear sector)
Corrosion in electric generators (fossil and nuclear sectors)
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) (fossil and nuclear sectors)
Corrosion of raw water piping (fossil and nuclear sectors)
Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of boiling water reactor (BWR) piping and
internals (nuclear sector)
Oxide particle erosion of turbines (fossil sector)
Boiler tube fireside corrosion (fossil sector
Primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) of non-steam-generator alloy 600 parts
Corrosion of concentric neutrals (distribution sector)
Copper deposition in turbines (fossil sector)
For each problem, the team identified current R&D and planned R&D and developed
recommendations for additional R&D, corrosion management, and technology transfer that
would likely have the greatest impact on reducing the cost of corrosion in the industry.
EPRI Perspective
The cost estimates on which the rankings of corrosion problems are based are approximate,
because hard cost data for specific problems were not available, and because the rankings reflect
judgments made by the author based on input from the experts consulted during the course of the
project. Nevertheless, these results can help in evaluating the needs for R&D, improved
corrosion management, and better technology transfer.
Program
History
6-5
Characterization of Surface Film Growth During the Corrosion Process

Product Number
1000863
Date Published
October 2000
Details
Abstract
Analytical techniques used for examining aqueous corrosion processes on metal surfaces are
generally performed through the liquid. This project describes a method of examining the
water/metal interface from the metal side, thereby providing a different perspective on the
corrosion process.
Background
Corrosion processes are electrochemical reactions that take place at a metal/liquid interface.
Corrosion frequently results in the formation of a corrosion product film at the surface and
thereby creates two interfaces, one between the metal and the surface film and one between the
surface film and the liquid. Corrosion reactions are most often studied using analytical
techniques that observe the surface film/liquid interface through the liquid. Observation through
the metal is more difficult and is consequently rarely attempted. Nevertheless, observation of the
metal/surface film interface has the potential to reveal types of information about the corrosion
process that cannot be obtained any other way. Such information may be particularly useful for
developing an understanding of surface passivity, potentially leading to development of more
protective surface films and lower corrosion rates.
Objective
To develop an experimental method that allows monitoring of corrosion through the metal at the
metal/liquid interface
To use this method to study corrosion in a previously well characterized metal/liquid system in
preparation for the future study of other metal/environment combinations more pertinent to the
electric power industry
Approach
The project team fabricated an electrochemical cell so that a thin foil of pure nickel, 90-10
copper-nickel alloy, or 70-30 copper-nickel alloy formed one of the walls. After filling the cell
with 25 percent by weight potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution, they used x-ray diffraction
(XRD) to track subsequent corrosion of the foil at a controlled electrochemical potential. The
metal foil was thin enough to let x-rays penetrate both the foil and the corrosion product film
6-6
developed at the metal/liquid interface. Standard XRD methods allowed in situ determination of
the changes in the chemical nature of the surface film over a period of 48 hours. After exposure,
the team examined the corroded surface of each foil sample ex situ using x-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS).
Results
Results showed that this new XRD technique was capable of monitoring in situ the chemical
make-up of the corrosion product films forming on metal foils exposed to KOH solution. The
XRD technique sampled the full thickness of the corrosion product film whereas XPS sampled
only the surface layers of this film closest to the film/liquid interface. The researchers deduced
that compounds detected by XRD but not by XPS were likely to be located at or close to the
metal/surface film interface -- the inner layer.
Based on this assumption, they concluded that the inner layer of the corrosion product on nickel
is likely to be gamma-NiOOH at a potential of -800 mV (versus a Ni/NiO reference electrode)
and beta-NiOOH and NiO at +450 mV (Ni/NiO). Similarly, they concluded that the inner layer
of the corrosion product on 90-10 copper-nickel alloy at both -500 mV and -100 mV (Ni/NiO) is
likely to consist of gamma-NiOOH, NiOOH, and Cu2O.NiO; whereas at +500 mV and +100 mV
(Ni/NiO), Ni2CuO3 and CuO2.NiO predominate. Finally, they believe that the inner layer of the
corrosion product on 70-30 Cu-Ni alloy at -500 mV and -100 mV (Ni/NiO), consists of gammaNiOOH, Cu2O.NiO, NiO, and Ni2O3: whereas at +500 mV and +100 mV (Ni/NiO), it consists
of alpha-Ni(OH)2S.0.75H2O, alpha-Ni(OH)2.2H2O, Ni(OH)2, gamma-NiOOH, and CuO2.NiO. In
each case, different compounds were detected in the outer layer (closest to the surface film/liquid
interface).
EPRI Perspective
This work has demonstrated the feasibility of determining the chemical make-up of a surface
film forming at the surface of a corroding metal foil by means of in situ XRD through the back
side of the foil. Now that the feasibility of the technique has been demonstrated using a simple
metal/environment system, tests on less well-characterized systems seem achievable. For
instance, stainless steels and other passive alloys in power plant environments might be studied
to determine if the inner layers of the passive films could be modified to improve their corrosion
resistance.
Program
History
2004 2001 Program 041.0 Nuclear Power
6-7
Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Corrosion Product Transport at South Texas

Project Unit 1
Product Number
1000742
Date Published
September 2000
Details
Abstract
Transport of corrosion products to PWR steam generators leads to sludge buildup on the
tubesheet and fouling of tube-to-tube support crevices. In these regions, chemical impurities can
concentrate and accelerate tubing corrosion, which can lead to significant losses in plant
availability and steam generator replacement at more than $100 million per unit. This study
investigated corrosion transport processes, with emphasis on the impact of oxygen concentration.
The results will help utilities determine appropriate secondary water chemistry approaches.
Background
Over a sustained period, deposit buildup on steam generator tubing can limit power production
and necessitate chemical cleaning. Minimizing corrosion product transport in the PWR
secondary cycle is therefore of critical importance to achieving high plant availability over the
long term. EPRI initiated a multitask tailored collaboration program in June 1996 to address this
issue.
Objective
To develop a sound understanding of transport processes in the secondary cycle at South
Texas Project (STP).
To provide a basis for identifying and evaluating alternative approaches for minimizing
corrosion product transport to STP steam generators.
Approach
After STP modified the corrosion product sampling systems based on NWT recommendations,
investigators initiated sampling efforts using integrated samplers. In the first phase of the
program, they collected samples during normal operation from the condensate polisher outlet,
low-pressure (LP) heater drains, moisture separator drains (MSDs), high-pressure (HP) heater
drains, and final feedwater (March-May 1997). To allow improved source term assessments,
investigators expanded this phase of the program in 1998 to include sampling at the deaerator
inlet and outlet. In the second phase of the program, they increased condensate oxygen
concentration from 3 to approximately 9 ppb for approximately two months (July-September
1998) and performed monitoring to assess the impact on corrosion product transport. In addition
to quantifying corrosion product concentrations throughout the secondary cycle, investigators
also assessed oxide forms and particle size distributions.
6-8
Results
This program revealed the following key findings:
Operation at an elevated condensate oxygen concentration produced no measurable effect on

iron transport by the final feedwater.
At the higher condensate oxygen concentration, no statistically significant difference

appeared in the measured iron release rate from the tube side of the LP heaters.
The estimated iron release rate from the tube side of the LP heaters was only 12-22 percent
of the total iron transport rate by the feedwater. If the release rate were no more than 22
percent of the total transport rate by the feedwater, then a change in condensate oxygen
concentration would not be expected to have a significant effect on feedwater iron transport.
Increased transport, however, may result at lower condensate oxygen concentrations.
Condensate oxygen concentration had no significant effect on iron transport rates via the LP
heater drains, HP heater drains, or moisture separator/reheater (MSR) drains. Release from
the tube side of the HP heaters also remained constant.
The iron transport rate at the outlet of the condensate polisher at normal chemistry conditions
was approximately 3 percent of the feedwater iron transport rate.
Iron was transported by the feedwater primarily as particulate Fe3O4 (magnetite). The
average feedwater iron concentration during the monitoring program was approximately 4
ppb. This corresponds to average iron and magnetite transport rates to the steam generators
of approximately 580 and 800 lbs/yr, respectively.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has conducted numerous studies regarding the causes and effects of iron corrosion product
transport in PWRs and has developed utility guidelines for optimizing preventative chemistry
programs. The research reported here will help utilities evaluate their secondary water chemistry
conditions relating to corrosion product transport. Related EPRI research includes PWR
Secondary Water Chemistry Guidelines -- Revision 4 (TR-102134-R4) and Cycle Chemistry
Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment (TR-102285).
Program
History
2004 Program 023009 Steam Generator Management Program
2002 Program 023009 T041S Steam Generator Project
6-9
Sodium Phosphate Hideout Mechanisms: Data and Models for the Solubility and
Redox Behavior of Iron (II) and Iron (III) Sodium-Phosphate Hideout Reaction
Products
Product Number
TR-112137
Date Published
December 1998
Details
Abstract
The quality of boiler water and steam is central to ensuring power plant component availability
and reliability. Over 70 percent of drum units operate with phosphate treatment. This study
confirms the philosophy behind EPRI's Phosphate Treatment Guidelines.
Background
The Phosphate Treatment Guidelines (TR-103665) were issued in 1994 to counteract two major
problems that were occurring in the industry: (1) phosphate hideout and return and (2) acid
phosphate corrosion (APC). EPRI had demonstrated an understanding of the APC mechanism
(TR-102433, Volumes 1 and 2)) and related the corrosion product, maricite, to the addition of
acidic phosphate chemicals during hideout periods. However, there was no reliable corrosion
data to confirm the mechanism.
Objective
To conduct detailed laboratory studies to measure the solubility and calorimetric data of
maricite and (Na4Fe(OH)(PO4)2 (SIHP), which are two possible corrosion products
To develop a model that identifies the plant conditions responsible for serious corrosion
reactions
Approach
The project team designed and built apparatus to measure the solubility of maricite and SIHP and
used a differential scanning calorimeter equipped with thermal analysis software to measure the
heat capacities. The team synthesized both maricite and SIHP and measured the kinetics of
formation as a function of various Na:PO4 ratio solutions. They then developed a solubility and
thermodynamic model for both compounds. Finally, they related the laboratory data to the
solubility of magnetite, which is the form of protective oxide in an operating boiler.
6-10
Results
The following are the key results from the project:
Thermodynamic constants were derived for phosphate hideout and corrosion reactions
resulting in maricite and SIHP from 200-325 degrees Celsius.
The constants were incorporated into EPRI's MULTEQ code to assess the nature of the
corrosion reactions with magnetite that occur at different Na:PO4 ratios.
The data indicates that corrosion in boiler water at Na:PO4 ratios below 2.2 can cause
extensive attack of magnetite to form maricite and hematite.
At higher Na:PO4 ratios, the formation of SIHP from the reactions between magnetite and
sodium phosphate may be the major reaction controlling boiler water chemistry under
hideout conditions.
EPRI Perspective
The finding that boiler water at Na:PO4 ratios below 2.2 can result in the formation of maricite
and cause serious damage fully supports the mechanism of severe corrosion of carbon steel
boiler tubes operated under congruent phosphate treatment (CPT). This work also supports
change of the EPRI guidelines from CPT (with Na:PO4 ratios of less than 2.6) to equilibrium
phosphate treatment (EPT) and phosphate treatment (PT) (with Na:PO4 ratios greater than 2.8).
Thus, the philosophy of not adding any solutions of mono- or di-sodium phosphate during
hideout -- but only allowing additions of tri-sodium phosphate -- appears key to avoiding
corrosion problems. Certainly, there has been a marked reduction of operating and corrosion
problems on units using EPT and PT since the introduction of the EPRI Guidelines in 1994.
Program
History
6-11
Initiation of Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking in Type 304 Stainless Steel

and Alloy 600
Product Number
TR-113458
Date Published
November 1999
Details
Abstract
Environmental cracking of austenitic stainless steel and nickel-base alloy components in LWRs
has been a major problem, affecting plant reliability and availability. This project investigates the
nucleation of intergranular stress corrosion cracks in an austenitic stainless steel and a nickelbase alloy, using sophisticated surface microscopy techniques. Results indicated that grain
boundary triple points appear to be the primary sites for crack nucleation, with continuous strain
required for significant crack growth.
Background
The prevalent forms of environmental cracking include both stress corrosion and corrosion
fatigue, which occur even in high-purity water. Type 304 stainless steel and alloy 600
components become susceptible to intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) because of
sensitization during heat treatment or welding. Until recently, most IGSCC research has focused
on determining the environmental, metallurgical, and mechanical factors responsible for
producing cracking and on understanding crack growth mechanisms, with little research directed
towards crack nucleation. This study was designed to fill that research void by considering both
crack initiation and propagation stages of crack life.
Objective
To identify the factors affecting IGSCC initiation in Type 304 stainless steel and alloy 600
To examine the effects of strain and strain rate on the early growth of nucleated cracks
Approach
To investigate the nucleation of IGSCC in its earliest phase, investigators examined Type 304
stainless steel and alloy 600 using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). They annealed and sensitized materials to make them susceptible to IGSCC,
then applied several types of specimens to determine the effects of different stress or strain
conditions on IGSCC nucleation and growth in a 1000 ppm sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
solution. These specimens included the following: (1) flat strip with diamond indentation, (2) Ubend, (3) tear-drop, and (4) three-point bent beam.
6-12
Results
This investigation revealed that upon plastic deformation of sensitized specimens of Type 304
stainless steel and alloy 600, slip lines piled up at the grain boundaries. As a result of the
increased localized stresses, some grain boundaries opened, particularly at grain boundary triple
points and where twin boundaries intersected grain boundaries. These openings which occurred
in the absence of any corrosive environments were typically 1-2 micrometer wide and about 1
micrometer deep. Within a few hours of exposure to the test solution, small cracks (less than 1
grain diameter) appeared at the opened sites. This indicated that the opened triple points served
as crack nucleation sites. Subsequently, the small cracks grew and coalesced to form larger
cracks with sharp crack tips. Finally, the specimens failed as the cracks advanced and covered
the entire width of the specimen. The study further revealed that only those specimens subjected
to a continuous elastic strain experienced any significant crack growth. Electrochemical
measurements confirmed that crack extension occurred within one hour of exposure to the test
solution.
EPRI Perspective
This study identified likely nucleation sites on the surface of austenitic materials through the use
of sophisticated analytical microscopy techniques. The identification of grain boundary triple
points as the likely nucleation sites and continuous strain as a requirement for crack growth
confirms theoretical modeling work related to SCC in these materials. EPRI believes that in situ
electrochemical techniques may be useful in combination with AFM as a means for quantifying
the crack initiation process. Ultimately, this approach may lead to a method for monitoring
IGSCC nucleation in the laboratory and eventually under field conditions.
Program
History
2004 Program 014859 Corrosion Research
2002 Program 014859 T041I Corrosion Research
6-13
On-Line Corrosion Monitoring Using Electrochemical Frequency Modulation

(EFM)
Product Number
TR-112786
Date Published
July 1999
Details
Abstract
This work demonstrates the feasibility of using the electrochemical frequency modulation (EFM)
technique for on-line monitoring of corrosion rates. EFM is superior to other electrochemical
methods in that it can measure corrosion rates on polarized structures and in low conductivity
waters, and prior knowledge of the Tafel parameters is unnecessary. Furthermore, the quality of
the measurements made by EFM can be evaluated easily by determining how closely the
"causality factors" match theoretical values.
Background
On-line corrosion rate measurements can be made using several electrochemical techniques, such
as harmonic impedance spectroscopy (HIS) (see TR-107867), linear polarization resistance
(LPR), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Each method has its strengths and
shortcomings. The more advanced EFM technique is similar to HIS in that it measures the nonlinear behavior of a corroding system by analyzing the ac-current response to an ac-potential
distortion on the corroding system. However, the EFM technique applies a potential distortion in
the form of two sine waves of different frequencies, instead of the single sine wave employed by
the HIS technique. Theoretically, this approach has several advantages over HIS, including
larger (more easily measured) current responses at intermodulation frequencies, and a built-in
data validation technique. However, the feasibility of developing EFM for a general purpose
corrosion monitoring system has not previously been investigated.
Objective
To evaluate the use of EFM to monitor corrosion rates (1) in water systems in which the
corrosion mechanism is either under diffusion, passivation, activation, or mixed control; (2)
of cathodically protected, or other polarized, structures; and (3) in low conductivity waters
Approach
The research team used a standard 3-electrode electrochemical cell with potentiostat, data
acquisition board, signal generators, and supporting equipment. Corrosion rates measured by
EFM under various test conditions were compared with those obtained by more conventional
techniques like LPR, Tafel back-extrapolation, and weight loss.
6-14
Results
The research team developed mathematical models suitable for calculating corrosion rates from
EFM data generated for four classes of corrosion system: activation-, diffusion-, passivation-,
and mixed-control systems. In addition, they demonstrated that the magnitudes of the current
responses at certain intermodulation frequencies are multiples of the current responses at certain
harmonic frequencies. When these multiples, the so-called causality factors, differ significantly
from the theoretical values of 2 or 3, the data are predicted to be unreliable.
EFM data obtained for mild steel in a sulfuric acid solution with or without corrosion inhibitors - all activation controlled systems -- led to estimates of the corrosion rate that were in good
agreement with conventional techniques like weight loss measurements, LPR, and EIS. EFM
data obtained for mild steel in a sodium chloride solution -- a diffusion controlled system -- gave
acceptable estimates of corrosion rate only when potential perturbation frequencies were quite
low (0.02 and 0.05 Hz). At the higher frequencies (0.2 and 0.5 Hz) normally used, the EFM
method overestimated corrosion rates but qualitatively tracked rate changes resulting from shifts
in either dissolved oxygen content or hydrodynamic conditions. EFM data for 304 stainless steel
in a sodium chloride solution -- nominally a passive system -- were in poor agreement with LPR
and Tafel back-extrapolation when using the EFM passivation controlled model. Better
agreement was achieved with an activation controlled model.
The EFM technique successfully measured corrosion rates of cathodically protected mild steel
structures over a range of cathodic overpotentials in sodium chloride solution. The most accurate
rates were obtained when Tafel behavior was assumed for both the anodic and cathodic
reactions. Other experiments demonstrated that the EFM technique properly compensates for
solution resistance errors in low conductivity waters.
EPRI Perspective
This work has shown that, for a wide range of systems of practical interest, the EFM technique is
capable of monitoring corrosion rates on-line without prior knowledge of the Tafel parameters.
Major advantages of the EFM technique over other electrochemical methods are EFM's lack of
sensitivity to harmonics in the potential perturbation signal and the possibility of data validation
through the use of causality factors. Further development of the technique could automate
optimization of measurement variables and data processing.
Program
History
6-15

Volume 5: Application of Guidelines at Hazelwood Power Station
Product Number
TR-100455-V5
Date Published
October 1996
Details
Abstract
Corrosion fatigue is the major source of boiler tube failures, which remain the leading cause of
fossil steam plant availability loss. Information is now available on how to determine the boiler
locations which are susceptible and which solutions will be successful.
Background
Volumes 1-4 of this report provide extensive information on the failure locations of corrosion
fatigue, laboratory studies and field testing. New temperature/strain monitoring has helped
determine the critical strain levels at sites of corrosion fatigue.
Objective
To determine the strain range at locations of corrosion fatigue during typical startup and
shutdown conditions; to illustrate that the guidelines developed in Volume 3 produce
representative and accurate strain ranges.
Approach
The project team surveyed the historical corrosion fatigue experience of the Hazelwood boilers
to choose three locations for monitoring. One of these locations had experienced extensive
corrosion fatigue; the other two had experienced very little or none. The project team next
installed over 90 thermocouples and 20 strain gauges on the cold side of the tubes and on the
tube support channel, and then monitored four boiler starts and shutdowns. The team performed
finite element stress analysis for the locations using the guidelines developed in Volume 3. They
first used the measured temperature and strain data to validate the analysis, and then simulated
constraint on the tube/channel to determine the strain ranges on the tube internal surface.
Results
The strains peaked during the shutdown period when the tubes and supporting channel are locked
together (constrained). The combination of temperature/strain monitoring and finite element
stress analysis was able to determine that the locking of the tube/channel results in peak tensile
strains of around 0.3 percent. It was also possible to determine that the strain at the extremities of
the cracking was around 0.2 percent, which may indicate the minimum threshold level of strain
required to cause corrosion fatigue cracks. In areas where the tube/channel was not constrained,
the strains were well below the threshold level; no corrosion fatigue had been evident in these
areas.
6-16
EPRI Perspective
The guidelines developed in Volume 3 for linking the temperature/ strain monitoring and the
finite element stress analysis provide a consistent description of the behavior of waterwall
corrosion fatigue cracking. The peak strains in those areas corresponding to the locations of
corrosion fatigue cracks agree well with the fracture strain of magnetite. Parallel EPRI work
reported in EPRI report TR-105568 has identified the pH depression due to phosphate hideout
return during shutdown as an important cycle chemistry influence on corrosion fatigue. The final
step in overcoming corrosion fatigue is to revise the strain and chemistry factors from these
studies in the influence diagram present in Volume 4 of this report.
Program
History
6-17
Erosion-Corrosion of Metals and Alloys at High Temperatures

Product Number
CS-3504
Date Published
June 1984
Details
Abstract
Particles carried along in flowing gases can erode heat exchangers in fluidized-bed combustion
systems. Tests conducted in this study revealed that fluidized-bed dust is almost as erosive as
pulverized-coal fly ash and that metals and alloys with good adherent protective oxides are most
resistant to erosion.
Background
Erosion is a well-known problem in pulverized-coal-fired boilers. In fluidized-bed combustion
(FBC) systems, though, the dust is different in composition and form from fly ash, and particle
density in the gas stream is greater. Researchers need a clearer understanding of how different
ashes from a given coal erode so that they can design more resistant heat exchangers for FBC
systems.
Objective
To study the erosion behavior of a range of alloys with different erodents and assess
quantitative erosion theories.
To develop designs for erosion-resistant heat exchangers in fluidized-bed combustion

systems.
Approach
The study team used a high-temperature erosion apparatus, developed in EPRI project RP979-5,
to expose test specimens to erosive gas flow. They exposed 14 state-of-the-art alloy samples to
erodents entrained in gas at temperatures up to 760 degrees C, at flow velocities up to 50 m/s.
Angular alumina (nominal particle size, 12 micrometers) was the primary erodent, although a
coarser alumina, two fly ash samples, and glass beads were also used. The team estimated
erosion damage by specimen weight loss and conducted microscopic examinations to
characterize the damage.
6-18
Results
These tests showed little difference in the erosion resistances of the alloys used, even though the
alloys had substantially different mechanical and oxidation properties at room temperature.
Within this narrow range of observed differences, however, alloys that were relatively soft at
high temperature and formed strongly adhering protective oxides had better resistance. There
was more erosion at low temperature when the exposed surface was angled at 30 degrees to the
flow, but at high temperature there was little difference in erosion between angles of 30 degrees
and 90 degrees. Although researchers could not determine an absolute flow-velocity threshold
for the onset of erosion, they found little damage at velocities less than about 30 m/s. The erosion
rates for the pulverized-coal fly ash and, surprisingly, for the fluidized-bed dust were similar to
that of the 12-micrometer alumina. The samples lost less weight when argon was used as the
carrier gas, indicating that oxidation is a significant factor in the erosion process.
EPRI Perspective
The results of these tests indicate that changes in materials are unlikely to greatly affect erosion,
although protective coatings may be useful in some cases. Moreover, the unexpected erosiveness
of FBC dust, relative to pulverized-coal fly ash and alumina particles, suggests that designers
should be conservative in setting maximum flow velocities through heat exchanger tube banks.
The Battelle high-temperature erosion apparatus is an excellent test facility and, in this interim
phase of the work, has proven capable of generating information in a reasonably short time.
Additional work is needed, however, on the more fundamental aspects of erosion-corrosion
processes in these regimes. Related EPRI reports include CS-1853, CS-2118, and CS-2582.
Program
History
1998 Program 057 Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion Plant O&M Cost Reduction
6-19
7
BOILER CORROSION
7-1
Heat Flux Electrochemical Studies of Underdeposit Boiler Tube Corrosion

Product Number
3002002044
Date Published
September 2013
Details
Abstract
Boiler water-side corrosion in fossil plants represents a key cause of availability loss and
performance degradation, with underdeposit corrosion (UDC) being a major damage mechanism.
UDC results from concentration of impurities and contaminants within the structure of the
deposit residing on the heated internal surfaces of boiler waterwall tubing. The EPRI cycle
chemistry guidelines provide control curves based on cation conductivity and steam quality
limits, but these limits are independent of boiler condition with regard to internal waterwall
deposits. It has been recognized that chemical excursions in the boiler water quality have
significantly greater detrimental and damaging effects when there is a greater quantity of
deposits in the boiler, and that the threshold limit of damaging concentration of impurities in the
boiler water depends on the nature and composition of the waterwall deposits. Therefore, EPRI
undertook the study documented in this report to provide confirmatory data for UDC conditions,
for use in validating results of existing models. The findings of this study confirm that the
existing action levels are appropriate for both steam purity and boiler corrosion control.
To perform the study, a test facility was developed to validate and confirm deposit structures and
hypothesis of chemical concentration predicted by the Deterministic Model described in EPRI
Report 1019639. A high-temperature (690F), high-pressure (2400 psig) autoclave with an
electrically heated electrode of SA210A1 boiler tube material for deposition development and
electrochemical corrosion measurement was constructed for performing corrosion tests under
simulated boiler waterwall conditions. The test loop was operated in the fouling mode with a
combination of ferrous acetate solution and suspended magnetite and ferric hydroxide particles
in order to develop a layer of deposit on the working electrode, which was operated at typical
boiler heat fluxes of 30 W/cm2 (95,000 BTU/hr-ft2) and localized nucleate boiling in the heated
zone.
Two chemical environments, AVT-R and phosphate chemistry, were evaluated in the presence of
elevated concentrations of chloride as either ammonium chloride or sodium chloride. These tests
confirmed the predictions of earlier modeling and confirmed the effect of sodium in the control
of chlorides in the range identified by EPRI guidelines. The corrosion rates measured would be a
challenge to long-term boiler tube integrity if operated with the elevated chloride concentrations
for extended periods; however, none of the rates suggest an immediate risk to tube integrity.
7-2
Program
Keywords
Boiler tube failure
Deposition
Pitting
Risk
Underdeposit corrosion
7-3
Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 1: Roadmap for Addressing

Corrosion Fatigue of Boiler Waterwall Tubes
Product ID
1022707
Date Published
31-May-2011
Details
Technical Report
Abstract
This report explores corrosion fatigue damage in boiler waterwalls and provides a step-by-step
process to understand and mitigate damage. As its name applies, corrosion fatigue is a damage
mechanism that requires corrosion and cyclic stresses to be active.
Related Material
1022708-Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 2: Roadmap Case Study:
Evaluation of AEP's Big Sandy Unit 1
Objective
Because damage can be more corrosion- or more fatigue-dominated, several influence factors
were determined. These influence factors can be through changes in design, operation,
management, construction, or maintenance practices. Because there are so many differences in
these variables throughout the fleet, the root cause for damage in each may be different. This
report illustrates a methodical way to determine the root cause that may be applied in other units.
Approach
An operating subcritical utility boiler was instrumented with thermocouples, high temperature
strain gages, and other measurement devices to determine which phases of operation were the
most damaging. Alternative operational methods significantly improved damage accumulation
rates.
Results
Several factors drive the increased failure rate resulting from corrosion fatigue damage in the
existing fleet. These factors primarily relate to age of the unit and cyclic service. For the unit in
this study, cold startup cycles that allow the boiler temperature to decay below saturation
temperature were seen to be the most damaging.
Methods demonstrated in this report will allow utility engineers to determine the primary driving
force affecting corrosion fatigue damage development and accumulation. This determination will
allow for changes required to minimize further damage accumulation.
7-4
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has been performing corrosion fatigue damage investigations for more than a quarter of a
century. Research has shown that although the damage may look the same in multiple units, the
actual root cause may be different in each. This report builds on past and current research using
specialized instrumentation to determine optimum methods to minimize damage accumulation.
Program
Keywords
Boiler tube failures
Corrosion fatigue
Cycling
Remaining life
Roadmap
7-5
Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 2: Roadmap Case Study:

Evaluation of AEP's Big Sandy Unit 1
Product ID
1022708
Date Published
31-May-2011
Details
Technical Report
Abstract
As we continue to operate an ever-aging fleet of power plants, we experience increased boiler
tube failures from failure mechanisms related to aging. One such failure mechanism is corrosion
fatigue. Corrosion fatigue may result in failures in any water-touched surface in boilers and has
been found in waterwalls, risers, and supply tubing, and drums. This report provides detailed
research on the causes and actions to address corrosion fatigue in boiler waterwall tubing.
Related Material
1022707-Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 1: Roadmap for Addressing
Corrosion Fatigue of Boiler Waterwall Tubes
Objective
Corrosion fatigue is a very difficult damage mechanism to completely understand and manage.
Many different variables in design, operation, management, construction, and maintenance have
been identified that may allow the damage mechanism to be active. This project sought to
identify the variable that has the greatest effect on damage development and provide methods to
minimize failures while providing for future operation.
Approach
This project used in-field instrumentation and controlled operational scenarios to develop a more
complete understanding of operational effects on damage initiation and growth. It provides
suggestions for design/operational changes to provide for continued operation of older units.
Results
Although an extensive program of boiler instrumentation and detailed engineering analysis, a
better understanding has been developed on the various boiler operational, design, and
maintenance aspects that allow corrosion fatigue damage mechanism to develop. Operational
changes have been suggested to minimize damage accumulation.
Information in this report is valuable to utilities operating, designing, or constructing subcritical
boilers. Tools developed by this project can be implemented throughout the life of boilers to
minimize potential for tube failures related to corrosion fatigue.
7-6
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has conducted research on boiler tube failures from corrosion fatigue for >30 years and is a
leading authority how to address concerns. This project builds on previous evaluations
performed around the world of many different designs, operation, and age units.
Program
Keywords
Boiler tube failure
Circulation
Corrosion fatigue
Cycling
Fatigue
7-7
Evaluation of Circumferential Cracking on Supercritical Boiler Waterwalls

Volume 1:
Evaluation and Root Cause of Thermal Fatigue Cracking in Supercritical Boilers;
Volume 2:
PP&L Brunner Island Power Station (Unit 3) Furnace Wall Scanner 1015314
Product Number
1015314
Date Published
March 2008
Details:
Abstract
Circumferential cracking of the fireside surfaces of supercritical waterwalls remains a problem
for many coal-fired boilers. Two parallel test programs at Pennsylvania Power and Light's (PPL)
Brunner Island Unit 3 attempted to correlate operating conditions with the development and
propagation of circumferential cracks.
Background
Although the wide-scale implementation of oxygenated treatment has proven to be successful in
combating cracking, changes in other operating parameters have exacerbated the problem. For
example, many boilers have been retrofitted with low NOx burner systems since the early 1990s.
These low NOx systems result in longer flames, deposition of reducing species, and the
application of weld overlays, all of which may be at least in part responsible for exacerbating the
cracking issue, even when oxygenated treatment is used. To address the current situation, both
the fireside conditions as well as the fluidside conditions needed to be assessed.
Pennsylvania Power and Light's (PPL) Brunner Island Unit 3 was selected as the site for a major
research program into the parameters that affect the occurrence and growth of circumferential
cracks. Brunner Island Unit 3 is a nominal 750 MW supercritical boiler that often operates at
outputs over 800 MW. It fires Eastern Bituminous coal; and, like many similar units in PPL's
fleet, it has a long and continuing history of issues with circumferential cracking in its waterwall
tubes. The unit has also suffered from severe waterwall wastage due to low NOx burner
operation and has installed several available weld overlay materials as potential solutions to that
problem.
Objective
To study the furnace waterwall system of a supercritical coal-fired boiler holistically and
determine when and under which modes of operation conditions are sufficient for the
development and propagation of circumferential cracks.
7-8
Approach
Two teams conducted test programs at Brunner Island Unit 3. Aptech Engineering installed two
panels in the lower furnace that were instrumented with chordal thermocouples to measure heat
flux and strain gauges to measure the impact of the buckstays on tube deformation. Rowan
Technologies installed two wall-temperature mapping systems in the lower furnace. In addition
to temperature mapping, the Rowan Technologies system also had the ability to map tube metal
loss from fireside corrosion and cracking severity, although cracking severity will require more
time to quantify than was available in this demonstration.
Results
The actual test program ran over a six-month period through the end of 2007. Findings from both
studies were largely consistent and confirmed that circumferential cracking in the waterwalls
predominately results from fluctuations in furnace-side tube metal temperatures. Because of the
base-loaded operation of Brunner Island Unit 3, on-load thermal transients are far more
important contributors to annual thermal fatigue damage accumulation than transients related to
startup/shutdown. Neither project was able to identify the underlying causes of the numerous,
damaging, on-load tube temperature fluctuations, although it is unlikely that slag buildup and
slag shedding can account for most of the damaging fluctuations. Until the cause of the
numerous tube temperature transients that do not have slag buildup/shedding characteristics are
understood, it will be difficult to identify the most cost effective corrective actions or to develop
procurement requirements to implement design changes that address the circumferential thermal
fatigue damage mechanism from coal-fired supercritical boilers.
EPRI Perspective
These two research projects provided the foundation for the program of parametric testing and
analysis planned for the next phase of this effort. This work will further assess the primary root
causes and modes of operation responsible for circumferential cracking.
Program
Combustion Performance and NOx Control
7-9
Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical Units

Product Number
1020836
Date Published
March 2010
Details
Abstract
Waterwall tubes in some of the existing fleet of U.S. supercritical steam boilers operating with
oxygenated water treatment (OT) are experiencing the growth of duplex oxide scales of similar
morphology to those found in the circuitry of steam-touched superheater and reheater tubing. A
2009 EPRI report, Oxide Scale Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical
Steam Boilers (1015656), examined the conditions at which these oxides are formed. This report
provides information to allow the prediction of the rate of oxide growth in relation to local
operating conditions.
Objective
The objective of this work is to assemble information to allow the prediction of the rate of oxide
growth on the water-/steam-touched surfaces of waterwall tubes based on the best available
understanding of steam-/water-side oxidation kinetics. Establishing a criterion for maximum
oxide thickness with regard to local fluid temperatures, flow rates, heat fluxes, and tube metal
temperatures is vital to the boiler engineer in establishing mitigation strategies and developing
chemical treatment approaches or physical cleaning methodologies and criteria.
Approach
The research team metallurgically examined both superheater and supercritical waterwall tubing
obtained from operating power plants to discern differences in the growth characteristics. Using
data from expert sources on the configuration patterns of heat flux, temperatures, and flows, the
team developed simulations that identified conditions that would accelerate the potential growth
of duplex oxides in low-alloy (0.75--2.25% Cr) metals. Correlating these data, the team
considered the effect of heat transfer on oxide scale development in supercritical waterwall
tubes.
Results
Direct comparison of the morphologies of oxide scale grown in waterwall tubing and those
grown in steam noted several differences. The uniformity and thickness ratio of the inner and
outer layers were different for the scales grown in supercritical water and appeared to be related
to the chromium content of the base metal. One of the main findings based on simulation results
for temperature is the greater possibility of reaching higher temperatures under partial load
7-10
conditions, leading to locally higher temperature and acceleration in the oxide growth rate. It was
found that the location of the subcritical-supercritical transition point moved to higher locations
as the heat flux/flow decreased. Predictability of growth rate is based on knowledge of localized
transient conditions.
As the frequency and optimum methods of chemical cleaning have changed, overheating damage
to supercritical boiler waterwall tubing is occurring in more units. The application of OT and/or
optimized all-volatile treatment (AVT) chemistries has reduced the normal iron oxide deposits as
well as the need for frequent chemical cleaning. Understanding the chemical and physical nature
of the duplex oxides in the higher temperature regions of the waterwalls will assist in the
development of better criteria for predicting and monitoring the progress of the oxides and in
determining the appropriate scheduling of chemical cleaning. The differences in the in situ
thermally grown oxides and the conventional "boiler deposits require different cleaning
procedures and/or processes that are being developed in conjunction with this work.
EPRI Perspective
The scientific understanding of the oxide growth mechanism and morphology will provide the
basis for the development of specific guidance for managing the oxide growth rate and criteria
for performing boiler maintenance and chemical cleaning. Additional knowledge and research of
the properties of these oxide scales that can be used in the formulation of remedial actions are
required to address concerns relating the thermal growth of in situ oxide in waterwalls to thermal
fatigue cracking of supercritical tubing.
Program
7-11
Oxide Scale Growth Characteristics in Waterwalls of Supercritical Steam Boilers

Product Number
1015656
Date Published
March 2009
Details
Abstract
Waterwall tubes in some of the existing fleet of U.S. supercritical steam boilers operating with
oxygenated water treatment (OT) are experiencing the growth of duplex (double-layered) oxide
scales of similar morphology to those found in the circuitry of steam-touched superheater and
reheater tubing. This report provides the preliminary investigation of the conditions at which
scales having a duplex structure are formed in supercritical water, their rate of growth, and their
thermal conductivity compared to the (apparently) single-layered scales usually expected to form
in the waterwalls.
Objective
The objective of this work element was to determine what is known about the conditions at
which scales having a duplex structure are formed in supercritical water, their rate of growth, and
their thermal conductivity. The intent of the initial exercise was to address the following
questions:
Is there any step change in oxide growth kinetics from 370C (698F) to 500C (932F)?
Are there differences in the form and/or morphology of the oxide scales that grow in liquidlike supercritical water and in gas-like supercritical water? If there are such differences, at
what conditions of temperature and/or pressure does the transition occur?
If such a transition occurs, does it correspond to any large change in growth rate?
Are there good thermal conductivity values of the relevant oxides in this temperature range?
The challenge is to address industry concerns with 1) predicting the rate of oxide growth, 2)
establishing criteria of maximum thickness considering fluid temperatures, heat flux, and
tube metal temperatures, 3) establishing chemical cleaning methodologies and criteria, and 4)
establishing mitigation strategies.
7-12
Approach
The research team gathered information from all publicly available sources about the kinetics of
steam- and water-side oxide growth, and the associated scale morphologies, at temperatures in
the range of 370450C (698842F). From the datato the extent possiblethe team
determined the conditions of temperature and pressure under which duplex scales form, and
compiled information on the thermal conductivity of steam- and water-side oxide scales as a
function of scale morphology and thickness
Results
For temperatures <550C (<1022F) reasonable agreement was found in oxide growth kinetics
derived from measurements in steam (at approximately 1 bar) and in liquid-like supercritical
fluid at 250 bar (3625 psi). The morphology of the oxide scale grown in liquid-like supercritical
water appeared to be quite similar to that of the duplex oxide observed in steam (gas-like
supercritical fluid). The scales consisted of an outer layer of magnetite and an inner layer of FeCr spinel. Measurements reported in the literature indicate that the thermal conductivity of the
oxide scales grown on ferritic steel is very low, approximately 23 Wm-1K-1. Because the rate
of oxide growth increases exponentially with temperature, oxide thickness may be doubled at
425C (797F) compared to 390C (734F) (at 276 bar [4000 psi]).
Overheating damage to supercritical boiler waterwall tubing is occurring in more units as the
frequency and optimum methods of chemical cleaning of the units have changed. The application
of OT and/or optimized all-volatile treatment (AVT) chemistries have reduced the normal iron
oxide deposits and reduced the need for frequent chemical cleaning. An understanding of the
chemical and physical nature of the oxide growth in the higher temperature regions of the
waterwalls will assist in the development of better criteria for monitoring the progress of the
oxides and determining the appropriate scheduling of chemical cleaning. The differences in the
in situ thermally grown oxides and the conventional boiler deposits will require different
cleaning procedures and/or processes to be developed.
EPRI Perspective
Developing the scientific understanding of the oxide growth mechanism and morphology will
provide the basis for developing specific guidance for managing the oxide growth rate and
criteria for performing boiler maintenance and chemical cleaning. Further research must address
concerns relating the thermal growth of in situ oxide in waterwall with thermal fatigue cracking
of supercritical tubing and knowledge about the properties of these oxide scales that can be used
in the formulation of remedial actions.
Program
7-13
Evaluation of Solvent Processes for Chemical Cleaning of Supercritical

Waterwalls and Removal of Duplex Oxides Formed by High Temperature, In-situ
Oxidation of Ferritic Steels
Product Number
1020882
Date Published
April 2010
Details:
Abstract
EPRI report 1003994, Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of Conventional Fossil Plant
Equipment, published in 2001, provides information pertinent to the chemical cleaning of boiler
water and steam touched surfaces. The guidelines consider the needs of both drum type and once
through boilers. Subsequent to the publication of these guidelines the presence of in situ duplex
oxides has been identified on the internal diameter of liquid-like touched surfaces of supercritical
waterwalls in T-11 and T-22 materials. Waterwall failures have been attributed to the presence
and growth of these oxides as they present a thermal barrier to conductive heat transfer. Field
experiences with chemical cleaning of these duplex oxides have yielded mixed results. This
report presents the findings of a series of laboratory static solvent tests which evaluate the
effectiveness and efficiency of a variety of solvents for removing these oxides.
Background
Fossil power station chemists, operators and engineers involved in the operation and
maintenance of supercritical once-through steam generators must maintain internal tube surfaces
with minimal deposits and in situ grown oxide to allow sufficient conductive heat transfer to
minimize the potential of damage to the tubing. This necessitates periodic chemical cleaning of
the steam generator. After conversion of many once-through steam generators to oxygenated
treatment in the 1990s the interval between cleans increased. The increased interval between
cleans was possible due to a reduction in deposition rates due to improved corrosion control,
however the increase in time period has resulted in an increase in the thickness of in situ grown
oxides formed. Power stations have had mixed success removing these in situ grown oxides with
current cleaning procedures and, as such, are faced with the challenge of developing effective
and efficient means to remove in situ grown oxides.
Objective
The objective of this project was to provide an assessment of the efficiency and effectiveness of
selected chemical cleaning solvents for the removal and dissolution of high-temperature oxides
formed in situ on the low-alloy ferritic tubing of supercritical boilers. Specifically this entailed
determining the optimum conditions of solvent concentration, temperature and time to effect the
7-14
removal of the oxides with minimal agitation of the solvent. Secondarily the objective of this
work was to determine the degree of material dissolution as compared to the degree of the
material being dislodged or sloughed from the tube wall and to provide a characterization of both
the soluble and insoluble material.
Approach
This project consisted of static solvent laboratory tests conducted on tube samples from
supercritical once through steam generators for the purpose of removing deposits and in situ
grown oxides from the internal surfaces of the samples. The project included detailed
assessments of the deposit and oxide present. The static laboratory tests employed a variety of
solvent formulations and evaluated their effectiveness over time at removing the deposit and
oxide present. The testing also included an evaluation of the solvents, again in static laboratory
testing, to remove the same deposit when present as a dislodged or sloughed particulate.
Results
To varying degrees most of the solvents employed were able to remove the duplex oxides
present on supercritical waterwall tube samples cleaned in the laboratory static solvent tests. The
concentrations of these solvents and contact time with the tube samples necessary to remove the
oxides were typically higher and longer than those recommended in previous EPRI chemical
cleaning guidelines for removal of deposits. These findings provide an indication of the potential
effectiveness of various solvent formulations for chemical cleaning supercritical units.
Supercritical steam generating units typically are the premier assets of a utilitys fossil-fuel
generation fleet. The development of efficient and effective chemical cleaning processes for
supercritical once-through steam generators ensures that these units can maintain a high level of
reliability with minimal downtime required for periodic cleaning operations. The results from
this research will be incorporated with ongoing and existing EPRI Research to provide the basis
of an Interim Chemical Cleaning Guidelines for Supercritical Fossil Plants.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI Research has been the first to identify and describe the growth kinetics and potential
detrimental insulating effects of in situ grown duplex oxides in supercritical unit waterwall
tubing. The results from this project will be incorporated with this previous research to develop
comprehensive guidelines for managing the growth and removal of these oxides to prevent
failures.
Program
7-15
Program on Technology Innovation: Oxide Growth and Exfoliation on Alloys

Exposed to Steam
Product Number
1013666
Date Published
June 2007
Details
Abstract
Exfoliation of oxide scales from the steam-touched surfaces of superheater and reheater tubes
results in short-term overheating boiler tube failures (BTF) and solid particle erosion of the inlet
stages of the steam turbine. This report provides the state-of-knowledge of oxide growth and
exfoliation, which will eventually help power plant operators control the damage mechanisms.
Objective
Thickening with time of the oxide scales formed on engineering alloys is a thermodynamically
expected and unavoidable phenomenon. The rate of thickening typically follows a parabolic rate
law (that is, the rate decreases with time) as long as the oxide remains protective for several
thousands of hours, and it accelerates exponentially with increasing temperature. Increasing
steam pressure also accelerates the rate of scale thickening. Exfoliation occurs when the
differential stress between the thermally grown oxide on the tube surface and the tube itself
becomes sufficient that it can be relieved by fracture of the oxide. This report reviews the stateof-knowledge of oxide grown as well as failure on alloys typically used in steam boilers, the
causes of scale exfoliation, and the factors that influence when it occurs.
Approach
The EPRI team reviewed the previous EPRI work from the 1970s and all of the research in the
intervening years. The analytical models needed for the new approach are individually available
but needed to be brought together. The team developed an initial qualitative version that follows
descriptions of the growth, kinetics, morphologies, and exfoliation processes.
Results
There is a good practical understanding of the modes of oxidation of a very limited range of
alloys: the low chromium ferritic steels and the standard types of 300-series austenitic steels.
This understanding includes descriptions of the evolution of the oxide structures with time and
temperature as well as the modes by which such oxides fracture and fail. Such information for
the important class of 912Cr steels is much less complete, largely because the oxidation
behavior of these alloys differs from that of the lower chromium steels and can be highly
variable. There is a noticeable lack of mechanistic understanding to explain how the oxide
morphologies that are peculiar to steam oxidation are developedeven for the standard ferritic
and austenitic steels.
7-16
A procedure developed in the 1970s (described in EPRI report FP-686) for applying the thenexisting knowledge to scale exfoliation in steam used two of the major factors involvedoxide
thickness and accumulated strain in the oxideto generate a diagram that indicated the regimes
in which exfoliation would be expected for typical ferritic and austenitic steels. Such a diagram
has been found to correspond well with information derived from tubes removed from service
and appears to have potential for extension for use in predicting exfoliation behavior.
Short-term overheating BTF and solid particle erosion occur in many plants worldwide.
Developing a new understanding and model for these exfoliation processes will be of
tremendous operating value. This will be applicable to the current series of alloys as well as new
materials that will be used under advanced conditions.
EPRI Perspective
Major contributing factors to the oxide stresses are 1) the difference in coefficient of thermal
expansion between the oxide and the alloy on which it grows and 2) the fact that the volume of
the oxide is (typically) greater than that of the alloy consumed. Accommodation of these stresses
becomes more difficult as the oxide thickens: because thicker scales generally exfoliate more
easily, there is a tendency to find a correlation between scale thickness and tendency to exfoliate.
However, this is not always the case. It is proposed that the previous EPRI procedure can be used
as the basis for developing a new mathematical model capable of generating similar maps of
exfoliation regimes for specific alloys and boiler operating conditions. Significant developments
have been made in recent years in the analytical description of the various modes of scale failure,
and some of these descriptions appear to be applicable to scales formed in steam. Incorporation
and current knowledge of oxide growth and appropriate failure mechanisms with the
methodology for mapping exfoliation regimes is the route proposed to produce a mathematical
model. This model will have a predictive capability that could be used to explore scenarios for
managing exfoliation events in operating boilers.
7-17
Program on Technology Innovation: Development of a Conductivity/Corrosion

Probe for Use in Boiler Water at Temperatures Up to 360 C
Product Number
1016361
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
Boiler waterside corrosion represents a serious cause of performance loss in power plants.
Electrical conductivity measurements provide useful information for monitoring contaminants in
power plant boilers. This report describes the development of a conductivity/corrosion
monitoring probe for use in boiler water.
Objective
Development of a new electrochemical conductivity/corrosion probe for use in situ at
temperatures up to 350 C (662 F) and pressures corresponding to the liquid state at these
temperatures. The methodology used in this device includes electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS).
Determination of the workability of the new instrument in aqueous solutions corresponding

to AVT of boiler water based on conductivity measurements in flow-through hightemperature systems.
Development of conductivity and/or corrosion curves for at-temperature measurements
Commercialization of the probe as a monitoring device.
Approach
The project team developed and tested a conductivity/corrosion probe based on an electrode
assembly that was previously developed in EPRI Corrosion Project Report 1010187, Simulated
Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques, published in March of 2006. A
notable theoretical accomplishment of the project was the construction of a series of conductivity
curves calculated from physico-chemical data that can be compared to the experimental
conductivity points obtained with the probes.
Results
This report describes the construction and testing of a new flow-through platinum (Pt)
conductivity prototype probe for use in boiler water. A second version of the probe, a flowthrough carbon steel/gold (CS/G) corrosion/conductivity prototype, was also successfully tested.
The current test program required the replacement of the previously used flow-through
electrochemical cell with an improved system.
7-18
After correction for instrumental ionic contamination, conductivity data obtained with the new
probe showed satisfactory resolution of conductivities versus ionic impurities in 1 S cm-1 per
50 ppb of Cl- at 350 C (662 F) in all-volatile treatment (AVT) aqueous solutions contaminated
with NaCl.
Electrical conductivity depends directly on the total ionic concentration of aqueous solutions. A
change in boiler water conductivity immediately signals a change in boiler water chemistry. To
use this relationship to monitor a working boiler, measurements must be made at high
temperatures. Although room-temperature conductivity measurements are informative, they do
not accurately correlate with the events occurring at high temperatures. For example, under an
AVT regime, room-temperature measurements reflect ammonia concentration effects and mask
the level of impurities present. With increasing temperatures, the dissociation constant of
ammonia hydroxide decreases more rapidly than the dissociation constants of sodium bisulfate,
sulfate, and chloride. Thus in situ conductivity measurements at high temperature lack the
masking effect of ammonia and accurately portray the degree of impurities in the system. Such
measurements rely on the analysis of high-temperature systems, which in turn is based on
fundamental thermodynamics and transport data of aqueous species. The composition of boiler
water can be predicted within certain constraints. For example, deoxygenated AVT boiler water
is characterized by a general composition of NH4OH/NaCl/Na2SO4. Thus, if the water pH is
measured at room temperature and the Na content is rationally constrained, the Cl-/SO42composition can be calculated from the conductivity measurements.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has published three fossil plant treatment guidelines: AVT (EPRI report 1004187),
phosphate continuum/caustic treatment (PC/CT) (EPRI report 1004188), and oxygenated
treatment (OT) (EPRI report 1004925). These guidelines are fundamental to the overall
availability of fossil plants but current monitoring is based on indirect measurements of
corrosion. The experimental data obtained in this study will contribute to the development of in
situ control for boiler operation through better measurement of corrosion. Predictive charts for
ionic contaminants NaCl and Na2SO4 will be developed for these three plant boiler treatment
regimes. This work, together with parallel EPRI research on deposition on waterwalls and
simulated corrosion in boilers, will eventually lead to an approach that uses direct indicators of
corrosion processes taking place in boilers.
Program
7-19
Root Causes of Circumferential Cracking in Waterwalls of Supercritical Units:

State-of-Knowledge
Product Number
1014205
Date Published
February 2008
Details
Abstract
Circumferential cracking on the waterwalls has again become a significant problem for many
supercritical units, especially with the implementation of low-NOx systems. Damage typically
consists of multiple, parallel cracks perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the tube and to the
direction of maximum tensile stress. There can be numerous potential causes, and the choice of
the appropriate control strategy will depend on identifying the underlying cause(s) for a
particular outbreak of damage. This report discusses the current understanding of the problem,
highlighting recent and ongoing research into specific issues associated with circumferential
cracking.
Objective
The goal of this project is to identify and summarize what is presently known about
circumferential cracking in supercritical waterwalls. In achieving this goal, this report can serve
as a starting point to identify deficiencies and research needs for the recently created EPRI
Program 171.
Approach
This state-of-knowledge document is based on review of worldwide literature and published
EPRI reports on the topic. The intent of this document is to put all involved parties on the same
page with respect to what is known and what needs to be assessed in order to improve industry
understanding of the governing causes and mechanisms, and to discover viable, practical
solutions.
Results
This report summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding circumferential cracking, and
includes a large body of work spanning several decades and multiple EPRI programs. In
studying the material contained in this report, it should become apparent to the reader that there
is no single cause of circumferential cracking, that causes are very site specific, and that often
times multiple factors work to compound the damage. In many instances, the governing causes
and mechanisms are steam side based (for example, growth of thermal oxides), while in other,
more recent cases (especially given the implementation of low-NOx systems), combustion and
fuel-related parameters are the primary culprits.
7-20

EPRI Program 171 addresses all aspects of circumferential cracking on supercritical waterwalls,
which has reappeared as a major issue. By improving industry understanding of the key causes
and implementing practical, cost-effective solutions, plant availability may be significantly
improved, and related failures may be significantly reduced.
EPRI Perspective
There are a number of deficiencies in the methods, tools, and processes needed to
confirm/evaluate specific mechanisms and root causes, and establish workable solutions to
specific circumferential cracking outbreaks. Prior to enhancing industry understanding of the
governing causes and developing practical solutions, it is imperative that all involved parties are
aware of preceding work in this area, which is the primary intent of this report.
Program
Thermal Fatigue Cracking in the Waterwalls of Supercritical Boilers
7-21
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques: AVT(R)

Contaminant Limits
Product Number
1015665
Date Published
March 2009
Details
Abstract
Boiler water-side corrosion in fossil plants represents a key cause of availability and
performance loss. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) cycle chemistry guidelines
provide control curves based on cation conductivity and steam quality limits. Electrochemical
techniques developed to simulate boiler corrosion can be used to determine actual contaminant
limits, based on corrosion, in boiler water. This report provides the results of an electrochemistry
study to determine the limits and control curves for NaCl when using a reducing all-volatile
treatment, AVT(R), boiler chemistry. Two AVT(R) solutions with initial pH levels of 9.0 and
9.5 (at 25 C) were used in this study.
Objective
This work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling fossil plant boiler
corrosion. Few electrochemical studies have been conducted in high-temperature aqueous
environments at temperatures and pressures representative of boiler operation conditions. The
objective of this study is to develop and use the electrochemical tools to measure corrosion in
aqueous solutions that correspond to the four main fossil plant chemical treatments: AVT
(oxidizing and reducing), phosphate continuum (PC), caustic treatment (CT), and oxygenated
treatment (OT). Data from this project will provide information for modeling with deposition
studies in order to develop scientifically based limits and risk assessments for these chemical
treatments.
Approach
Approach The project team used two main electrochemical methods-electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy and linear sweep voltametry-in parallel to measure the corrosion rates during the
high temperature experiments. Cyclic voltametry was also implemented to characterize the
electrochemical steady-state of the electrode system. The original design of the flow-through
working-counter electrode assembly was used in combination with a new flow-through tubular
reactor developed in our laboratory. The electrochemical measurements and data acquisition
were performed using the Gamry Electrochemical Measurements System. Prior to the corrosion
rate measurements, the surface of the carbon steel specimen was fully pre-oxidized for at least
500 hours under target experimental conditions, 350 C (662 F) and 21.5 MPa (3100 psi).
Kinetics of oxidation, as well as the processes of failure and the healing of the oxide layer as a
result of changes in the corrosive environment, were monitored throughout the experiments.
7-22
Results
With the experimental tools developed primarily in 2006 and improved in 2007, the corrosion
rates of the SA210A1 carbon steel were determined in NaCl containing AVT(R) solutions for the
range of Cl- concentrations from 0 to 4 parts per million (ppm). The corrosion rate's moderate
dependence on the Cl- content was found during the exposure of SA210A1 specimens to
AVT(R) solutions.
The obtained AVT(R) data show corrosion rates that are twice as high as the AVT(O) data under
identical conditions (for AVT solutions with pH = 9 at 25 C). The addition of ammonia up to
10-4 mol kg-1 (pH = 9.5 at 25oC) to AVT(R) solutions results in another doubling of the
corrosion rates. These observations, therefore, negate earlier conclusions of an upper corrosionrate limit for the Cl- above 3 ppm, and this limit cannot be claimed in either the oxidizing or
reducing regime of all-volatile treatment.
When the corrosive limits have been established and compiled with deposition studies for
determining water-wall corrosion, comparative boiler corrosion curves for all EPRI cycle
chemistry treatments will be produced. These curves will then be incorporated into the EPRI
guidelines and used by fossil plants worldwide.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has published three fossil plant treatment guidelines: for AVT (Cycle Chemistry
Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment: Revision 1 [1004187]), PC/CT (Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic Treatment
[1004188]), and OT (Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment
[1004925]). These guidelines are key to the overall availability of fossil plants, but currently use
and rely on indirect measurement of corrosion in the cycle. The main parameter is cation
conductivity. The current research, together with parallel EPRI research on deposition (EPRI
Reports Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, Part 2 [1012207] and
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, Part 3 [1014128]), will
eventually lead to an approach that uses direct indicators of corrosion processes in the boiler.
Program
7-23
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques: AVT(O)

Contaminant Limits
Product Number
1014133
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
Boiler waterside corrosion in fossil plants represents a serious cause of availability and
performance loss. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) cycle chemistry guidelines
provide control curves based on cation conductivity and steam quality limits. Electrochemical
techniques developed to simulate boiler corrosion can be used to determine actual contaminant
limits, based on corrosion, in boiler water. This report presents the results of an electrochemistry
study to establish the limit and control curve for NaCl for the all volatile treatment oxidizing
(AVT[O]) boiler chemistry treatment.
Objective
This work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling fossil plant boiler
corrosion. Few electrochemical studies have been conducted in high-temperature aqueous
environments at temperatures and pressures representative of boiler operation conditions. The
objective of this study is to develop and use the electrochemical tools to measure corrosion in
aqueous solutions corresponding to the main fossil plant chemical treatments, that is, AVT
(oxidizing and reducing), phosphate continuum (PC), caustic treatment (CT), and oxygenated
treatment (OT). Data from these studies will provide information for modeling with deposition
studies in order to develop scientific-based limits and risk assessments for these chemical
treatments.
Approach
The project team used a combination of in situ and ex situ experimental methods for determining
the corrosion rates for SA210A1 carbon steel. Two electrochemical methods electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy and dc polarization were used in parallel to electrochemically
measure the corrosion rates. The flowthrough electrode assembly in combination with a new,
hightemperature flowthrough tubular reactor was used for the measurements. Preoxidation of
the carbon steel specimens was performed in the same flowthrough tubular reactor under
identical experimental conditions, and the growth of the oxide layer on the steel surface was
taken into account in the interpretation of the measured corrosion rates. The team conducted
several tests at 350C and 18 MPa in simulated AVT(O) solution with chloride additions.
7-24
Results
Using the measuring tools developed primarily in 2006 and improved in 2007, the corrosion
rates of SA210A1 carbon steel were determined for NaCl containing AVT(O) solutions for a
range of Cl from 0 to 3000 ppb with an oxygen concentration of <10 ppb at 350C and 18
MPa. Moderate dependence of the corrosion rate on the Cl content was found within the
experimental times of SA210A1 exposure to AVT(O) solutions. In addition, high-temperature
corrosion tests of Cl were carried out at 3,600, 4,200, and 10,200 ppb in AVT(O) water.
The obtained data for Cl of >3 ppm at 350C and 19 MPa apparently indicate the beginning of
possible stochastic and unstable behavior of the corrosion system, accompanied by an increase in
the carbon steel corrosion rate, sometimes leading to a complete failure of the defensive oxide
layer. From the obtained data, the upper limit of Cl in an AVT(O) solution contaminated by
NaCl appears to be 3 ppm at 350C.
When the corrosive limits have been established and compiled with deposition studies for
determining waterwall corrosion, comparative boiler corrosion curves for all EPRI cycle
chemistry treatments will be produced. These curves will then be incorporated into the EPRI
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has published three fossil plant treatment guidelines: for AVT (Cycle Chemistry
Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment: Revision 1 [1004187]), PC/CT (Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic Treatment
[1004188]), and OT (Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment
[1004925]). These guidelines are key to the overall availability of fossil plants but currently use
and rely on indirect measurement of corrosion in the cycle. The main parameter is cation
conductivity. The current research, together with parallel EPRI research on deposition (EPRI
reports Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, Part 2 [1012207] and
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, Part 3 [1014128]), will
eventually lead to an approach that uses direct indicators of corrosion processes in the boiler.
Program
7-25
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques

Product Number
1012210
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
performance loss. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines provide control curves based on cation
conductivity. This report presents the results of an electrochemistry study to derive new control
curves, based on corrosion, for each cycle chemistry treatment.
Objective
The overall work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling fossil plant
boiler corrosion. Almost no electrochemical studies have been conducted in high temperature
aqueous environments at temperatures and pressures representative of boiler operating
conditions. The objective of this study was to develop the electrochemical tools to measure
corrosion in the aqueous solutions corresponding to the main fossil chemical treatmentsAVT,
phosphate continuum (PC), caustic treatment (CT), and oxygenated treatment (OT).
Approach
The project team used a combined approach of in situ experimental methods for determining the
corrosion rates. They incorporated two electrochemical methods within the autoclave
assemblyDC polarization and EIS. The ex situ technique was used to prepare specimens with a
realistic layer of magnetite on the surface. The team conducted a number of tests up to 360C
(680F) in a simulated AVT solution with chloride additions.
Results
The measuring tools for corrosion studies at temperatures up to 360C (680F) and pressures up
to 26 MPa (3770 psi) were developed and tested. These include a flow-through hydrothermal
cell, an annular-duct flow-through electrode assembly, and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. DC
Polarization and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were made in
dilute electrolyte solutions. Initial corrosion rates for carbon steel were determined for allvolatile treatment (AVT) with chloride levels up to 1000 ppb. A moderate dependence of the
corrosion rate on the chloride level was found. Experiments were also conducted to form
representative magnetite layers on the carbon steel specimen.
7-26

After the equipment has been refined and the electrochemical techniques can monitor waterwall
corrosion, the equipment will be used to produce comparative boiler corrosion control curves for
all EPRI cycle chemistry treatments. These curves will then be incorporated into the EPRI
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has recently published three fossil plant treatment guidelines: AVT (1004187), PC/CT
(1004188), and OT (1004925). These guidelines are key to the overall availability of fossil plants
but currently use indirect measurements of corrosion in the cycle. The main parameter is cation
conductivity. This current research, together with the parallel EPRI research on deposition (EPRI
report 1012207), will eventually lead to an approach that uses direct indicators of corrosion
processes in the boiler.
Program
7-27
Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Electrochemical Techniques

Product Number
1010187
Date Published
March 2006
Details
Abstract
performance loss. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines provide control curves based on cation
conductivity. This report provides the first results of an electrochemistry study to derive new
control curves for each cycle chemistry treatment that are based on corrosion.
Objective
The overall work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling fossil plant
boiler corrosion. Almost no electrochemical studies have been conducted in high temperature
aqueous environments at temperatures and pressures representative of boiler operating
conditions. The objective of this initial study was to develop the electrochemical tools to
measure corrosion in the aqueous solutions corresponding to the main fossil chemical treatments,
that is, all-volatile treatment (AVT), phosphate continuum (PC), caustic treatment (CT), and
oxygenated treatment (OT).
Approach
The project team decided to use a combined approach of in situ and ex situ experimental methods
for determining the corrosion rates. They incorporated two electrochemical methods within the
autoclave assemblyDC polarization and EIS. They also designed the ex situ technique, which
involves mass loss of a similar steel specimen. The team commissioned the apparatus and
conducted a number of initial tests up to 360C (680F) in simulated AVT solution with chloride
and sulfate additions.
Results
The measuring tools for corrosion studies at temperatures up to 360C (680F) and pressures up
to 26 MPa (3770 psi) were developed and tested. These include a flow-through hydrothermal
cell, an annular duct flow-through electrode assembly, and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. The
first DC polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were
made in dilute electrolyte solutions. Initial corrosion rates for carbon steel were determined for
all-volatile treatment (AVT).
Once the equipment has been designed and operated, it will be able to produce comparative
boiler corrosion control curves. These curves will then be incorporated into the EPRI guidelines
and used by fossil plants worldwide.
7-28
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has recently published three fossil plant treatment guidelines for AVT (1004187), PC/CT
(1004188), and OT (1004925). These are key to the overall availability of fossil plants but
currently use indirect measurements of corrosion in the cycle. The main parameter is cation
conductivity. This current research, together with the research on deposition, will eventually lead
to an approach using direct indicators of corrosion processes in the boiler.
Program
7-29
Assessment of Probes to Measure Waterwall Wastage at American Electric

Power's Gavin Unit 1
Product Number
1010473
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require significant nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions reductions for utility boilers. A preferred method to achieve reductions involves
burner systems that reduce NOx formation. These systems create reducing zones in the lower
furnace, especially in staged systems using overfire air ports. Waterwall wastage, however, has
increased significantly in such boilers. Although it was formerly only possible to measure actual
wastage rates during extended maintenance outages, new approaches presented in this report and
in EPRI report 1004736 provided two viable methods for monitoring waterwall wastage during
boiler operation. One system relies on electrochemical (EC) corrosion signals that can be
measured on line (active corrosion probes); the other system relies on probes that can be
periodically removed to measure wastage in a laboratory (passive corrosion probes). For this
study, EPRI and American Electric Power (AEP) cosponsored a test evaluation of both systems.
Program
Combustion Performance and NOx Control
7-30
Status Review of Initiation of Environmentally Assisted Cracking and Short Crack

Growth
Product Number
1011788
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
This report reviews current knowledge of environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) initiation and
short crack growth (by stress corrosion cracking, strain-induced corrosion cracking, and, to a
lesser extent, corrosion fatigue) in nickel base alloys, austenitic stainless steels, and carbon and
low-alloy steels exposed to typical pressurized water reactor (PWR) and boiling water reactor
(BWR) aqueous environments. The document identifies key gaps in knowledge and recommends
areas where additional experimental work is most likely to produce useful outcomes for
proactive management and mitigation of materials degradation by EAC.
Objective
This report will be of primary interest to material specialists in the nuclear industry engaged in
planning and monitoring EAC research programs. The report concludes by identifying a large
number of gaps in the existing knowledgebase with regard to initiation and growth of short
cracks and suggests potential experimental studies to resolve some of these uncertainties. Four
areas, in particular, are considered worthy for near-term experimental work since these involve
ideas that are both fundamentally important and feasible to investigate.
Approach
The project team is responsible for, or involved in, a considerable portion of the ongoing
worldwide research into degradation of LWR materials through EAC. Team members drew on
both their own knowledge and extensive interactions with technical peers to assemble a
comprehensive, state-of-the-art assessment of initiation and short crack growth in a wide variety
of structural alloys. The focus throughout was on identifying important gaps in both data and
understanding and making detailed recommendations for appropriate testing (including
requirements on experimental technique) to resolve key issues.
Results
All structural materials used in PWR and BWR systems depend on formation of a protective,
adherent, oxide barrier film for an acceptably low general corrosion and corrosion product
release rate. The structure, properties, and, in many cases, rate of repair (repassivation) of surface
films are key factors in initiation of stress corrosion cracking (SCC), which often occurs within
domains of corrosion potential and pH corresponding to changes in the nature of surface films.
7-31
These processes also are affected by a multitude of interacting metallurgical and mechanical
response parameters of the material. Such parameters include grain boundary composition, the
presence of non-metallic inclusions, radiation damage, primary creep behavior, grain boundary
sliding, and fabrication defects. The complexity of these interactions leads to very variable
material responses in terms of the extent and localization of crack initiation.
Research into cracking mechanisms and key elements affecting crack initiation, short crack
coalescence and growth, and identification and validation of mitigation methods (including
alternative and more resistant materials) is essential for longer-term asset management of light
water reactors (LWRs). EAC initiation is intrinsically difficult to study effectively and
unambiguously in the laboratory, but, with appropriate care and attention to detail, can provide
important information to manage or avoid cracking in service.
EPRI Perspective
This report represents the work of several leading corrosion researchers in the field of LWR
materials degradation. These experts used their own extensive laboratory and field experience,
together with the published technical literature, in a distinctly forward-looking way to identify
and propose solutions to key gaps in our knowledge of EAC crack initiation and short crack
growth. As such, the report is not exhaustive in its coverage, although the authors did benefit
from the valuable input of industry and academic peers at an early stage in the project.
Furthermore, differences in styleand sometimes technical opinioncan be found in the text,
but these differences are far outweighed by the document's wealth of pertinent information and
freshness of thinking. The report also considers information from other industries, for example in
the insights into multiple crack initiation and crack coalescence garnered from work with SCC in
high-pressure gas pipelines. Together, the two organizations the authors represent are responsible
for a large amount of both applied research and practical analysis of materials degradation in
service for PWRs and BWRs worldwide.
Project results will be used by the EPRI Primary Systems Corrosion Research Program to
identify and prioritize additional experimental work on EAC to be carried out during the next
few years in the context of the U.S. Industry Materials Initiative. As the existing LWR fleet ages
and enters the license renewal phase of operation, this work will be important in moving to a
more proactive approach for dealing with materials degradation.
Program
05T061142 Materials Corrosion
7-32
Remaining Life Assessment of Austenitic Stainless Steel Superheater and

Reheater Tubes
Product Number
1004517
Date Published
December 2002
Details
Abstract
Austenitic stainless steel superheater and reheater tubing can fail in power plant operating
conditions by a variety of mechanisms. A comprehensive guide to assess these different
mechanisms and to provide a methodology for predicting future failures can assist in reducing
tubing failures.
Background
In recent years, in-service failures of austenitic stainless steel superheater and reheater tubes have
started to become a significant cause of lost plant availability. Steam-side oxide scale based
remaining life methods developed for ferritic tubing are commonly being used by utilities to
estimate austenitic tube life. Unfortunately, this approach does not provide a direct method for
estimating the life of austenitic stainless steel tubing.
Objective
To provide a compilation of current information and case histories associated with the
prediction of remaining life in austenitic stainless steel superheater and reheater tubes.
To document degradation and failure mechanisms experienced by austenitic stainless steel

superheater and reheater tubes.
To provide roadmap approaches for assessing the remaining life of austenitic stainless steel
superheater and reheater tubes.
To provide metallurgical methodologies and documentation for use in remaining life

calculations.
Approach
The report begins with an overview of the basic design aspects and metallurgical characteristics
of new austenitic stainless steel (SS) tubes. Next, a description of microstructural degradation
modes commonly associated with the austenitic stainless steels is provided. Individual sections
of the report address primary damage, including: 1) fireside corrosion in both coal-fired and oilfired units; 2) pitting and crevice corrosion; 3) intergranular attack and stress corrosion cracking;
4) fatigue; 5) steam-side scale exfoliation, steam flow blockage, and short term overheating; 6)
dissimilar metal weld failures; and 7) long-term overheat creep. Remaining life models and
metallurgical tools to assess tube life were developed and tested.
7-33
Results
A thorough review of all known failure modes affecting austenitic stainless steel tubing is
provided to familiarize the reader with specific steps to: 1) identify the damage; 2) assess the
failure mechanism; 3) determine possible root causes; 4) determine the extent of the damage; 5)
determine and implement repairs, intermediate solutions, and actions; 6) perform life assessment;
and 7) determine and implement long-term actions to prevent repeat failures. Detailed
methodologies have also been provided to assess the condition of austenitic SS tubing via
metallurgical evaluation. Finally, two remaining life models are presented to address long-term
overheat-creep failures.
EPRI Perspective
Successful remaining life methods for ferritic tubing have been available for more than a decade.
The increase in the number of failures of austenitic stainless steel tubing has promoted the need
for similar remaining life approaches. This report provides two comprehensive models to address
long-term overheat-creep failures. The first model is a cumulative damage model that provides
sufficient flexibility to: 1) predict the remaining life of the first and subsequent failures; 2)
perform sensitivity studies to determine the benefit of operational changes, repairs, retrofits, or
design alterations; and 3) provide a direct assessment of tube temperature or wall thinning rate
variations. The second model, referred to as a rank statistical model, is relevant to the situation in
which failures have already occurred and an estimate of the rate of future failures is desired.
Both techniques may be applied by utilities to predict remaining life of austenitic stainless steel
tubing under long-term overheat-creep conditions.
Program
History
7-34
Interfacial Crack Propagation During Compressive Failure of Thin Protective

Oxides and the Fracture of Iron Oxide ScalesAppendix: EPRI/NPL Database on
the Mechanical Properties of Oxide Scales (MPOS)
Product Number
TR-113501
Date Published
November 1999
Details
Abstract
Power plant materials are protected by a layer of oxide or corrosion product. It is important to the
overall availability and reliability of the equipment that this layer remains in place, does not
break down chemically, and is mechanically stable-meaning, it does not spall or crack. This
report will help plant designers and operators select materials and temperature ranges that
prevent mechanical degradation. The report also describes the Mechanical Properties of Oxide
Scales (MPOS) database, covering chromia, alumina, iron, and nickel oxides.
Background
Spallation of oxide layers from power plant materials often occurs during cooling, when
compressive stresses generate in the oxide layer. Spallation results when the mismatch in the
thermal expansion coefficient between the oxide and the underlying alloy exceeds a critical
value. Creep deformation of the alloy alleviates stress and inhibits growth of the interfacial crack
in the early stages of cooling. However, at lower temperatures in the cooling transient, creep
relaxation rates decrease and interfacial crack growth recommences. The factors of importance
are the size of the temperature change, the cooling rate, and the mechanical properties of the
oxide and substrate. This project developed an experimentally verified model to address the first
two factors and a database to respond to the last factor.
Objective
To develop a model for interfacial crack generation and propagation for alumina and
chromia.
To determine the fracture strain of iron oxides and to develop the first version of the MPOS
database.
Approach
The project team developed techniques to grow oxides at high temperatures on a range of power
plant significant materials. They next exposed these materials/oxides to various cooling rates,
and monitored the spalling characteristics of the oxides using acoustic emission and sulfur
decoration techniques. In parallel, the team developed a finite element model to examine the
growth of wedge cracks along the oxide/metal interface during cooling of a 20Cr25Ni austenitic
steel, which forms Cr2O3 scales, and Haynes 214 alloy, which forms Al2O3 scales. They
compared model results with the results of each material/oxide/temperature combination. The
7-35
team also developed the MPOS database, with the bulk of the data obtained from scientific
journal articles and the remainder from organizations involved in measuring mechanical
properties of oxide scales.
Results
This study presents detailed finite element modeling of stress build-up in chromia and alumina
oxide scales during cooling experiments, which can lead to spallation of the protective layer.
Such spallation can be delayed by introducing hold periods during the cooling cycle to promote
stress relaxation. The duration and temperature of these hold periods are critical in determining
their effectiveness.
The experimental work and the modeling correlated very well, making it possible to construct
initial spallation maps for the two alloy/oxide combinations. These 3-D spallation maps are
based on a model that requires information on the thermal expansion coefficients of the oxide
and alloy, Young's modulus of the oxide, and algorithms describing the creep and oxidation
characteristics of the alloy. The project also revealed the oxide fracture strain in compression and
tension for mild steel at temperatures up to 550 degrees Celsius. Such maps and data will be
useful in future materials selection.
The MPOS database contains mechanical properties of chromia, alumina, iron, and nickel
oxides, which form on alloy surfaces exposed to high temperature oxidizing conditions. Some
limited data is also included on the properties of ceramic (bulk) oxides. The database will be
regularly updated to add new data sets and improve the software for searching and presentation.
The appendix to this report provides a complete description of the database.
EPRI Perspective
The current drive toward improving efficiency while minimizing pollutant emissions places a
heavy demand on the materials scientist, since in most cases these requirements mean higher
operating temperatures and exposure to more aggressive environments. Protection of material
from high temperature corrosion depends on the properties of the corrosion product, which
should act as a diffusion barrier to prevent further atmospheric attack. Thus, the corrosion layer
should be chemically stable in the environment, prevent diffusion of the reacting gases and the
metal species, and resist cracking or spalling. This report concentrates on the last of these criteria
and describes the results of research to develop and experimentally validate a model of scale
spallation.
Program
History
7-36

Volume 5: Application of Guidelines at Hazelwood Power Station
Product Number
TR-100455-V5
Date Published
October 1996
Details
Abstract
Corrosion fatigue is the major source of boiler tube failures, which remain the leading cause of
fossil steam plant availability loss. Information is now available on how to determine the boiler
locations which are susceptible and which solutions will be successful.
Background
Volumes 1-4 of this report provide extensive information on the failure locations of corrosion
fatigue, laboratory studies and field testing. New temperature/strain monitoring has helped
determine the critical strain levels at sites of corrosion fatigue.
Objective
To determine the strain range at locations of corrosion fatigue during typical startup and
shutdown conditions; to illustrate that the guidelines developed in Volume 3 produce
representative and accurate strain ranges.
Approach
The project team surveyed the historical corrosion fatigue experience of the Hazelwood boilers
to choose three locations for monitoring. One of these locations had experienced extensive
corrosion fatigue; the other two had experienced very little or none. The project team next
installed over 90 thermocouples and 20 strain gauges on the cold side of the tubes and on the
tube support channel, and then monitored four boiler starts and shutdowns. The team performed
finite element stress analysis for the locations using the guidelines developed in Volume 3. They
first used the measured temperature and strain data to validate the analysis, and then simulated
constraint on the tube/channel to determine the strain ranges on the tube internal surface.
Results
The strains peaked during the shutdown period when the tubes and supporting channel are locked
together (constrained). The combination of temperature/strain monitoring and finite element
stress analysis was able to determine that the locking of the tube/channel results in peak tensile
strains of around 0.3 percent. It was also possible to determine that the strain at the extremities of
the cracking was around 0.2 percent, which may indicate the minimum threshold level of strain
required to cause corrosion fatigue cracks. In areas where the tube/channel was not constrained,
the strains were well below the threshold level; no corrosion fatigue had been evident in these
areas.
7-37
EPRI Perspective
The guidelines developed in Volume 3 for linking the temperature/ strain monitoring and the
finite element stress analysis provide a consistent description of the behavior of waterwall
corrosion fatigue cracking. The peak strains in those areas corresponding to the locations of
corrosion fatigue cracks agree well with the fracture strain of magnetite. Parallel EPRI work
reported in EPRI report TR-105568 has identified the pH depression due to phosphate hideout
return during shutdown as an important cycle chemistry influence on corrosion fatigue. The final
step in overcoming corrosion fatigue is to revise the strain and chemistry factors from these
studies in the influence diagram present in Volume 4 of this report.
Program
History
7-38
Corrosion Fatigue Crack Initiation of Boiler Tubes: Effect of Phosphate in Boiler

Water
Product Number
TR-105568
Date Published
June 1996
Details:
Abstract
Boiler tube failures remain the leading cause of availability loss in the fossil plant industry, with
failures due to corrosion fatigue being most prevalent. This study clarifies the effects of
phosphate boiler water treatment and dissolved oxygen levels on corrosion fatigue.
Background
Previous EPRI work (report TR-100455, Volumes 1-4) provided information on corrosion
fatigue boiler tube failures in terms of location, in-plant monitoring, stress analyses, and
available solutions. Initial laboratory tests results conflicted with monitoring results for oxygen.
Parallel work in the area of phosphate treatment (EPRI report TR-103665) revealed that severe
pH depressions can occur in the boiler water during periods of phosphate hideout return. These
periods corresponded to times when the applied strain was highest at the corrosion fatigue
locations.
Objective
To clearly identify the effects that reduced pH due to phosphate boiler water treatment would
have on corrosion fatigue cracking
Approach
The project team modified the constant strain rate apparatus that had been used in the previous
corrosion fatigue studies. They next conducted a series of tests where they varied the phosphate
and pH at constant low oxygen levels to reproduce phosphate hideout return. In supplementary
tests, they also varied oxygen and temperature.
Results
This laboratory study helped define the environmental variables that influence corrosion fatigue
cracking of boiler tubes. At constant oxygen level (<5 ppb), the number of cycles to initiate
corrosion fatigue cracking decreases with decreasing pH in the phosphate-treated boiler water.
At temperatures above 200_C, dissolved oxygen has a major effect on increasing the propensity
to corrosion fatigue; whereas, at lower temperatures there is very little effect of oxygen. As
reported previously, there is a general trend for slower loading frequencies to reduce the number
of cycles to initiate corrosion fatigue cracks.
7-39
EPRI Perspective
The results reported fully support concepts developed in EPRI's new "Phosphate Treatment
Guidelines" (TR-103665). Utilities that experience phosphate hideout, hideout return, and pH
depressions when operating with congruent phosphate treatment should carefully evaluate the
need to shift to equilibrium phosphate treatment. The results also support corrosion fatigue field
monitoring and mechanistic studies, which have indicated that dissolved oxygen levels are
usually low when the peak strain is imposed on the boiler tube. EPRI is sponsoring a further
series of tests to examine the effects of pH instability in boilers operating with all-volatile
treatment.
Program
History
7-40
8
DEPOSITION
8-1
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants: Engineering

Sourcebook for Risk Mitigation
Product ID
1024724
Date Published
23-Jan-2012
Details
Abstract
Since the beginning of the commercial steam and power generation industry, deposits on heat
transfer surfaces of the steam-water cycle equipment in fossil plant units have been a challenge.
Deposits form at nearly all locations within the steam-water cycle, particularly in boiler tubes
where failures can have substantial negative impacts on unit availability and reliability.
Accumulation of internal deposits can adversely affect the performance and availability of
boilers and turbines in fossil steam-water cycles. Deposition in drum boilers has been identified
as the area of broadest concern to the industry; therefore, an improved understanding of
deposition in drum boilers is expected to represent the greatest source of benefits and value to
end users.
A probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) was combined with a Deterministic Model to predict the
formation and characteristics of deposits under various thermal/hydraulic conditions and
chemical environments. A Chemical Equilibria and Corrosion Assessment module used output
from the PRA and the Deterministic Model to predict corrosion rate and, thus, provide an
assessment of the risk of corrosion under the deposits. The results of these detailed calculations
are reported in EPRI report 1019636, Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power
Plants Deterministic Model, Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA), Laboratory Testing, and
Boiler Tube Examinations.
This report provides a methodology for the application of the results of the detailed calculations
to the operation of subcritical fossil boilers with various pressures, chemical treatments, and
acidic and neutral contaminant ingress. Application of the information contained in this
sourcebook will assist power plant engineers, operators, chemists, and managers in the
assessment of potential risk associated with condition-based analysis of boiler deposits and cycle
contamination.
8-2
Related Material
1019639-Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants
Program
2011Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
Keywords
Boiler tube failure
Deposits
Modeling
Pitting
Risk
8-3
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants

Product ID
1019639
Date Published
16-Dec-2011
Details
Abstract
Accumulation of internal deposits can adversely affect the performance and availability of
boilers and turbines in fossil steam-water cycles. Deposition in drum boilers has been identified
as the area of broadest concern to the industry; therefore, an improved understanding of
deposition in drum boilers is expected to represent the greatest source of benefits and value to
end users.
The overall objective of the modeling described here is to develop a comprehensive, integrated
model for deposition processes in fossil boilers. This model is intended to be applied to new and
existing fossil boilers to minimize or better manage deposition activities inherent to heat transfer
surfaces. Modeling the deposition rate using the actual plant operational parameters will allow
water chemistry optimization and thus eliminate or minimize the negative impacts of deposition
on plant performance, plant availability, and profitability. The ultimate goal is to use this tool to
optimize plant operational chemistry parameters for various plants and conditions to achieve
minimal deposition and associated underdeposit corrosion on crucial steam-water cycle
components.
This model consists of a risk-based assessment methodology that uses the output of a
deterministic model to project the anticipated risk of tube corrosion under various conditions.
The probabilistic risk assessment uses the deterministic model to predict the formation of
deposits under various thermal/hydraulic conditions and chemical environments. The Chemical
Equilibria and Corrosion Assessment module uses output from the deterministic model to predict
the corrosion rate and thus provide an assessment of the risk of corrosion under the deposits.
Results are reported on the application of the model to drum boilers on phosphate treatment, all
volatile treatment under chemically reducing conditions and all volatile treatment under
chemically oxidizing conditions at pressures in the range of 9002,400 psig (6.216.5 MPa),
and on detailed examinations of samples from three fossil boilers and initial laboratory testing to
benchmark inputs and outputs from the model.
Future testing will validate the model under various chemistry excursions, such as chloride
intrusions, and will evaluate methods to mitigate those excursions.
8-4
Related Material
1004931-Boiler Water Deposition Model, Part 1: Feasibility Study
Program
Keywords
Boiler tube failure
Deposit
Modeling
Pitting
Risk
8-5
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants: Progress on

Enhancement of a Deterministic Model and Development of Risk-Based
Assessment Part 2
Product Number
1017479
Date Published
January 2010
Details
Abstract
The feasibility and initial development of an integrated, deterministic model of the various
processes governing deposition in fossil boilers was assessed in the following Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) reports: 1004931, Boiler Water Deposition Model: Part 1: Feasibility
Study, published in 2004; 1012207, Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fuel Plants, Part
2: Initial Deterministic Model Development and Deposit Characterization, published in 2007;
1014128, Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fueled Power Plants: Part 3: Integration of
Deterministic Model, published in 2008; and 1015660, Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil
Fuel Plants: Progress on Enhancement of Deterministic Model and Development of Risk Based
Assessment, published in 2009. This progress report (1017479) describes efforts to enhance the
previously developed Deterministic Model with a risk-based assessment of the consequences of
deposition.
Objective
The objective of the boiler deposition model development activity is to create a tool that new and
existing fossil units can use to better manage any deposition that cannot be avoided and, in so
doing, eliminate or minimize the negative impacts of deposition on availability. The complexity
of deposition is substantial; creating an aggregate model focused on fossil boilers requires the
coordinated efforts of many technical specialists to integrate useful attributes of existing models,
evaluate new modeling approaches, and fill the gaps that exist with respect to certain model
input. In view of these challenges, model development and validation necessitate the use of a
phased approach, with results from prior phases sharpening the priorities for future activity.
Approach
The project team's primary focus was on improving the overall operability and accuracy of the
integrated Deterministic Model with improvements in the thermal/hydraulic and chemical
modules. The team also focused on the methodology for Risk-Based Assessment that uses the
output of the Deterministic Model to project the anticipated risk of tube corrosion under various
conditions.
8-6
Results
Several important accomplishments have been achieved during this stage of model development:
A functional version of the Deterministic Model has been completed, along with 15
enhancements.
The Deterministic Model has been improved to more accurately describe the physical
processes that occur in the corrosion deposits on the inside of boiler tubes.
Changing geometries within the deposits have been incorporated to better describe the known
temperature drop across the film.
An accurate chemistry module has been integrated into the Deterministic Model to fully
describe the chemical equilibrium and corrosion assessments necessary to predict localized
and general corrosion for the specified predicted metal
Development of the Chemical Equilibrium and Corrosion Assessment module and the
Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) are continuing, based on modeling of the sequences
and scenarios of deposit development.
The ultimate goal is to develop a tool that would suggest optimal plant operational chemistry
parameters for various plants and conditions in order to achieve minimal deposition on the
crucial water-steam cycle components.

The final version of the model will be used for several purposes. The first purpose will be to
support parallel project activity that is intended to improve the understanding of boiler corrosion
processes. The second will be to establish improved criteria for determining when operational
chemical cleaning of boilers is required. Finally, creation of a suitable model on deposition in
fossil boilers will support future refinement of existing guidelines for fossil plant cycle
chemistry.
The addition of a PRA that uses a combination of operating history and a knowledge of both
deposit characteristics and chemical excursion events will provide the appropriate methodology
to assist operators, chemists, and managers in making cost-effective decisions in the operation of
their power plants.
EPRI Perspective
Boiler tube failures (BTFs) have consistently been cited as the number one source of availability
loss in fossil units. BTF mechanisms involving deposition on boiler waterside heat-transfer
surfaces are a significant concern at many plants. Research directed toward both an improved
understanding of boiler deposition and the proper assessment of operating risk is regarded as
integral to improving fossil unit BTF and availability statistics.
Program
8-7

Product Number
1015660
Date Published
March 2009
Details
Abstract
processes governing deposition in fossil boilers was assessed in the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) reports Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fuel Plants, Part 1: Feasibility
Study (1004931), published in 2004; Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fuel Plants, Part
2: Initial Deterministic Model Development and Deposit Characterization (1012207) published
in 2007; and Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fueled Power Plants, Part 3: Integration
of Deterministic Model (1014128), published in 2008. This interim report describes efforts to
enhance the previously developed deterministic model and the integration of the model with a
risk-based assessment of the consequences of deposition.
Objective
The objective of the boiler deposition model development is to create a tool that will apply to
new and existing fossil units to better manage any deposition that cannot be avoided and, in so
doing, to eliminate or minimize the negative impacts of deposition on availability. The
complexity of deposition is substantial. Integrating useful attributes of existing models,
evaluating new modeling approaches, and filling gaps that exist with respect to certain model
input to create an aggregate model focused on fossil boilers require the coordinated efforts of
many technical specialists. In view of these challenges, model development and validation
necessitate the use of a phased approach, with results from earlier phases sharpening the
priorities for future activity.
Approach
The project team focused on improving the overall operability and accuracy of the integrated
deterministic model with improvements in the thermal-hydraulic and chemical modules. The
team also focused on the methodology for risk-based assessment that uses the output of the
deterministic model to project the anticipated risk of tube corrosion under various conditions.
Results
The following important accomplishments have been made during this stage of model
development:
8-8
A functional version of the deterministic model is complete.

Development of the chemical equilibrium and corrosion assessment module and probabilistic
risk assessment is underway.
The deterministic model is being improved to more accurately describe the physical
processes that occur within the corrosion deposit on the inside of the boiler tubes.
Changing geometries within the deposit are being incorporated to better describe the known
temperature drop across the film.
An accurate chemistry module is being integrated into the deterministic model to fully
describe the chemical equilibrium and corrosion assessments necessary to predict localized
and general corrosion for the predicted metal.
The ultimate goal is to develop a tool that would suggest optimal plant operational chemistry
parameters for various plants and conditions in order to achieve minimal deposition on the
crucial steam-water cycle components.

The next step is to refine the integrated, deterministic model; the first priority is to resolve the
underestimation of the deposit temperature. Other immediate plans are to add more chemical
species, improve the re-entrainment subroutine, improve the user interface, account for the
impact of moisture expulsion from the deposits, and validate the model against published data. In
addition, the influence of tube surface geometry on deposition must be addressed because
accumulation of solids and damage often initiates in areas of flow disruption, flow direction
changes, and non-vertical tubing sections.
The final version of the model will be used for several purposes. The first purpose will be to
support parallel project activity that is intended to improve the understanding of boiler corrosion
processes. The second will be to establish improved criteria for determining when operational
chemical cleaning of boilers is required. Finally, creation of a suitable model on deposition in
chemistry.
The addition of a probabilistic risk assessment using a combination of operating history,
knowledge of deposit characteristics, and knowledge of chemical excursion events will provide
the appropriate methodology to assist operators, chemists, and managers in making cost-effective
decisions in the operation of their power plant.
EPRI Perspective
Boiler tube failures have consistently been cited as the primary source of availability loss in
fossil units. Boiler tube failure mechanisms involving deposition on boiler waterside heat
transfer surfaces are an important concern at many plants. Research directed toward an improved
understanding of boiler deposition and proper assessment of operating risk are regarded as
integral to reducing fossil unit boiler tube failures and improving availability.
Program
8-9
Program on Technology Innovation: Influence of Bubble Dynamics on Surface

Deposition Under Sub-Cooled Boiling Conditions
Product Number
1016184
Date Published
December 2008
Details
Abstract
Despite a number of investigations spanning several decades, numerous deficiencies still exist in
the scientific understanding of many aspects of deposition processes. Loss of performance and
availability in fossil units often involves deposition on water- and steam-touched surfaces, with
the most acute effects occurring in boilers and turbines. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) has sponsored deposition state-of-knowledge assessments and the development of a
deterministic model of the various processes that govern deposition in fossil boilers. This
research effort investigates the role and influence of bubble dynamics and the iso-electric
potential on deposition.
Objective
Deposits formed on heat transfer surfaces are detrimental, reduce efficiency, and increase heat
rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a buildup of waterside solids is a prerequisite for concentrating
mechanisms that lead to underdeposit corrosion boiler tube failure mechanisms. The objective of
this study was to conduct tests to provide an understanding of the boiling water dynamics that
contribute to the accumulation of deposits and the concentrating mechanisms within the deposits.
Approach
Academic research through the EPRI Program on Technology Innovation targeted a study of the
electro-potential charges of particles, substrates and bubble formation dynamics to evaluate the
influence of their behavior on surface deposition
Results
This innovative research has demonstrated that bubble formation occurring in heated solutions
on metal surfaces attracts particles to the surface of the bubbles. Factors that influence the
subsequent deposition formation on the surfaces include the bubble residence time, the solution
pH, and the Zeta Potential relationship between the particles in solution and the metal substrate.
The findings of this study provide additional insight into the behavior of particles in boiler water
and the parameters that can influence deposition in a fossil boiler. Applying this information to
existing models may lead to better control of the deposition process and provide a basis for
ultimately being able to link the optimization of the feedwater and boiler water treatments with
boiler deposition.
8-10
EPRI Perspective
A substantial portion of the chemistry-related losses in fossil plants involves the deposition of
solids on boiler surfaces. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in minimizing deposition
by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurities and feedwater corrosion products to acceptable
levels. Continuing problems point to the need to focus on the science of deposition in order to
establish better criteria that can be used by operating personnel for managing deposition
processes.
Program
8-11

Product Number
1014128
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
processes governing deposition in fossil boilers was assessed in EPRI report 1004931, Boiler
Water Deposition Model: Part 1: Feasibility Study, published in 2004, and EPRI report 1012207,
Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil Fuel Plants, Part 2: Initial Deterministic Model
Development and Deposit Characterization, published in 2007. This report presents findings of
follow-up activities directed toward the ultimate goal of developing an integrated model that is
applicable to the important deposition phenomena in fossil boilers.
Background
Several important accomplishments have been made during this stage of model development:
An integrated model was developed and encoded for calculation of deposition rate, mass of
deposited material, deposit thickness, removal rate (re-entrainment), and concentration of
chemicals from the bulk water within porous deposits on waterwall tubes.
Mechanisms were devised to allow execution of the calculations as a series of steady-state
equations that predict deposit characteristics as function of time.
A one-dimensional model was shown to be equivalent to a three-dimensional model for the
deposit thicknesses typical of fossil boilers. The one-dimensional model requires less
computer run time. The relative sizes of capillaries and chimneys, compared to deposit
thickness (aspect ratio), were shown to be adequately addressed for thick deposits found in
fossil boilers.
Post-development software testing showed that appropriate limits had been chosen to avoid
excessive computing time. Calculation time for a simple model that was run on a dualprocessor laptop computer was slightly over three minutes. More complex calculations
require more run time. The current version of the model was found to underestimate the
temperature within the porous deposits and, thus, underestimate the concentrating and
precipitation within the deposits. A resolution was proposed.
Objective
The ultimate goal of the boiler deposition model development activity is to create a tool that will
apply to new and existing fossil units to better manage any deposition that cannot be avoided
and, in so doing, eliminate or minimize the negative impacts of deposition on availability. The
complexity of deposition is substantial; integrating useful attributes of existing models,
evaluating new modeling approaches, and filling gaps that exist with respect to certain model
8-12
input to create an aggregate model focused on fossil boilers require the coordinated efforts of
many technical specialists. In view of these challenges, model development and validation
necessitate the use of a phased approach, with results from prior phases sharpening the priorities
for future activity.
Approach
The project team focused on enhancing and integrating the various modules of the firstgeneration integrated, deterministic model &8211 specifically, those sets of equations included
in three modules:
Deposit Formation and Growth Model

Thermal/Hydraulic Model
Chemistry of Deposition Model The integrated model addresses initial deposition on a clean
surface, followed by growth and maturing of the deposit. The maturing process results from
the concentration and precipitation of soluble material within the porous structure of the
deposit, which densifies the deposit.

The next step is to refine the integrated, deterministic model, with the first priority being a
resolution to the underestimation of the deposit temperature. Other immediate plans are to add
more chemical species, improve the re-entrainment subroutine, improve the user interface,
account for the impact of moisture expulsion from the deposits, and validate the model against
published data. In addition, the influence of tube surface geometry on deposition must be
addressed since accumulation of solids and damage often initiates in areas of flow disruption,
flow direction changes, and nonvertical tubing sections.
The final version of the model will be used for several purposes. The first will be to support
parallel project activity intended to improve the understanding of boiler corrosion processes. The
second will be to establish improved criteria for determining when operational chemical cleaning
of boilers is required. Finally, creation of a suitable model on deposition in fossil boilers will
support future refinement of existing guidelines for fossil plant cycle chemistry.
EPRI Perspective
loss in fossil units. BTF mechanisms involving deposition on boiler waterside heat transfer
surfaces are a significant concern at many plants. Research directed toward an improved
understanding of boiler deposition is regarded as integral to improving fossil unit BTF and
availability statistics.
Program
8-13

Product Number
1012207
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
The feasibility of modeling the various processes governing deposition in fossil boilers was
assessed in EPRI report 1004931, Boiler Water Deposition Model: Part 1: Feasibility Study,
published in 2004. This report presents findings of follow-up activities directed toward the
ultimate goal of developing an aggregate model that is applicable to the important deposition
phenomena in fossil drum-type boilers.
Objective
The ultimate goal of the boiler deposition model development activity is to create a tool that will
apply to new and existing fossil units to better manage any deposition that cannot be avoided. In
achieving this goal, the tool will eliminate or minimize negative impacts of deposition on
availability. The complexity of deposition is substantial; integration of useful attributes of
existing models, new modeling approaches, and filling gaps that exist with respect to certain
model input to create an aggregate model focused on fossil boilers requires the coordinated
efforts of many technical specialists. In view of these challenges, model development and
validation requires a phased approach, with results from prior phases sharpening the priorities for
future activity.
Approach
The project team devised a flow chart that identifies the various deposition conditions and
influencing factors. This phase of modeling activity focused on determining key needs for
deposit growth on smooth vertical tube surfaces as well as some of the many fluid-deposit
interactions of interest. Calculations derived from these modeling activities were used to evaluate
the output and determine priorities for the next phase of work.
Results
Several important accomplishments have been made during this stage of model development:
A comprehensive assessment of characteristics of hot and cold side deposits from a fossil
drum-type boiler has been performed and the results critically assessed for use as input
parameters to various model equations.
The overall model structure applicable to deposition at locations of simple geometry

(corresponding to smooth surface tubing vertically oriented) has been established.
8-14
Empirical equations from two investigations of interest and relevance to model development
were evaluated for possible use in the model to supplement the theoretical and semiempirical equations developed by project team contributors.
A two-dimensional model was developed to describe heat, mass and solute transport activity
within porous boiler deposits. Results of early calculations show promise in predicting the
behavior of mature porous deposits.
Equations were developed for ionization and precipitation of a selected number of chemical
species. Chemistry and mathematical equations were devised to describe interactions of
sodium, phosphate, ammonia, chloride, iron, and copper.
Important tasks required for further development of the model were identified.
The next step is to develop an improved version of the current model, focusing on aspects
verified to be important during this phase of work. Expansion of the database of deposit
characterization data used as model inputs is needed to determine the range of possible
variations. Further integration of equations developed for heat, mass and solute transport need to
be coupled with more advanced equations and input data governing chemical properties and
interactions. In addition, the influence of tube surface geometry on deposition must be addressed
since accumulation of solids and damage often initiates in areas of flow disruption, flow
direction changes, and non-vertical tubing sections. As these refinements and expansions are
made, further model testing and verification activities will be required.
It is envisioned that the final version of the model will be used for several purposes. The first
purpose will be to support parallel project activity intended to improve understanding of boiler
corrosion processes. The second will be to establish improved criteria for determining when
operational chemical cleaning of boilers is required. Finally, creation of a suitable aggregate
model on deposition in fossil boilers will support future refinement of existing guidelines for
fossil plant cycle chemistry.
EPRI Perspective
Boiler tube failures (BTF) have consistently been cited as the number one source of availability
surfaces are a significant concern at many plants. Research directed towards an improved
Program
8-15
Deposition on Drum Boiler Tube Surfaces

Product Number
1010186
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
Despite the considerable advances that have been made to improve the control of fossil plant
cycle chemistry, deposition activitymost notably in boilers and steam turbinesremains an
issue of concern in many fossil units. In response to this problem, EPRI has initiated
experimental and theoretical research activities to understand the science governing deposition in
fossil power plant boilers.
Objective
Deposits formed on heat transfer surfaces of boilers are detrimental because they reduce
efficiency and increase heat rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a buildup of waterside solids can be
a prerequisite for a number of underdeposit corrosion boiler tube failure mechanisms. More
extensive solids accumulation can lead to overheating damage and other tube failures. Deposit
removal by chemical cleaning is costly and can negatively impact unit availability. The objective
of this work was to conduct a study in a high pressure, high temperature deposition rig under
realistic boiler operating conditions.
Approach
The project team prepared the deposition rig, which closely simulates the conditions in high
pressure boilers. The team then conducted tests up to heat fluxes of 300 kW/m2, pressures of
2600 psi (18 MPa), and water temperatures of 660F (350C). They injected various quantities of
iron and copper corrosion product oxides into the test section with one reducing chemistry.
Finally, they collated the deposition rates as a function of heat flux, concentration of iron and
copper, and chemistry treatment.
Results
The effect of heat flux on the deposition rate of copper and iron corrosion products onto a carbon
steel boiler tube was studied at three heat fluxes: 50, 150, and 300 kW/m2. In the current
experiments, a reducing treatment was used for comparison with the previous work (described in
the EPRI report 1008083) where all-volatile and oxygenated treatments were used. Increasing
heat flux results in an increased deposition rate of iron corrosion products onto the surfaces. The
presence of copper corrosion products did not influence the deposition rate of the iron corrosion
products.
8-16

The results from the overall EPRI study will define those parameters that can influence
deposition in a fossil boiler. As such, they will lead to better control of the corrosion product
inventory throughout a plant. Thus, organizations will ultimately be able to link the optimization
of the feedwater and boiler water treatments with boiler deposition.
EPRI Perspective
A substantial portion of the chemistry-related availability losses in fossil power plants involves
the deposition of solids on boiler surfaces. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in
minimizing deposition but do so indirectly, by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurity
ingress and feedwater corrosion product transport to acceptable levels. Continuing problems with
deposition-related availability losses and associated costs in the fossil industry point to the need
to focus on the science of deposition to establish better criteria and tools for use by plant
operating personnel. This report, together with a review of the Russian and Soviet literature
(EPRI report 1004193) and two other reports on the state of knowledge on deposition (EPRI
reports 1004194 and 1004930) are starting to form the basis of a better understanding of the
whole deposition process. They will also be used to develop a model of boiler deposition, which
will include the key parameters.
Program
8-17
Deposition on Drum Boiler Tube Surfaces

Product Number
1008083
Date Published
December 2004
Details
Abstract
Despite the considerable advances that have been made to improve control of fossil plant cycle
chemistry, deposition activity most notably in boilers and steam turbines remains an issue
of concern in many fossil units. In response to this problem, EPRI has initiated experimental and
theoretical research activities to understand the science governing deposition in fossil plant
boilers.
Objective
efficiency and increase heat rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a building up of waterside solids can
be a prerequisite for a number of underdeposit corrosion boiler tube failure mechanisms. More
of this study was to develop a better understanding of the deposition process, using a high
pressure, high temperature deposition rig under realistic boiler operating conditions.
Approach
The project team prepared the deposition rig, which closely simulates the conditions in high
pressure boilers. The team then conducted tests up to heat fluxes of 300 kW/m2, pressures of
2600 psi (18 MPa), and water temperatures of 660 F (350 C). They injected various quantities
of iron and copper corrosion product oxides into the test section under two chemistry regimes,
AVT and OT. Finally, they collated the deposition rates as a function of heat flux, concentration
of iron and copper, and chemistry treatment.
Results
The effect of heat flux on the deposition rate of copper and iron corrosion products onto a carbon
steel boiler tube was studied at three heat fluxes (50, 150, and 300 kW/m2) and two chemistries,
all-volatile treatment (AVT) and oxygenated treatment (OT). Increasing heat flux results in an
increased deposition rate onto the surfaces with both AVT and OT. The deposition rate was less
with OT than AVT.
8-18

The results from the overall EPRI study will define those parameters that can influence
deposition in a fossil boiler. As such, they will lead to better control of the corrosion product
inventory throughout a plant. Thus, organizations will ultimately be able to link optimizing the
feedwater and boiler water treatments with boiler deposition.
EPRI Perspective
A substantial portion of the chemistry-related availability losses in fossil plants involves
deposition of solids on boiler surfaces. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in
minimizing deposition, but do so indirectly, by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurity
to focus on the science of deposition to establish better criteria and tools for use by plant
operating personnel. This report, together with a review of the Russian and Soviet literature
(EPRI report 1004193) and two other reports on the state-of-knowledge on deposition (1004194
and 1004930), are starting to form the basis of a better understanding of the whole deposition
process. They also will be used to develop a model of boiler deposition, which will include the
key parameters.
Program
History
8-19
Boiler Water Deposition Model

Part 1: Feasibility Study
Product Number
1004931
Date Published
November 2004
Details
Abstract
Many sources of availability and performance losses in fossil units involve deposition on waterand steam-touched surfaces, with the most acute effects occurring in boilers and turbines. Earlier
deposition state-of-knowledge assessments sponsored by EPRI established three broad
classifications of deposition phenomena (EPRI reports 1004194 and 1004930). However, within
these classifications are many processes and influencing factors that need to be considered in
order to make meaningful improvements in deposition control. Enhanced understanding of
deposition in boilers was determined to be the greatest source of benefits and value to end users.
To help realize such benefits, EPRI has sponsored this feasibility study on modeling the various
processes governing deposition in fossil boilers.
Objective
The overall objective of this project was to examine the feasibility of developing a
comprehensive or aggregate model for deposition processes in fossil boilers of conventional
cycles by combining known models relating deposition to heat transfer, mass transfer, solubility,
and other relevant mechanisms. The goal of model development activity is to create a tool that
will apply to new and existing fossil units to better manage any deposition that cannot be avoided
and thus eliminate or minimize the negative impacts of deposition on performance and
profitability. The complexity of deposition is significant; integration of fossil boilers requires the
coordinated efforts of many technical specialists. Because of these factors, model development
will be done using a phased approach.
Approach
The project team examined the possibility of developing a comprehensive model for deposition
processes in fossil plant cycles by combining known models, which generally focus on limited
and specific aspects of deposition. This was accomplished by review of previously published
models and other assessments of deposition phenomena with possible relevance to deposition in
fossil boilers. In addition, a colloquium of several leading experts in this area was convened to
document their activities and solicit their views on development of the aggregate model.
Results
The purpose of this feasibility study is to identify, review, and critically assess several existing
models that could be considered during construction of an aggregate model specific to high
pressure fossil boilers. Included are discussions of model input, intermediate and output
8-20
parameters, assumptions, limitations, and applications experience. Although many of the models
considered were developed for application to nuclear cycles, such models frequently appear
relevant to fossil boilers. This feasibility assessment has shown that establishment of an
aggregate deposition model specific to fossil plant boilers should be possible. An overall strategy
to construct the model and address information needs has been formulated.
The next step in formulating a useful boiler water deposition model is to develop an initial
version of the aggregate model following the approach described herein. After this has been
accomplished, model testing and refinement activities will be required. EPRI envisions that the
final version of the model will be used for several purposes. The first purpose will be to support
parallel project activity intended to improve the understanding of boiler corrosion processes. The
second will be to establish improved criteria for determination of when operational chemical
cleaning of boilers is required. Finally, creation of a suitable aggregate model on deposition in
chemistry.
EPRI Perspective
surfaces are a significant concern at many plants. Research directed towards an improved
Program
History
8-21
State-of-Knowledge on Deposition
Part 2: Assessment of Deposition Activity in Fossil Plant Units
Product Number
1004930
Date Published
December 2003
Details
Abstract
Over the last 20 years, substantial advances have been made in the understanding and control of
fossil plant cycle chemistry. In spite of these advances, deposition activity, most notably in
boilers and steam turbines, remains an issue of concern to many organizations that operate fossil
units. The underlying science of deposition in fossil unit components has not, with the exception
of steam turbines, been studied extensively under the EPRI Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle
Chemistry Program. This report presents results of efforts to define the existing state of
knowledge and identifies information and data needs. EPRI intends to conduct research directed
towards improving the understanding of the science governing deposition in all parts of the
steam-water cycles of fossil units.
Objective
Two factorsplant operating experience and prior research findingsmust be considered to
develop an understanding of the state-of-knowledge for deposition in fossil plants sufficient to
identify key influencing parameters. Both factors must be evaluated and assessed for their
applicability to modern fossil plants. Much of this work has general relevance but not direct
relevance. As an example, there has been considerable research directed towards understanding
deposition in nuclear steam generators. While portions of this work are relevant to deposition
processes in fossil boilers, it is clear that portions are not relevant and that data gaps, owing to
differences in design and operating environment, exist. In planning future research, it is
important to establish these areas of deficiency and include activities to resolve them.
Approach
A team of recognized fossil plant water chemistry experts evaluated available information on
deposition and identified relevant mechanisms, processes, and influencing factors. This
information was presented in an earlier report, "State-of-Knowledge on Deposition: Part 1:
Parameters Influencing Deposition in Fossil Units" (EPRI report 1004194). In the subject report,
the team considered deposition by breaking the steam-water cycle down into discrete sections.
Plant experience in each area of the cycle was evaluated, and data needs that would improve the
state of knowledge were identified.
8-22
Results
The report reviews key parametersidentified in an earlier state-of-knowledge assessmentthat
need to be examined in future research. It discusses deposition experience in condensate/
feedwater systems, boiler waterside surfaces, steam tubing and piping, and steam turbines of
fossil plants. The approach followed has identified three basic deposition types and analyzed
related mechanisms and influencing factors applicable to each type. From over 40 parameters
and factors that influence deposition, five key parameters were selected: (a) dynamics of
deposition and release (affecting both boilers and turbines), (b) heat flux (in boiler waterwall
tubes), (c) mass transport, (d) solubility in steam and water, and (e) surface finish. Significant
additional information was reviewed and summarized for later use in modeling the deposition
process. The findings substantiate EPRI's position that a better understanding of deposition
processes and the controllable factors influencing deposition is needed. Planned research in
deposition will be focused on boiler waterwalls and will include assessment and possibly
development of a computer model applicable to both drum-type and once-through boilers.
Deposits and scales formed on heat transfer surfaces of fossil plant equipment are detrimental
because they reduce unit efficiency and increase heat rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a buildup
of waterside solids is a prerequisite to activation of certain underdeposit corrosion mechanisms.
More extensive solids accumulation can lead to overheating damage and tube failures.
Deposition in steam turbines can lead to performance penaltiesreductions in capacity and/or
stage efficiencyor corrosion damage, depending on characteristics of the depositing material.
Deposit removal, usually by chemical cleaning and preferably done before deposits adversely
impact fossil unit operations, is costly and negatively impacts unit availability. With a better
understanding of basic deposition processes, it should be possible to improve the means by
which deposition activity is controlled and its effects are managed.
EPRI Perspective
A substantial portion of chemistry-related availability losses in fossil plants involve deposition of
solids on surfaces. Existing EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in minimizing
deposition but do so indirectly by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurity ingress and
corrosion product transport to acceptable levels. Continuing problems with deposition-related
availability losses in fossil plants underscore the need to focus on the science of deposition to
establish better criteria and tools for use by plant operating personnel. This state-of-knowledge
report for deposition in fossil plant units represents the first step in this process. Further
assessment of the state-of-knowledge for deposition will be made as needed to verify that the
scope of future research is appropriate.
Program
History
8-23
Deposition in Boilers: Review of Soviet and Russian Literature

Product Number
1004193
Date Published
August 2003
Details
Abstract
chemistry, deposition activity - most notably in boilers and steam turbines - remains an issue of
concern in many fossil units. In response to this problem, EPRI has initiated a research activity to
understand the science governing deposition in fossil plant boilers.
Objective
efficiency and increase heat rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a buildup of waterside solids can be
a prerequisite for a number of underdeposit corrosion boiler tube failure mechanisms. More
of this study was to assemble the available literature before conducting a study in a highpressure, high-temperature deposition rig.
Approach
The project team reviewed and collated the Soviet and Russian literature on boiler deposition.
Results
This review of the Soviet/Russian literature over a fifty-year period (1951 to 2001) represents the
first part of an experimental program to investigate boiler water deposition as a function of a
number of variables. The review has shown that many factors exert an effect on the deposition
process. These factors include heat flux, concentration of corrosion products, pH, boiler
chemistry treatment, composition of impurities, electrokinetic factors, and thermo-EMF. It
appears that the governing factors are heat flux and iron concentration.
The results of the overall study will define those parameters that can influence deposition in a
fossil boiler. As such, they will lead to better control of the corrosion product inventory
throughout a plant. Thus, organizations will ultimately be able to link optimizing the feedwater
and boiler water treatments with boiler deposition.
8-24
EPRI Perspective
deposition of solids on boiler surfaces. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in
minimizing deposition, but do so indirectly, by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurity
to focus on the science of deposition in order to establish better criteria and tools for use by plant
operating personnel. This report, together with two other reports on the state of knowledge on
deposition, EPRI Reports 1004194 (currently available) and 1004930 (available December 2003)
have been used to develop an initial testing matrix for the laboratory deposition studies. One of
the aims of the overall deposition work is to develop a model of boiler deposition, which will
include the key parameters.
Program
History
8-25
State-of-Knowledge on Deposition
Part 1: Parameters Influencing Deposition in Fossil Units
Product Number
1004194
Date Published
December 2002
Details
Abstract
chemistry, deposition activity, most notably in boilers and steam turbines, remains an issue of
concern in many fossil units. In response to this problem, EPRI intends to conduct research
directed towards improving the understanding of the science governing deposition in the steamwater cycles of fossil units. This report presents the initial results of ongoing efforts to define the
existing state-of-knowledge in this area.
Background
Deposits and scales formed on heat transfer surfaces of fossil plant equipment are detrimental
because they reduce unit efficiency and increase heat rate. In boiler waterwall tubing, a buildup
of waterside solids is a prerequisite to activation of certain underdeposit corrosion mechanisms.
More extensive solids accumulation can lead to overheating damage and tube failures.
Deposition in steam turbines can lead to performance penalties, including reductions in capacity
and/or stage efficiency or to corrosion damage, depending on the characteristics of the depositing
material. Deposit removal, usually by chemical cleaning to remove deposits, preferably before
they adversely impact fossil unit operations, is costly and negatively impacts unit availability.
Objective
To develop an understanding of the state-of-knowledge of deposition in fossil plants sufficient
to identify the key influencing parameters of interest and to ensure that EPRI takes into account
the effects of these parameters in future research projects.
Approach
A team of expert cycle chemists defined three types of deposition processes, each comprising
several mechanisms. The team identified the influencing factors associated with each process
and the areas of fossil cycles they impact. They used this information to identify and rank the
influencing parameters of greatest significance and importance to industry needs and planned
and potential EPRI research initiatives aimed at the better understanding and more effective
management of deposition problems.
8-26
Results
The report identifies the key parameters that need to be examined in future research and confirms
that improved understanding of deposition in boiler waterwalls and steam turbines should be
given a high priority because the associated costs to the fossil industry are substantial. The
findings support EPRI's current short-range research plans, and suggest that the long-range
research plans are also appropriate, though confirmation of this will likely require further
consideration of the existing state-of-knowledge and depend on the results of the initial research
investigations.
EPRI Perspective
deposition of solids on surfaces. EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines are effective in minimizing
deposition but do so indirectly by controlling the chemistry to reduce impurity ingress and
corrosion product transport to acceptable levels. Continuing problems with deposition-related
availability losses and associated costs in the fossil industry point to the need to focus on the
science of deposition in order to establish better criteria and tools for use by plant operating
personnel. This short report on the state-of-knowledge of deposition in fossil plant units
represents the first step in this process. Further assessment of the deposition state-of-knowledge
will be made as needed to verify that the scope of further research is appropriate and to justify
the need for this work.
Program
History
8-27
9
INSTRUMENTATION
9-1
Enhanced Chloride Monitoring for Steam Condensate Samples

Product ID
1021769
Date Published
January 2012
Details
Abstract
The objective of this project was to develop to the proof-of-concept stage a system that enables
the quantification of chloride (Cl) in turbine steam condensate samples. The chloride
quantification system is intended to serve as an alternative to online chromatography for chloride
concentration monitoring. The conceptual approach was to concentrate the ions in the steam
condensate, by a predetermined factor, to a level that allowed accurate detection of chloride by
ion selective electrodes (ISEs). The ability of both electrodeionization (EDI) and reverse osmosis
(RO) to concentrate chloride ions was evaluated using test solutions with chloride ion
concentrations in the range of 250 parts per billion (ppb). Although the chloride concentration
in test samples could not be reliably measured using EDI, chloride concentrations measured with
a two-stage RO system delivering a 25-fold volume concentration factor were within 0.5 ppb of
the expected chloride concentration values. Tests also showed that a bench-scale meter with a
low-level chloride ISE can be used at temperatures of up to 30C to detect chloride down to 10
20 ppb. The tests also showed that the performance of the electrodes did not change between
stagnant and vigorously mixed samples, thereby indicating that relatively low flow rates (1030
ml/min) can be used as the final concentrate stream for chloride monitoring.
Program
Keywords
Chloride
Monitoring
Reverse osmosis (RO)
Steam condensate
9-2
Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation Validation

Product ID
1019641
Date Published
19-Dec-2010
Details
Technical Report- Available Online
Abstract
Effective monitoring of the purity of water and steam is an integral part of a productive cycle
chemistry monitoring program. The Electric Power Research Institute's (EPRI's) cycle chemistry
guidelines identify a group of core monitoring parameters that are considered the minimum
requirements. Meeting the core monitoring requirement is part of EPRI's cycle chemistry
benchmarking criteria for fossil plants. In addition to the core parameters, many other chemistry
parameters may need to be measured--either routinely or as needed for diagnostic and
troubleshooting purposes to achieve world-class cycle chemistry control. The EPRI report Fossil
Plant Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation and Control--State-of-Knowledge Assessment
(1012209), released in 2007, details the current status of cycle chemistry monitoring. This report
provides a detailed look at the relationship of key cycle chemistry measurements and chemical
species present in the fossil plant. It presents a comprehensive list of key chemical parameters
and constants associated with the chemical species as well as methodologies and strategies for
validating the cycle chemistry conditions of the plant based on the measurements made.
Related Material
1022489-Instrumentation Validation Manual: Supplemental Report
Objective
Utility personnel involved in the evaluation, selection, operation, and maintenance of chemistry
monitoring systems for fossil plants will find the information in this report useful. Information
addressing the relationship between monitored chemical parameters should be of particular value
to users who are responsible for troubleshooting cycle chemistry excursions. The real-time
monitoring of cycle chemistry supports operator oversight of water and steam purity, minimizing
the time needed to identify out-of-specification chemistry conditions and to implement
appropriate corrective actions. It also provides a warning of plant equipment malfunction,
facilitates the control of chemical additions, optimizes maintenance and repair schedules, and
improves corrosion control. This report should allow users to validate these measurements and
ensure that the equipment used to monitor their systems is operating correctly.
Approach
The project team collected information from various sources for this report. These included the
published literature, instrument manufacturer personnel and materials, consultants
knowledgeable in chemistry instrumentation, the Internet, and relevant EPRI reports. The report
was reviewed by members of EPRI's Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program.
9-3
Results
This report describes the relationships between cycle chemistry measurements as well as how
these measurements relate to the active chemical species in the fossil plant cycle. The common
sources of errors for cycle chemistry measurements are covered, and methodologies for
overcoming these errors are presented. Validation techniques for determining the cycle chemistry
conditions occurring in the fossil plant (for example, air-in-leakage and sample error) are
presented. The report also includes sections on each chemical species, describing the chemistry
of the chemical species in the fossil power plant and the key chemical constants and equations
that are relevant for measuring the effect of the chemical species in the fossil power plant.
Increased instrumentation reliability and increased data collection and evaluation with computerbased control systems have allowed for remote monitoring and diagnostics of many aspects of
the fossil cycle chemistry control program. Developments that further improve the ability to
achieve remote monitoring and control will allow fossil fleet operators increased flexibility to
manage resources. Advances in the reliability of instrumentation and methodologies that allow
for continuous validation of on-line measurements are required to achieve these goals.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has established an overall approach for fossil cycle chemistry monitoring that is based on
more than 30 years of research. The relationships between cycle chemistry monitoring
parameters were developed based on EPRI's research of corrosion, deposition, and transport of
impurities in high-pressure steam and water cycles, which has included international
collaborative studies, consisting of field tests, laboratory testing, and the development of various
models. The incorporation of the overall cycle chemistry monitoring into a comprehensive cycle
chemistry program has been demonstrated to result in significant reduction in equipment
availability because of chemistry-related damage, and utilities that have implemented the EPRI
program have demonstrated a significant improvement in fossil plant reliability.
Program
Keywords
Analyzer
Fossil power plants
Instrumentation
9-4
Cycle chemistry
Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs)
Steam
Instrumentation Validation Manual: Supplemental Report

Product ID
1022489
Sector Name
Generation
Date Published
26-May-2011
Details
Abstract
The availability and reliability of a fossil power plant are of dominant importance to the overall
economic performance and profitability of its operations. It is known from practice that improper
water chemistry has a negative effect on unit availability and reliability. Effective monitoring of
the purity of water and steam is an integral part of a productive cycle chemistry monitoring
program. EPRI's cycle chemistry guidelines identify a group of core monitoring parameters that
are considered the minimum requirements. The EPRI report Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry
Instrumentation and Control: State-of-Knowledge Assessment (1012209), released in 2007,
detailed the current status of cycle chemistry monitoring. The subsequent report Cycle Chemistry
Instrumentation Validation: Relationships of Cycle Chemistry Parameters (1019641), published
in 2010, is a detailed look at the relationship of key cycle chemistry measurements and chemical
species present in the fossil plant. It provides a comprehensive list of key chemical parameters,
chemical constants, and associated chemical equations that are relevant for measuring the effect
of the chemical species in the fossil power plant.
The present report begins with an overview of the monitoring of cycle chemistry in power plants
for the continuum of treatments available for chemistry control and identifies the basic premises
for chemical monitoring and control. The common influences on the process parameters are
discussed next, and the report describes the relationships between cycle chemistry measurements
as well as how these measurements relate back to the active chemical species in the fossil plant
cycle. Also discussed are validation techniques for determining the cycle chemistry conditions
occurring in the fossil plant and for ensuring the accuracy of the analytical measurements.
Validation in cycle chemistry monitoring is the confirmation of cycle chemistry conditions and
the interrelationships of the monitored parameters across the power plant cycle, in addition to
routine instrument quality checks and calibration. This information provides an understanding
for achieving improved cycle chemistry monitoring and control.
9-5
Related Material
1012209-Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation and Control--State-of-Knowledge
Assessment
1019641-Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation Validation
Program
Keywords
Cycle chemistry
Instrumentation
Analyzers
Fossil power plants
Steam chemistry
9-6
Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation and ControlState-of-Knowledge

Assessment
Product Number
1012209
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
Effective monitoring of the purity of water and steam is an integral part of a productive cycle
chemistry monitoring program. EPRI's cycle chemistry guidelines for fossil plants identify a
group of core monitoring parameters that are considered the minimum requirements. Meeting the
core monitoring requirement is part of EPRI's cycle chemistry benchmarking criteria for plant
cycle chemistry programs. In addition to the core parameters, many other chemistry parameters
may be measuredeither routinely or as needed for diagnostic and troubleshooting purposes.
On-line monitoring of cycle chemistry is preferable to grab sample analysis. The EPRI report
Reference Manual for On-Line Monitoring of Water Chemistry and Corrosion: 1998 Update
(TR-112024) marked the last time this subject had been addressed. That state-of-art assessment
was identified as the initial activity in a new project that considers both the need and opportunity
for advancements in monitoring technology.
Objective
The real-time monitoring of cycle chemistry supports operator oversight of water and steam
purity, minimizing the time needed to 1) identify out-of-specification chemistry conditions and
2) implement appropriate corrective actions. It also provides a warning of plant equipment
malfunction, facilitates the control of chemical additions, optimizes maintenance and repair
schedules, and improves corrosion control. Fossil plant personnel involved in the evaluation,
selection, operation, and maintenance of chemistry analyzers will find the information in this
report useful. Information addressing the individual EPRI core monitoring parameters should be
of particular value to users whose plants do not currently meet all of the core requirements.
Approach
The project team collected information from various sources for this report. These included the
published literature, instrument manufacturer personnel and materials, consultants
knowledgeable in chemistry instrumentation, the Internet, and relevant EPRI reports.
Results
This report describes the available technology options for monitoring a number of cycle
chemistry parameters. The main focus is on methods available and in common use at fossil
stations; however, information is also provided on a number of recently developed techniques as
9-7
well as others that show promise. The report also considers techniques to monitor
electrochemical corrosion potential and corrosion ratetwo parameters not generally monitored
in fossil plants and for which further development could lead to improved monitoring tools for
fossil plants in the future.
Despite the many advances in fossil plant cycle chemistry monitoring that have been achieved
over the last 30 years, the current techniques have their limitations. In addition, resources needed
to obtain, install, operate, and maintain analyzers to provide the information needed to control
cycle chemistry are often an area of concern. Familiarity with the technology involved is
therefore important when limited resources are invested in chemistry surveillance and control.
EPRI Perspective
Chemistry analyzers now in use require that samples be collected and conditioned. Information
provided by the analyzers is useful for assessing conditions under which the potential exists for
corrosion or other chemistry-related damage to cycle components. However, this information is
indirect in that it does not determine the presence or magnitude (that is, rate) of corrosion.
Research efforts are now investigating corrosion in boilers and turbines to enable a better
understanding of its mechanisms and root causes in order to further the development of cycle
chemistry guidelines. These future guidelines could likely be more effectively implemented if
improved monitoring techniques were available. Therefore, investigations are planned to identify
and develop monitoring techniques for the direct measurement of chemistry environments in
which corrosion or deposition activity occurs.
Program
9-8
Continuous Fossil Plant Corrosion Product Monitoring and Corrosion Control

Optimization
Product Number
1025328
Date Published
December 2012
Details
Abstract
The control of corrosion and corrosion product transport (CPT) in the feedwater (FW) system is
vital to the reliability and safe operation of fossil power plants. Failure to optimize corrosion
control in the steam/water cycle may reduce unit efficiency and result in component damage and
failures. Conventional methods to measure CPT are typically not real time and determined by
grab sample analysis. Continuous on-line particle monitors (PM) have been shown to be an
effective technique to monitor suspended corrosion products. Measuring ORP at temperature
(ORP@T) would provide information on the actual fluid potential and allow for a more timely
response to changing chemistry conditions. This report presents the findings of two fossil plant
unit studies utilizing PM and ORP@T. The results of the particle monitoring are compared to the
well established non-continuous technique for metal analysis using integrated samplers. In
addition, the ORP@T is compared to the total CPT (dissolved and suspended).
Transport of corrosion products and deposition leading to underdeposit corrosion are a leading
cause of forced outages and reduced generation in fossil plants. The ability to monitor CPT and
ORP@T on a continual basis will provide the plant chemistry and operating staff greater
flexibility to identify conditions that increase corrosion and to afford better control. The project
demonstrated that particle monitors could be used in real-time to optimize feedwater chemistry
but would of limited value for units on OT where the CPT and suspended iron concentrations are
quite low. The monitors correlate reasonably well with suspended metals in the subcritical unit
where the CPT and particle index (PI) were high with a more alkaline pH. The ORP@T monitors
correlate reasonably well with the dissolved oxygen in the HP feedwater heater drains on the
supercritical unit though they would provide minimal benefit for feedwater water systems on OT.
For the mixed-metallurgy subcritical unit the more negative ORP@T corresponded to a lower
copper corrosion rate. A limitation of the ORP@T would be the need to develop unit specific
operating ranges based on the particular conditions since the analyzer response is temperature
sensitive and there is no method to compensate for temperature variations. On both units,
elevating the pH showed a drastic reduction in CPT. These findings indicate the particle
monitors and the ORP@T could be utilized to monitor real-time corrosion and optimize the
chemistry treatment program for units on AVT(R) treatment and likely for units on AVT(O) as
well as feedwater heater drains on units operating on OT.
9-9

Fossil plant staff and support organizations involved in the operation and maintenance of the
various components and piping in the feedwater system are faced with challenges to accurately
monitor the corrosion rates and assess degradation so timely inspections and repairs may be
performed. Though conventional techniques to monitor CPT or determine equipment condition
through inspection are satisfactory they are after the fact and do not reflect transient events
where significant corrosion may be occurring. While ORP measurements on conditioned samples
may be indicative of oxidizing or reducing environments, they do not accurately indicate the
conditions occurring at the operating temperature/ pressure and are more influenced by pH.
Continuous CPT and ORP@T monitoring offer real-time feedback optimizing the feedwater
treatment program to control corrosion in the condensate, feedwater, and heater drains.
Continuous CPT and ORP monitoring offers the opportunity to identify specific areas in the
feedwater system where corrosion is the most active and whether the localized environment in
the steam/water cycle is reducing or oxidizing. This work complements the earlier efforts to
document the application of particle monitors to measure suspended metal transport using an online continuous technique (1017482). In both plant studies, the particle monitors showed a
correlation to suspended metal transport though a lower PI, such as units on OT would be of
limited value. The ORP@T was very sensitive to changes to changes in dissolved oxygen when
close to zero and therefore a good indicator of the local environment. The ORP@T could be
applicable for units on OT for heater shells/ drain lines to determine the benefit of elevating the
pH and closing the feedwater heater vents as well as optimizing treatment on units with mixedmetallurgy.
EPRI Perspective
Continuous CPT and ORP@T monitoring represents a further enhancement of traditional
cycle chemistry instrumentation in the ability to control corrosion, which might allow the
following:
Identification of general areas were corrosion, single- and two-phase flow- accelerated
corrosion (FAC) was occurring using the particle monitors
Determining the effect of changes to the feedwater chemistry program and operating
practices to minimize corrosion product transport on a real-time basis
Use of ORP @T to more accurately determine the local environment being reducing or
oxidizing and provide a faster response to changing conditions to reduce corrosion.
Approach
This project consisted of field tests at two fossil plant units with different design and operating
feedwater chemistries. The tests included one supercritical unit using OT and a subcritical unit
on AVT(R). Each test unit was equipped with four particle monitors, two ORP@T (proprietary)
analyzers, and three integrated corrosion product samplers (ICPS). Baseline testing was
performed followed by changes to the feedwater treatment program to determine an optimum to
control corrosion. Data collected from the installed equipment was plotted on a weekly basis and
9-10
evaluated with the plant chemistry and operating information. A statistical analysis was
performed using the PI data and compared to CPT results to determine if any correlations could
be identified. The report details the effectiveness of the particles monitors compared to the ICPS
results and the ability of the ORP@T to determine the local water potential.
Related Material
1017482-Corrosion Product Transport Monitoring
Program
Keywords
Condensate
Corrosion product transport
Feedwater
Oxidation reduction potential
Particle monitoring
9-11
Corrosion Product Transport Monitoring: Continuous On-Line Monitoring

Evaluations for Electric Power Generating Stations
Product Number
1017482
Date Published
March 2010
Details
Abstract
The control of corrosion and corrosion product transport (CPT) is vital to the energy efficiency
and economic performance of fossil power stations. Failure to optimize control of corrosion and
CPT in the water-steam cycle can reduce unit efficiency and lead to catastrophic failures. There
is a need to find and explore new corrosion and corrosion product transport monitoring
techniques that might be used for the continuous, real-time optimization of corrosion control.
This report presents the findings of a series of fossil power plant field studies that used particle
monitoring technology for continuous CPT monitoring. The results of particle monitoring are
compared to those obtained with established non-continuous CPT monitoring techniques, and the
viability of using particle monitoring for real-time optimization of corrosion control is explored.
Background
Fossil power station chemists, operators, and engineers involved in the operation and
maintenance of components such as condensers, feedwater heaters, deaerators, and piping face
challenges in identifying and controlling corrosion and degradation of these components.
Corrosion is usually identified off-line during inspections or on-line using integrated CPT
samples analyzed at a later date. Although both techniques can identify the occurrence of
damage, neither is well suited for the optimization of chemical and operating conditions for
corrosion control. Continuous CPT monitoring offers real-time feedback on corrosion control,
which can be used for the on-line optimization of plant processes.
Objective
This project evaluated whether particle monitoring techniques could be validated as an effective
continuous CPT monitoring technique that could be used for the real-time optimization of
chemistry and operating parameters to minimize CPT.
Approach
This project consisted of field tests conducted at four fossil power station units of varying design
and operating chemistries. The test units included both supercritical and subcritical units and as
well as reducing and oxidizing feedwater chemistries. Each test unit was equipped with a suite of
particle monitoring and counting instrumentation along with integrated corrosion product
samplers. In addition, periodic grab samples were taken for the analysis of corrosion products.
During the test period, unit operating and chemistry parameters were varied and the resulting
change in CPT, as measured by the various techniques, was evaluated. Data were collected from
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the installed devices and combined with unit chemistry and operating data from the test units'
plant information systems for further evaluation following the test periods. The report details the
effectiveness of particle monitoring technologies compared to one another and to established
techniques for CPT monitoring. The report also evaluates the effects of chemistry and operating
changes on corrosion product and particulate transport at each of the test units as well as the
potential for using continuous CPT monitoring to optimize corrosion control.
Results
Corrosion and deposition are leading causes of forced outages and reduced generation at fossil
power plants. Improvements to monitoring of the generation and transport of corrosion products
will give operators greater ability to control corrosion. This project demonstrated that continuous
CPT monitoring using particle monitoring technology is able to identify specific areas of
particulate iron corrosion product release in real time for both subcritical and supercritical units
operating under reducing and oxidizing conditions. The project also found that the magnitude of
particle transport in the power cycle can be affected by chemistry control modifications. These
findings indicate the potential for particle monitoring technologies to be used for real-time
corrosion control optimization in fossil power plant condensate, feedwater, and drain systems.
Continuous CPT monitoring offers the opportunity to identify corrosion damage as it occurs in
specific locations throughout the power plant steam and water cycle. This work complements
previous efforts to develop an appropriate electrochemical corrosion potential monitor. In both
cases, the research seeks a tool for identifying corrosion at or near the point of generation so that
real-time optimization can be developed.
Successful development of methods and tools to identify and monitor corrosion at or near the
point of generation will allow utilities to further optimize corrosion control. This in turn will
reduce the number of failures resulting in forced outages and reduce the potential for premature
end of component life.
EPRI Perspective
Continuous CPT monitoring methods represent a potential step forward in cycle corrosion
damage monitoring and control, which might allow for the following:
Identification of specific locations of corrosion damage in a cycle on a continuous basis

while on-line, such as areas of single- and two-phase flow-accelerated corrosion
Quantification of the magnitude of corrosion releases for all periods of operation
On-line optimization of a chemistry control program to minimize corrosion
Predictive maintenance tool for identifying key damage locations for nondestructive
evaluation and inspections before components fail.
9-13
On-Line Corrosion Monitoring Using Electrochemical Frequency Modulation

(EFM)
Product Number
TR-112786
Date Published
July 1999
Details
Abstract
This work demonstrates the feasibility of using the electrochemical frequency modulation (EFM)
technique for on-line monitoring of corrosion rates. EFM is superior to other electrochemical
methods in that it can measure corrosion rates on polarized structures and in low conductivity
waters, and prior knowledge of the Tafel parameters is unnecessary. Furthermore, the quality of
the measurements made by EFM can be evaluated easily by determining how closely the
"causality factors" match theoretical values.
Background
On-line corrosion rate measurements can be made using several electrochemical techniques, such
as harmonic impedance spectroscopy (HIS) (see TR-107867), linear polarization resistance
(LPR), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Each method has its strengths and
shortcomings. The more advanced EFM technique is similar to HIS in that it measures the nonlinear behavior of a corroding system by analyzing the ac-current response to an ac-potential
distortion on the corroding system. However, the EFM technique applies a potential distortion in
the form of two sine waves of different frequencies, instead of the single sine wave employed by
the HIS technique. Theoretically, this approach has several advantages over HIS, including
larger (more easily measured) current responses at intermodulation frequencies, and a built-in
data validation technique. However, the feasibility of developing EFM for a general purpose
corrosion monitoring system has not previously been investigated.
Objective
To evaluate the use of EFM to monitor corrosion rates (1) in water systems in which the
corrosion mechanism is either under diffusion, passivation, activation, or mixed control; (2)
of cathodically protected, or other polarized, structures; and (3) in low conductivity waters
Approach
The research team used a standard 3-electrode electrochemical cell with potentiostat, data
acquisition board, signal generators, and supporting equipment. Corrosion rates measured by
EFM under various test conditions were compared with those obtained by more conventional
techniques like LPR, Tafel back-extrapolation, and weight loss.
9-14
Results
The research team developed mathematical models suitable for calculating corrosion rates from
EFM data generated for four classes of corrosion system: activation-, diffusion-, passivation-,
and mixed-control systems. In addition, they demonstrated that the magnitudes of the current
responses at certain intermodulation frequencies are multiples of the current responses at certain
harmonic frequencies. When these multiples, the so-called causality factors, differ significantly
from the theoretical values of 2 or 3, the data are predicted to be unreliable.
EFM data obtained for mild steel in a sulfuric acid solution with or without corrosion inhibitors - all activation controlled systems -- led to estimates of the corrosion rate that were in good
agreement with conventional techniques like weight loss measurements, LPR, and EIS. EFM
data obtained for mild steel in a sodium chloride solution -- a diffusion controlled system -- gave
acceptable estimates of corrosion rate only when potential perturbation frequencies were quite
low (0.02 and 0.05 Hz). At the higher frequencies (0.2 and 0.5 Hz) normally used, the EFM
method overestimated corrosion rates but qualitatively tracked rate changes resulting from shifts
in either dissolved oxygen content or hydrodynamic conditions. EFM data for 304 stainless steel
in a sodium chloride solution -- nominally a passive system -- were in poor agreement with LPR
and Tafel back-extrapolation when using the EFM passivation controlled model. Better
agreement was achieved with an activation controlled model.
The EFM technique successfully measured corrosion rates of cathodically protected mild steel
structures over a range of cathodic overpotentials in sodium chloride solution. The most accurate
rates were obtained when Tafel behavior was assumed for both the anodic and cathodic
reactions. Other experiments demonstrated that the EFM technique properly compensates for
solution resistance errors in low conductivity waters.
EPRI Perspective
This work has shown that, for a wide range of systems of practical interest, the EFM technique is
capable of monitoring corrosion rates on-line without prior knowledge of the Tafel parameters.
Major advantages of the EFM technique over other electrochemical methods are EFM's lack of
sensitivity to harmonics in the potential perturbation signal and the possibility of data validation
through the use of causality factors. Further development of the technique could automate
optimization of measurement variables and data processing.
Program
History
9-15
Optical pH Sensors for High Temperature Environments

Product Number
1001047
Date Published
November 2000
Details
Abstract
A novel pH measurement system based on remote absorption spectroscopy via two unidirectional optical fibers has been developed for use in cooling water sampling lines in power
plants. The system was designed to operate at 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit) and
1379 kPa (200 psi) and, so far, has been shown to measure reproducibly the pH of a flowing
stream at room temperature and 1379 kPa (200 psi).
Background
The pH of high-temperature aqueous solutions has a major influence on the corrosion behavior
of metal and alloy heat transport systems used in the electric power industry. To allow effective
corrosion control, pH should be monitored at operating temperature rather than on samples
cooled to near room temperature, as is the current practice. Conventional glass electrodes used
for measuring pH have an upper temperature limit of about 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees
Fahrenheit) and are notoriously unreliable in low conductivity, high purity waters. Yttriastabilized zirconia (YSZ) ceramic membrane electrodes show promising results at temperatures
above 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit), but at lower temperatures measurements
are subject to electromagnetic interference. Both glass and YSZ electrodes suffer the
disadvantage that they must be used in conjunction with a reference electrode, which introduces
other significant problems, especially at high temperatures. Previous work (TR-104196, TR106988) has demonstrated that optical methods of pH measurement promise to circumvent all
these problems, but the pH-sensitive chemicals and support materials used in this approach
degraded prematurely and prevented successful implementation of the technique.
Objective
To develop a second-generation optical pH measurement system that can operate in high
purity water at temperatures as high as 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit)
Approach
The research team constructed an optical flow cell from sapphire and stainless steel. Two lightemitting diodes (LEDs) were sequentially pulsed to provide two different wavelengths of light.
The light was guided to the flow cell by an optical fiber, passed through the cell, and was
collected by a second fiber that returned it to a photodiode for conversion to a digital signal for
9-16
analysis. A motor-driven syringe injected a bolus of pH indicator into the flowing stream, and
the change in its optical absorbance as a function of the pH was determined as the bolus passed
through the cell. This approach currently requires that the system be inserted into the sample line
in the chemical analysis lab, rather than directly into the cooling water recirculation loop.
Results
The system hardware was designed, assembled, and tested. Although designed to operate at
temperatures up to 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit), the system was only tested at
room temperature in this phase of the work. The system's opto-electronics exhibited a noise level
of 0.01 percent and a system drift over two weeks of 2 percent. A two-component pH indicator
consisting of bromothymol blue and thymol blue was developed that provided a linear response
over the pH range of 6 to 10. An injection subsystem was developed that can inject a 90microliter bolus at a rate ranging from 0.65 microliter per second to 16.36 microliters per second
with less than 0.1 percent error. Calibration curves were prepared and used to measure the pH of
four different solutions. The accuracy of the measurements using a quadratic calibration curve
was plus or minus 0.1 pH units, but the reproducibility, defined as three times the standard
deviation of the measurements, was plus or minus 0.3 pH units. The system operated
successfully at 200 psi.
EPRI Perspective
This work represents a significant advance in pH monitoring technology. The materials
degradation problems encountered in previous fiber optic pH monitoring devices (TR-104196,
TR-106988) were circumvented in this second-generation device. Nevertheless, further work is
necessary to improve long-term reproducibility, to increase measurement temperatures to as high
as 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit), and to evaluate accuracy of measurement in
extremely low ionic strength solutions.
Program
History
9-17
Development of Steam-Phase Sensors III

Product Number
1015658
Date Published
March 2009
Details
Abstract
The development of steam-phase corrosion sensors, as described in this report, can be used to
assess the corrosion conditions that exist on steam turbine blades and disks near the phase
transition zone (PTZ). This report details progress on the steam phase sensor project in 2008.
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) hopes that these sensors will attain the level of
sensitivity and precision required to measure low impurity levels.
Objective
Challenges and Objectives The electrolyte film that forms on metal surfaces--typically
micrometers in thickness--comprises a thin layer of steam condensate. Its composition is a result
of the impurity content of the steam during operation. Because the small dimensions involved
prohibit the use of conventional sensors, the present method of measurement is based on
capillary condensation that provides a continuous electrolyte layer in a nano-porous medium.
This report describes a continuation of the previous EPRI-sponsored research, as summarized in
EPRI Report 1014126 (2008). The main objectives for the current project were:
To complete analysis of the chloride measurement data with the steam Cl- sensor prepared
with VYCOR of enlarged pores.
To enhance the sensor's sensitivity for low-level [Cl-] detection.
Use the directly measured [Cl-] in the steam condensate, rather than the value calculated from
the partition coefficient for HCl. For the latter to be valid, it is necessary to ensure that the
system is at chemical equilibrium, which has not been possible with the present apparatus.
Improve the consistency of the steam pH sensors.
Approach
VYCOR silica was used as the nano-porous medium for the capillary condensation of steam.
Ag/AgCl, KCl(sat) reference electrodes and the various sensing electrodes were built onto the
nano-porous medium, as described in EPRI Report 1014126.
The [Cl-] sensor uses a thick film Ag/AgCl sensing electrode, while the pH sensing electrode
employs a thick film W/WO3 sensor.
The redox potential is measured between a thick film Pt electrode and a W/WO3 pH sensor,
such that the measured redox potential is auto-corrected for changes in pH.
Steam [Cl-] and pH sensors were evaluated at 100 C in the atmospheric pressure test system.
9-18
Solutions of known concentrations of were maintained at 100 C in the system. The

concentrations of the desired species (that is, Cl- and H+) in the generated steam (100 C) were
calculated from the known liquid-vaporization (partitioning) coefficients at equilibrium.
Therefore the anticipated potentials can be calculated from electrochemical thermodynamics and
compared with the potentials measured from the steam-phase sensors.
Results
The project's results demonstrate that the parameters of interest in the steam phase of the PTZ
can be reliably monitored at relatively high concentrations. However, the adequacy of calculating
the concentrations of Cl- and H+ in the condensate (from the concentrations in the boiler water
and the partitioning coefficients reported in the literature) has been brought into question. This
procedure is valid only if equilibrium between the boiling phase and the condensate exists; and
that condition could not be guaranteed using the current apparatus. Accordingly, much of the
present work employed modifications to the system that allowed for the direct measurement of
Cl- and H+ in the condensate by taking "grab samples" and measuring the chloride content by
ion chromatography and pH potentiometry, respectively. The conductivity was also measured.
Cycle chemistry and stress effects adversely affect the PTZ of the steam turbines the most.
Previous work has demonstrated the extent of damage that occurs during unprotected shutdowns
of the steam turbines. However other insidious failure stages, such as crack growth, occur during
operation. Thus, continuous in-service monitoring is desirable in every steam turbine
EPRI Perspective
This project is the continuation of the development of steam-phase sensors reported in 2007
(EPRI Report 1014126).
Consistency in steam pH, redox potential, and chloride-content measurements at concentrations
as low as 10-4 M was observed. The four sensors will be incorporated in to single probe.
However, the sensitivity of the steam sensors needs to be greatly enhanced if they are to become
practical devices for use in the field.
Further improvements in sensitivity of the chloride sensor in low concentration media are being
explored by varying the surface area of the VYCOR rod or by modifying the basic design of the
sensor.
Program
9-19
Development of Steam-Phase Sensors II

Product Number
1014126
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
The steam phase corrosion sensors II described in this report can be used to assess corrosion
conditions that exist on steam turbine blades and disks near the phase transition zone (PTZ). This
report details progress on the steam phase sensor project in 2007. Although near completion, the
sensors are presently being refined and are in the initial stages of commercialization. EPRI hopes
that these sensors will attain the level of sensitivity and precision required to measure low
impurity levels.
Objective
In spite of the available deterministic models developed to describe the processes of stress
corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue in the PTZ (see EPRI report 1012204), the current cycle
chemistry instrumentation does not have the capability to measure the properties of the liquid
films that form on PTZ surfaces in steam turbines.
The electrolyte film formed on metal surfaces, typically micrometers in thickness, essentially
comprises a thin layer of steam condensate. Its composition is a function of the impurity content
of the steam during operation. As the small dimensions involved exclude the use of conventional
sensors, the present method is based on capillary condensation that provides a continuous
electrolyte layer in a nano-porous medium.
Following the demonstration of the steam chloride concentration and pH sensing capabilities in
2006 (EPRI report 1013099), the specific objectives for the year 2007 were as follows:
Improve the consistency of the steam pH sensors
Construct and evaluate steam redox potential sensor
Design, construct, and evaluate steam conductivity sensor
Understand the cause of low sensitivity of the steam conductivity sensor and develop
strategies to improve the sensitivity
Approach
The project team built atmospheric and high-pressure facilities to determine the optimum
capillary condensation medium and to test the chloride, pH, and conductivity sensors.
Hydrochloric acid was injected in increments to vary the chloride content and pH of the
environment in the experimental apparatus. The tests were conducted at temperatures of up to
100C (212F). The accuracy of the measurements was subsequently assessed.
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Results
The results demonstrated that the parameters of interest in the steam phase of the PTZ can be
reliably monitored. The present system performs in situ condensation of steam, and subsequently
measures its chloride content, pH, redox potential, and conductivity.
Cycle chemistry and stress effects are known to most adversely affect the PTZ of the steam
turbines. Previous work has demonstrated the extent of damage that occurs during unprotected
shutdowns of the steam turbines. However other insidious failure stages, such as crack growth,
occur during operation. Thus, continuous in-service monitoring is desirable in every steam
turbine.
EPRI Perspective
The present work is the continuation of the development of steam phase sensors reported in
2006. A conductivity sensor was added to the existing probe and was documented in EPRI report
1012206. Consistency in steam pH, redox potential, and chloride content measurements as low
as 10-7 M, or tens of ppb, was observed. The four sensors will be incorporated into a single
probe. However, the sensitivity of the steam sensors needs to be increased.
Further improvement in low concentration media is being undertaken by varying the
porosity/surface area of the VYCOR rod. A technique is being developed to achieve this goal by
enlarging the pore size. The final stages of development will involve ruggedizing the probe for
in-field testing prior to commercialization.
Program
Keywords
Corrosion
pH Sensor
Chloride Sensor
Redox Potential Sensor
Conductivity Sensor
Steam Phase Sensors
9-21
Development of Steam Phase Sensors

Product Number
1012206
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
Most outage hours for steam turbines are due to corrosion of low pressure (LP) blades and disks
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). EPRI has developed a new deterministic model to describe
the processes of stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue in the PTZ. This report provides
information on the initial development of sensors that will measure the important chemistry
parameters of liquid films in the PTZ.
Objective
The overall deterministic model (see EPRI Report 1012204) represents a major new approach to
understanding and controlling corrosion in the PTZ, and describes all of the stages in the
propagation of corrosion damage. However, none of the current cycle chemistry instrumentation
has the capability of measuring the properties of the liquid films that form on PTZ surfaces in the
steam turbine. The objective of this work is to develop a system to condense steam and to
monitor the condensation for chloride, pH, and redox potential.
Approach
The project teams built atmospheric and high pressure facilities to research the optimum
capillary condensation medium and to test the chloride and pH sensors. They injected chloride
into the test facilities and verified the accuracy of the two sensors.
Results
The results demonstrated that sensors can measure the parameters of interestpH and chloride
in the steam phasefor corrosion in the PTZ. The work also established the viability for
capillary condensation as a way to maintain a continuous electrolyte layer in a nano-porous
medium. Tests were conducted in atmospheric and high pressure systems up to 100C (212F).
Cycle chemistry and stress effects are considered to have longer term influences on the
development of damage and failure in the PTZ of the steam turbine. The EPRI work has clearly
illustrated that the dominant phase in the damage occurs during unprotected shutdowns of the
steam turbine. Crack growth, however, occurs during operation; thus, it is during the operating
phase when monitoring is required of the liquids on turbine surfaces. Such a sensor will have
application in every steam turbine.
9-22
EPRI Perspective
This work has confirmed the proof-of-concept studies to develop on-line sensors to monitor
superheated steam (see EPRI Report 1013099). The chloride and pH sensors have been shown to
provide reasonable accuracy. The redox potential sensor will be tested in the next phase of the
work, together with an attempt to combine all three sensors in one probe. The final stages will
involve ruggedizing the probe/sensors for in-field testing.
Program
9-23
Program on Technology Innovation: Development of Steam Phase Sensors

Product Number
1013099
Date Published
May 2006
Details
Abstract
Most outage hours for steam turbines are due to corrosion of low pressure blades and disks in the
phase transition zone (PTZ). EPRI has been developing a new deterministic model to describe
information on the proof of concept for a sensor that will measure the important chemistry
Objective
The overall deterministic model represents a major new approach to understanding and
controlling corrosion in the PTZ, and it represents a description of all stages in the propagation
of corrosion damage. However, none of the current cycle chemistry instrumentation has the
capability of measuring the properties of the liquid films that form on PTZ surfaces in the steam
turbine. The objective of this work was to demonstrate a number of new concepts to condense
steam and monitor the condensation.
Approach
The project team built an atmospheric pressure test facility and used existing commercial
electrodes designed for periodic exposure to steam sterilization. The team also built a higher
pressure system and researched capillary condensation to determine the pore size needed for
practical steam phase sensors. The atmospheric system was used to examine the response of the
pH and ORP electrodes to constant acid and constant alkaline solutions.
Results
The results demonstrated that a sensor can measure the parameters of interest for corrosion in the
PTZ: pH and oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP) in the steam phase. The work also established
the viability for capillary condensation as a means of creating a liquid film on the surface of the
sensor.
Cycle chemistry and stress effects are most often longer term for damage and failures in the PTZ
of the steam turbine. The EPRI work has clearly illustrated that the dominant phase in the
damage occurs during unprotected shutdowns of the steam turbine. Crack growth, however,
occurs during operation, and thus it is during this operating phase that monitoring is required of
the liquids on turbine surfaces. Such a sensor will have application in every steam turbine.
9-24
EPRI Perspective
This exploratory work has demonstrated the proof of concept for an on-line sensor to monitor
superheated steam. Further development to a commercial sensor will continue in EPRIs Cycle
Chemistry Program. This will involve the testing of several types of porous media.
Program
9-25
Reference Manual for On-Line Monitoring of Water Chemistry and Corrosion:

1998 Update
Product Number
TR-112024
Date Published
May 1999
Details
Abstract
Corrosion in steam generating plants is reportedly responsible for over $6 billion each year in
additional operating, maintenance, and replacement power costs. Consequently, the utility
industry constantly seeks cost-effective methods of avoiding, controlling, and monitoring
corrosion. Information in this updated reference manual should help utilities select the most
appropriate instrumentation for on-line monitoring of water chemistry and corrosion in power
plant systems.
Background
Real-time monitoring of water chemistry parameters or corrosion rate assures water quality,
provides a warning of plant equipment malfunction or failure, facilitates process control,
optimizes maintenance and repair schedules, and improves corrosion control. In March 1995,
EPRI published a reference manual (TR-104928) to help utility personnel select the optimum
instrumentation for their needs. This updated manual compiles data from a larger number of
utility end users who responded to a new survey and highlights emerging technologies and
current issues in on-line monitoring.
Objective
To update EPRI's reference manual (TR-104928) for on-line monitoring of water chemistry
and corrosion
Approach
The authors sent questionnaires to 112 utility engineers and scientists with an interest in, or
responsibility for, on-line water chemistry or corrosion monitoring in power plants. A total of 39
utility end users returned 346 questionnaires, each providing detailed information about one
instrument type. Of the utilities providing information, 34 operate in the United States, and the
others are based in Canada, Sweden, France, Taiwan, and Japan. Manufacturers and suppliers
provided supplementary information for instruments cited by end users or, if those instruments
were obsolete, for similar current models. The authors acquired additional information from
EPRI reports and the open literature.
9-26
Results
The manual consists of three parts: general considerations, water chemistry, and corrosion. Part 1
includes a general introduction and describes the scope of the manual. Part 2 begins with two
general sections on current water chemistry monitoring practices and validation techniques, and
ends with a section describing several emerging technologies. Part 2 also devotes 15 sections to
monitoring equipment associated with a single water chemistry parameter such as pH, oxygen,
hydrazine, or silica, with an additional section describing on-line ion chromatography. The
standard format in these 16 sections includes descriptions of the principle of operation,
applications and benefits, a list of manufacturers and suppliers, equipment list price ranges,
performance characteristics, and data management capabilities. In addition, information gathered
from end users about the limitations, strengths, reliability, and lifetime of specific
instrumentation allows the reader to evaluate the past performance of a specific type of group of
instruments.
Part 3 on corrosion begins with a tutorial on the subject of corrosion, followed by a discussion of
the general approach to on-line monitoring of corrosion. The format for the next two sections
mirrors that in the 16 sections on specific monitor types in Part 2. One section describes on-line
instrumentation for monitoring general and other forms of corrosion, while another covers
monitoring of corrosion potential and redox potentials (ORP values). A final section describes
emerging corrosion monitoring technologies. Appendices list names, addresses, and
telephone/fax numbers for manufacturers and suppliers of the on-line monitoring equipment as
well as utility personnel who completed the questionnaires.
EPRI Perspective
The information obtained for this reference manual from the utility questionnaires represents the
experience and opinions of only 39 end users and, as such, may not be representative of the
electric power utility industry as a whole. Nevertheless, this 1998 update of EPRI's Reference
Manual for On-Line Monitoring of Water Chemistry and Corrosion should help utility personnel
select the optimum instrumentation for their needs. EPRI anticipates that it will update the
manual periodically, with the next update scheduled for publication in 2001.
Program
History
9-27
Development of a Steam Sampling System

Product Number
TR-100196
Date Published
December 1991
Details
Abstract
Corrosion in steam turbines is one of the most frequent causes of outage in fossil plants, and
deposit buildup reduces efficiency in many units. This report describes the new "EPRI Nozzle,"
part of a proven approach for isokinetically sampling superheated and saturated steam. The
results of the project are applicable to all types of steam cycles, including nuclear cycles.
Background
contamination. EPRI report CS-4629 contains operating cycle chemistry guidelines to assist
utilities in reducing contamination and resulting corrosion, scaling, and deposition. That 1986
report suggested that steam should be monitored continuously; however, a truly isokinetic steam
sampling nozzle did not exist.
Objective
To develop a superheated and saturated steam sampling system for fossil-fuel-fired plants
Approach
The project team surveyed the EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group to define priorities for
sampling points and monitored parameters. By analyzing collected samples from a supercritical
unit, they found that particulates (magnetite) in steam can transport significant amounts of
contaminants. On the basis of their findings in these two areas, the team designed a new
isokinetic sampling nozzle, which can collect particulates in superheated steam and impurity-rich
water droplets in saturated steam. The team evaluated the sampling system using the new nozzle
at four utility plants.
Results
Investigations demonstrated that the preferred sampling location for fossil cycles with reheat is
the hot reheat steam pipe. This report describes the following in detail:
The optimum location of a sampling nozzle in a long vertical section of a steam pipe
A stainless steel tapered nozzle, now called the "EPRI Nozzle"
The method of nozzle attachment to a steam pipe and nondestructive inspection methods
9-28
Mechanical design requirements for vortex shedding and resonant frequency
The location of depressurizing valves and placement of sample coolers as close to the valves
as possible
In all, evaluations showed that the new EPRI steam sampling system provides a representative
total sample of the impurities involved.
EPRI Perspective
An overall goal of the EPRI fossil plant cycle chemistry program is to provide guidelines for the
majority of current operating equipment. Operating, instrumentation and control, and makeup
guidelines have already been published (reports CS-4629, CS-5164, and GS-6699). Guidelines
on oxygenated treatment will be available in 1992. The new "EPRI Nozzle" will help utilities
isokinetically sample steam and keep overall cycle chemistry within limits prescribed in the
guidelines. Furthermore, the nozzle will eliminate sampling errors inherent in previous steam
sampling systems. It must be strongly emphasized that analytic techniques used to monitor
contaminants should be evaluated from a quality control viewpoint. This evaluation will ensure
that the techniques detect the chemical species within performance limits. Another EPRI report
(GS-7556) describes this aspect in detail. The "EPRI Nozzle" is a licensed EPRI product and is
available from the contractor.
Program
History
9-29
Guideline Manual on Instrumentation and Control for Fossil Plant Cycle

Chemistry
Product Number
CS-5164
Date Published
April 1987
Details
Abstract
The availability of fossil fuel plants will increase markedly if utilities adopt water chemistry
limits that eliminate or reduce corrosion. These comprehensive guidelines on monitoring,
analyzing, and controlling water chemistry can help utilities achieve that goal.
Background
contamination. EPRI report CS-4629 contains operating cycle chemistry guidelines to help
utilities reduce such contamination and the resulting corrosion, scaling, and deposition. A key
element of any effective cycle chemistry program is the use of state-of-the-art techniques to
collect and condition samples and to monitor and analyze cycle chemistry data. However,
consistent industry guidelines on techniques for fossil plants did not exist.
Objective
To develop guidelines on the state of the art in instrumentation, control, and on-line
monitoring for fossil plant cycle chemistry and to identify areas requiring further research
and development.
Approach
The project team surveyed major manufacturers of boilers and turbines, as well as suppliers of
continuous analyzers, laboratory instruments, and sample conditioning systems. They also made
detailed examinations of the instrumentation and control measures used by 10 utilities at 17
fossil units. In documenting the resulting information, the team provided easy-to-use tables
showing the minimum instrumentation required for baseloaded and cycling units. An industry
advisory committee of 14 utilities and four major equipment manufacturers reviewed the
material, as did members of the EEI Chemistry Committee and representatives of five
international utilities.
9-30
Results
The guideline manual describes in detail state-of-the-art approaches and current utility practices
for monitoring and controlling cycle chemistry at a fossil fuel plant. The manual also outlines
ways to determine whether plant operators should modify certain approaches, depending on the
availability of capital and manpower at a specific site. Individual sections of the guidelines
discuss methods of obtaining on-line samples.
On-line monitoring and analytic instruments for all chemistry monitoring and analytic
instruments for all chemistry parameters
Management responsibilities
Minimum levels of instrumentation and control needed for startup, cycling, and normal
operation
The format makes the manual easy to use. References and a complete bibliography are included.
EPRI Perspective
These guidelines will enable utilities to select sampling, analytic, and control techniques to keep
cycle chemistries within the limits prescribed in EPRI report CS-4629. Utilities may not need to
monitor all chemistry parameters at each sampling point; however, all monitoring should be
consistent with a plant's existing sampling system, instrumentation, and manpower. Under
project RP2712-03, EPRI will conduct extensive on-site monitoring at several plants, using stateof-the-art continuous monitoring instrumentation. That research will verify and refine the cycle
chemistry operating limits defined in EPRI report CS-4629. Project work will focus on cycling
plants, which have no water chemistry control guidelines.
Program
History
1997 Program T2430 Steam Turbine, Generator, & Balance-of-Plant O&M Cost
1997 Program T2432 Balance-of-Plant/Plant Computing Networks and I&C
9-31
10
CHEM EXPERT
10-1
EPRI ChemExpert: Cycle Chemistry Advisor Code, Version 3.1

Product Number
1006935
Date Published
July 2002
Details
Software Available Online
Abstract
ChemExpert Version 3.1 will assist in determining water/steam cycle chemistry regimes,
controlling corrosion, and diagnosing problems in fossil power plants. This software consists of
four programs and several folders of data files, as follows:
ChemExpert Customization -- Using this program, the user customizes ChemExpert for a
specific unit and cycle chemistry, the number of action levels, the chemistry parameters to be
monitored, and their action level limits. ChemExpert can be customized for drum or oncethrough boiler units using all-volatile treatment, or oxygenated treatment, or for drum boiler
units on phosphate treatment, equilibrium phosphate treatment, or caustic treatment. The
program is also customizable for ferrous or copper alloys in the feedwater system,
condensate polishers (individual and combined effluents), the deaerator, and acid- or alkaliforming cooling water.
ChemExpert -- This program detects cycle chemistry problems in real time and recommends
action to be taken.
ChemExpert Cycle Description and Maintenance -- This program can be used as a concise
database of basic plant information and as a record of maintenance tasks.
ChemExpert Operator and Chemist Training -- This program contains information compiled
from many published sources on cycle chemistry and is meant to increase user chemistry
knowledge.
Platform and System Requirements:
Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000, or NT operating system
200 Pentium II processor
64 MB RAM
1 GB hard disk space (if you plan on storing at least one year's worth of data)
CD-ROM / DVD drive
640 x 480 VGA video driver with 256 colors
Graphics-capable printer in order to print screens and reports
10-2
Internal or external speakers will allow the program to audibly alert the user to cycle chemistry
problems
This personal computer software is designed to run on the same computer on which it has been
installed. The software is not designed to run on a machine (such as a server) that is accessed by
other computers.
Program
History
10-3
User's Manual for EPRI ChemExpert

Version 3.0: Cycle Chemistry Advisor for Fossil Power Plants
Product Number
1006404
Date Published
December 2001
Details
Computer Manual Available Online
Abstract
EPRI ChemExpert Version 3.0 software will assist in determining water/steam cycle chemistry
regimes, controlling corrosion, and diagnosing problems in fossil power plants.
Background
Todays competitive environment requires operation of the utility power plants at top efficiency
with minimum forced outages. Corrosion, scale, and deposits have been major contributors to the
increased cost of steam and power generation. The highest component is the cost of replacement
power, which is normally up to $100/MWh and during the summer of 1998, reached up to
$7000/MWh. EPRI sponsored development of ChemExpert Version 3.0 to help utilities detect
cycle-chemistry-related problems in the water/steam cycle as they occur and recommend
corrective actions.
Objective
To provide user documentation for ChemExpert Version 3.0 software, including instructions
on installation, software customization and application, report generation, and operator
training.
Approach
The software development team based ChemExpert Version 3.0 on the following EPRI fossil
plant cycle chemistry guidelines: "Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate
Treatment for Drum Units" (TR-103665), "Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants:
Oxygenated Treatment" (TR-102285), "Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: AllVolatile Treatment" (TR-105041), "Sodium Hydroxide for Conditioning the Boiler Water of
Drum-Type Boilers" (TR-104007). As there are five possible choices for the boiler water
treatment of drum units, and three possible choices for feedwater, it is very important that the
user of the ChemExpert software is also familiar with EPRI report TR-105040: "Selection and
Optimization of Boiler Water and Feedwater Treatments for Fossil Plants." The ChemExpert
Training program provides information from many other EPRI guidelines and conference
proceedings as well as from other published sources referenced in the program.
10-4
Results
ChemExpert Version 3.0 consists of four programs and several folders of data files, as follows:
ChemExpert Customization -- Using this program, the user customizes ChemExpert for a
specific unit and cycle chemistry, the number of action levels, the chemistry parameters to be
monitored, and their action level limits. ChemExpert can be customized for drum or oncethrough boiler units using all-volatile treatment, or oxygenated treatment, or for drum boiler
units on phosphate treatment, equilibrium phosphate treatment, or caustic treatment. The
program is also customizable for ferrous or copper alloys in the feedwater system,
condensate polishers (individual and combined effluents), the deaerator, and acid- or alkaliforming cooling water.
ChemExpert -- This program detects cycle chemistry problems in real time and recommends
action to be taken.
ChemExpert Cycle Description and Maintenance -- This program can be used as a concise
database of basic plant information and as a record of maintenance tasks.
ChemExpert Operator and Chemist Training -- This program contains information compiled
from many published sources on cycle chemistry and is meant to increase user chemistry
knowledge.
EPRI Perspective
The ChemExpert Version 3.0 software uses data from on-line chemical analytical instruments,
other on-line data, and manually entered grab sample analysis data to determine if any cyclechemistry-related problems are occurring in real time. It can access existing data acquisition
systems or distributed control systems through a serial port connection or through a network
using DDE communications to acquire data. Application of ChemExpert will improve plant
operator and chemist control of water and steam chemistry, thereby reducing the likelihood of
equipment damage and efficiency losses.
Program
History
10-5
11
CONDENSATE POLISHING AND FILTRATION
11-1
Impact of Film-Forming Amines on Condensate Polishing Ion-Exchange Resins

Product Number
3002000416
Date Published
April 2013
Details
Abstract
A proprietary film-forming amine, also referred to as a filming amine, was tested in laboratory
experimentation to evaluate potential impacts on condensate polisher ion-exchange resins
(Dowex MS 650C (H) and 550A (OH)and a commercially available resin used for the
measurement of online cation conductivity. The properties of filming amines to coat surfaces
within the steam cycle of a power plant can also block ionic mass transport or have chemical
interactions with ion-exchange resin. Experimentation with resins before and after exposure to
filming amines included measurements of the mass-transfer coefficient (MTC), exchange
capacity, and hydrophobicity and physical observations, such as bead cracking and swelling.
Comparatives studies were performed with octadecylamine (ODA). Results indicate a significant
impact on cationic resin with reductions in both the MTC and capacity. Capacity was
recoverable with the proprietary amine but could not be restored for ODA. The MTC for cationic
resin was partially recoverable. For anionic resins, the MTC could be recovered with maximum
strength regenerant. Results suggest that condensate polishers should not be exposed to filming
amines. In cases where contact does occur, the study that is the subject of this report provides
qualitative and limited quantitative information about the potential to recover mass-transfer and
capacity properties.
Program
Keywords
Filming amine
Ion-exchange resin
Mass-transfer coefficient (MTC)
Water and steam cycle chemistry
11-2
Condensate Polishing Guidelines for Fossil Plants

Product Number
1010181
Date Published
March 2006
Details:
Abstract
Fossil plants employ condensate polishers to remove ionic and suspended impurities from the
condensate in order to provide high purity feedwater. In the process, the polisher enhances fossil
unit availability, reliability, and performance. In 1996, EPRI produced Condensate Polishing
Guidelines (TR-104422), the first comprehensive guidelines for condensate polishers used in
fossil units. Extensive investigations of condensate polishing technology followed. These
guidelines reflect the latest thinking on the technical and economic aspects of currently available
condensate polisher designs and effectively replace the 1996 guidelines.
Objective
Despite compelling evidence that condensate polishers can represent a substantial source of
value, polishers are often regarded as not being essential components of fossil steam-water
cycles. Polishers are instead often viewed as a design feature that cannot be economically
justified. The objective of these guidelines is to provide clear direction with respect to polisher
design suitability and identify key design features. The guidelines also include updated cost and
value analyses, showing that available polisher system designs offer significant payback both in
new-unit and retrofit applications. Technical aspects of polishing are discussed further in other
publications, including EPRI's Condensate Polishing Training Manual (1004933).
Approach
The EPRI Condensate Polishing Team, a group of recognized experts in this area, prepared these
guidelines. The authors have been involved in development of numerous reports produced under
EPRI's Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program (Program 64) over the last
decade.
11-3
Results
The new guidelines on condensate polishing provide a comparative analysis of available
technology options and identify the fossil unit application conditions in which they can best be
applied. Specifically addressed are deep bed condensate polishing systems and precoat
filter/demineralizer systems, with comprehensive discussions of design factors, operating and
maintenance factors, and a summary of requirements for optimized performance. The guidelines
compare the economics of the most widely used options and present a justification methodology
based on assessment of value and costs.
The justification assessment presented in the guidelines considers the many sources of value
provided by condensate polishers. These value sources are considerable and apply to units that
are not subject to contamination as a result of cooling water ingress. Also considered are the
benefits associated with operation of deep bed polishers in the ammonium form as well as the
increasing importance of reliable and simple system designs and operating requirements.
Availability of off-site regeneration of deep bed resins cuts initial capital costs, reduces system
footprint size, simplifies operator responsibilities, and eliminates the need for storage and use of
regenerant chemicals at the plant site. Such separate bed polisher designs, now in limited use
worldwide, offer another approach that shows promise at plants where simplicity of design and
operation is a priority.
EPRI Perspective
Condensate polishing provides a number of advantages in fossil units that include polishers in
the design. It is no coincidence that the better cycle chemistries, oxygenated treatment, and
oxidizing all-volatile treatment, are only applicable to units with polishers, and that these units
consistently receive cycle chemistry benchmarking scores that are world class or above average.
These scores have been shown to represent a significant level of value to the organizations that
achieve them.
Program
Keywords
Condensate Polisher
Cycle Chemistry
Fossil Unit
Condensate Polishing
Condensate Filter
11-4
Condensate Polishing Guidelines

Product Number
TR-104422
Date Published
December 1996
Details
Abstract
In a continuing effort to minimize the impact of impurity ingress on power plant availability,
these guidelines will help utilities enhance condensate polisher performance. They will also
provide operators with the proper tools to solve contaminant problems and lead to significant
operation and maintenance cost reductions.
Background
EPRI's guidelines for cycle chemistry provide direction and guidance on selecting and
optimizing the water and steam chemistry for fossil and nuclear plants. Because the optimum
condensate and feedwater treatments are central to ensuring plant component availability and
reliability, the chemistry parameters have been, and are continuing to be, tightened. Thus
consistent industry guidelines for condensate polishing will assist utilities in achieving these
limits. These guidelines on condensate polishing address some common issues for both nuclear
and fossil plants with emphasis on the fossil plants. A separate document has been issued for
nuclear plants (EPRI report TR-101942).
Objective
The project team first reviewed utility experience with feedwater treatment and condensate
system design and performance. In the process, they visited five fossil plants and surveyed the
EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Group, the EPRI Fossil Plant International Cycle Chemistry
Group, and members of the Edison Electric Institute Chemistry Subcommittee on Condensate
polishing. As the basis for developing condensate polishing guidelines, the team used the 1993
EPRI Condensate Polishing Guidelines (TR-101942), which had been developed by a committee
of nuclear plant experts. The team and consultants developed additional sections on the
economics of condensate polishers and the methodologies to justify their installation. Draft
guidelines were reviewed by the groups involved in the initial survey.
Results
These guidelines contain separate sections on the principles of condensate polishing, water
chemistry impacts and requirements for fossil and nuclear plants, economic justification and cost
savings of condensate polishing systems, which is generally based on fossil plant experience, and
condensate polishing guidelines. The guidelines section compiles information on design,
operation, maintenance, resins, and management aspects of condensate polishing systems. This
information is applicable to both fossil and nuclear plants, and the information from the previous
nuclear guidelines is included.
11-5
Appendixes are also provided on the survey results and experience, European practices,
economic factors, resin analysis and maintenance, and off-site regeneration.
EPRI Perspective
These guidelines, when used in conjunction with the EPRI fossil and nuclear plant cycle
chemistry guidelines, will help minimize the impact of impurity ingress and corrosion product
transport. The guidelines apply to a wide variety of plant situations: new and existing plants,
powdered resin systems and deep beds. The road maps in Chapter 4 provide guidance on
evaluating the economic merits of condensate polishers for particular installations, chemistry,
and other circumstances.
EPRI will be revising the previous guidelines for nuclear plants with a Condensate Polishing
Guidelines Committee in 1997. This update will include the latest changes in nuclear plant
condensate polishing technology.
Program
History
1997 Program T3000 Nuclear Power Full Group Purchase
1997 Program T3001 LLW, Chemistry & Radiation Control
11-6
Condensate Polishing State of Knowledge Assessment

Product Number
1012208
Date Published
November 2006
Details
Abstract
Personnel responsible for evaluating the benefits and value of condensate polishing systems in
new or existing fossil plants are often unable to justify including traditional system designs,
which, for the most part, have not changed substantially over the last 20 years. Limited activity
in developing new fossil units has contributed to this situation. However, the growth in demand
for new fossil units worldwide will require many to assess inclusion of well-designed and welloperated polishing systems, now widely recognized as an essential part of those fossil units
achieving excellent or world-class cycle chemistry status.
Objective
Increased demand for polishers could stimulate interest in making further technology
improvements. Regrettably, system designers are still reluctant to offer the best polishing
systems available for fossil units. This appears to reflect both the perception that system first
costs must be kept low and, in some instances, a lack of complete familiarity with the advantages
and benefits available with better designs.
Approach
Members of an EPRI team knowledgeable in condensate polishing technology considered the
advancements and limitations of existing systems and media since polishing was originally used
at power stations in the early 1950s. They then assessed the applicability of commercially
available systems and available and emerging technologies to modern fossil units in the context
of present day cycle chemistry requirements and the needs and concerns of fossil plant
management and technical and operating personnel. Finally, the team assessed possible shortand long-range research and development activities that could result in wider use of polishing in
fossil units.
Results
Deep bed condensate polishing technology was determined to have advanced substantially since
its introduction in power plant steam-water cycles. Although research and development activities
within the commercial sector have been limited in recent years, there appear to be further
opportunities for advancing the technology and making it more user-friendly in modern fossil
plants. Polishing designs that apply powdered resins to filter elements have experienced only
relatively minor advancement since their introduction, and there do not appear to be any
significant opportunities for technology improvement.
11-7

Users of this report will acquire a better understanding of condensate polishing technology as it
relates to existing and future generating assets. References cited, including many EPRI
publications, direct readers to more detailed discussions of the various technical advancements
now available and the associated benefits. Collectively, this information can be used to support
decisions on system design, operation, and value assessment.
EPRI Perspective
From 1996-2006, EPRI has conducted numerous investigations to improve user understanding of
condensate polishing in fossil steam-water cycles. Further advancements in technology will
require continued effort to provide technology transfer to prospective end users. Adaptation of
short-range improvements requires an understanding of end-user constraints on factors such as
plant labor, capital availability, system operating requirements, and environmental discharge
requirements.
Program
Keywords
Condensate polisher
Ion exchange
Resin
Precoat filter/demineralizer
Cycle chemistry
11-8
Condensate Polishing Training Manual

Product Number
1004933
Date Published
March 2004
Details
Abstract
Fossil units with properly designed and operated condensate polishing systems typically exhibit
better availability, reliability, and performance than otherwise comparable units without
condensate polishers. In spite of this, polishers are often viewed as non-essential equipment that
increases capital and operating costs. The EPRI Condensate Training Program was initiated to
assure that fossil plant personnel were aware of the benefits and value of condensate polishing
and had up-to-date information on design, operation, and costs.
Objective
The Condensate Polishing Training Manual will be helpful to fossil plant personnel responsible
for polisher operations, for evaluating the benefits and value of polishing in specific applications,
and for keeping abreast of innovative technologies that could eventually be available for future
generating units. Participants in the training program generally identify potential opportunities
for improving existing operations as well as gain new insights in how to appraise proposed
condensate polishing applications.
Approach
A preliminary version of the EPRI Condensate Polishing Training Program course materials was
prepared and presented at a workshop in 2002. Feedback from this workshop, along with input
received during actual training sessions and a mini-workshop conducted in 2003, were used to
identify materials to include in the manual. The training manual was prepared by the team of
condensate polishing experts that conducted the training sessions. Content includes key aspects
of earlier EPRI publications on condensate polishing in fossil plants as well as supplemental
ideas, concepts, and experiences of the team.
Results
The training manual was developed as a companion document for organizations participating in
EPRI's Condensate Polishing Training Program. However, it also is quite useful as a singlesource reference on polisher design and operation. Further, it shows how the benefits and value
of condensate polishing systems may be objectively assessed when considering inclusion of
polishers in new fossil units or retrofitting polishers to existing units. It also provides a summary
of recent and ongoing EPRI project activities directed to make condensate polishing systems
more affordable, smaller, and less complicated to operate.
11-9

Organizations that participate in the formal training program are challenged to critically evaluate
existing plant operations and any condensate polishing applications under consideration. During
the remainder of 2004, benchmarking of program participants will be conducted; preliminary
benchmarking criteria appear in one of the training manual's appendices. Follow-up with
program participants will be available to provide technical support and monitor progress in
identifying and implementing possible improvements, as well as activity directed towards
justifying new polisher systems.
EPRI Perspective
Basic polisher designs commercially available for steam-water cycle applications have now been
in use for over 40 years, and there have been a number of technology improvements and
refinements during that time. Since publication of the Condensate Polishing Guidelines (TR104422) in 1996, EPRI has initiated work to address perceived deficiencies of condensate
polishing technology; as a result, a series of products on available and possible future
improvements to condensate polishing have been issued. This product captures the essence of
this work and summarizes it in a single volume. The manual is designed for all levels of
technical personnel involved in specification, design, and operation of polishers. Feedback
received from organizations that have already received the initial training will help define the
scope of the manual's next revision, planned for 2006.
Program
History
Keywords
Water Chemistry
Training
Ion Exchanging
Feedwater
Demineralizers
11-10
Condensate Polishing Guidelines: Ammonium Form Operation

Product Number
1004322
Date Published
August 2001
Details
Abstract
Successful condensate polishing operation maintains control of ionic and particulate impurity
transport in the fossil plant and allows the unit to operate more reliably. This report will assist
utilities in reducing the overall cost of condensate polishing.
Background
EPRI's fossil plant guidelines for cycle chemistry provide direction and guidance on selecting
and optimizing water and steam chemistry for fossil plants. Since the optimum condensate and
feedwater treatments are central to ensuring plant component availability and reliability, the
chemistry parameters have been and are continuing to be tightened. EPRI's "Condensate
Polishing Guidelines" document (EPRI report TR-104422) assists utilities in achieving these
limits. The operation of polishers in the "ammonia form" is a commonly used, but still
controversial, method of reducing operating costs. A fresh look at ammonium form operation of
polishers was needed.
Objective
To provide comprehensive guidelines for all aspects of ammonium form operation of
condensate polishers
Approach
The EPRI consultant reviewed the literature on ammonium form operation (AFO) of polishers,
interviewed a number of operators around the world, and assembled the experiences of plants in
Asia, Australia, Germany, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Africa. He
then assembled an initial draft, which was reviewed by members of EPRI's Boiler and Turbine
Steam and Cycle Chemistry Target, prior to producing the final version.
11-11
Results
The guideline contains individual sections on:
Summary of experience of AFO around the world
Theory of AFO
Regeneration of polishers operating in the ammonium form
A road map to help select power plants that could benefit from AFO
Guidance on operation in the ammonium form.
EPRI Perspective
These guidelines provide detailed information to assist those plants currently operating using
AFO and to allow other plants to decide whether they could operate in this form. The guidelines
indicate that if properly used, ammonium form polishers can routinely and consistently provide
condensate that meets all EPRI fossil plant cycle chemistry guidelines. AFO will provide full
protection against condenser leaks or similar incidences. Clearly, however, AFO is not suitable
for all plants. It is necessary to provide a very high degree of regeneration of the resins, and the
concentration of impurities in polished water from AFO polishers will always be higher than
achieved with the same resins operating in the H-OH mode.
These guidelines are part of a concentrated effort to increase the number of fossil plants with
condensate polishers and to improve their operating costs. Thus, EPRI is currently also
investigating radial flow polishing systems (EPRI report 1001409) and the use of off-site
regeneration (EPRI report 1001502).
Program
History
11-12
Guideline for Off-Site Regeneration of Condensate Polishing Resins

Product Number
1001502
Date Published
May 2001
Details
Abstract
Successful condensate polishing maintains control of ionic and particulate impurity transport in
the fossil plant and allows the unit to operate more reliably. This report will assist utilities in
reducing the overall cost of condensate polishing by the use of off-site regeneration of the resins.
Background
EPRIs fossil plant guidelines for cycle chemistry provide direction and guidance on selecting
chemistry parameters have been and are continuing to be tightened. Consistent industry
guidelines for condensate polishing (EPRI report TR-104422) assist utilities in achieving these
limits. However, condensate polishing is not employed in enough fossil plants. Condensate
polishing would allow the use of more effective and less troublesome treatment regimes, such as
all-volatile treatment (AVT) and oxygenated treatment (OT). A fresh look at the whole
condensate polishing area was required specifically to reduce the overall cost of polishing.
Objective
To provide comprehensive guidelines for the evaluation and implementation of off-site
regeneration of condensate polishing resins
Approach
EPRI assembled an international team of condensate polishing specialists to investigate
alternatives to the standard axial flow deep bed and powdered resin condensate polishers. The
team indicated two avenues should be followed: off-site regeneration of resins and radial flow
polishing. Radial flow has been addressed in a separate study (EPRI Report 1001409). In the offsite regeneration study, the project team interviewed potential off-site regeneration contractors to
determine possible design interface and cost information. They next developed life-cycle costs
for system procurement, installation, and operation. Finally, they developed the guideline, which
was reviewed with the international team.
Results
The guideline provides information to assist utilities in evaluating the use of off-site regeneration
for new or retrofit situations. Detailed cost comparisons are provided, which show that capital
costs could be reduced by 25 percent and that total life cycle costs of off-site regeneration are
11-13
economical if regeneration frequency is limited. Information is also included for procurement of

the appropriate equipment and services for implementation of condensate polishing with off-site
regeneration services. A sample off-site regeneration specification is provided.
EPRI Perspective
The off-site regeneration technology forms an important part of EPRI's aim to develop advanced
and cheaper condensate polishing systems for the industry. In a parallel effort, EPRI is
researching radial flow polishing systems. Here the increased surface area and thus flow capacity
is obtained by increasing the axial dimensions of a vessel rather than the diameter, an approach
which offers significant capital savings. In the next phases of the overall condensate polishing
work, EPRI will be demonstrating the off-site regeneration technology and testing a scaled radial
flow vessel in a power plant. Combining the off-site regeneration with radial flow has the
potential to reduce the overall polishing costs further.
Program
History
11-14
Condensate Polishing Performance Assessment: Use of Separate Bed Single

Vessel Designs
Product Number
1014130
Date Published
February 2008
Details
Abstract
EPRI guidelines recommend the use of condensate polishing in fossil power stations to provide
on-going protection against the ingress of impurities and thus minimize corrosion and deposition
problems that could otherwise occur in steam/water cycles. The most commonly used types of
polishing plants rely on the use of mixed beds of cation and anion exchange resins.
Unfortunately, although the effectiveness of properly designed and operated mixed bed polishers
is well established, their use can require a significant level of attention and effort. Given the
current demand to reduce all operational costs, there is interest in methods of condensate
polishing that require less manpower and that can easily be used in the economical ammonium
form. One such alternative, separate beds or layers of anion and cation resins, is widely used in
water treatment plants; but the approach has not been generally regarded as capable of yielding
the polished condensate qualities required in power plants. Over the last twenty years techniques
of using separate bed condensate polishing have developed, however; and this report reviews the
designs used and their applicability to modern fossil power stations.
Objective
The use of condensate polishing by fossil power stations is still not completely accepted despite
EPRI's work showing their overall financial benefit and other advantages. The cost and
perceived manpower requirements of polishing inhibit its adoption by some utilities. Separate
bed plants answer some of these objections. The evidence given in this report shows that separate
bed polishers are simpler to use than mixed bed units, yield a quality of condensate that meets
fossil power station requirements, and facilitate operation in the economical ammonium form
that markedly reduces the quantity of chemical waste derived from the regeneration processes.
This report will be of interest to designers, station management, station chemical specialists, and
to those interested in the environmental impact of the operation of power stations.
Approach
The project team studied the performance of separate bed condensate polishing plants in
comparison with conventional mixed bed plants. Separate bed polishing plants, although not
widely employed, are used in a number of countries; this real-world experience was the main
basis for the assessments in this review. The team derived further information from published
work describing tests carried out on prototype separate bed polishers in the 1980s, including tests
performed by Southern California Edison on EPRIs behalf.
11-15
Results
In comparison to the large number of mixed bed condensate polishing plants in use, separate bed
plants are less commonly employed. They are in use or have been in use in Australia, Denmark,
Holland, Germany, New Zealand, Singapore, and South Africa. These systems can be broadly
divided into plants using separate deep beds of resins in separate vessels and plants employing a
proprietary approach of shallow layers of cation and anion resins contained in one vessel. There
is clear evidence that they are capable of yielding polished condensates with cation
conductivities of < 0.1 S/cm, with some claimed to be as low as 0.06 S/cm. Levels of sodium,
chloride, and sulfate are reported to be <1 g/kg (ppb) when operating either in the H-OH mode
or in the ammonium form at high pH. Some stations report even lower leakage levels. Stations
operating separate bed polishers in the ammonium form claim a greater ease of use relative to the
effort involved in using mixed beds in this mode. The cost of a separate bed polisher that uses
separate vessels will probably be significantly higher than that of a conventional mixed bed
plant, but the cost of proprietary layered beds in a single vessel design should be very similar to
conventional mixed bed systems.
The adoption of separate bed polishers offers a simpler form of condensate polishing and one
that could be used by stations that operate without the aid of specialist chemical staff. When
operating in the ammonium form and in the absence of condenser leaks or frequent start-ups,
service runs of 4-6 weeks should be attained without making the subsequent resin regeneration
procedures difficult. Separate bed polishers are in successful use on conventional drum boiler
units, once-through units, ultra super critical units, and on at least one combined cycle gas
turbine station.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has consistently supported the use of condensate polishing in all types of fossil power
stations but understands the growing need to make such processes simpler, more robust, and less
demanding of manpower. EPRI also recognizes the benefits of operating polishers in the
ammonium form on those stations that can usefully employ the technique. Separate bed
condensate polishing offers a way of achieving some or all of these objectives, although the
capital costs involved are not likely to be lower than those of conventional mixed bed plants. The
behavior of mixed bed polishers has, over the years, been scrutinized in great detail. That of
separate bed polishers has not received the same levels of study except for some very useful
trials of prototype layered separate bed plants. Notably, power stations in Australia have adopted
the approach and experienced many years of satisfactory operation. Ideally, further and more
detailed information on the behavior of separate bed polishers on modern power stations would
be desirable, particularly in regards to their performance in the face of severe challenges such as
large condenser leaks.
Program
11-16
On Demand Condensate Polishing: An Innovative Approach to Maintaining

Condensate Purity
Product Number
1011275
Date Published
December 2004
Details
Abstract
Significant unit availability improvements and O&M cost reductions can be achieved through
more widespread use of condensate polishing, which can prevent corrosion damage and
deposition problems. This report presents an initial assessment of an alternative condensate
polishing concept termed on demand condensate polishing (ODCP). The purpose of the report
was to outline the concept, consider technical merits and constraints, appraise system costs, and
identify missing information or other research needed to advance this innovative approach.
Objective
Despite the many benefits of condensate polishing in fossil units, organizations often have
difficulty making the case to justify provision of polishers. Decreasing polisher costs, making
them simpler to operate, and reducing their space requirements would make justification easier
and thus enhance more widespread use of polishing in fossil plant units. Successful development
of ODCP would provide a compact and relatively simple system to operate that appears to be
competitively priced when compared to deep bed systems, assuming off-site regeneration of
resins is possible.
Approach
Key features of ODCP include the removal of impurities by injection of resin media to the
flowing condensate and removal of resins with hydroclones. Simple experiments and theoretical
assessments showed that ion exchange would occur in flowing water, but that more sophisticated
experiments would be needed to define resin performance and requirements under actual fossil
plant condition. Investigators examined the performance of hydroclones under ODCP conditions
with the assistance of a manufacturer of condensate polishing equipment. Once the necessary
research has been done to understand resin requirements, further experimental work will be
needed to evaluate the performance of hydroclones as resin removal devices. To assess the
economics of ODCP system costs, investigators collected information from suppliers and
compared results of similar capital cost appraisals for conventional polisher systems.
Results
Initial technical assessment findings suggest that resin bead size is a possible constraint to
implementation of ODCP. If conventional resin media are used, smaller bead sizes than those
used in deep bed systems may be necessary to ensure satisfactory exchange kinetics. Reductions
in bead size make resin collection, separation, and regeneration more difficult to accomplish.
11-17
However, further research is needed to substantiate these preliminary findings. Investigation of

alternative resins, such as high density media, and establishment of resin specifications unique to
ODCP may be needed.
If existing issues could be successfully resolved, ODCP would be valuable in both conventional
and combined cycle units. The inclusion of a condensate filter in the design would be useful at
startup and during normal operation. In addition, automation of the resin addition system would
provide protection from condensate contamination with minimal operator attention, while offsite regeneration of resins would be minimized by the recycle of resins.
EPRI Perspective
In recognition of the importance and value of condensate polishing in fossil units, EPRI has
strived to provide member organizations with guidance in optimal operation of existing systems,
value assessment of installing or retrofitting new systems, and identification of innovative
approaches to condensate polishing. The ODCP concept is a total departure from traditional
polisher design and operation that can potentially meet the needs of the fossil industry.
Program
History
11-18
Development of a Radial Flow Condensate Polisher Pilot Scale Test Vessel

Design Specification
Product Number
1004543
Date Published
September 2004
Details
Abstract
Successful condensate polishing maintains control of ionic and particulate impurity transport in a
fossil power plant and allows the unit to operate more reliably. EPRI has sponsored research to
investigate and develop radial flow condensate polishing technology since it has some potential
advantages over traditional deep bed designs employing axial flow. This report presents some of
the findings of efforts to establish a design specification for a radial flow pilot scale test vessel.
Objective
Despite the clear benefits of condensate polishing systems to fossil plant units, such systems are
not always included in the design. High costs, space requirements, and operational complexity
are usually cited as reasons for exclusion of condensate polishing systems from fossil units.
Polisher designs employing radial flow represent a means to ameliorate these concerns. To date,
radial flow has not been applied in condensate polishing or other high volume ion exchange
applications. Prior research and development activities identified several questions and issues
related to optimal design of a working service vessel. Use of a pilot scale test vessel capable of
operating in more than one way was determined to be the most effective way to resolve these
questions and issues.
Approach
The project team addressed several needs. Key among these was the large number of design and
operational issues identified in earlier work. To complement results determined earlier for
divergent flow conditions, the team conducted a dimensional analysis of convergent radial flow
condensate polishing. They used this information along with other data to establish suitable test
vessel flows and sizing criteria and determine the smallest, most economical size at which
suitable performance data for use in designing full-scale vessels could be obtained. In addition to
the bed sizing and hydraulic criteria, the design assessment activity provided details on the vessel
internal arrangement options needed to investigate issues of concern, observation of the radial
bed during reins transfers and service, collection of samples from the vessel during service runs,
a suggested arrangement/layout of the system, and some initial suggestions for shop and field
testing activities.
11-19
Results
As a result of this effort, a suitable design for the test vessel has been established. The pilot scale
test vessel design specification will allow construction of a system for field evaluation that will
address most of the important questions and issues surrounding optimal design and operation of
full-scale systems.
Construction and evaluation of the pilot vessel in the field will ensure that future designs for
commercial applications are properly engineered and operator-friendly, as well as offering
performance that is at least comparable to that of traditional polisher system designs. To best
assure timely action, which will lead to the introduction of full-scale commercial radial flow
condensate polishing systems, EPRI intends to partner with its members and organizations that
have potential commercial interest in radial flow technology.
EPRI Perspective
Development of radial flow condensate polishing is but one of a number of innovative
condensate polishing concepts and approaches that have been investigated through research
sponsored by EPRI. The ultimate goal of this work is to facilitate inclusion of condensate
polishing technology in new fossil plants and, where justified, retrofitting of polisher systems to
existing units.
Program
History
11-20
Radial Flow Condensate Polishing: Radial Ion Exchange Physical Model

Experiments
Product Number
1004542
Date Published
November 2002
Details
Abstract
the fossil plant and allows the unit to operate more reliably on all-volatile or oxygenated
treatment. This report presents preliminary analysis results of using radial flow of condensate
through an ion exchange bed.
Background
and optimizing water and steam chemistry for fossil plants. Since optimum condensate and
feedwater treatments are central to ensuring plant component availability and reliability, EPRI
continually updates these guideline limits. Consistent industry guidelines for condensate
polishing (EPRI reports TR-104422 and 1004322) assist utilities in achieving these limits.
However, condensate polishing could be employed in more fossil plants, which would allow
more effective and less troublesome treatment regimes such as all-volatile treatment (AVT) and
oxygenated treatment (OT) to be used. Once proven, a radial flow condensate polisher can offer
substantial capital and operations and maintenance (O&M) savings.
Objective
To validate a theoretical model for radial flow ion exchange
Approach
EPRI has previously developed a theoretical model to simulate ion exchange performance
(1001409). In this project, the condensate polishing team designed and built a truncated wedgeshaped ion exchange resin bed and installed it in the steam and water sample room of the Tarong
Power Station in Queensland, Australia. The team provided high purity feedwater from one
sampling point and injected various solutions of NaCl into the feedline to the ion exchange bed.
For each of six tests, the team analyzed the feed and effluent and then compared results with the
theoretical model.
Results
Six experiments were conducted using different NaCl concentrations and cation:anion resin
ratios. Two different condensate flow rates were tested. Numerous technical problems were
experienced, which necessitated rebuilding the wedge and associated pumping equipment a
11-21
number of times. In general, concentration of chloride ions in the effluent agreed very well with
theoretical model predictions within experimental error. However, only in two of the
experiments did the model adequately predict the early breakthrough and effluent concentration
of the sodium ions.
EPRI Perspective
Results of previous simulation studies (EPRI report 1001409) indicated that radial flow designs
can offer significant savings for fossil plants. The current experiments partially succeeded in
confirming the validity of the model with the behavior of chloride following the predictions. To
determine and confirm full benefits of radial flow polishing, EPRI plans to build a small
prototype vessel in the next project stage and test it at a power plant. This pilot-scale test must be
large enough to minimize any possible future scaleup problems, but also small enough not to
cause problems for the host site. The design work will need to consider necessary distribution
and collection systems, as well as resin shrinkage and maldistribution. EPRI has already
developed a Guideline for Off-site Regeneration of Condensate Polishing Resins (1001502),
which could further reduce O&M costs for a radial flow system.
Program
History
11-22
Radial Flow Condensate Polishing: Radial Ion Exchange Simulation Studies

Product Number
1001409
Date Published
March 2001
Details
Abstract
the fossil plant and allows the unit to operate more reliably. This report presents preliminary
results of a new concept in condensate polishing using radial flow.
Background
chemistry parameters have been and are continuing to be tightened. Consistent industry
guidelines for condensate polishing (TR-104422) assist utilities in achieving these limits.
However, condensate polishing is not employed in enough fossil plants, which would allow more
effective and less troublesome treatment regimes, such as AVT and OT, to be used. A fresh look
at the whole condensate polishing area was required specifically to reduce the overall cost of
polishing.
Objective
To perform an initial feasibility study to assess radial flow condensate polishing
Approach
EPRI assembled an international team of condensate polishing specialists to investigate
alternatives to the standard axial flow deep bed and powdered resin condensate polishers. The
team indicated two avenues should be followed: off-site regeneration of resins and radial flow
polishing. Off-site regeneration has been addressed in a separate EPRI study. The project team
extended previous non-condensate polishing radial flow simulation studies to flow rates and
ionic concentration regimes appropriate to condensate polishing processes in fossil plants. They
developed a theoretical model to simulate ion exchange performance within an annular resin bed
and developed curves for practical radial flow beds. Finally, they made cost comparisons with
standard axial flow systems.
11-23
Results
The results of the simulation study indicate that the ion exchange performance of an annular bed
is comparable to the performance of a more conventional cylindrical bed of similar dimensions.
A radial flow design, where increased surface area and thus flow capacity is obtained by
increasing the axial dimension of a vessel rather than diameter, offers significant potential
savings.
EPRI Perspective
The initial results are exciting. The next stage in developing a prototype annular ion exchange
system is to confirm the predictions by conducting an experimental program. A small-scale 30degree wedge will be built and tested in a power plant. Based on the results obtained and
comparisons with the simulation model, a decision will then be made to develop a scaled vessel
for testing in a power plant. By developing a guideline for off-site regeneration, the parallel
study could reduce the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs for a radial flow system.
Program
History
11-24
Field Demonstration of the EPRI Resin Tester: Prototype Development and Initial
Field Usage
Product Number
1008084
Date Published
December 2004
Details
Abstract
This report presents an update on development of the EPRI Resin Tester, a device designed to
assess ion exchange resin kinetics and for other resin testing procedures. The report includes
information on fabrication and initial operational testing of the first working prototype of the
tester device.
Objective
Personnel responsible for fossil unit operations and water chemistry control are faced with the
need to ensure that condensate polisher resin beds are in a condition satisfactory to protect the
unit during contaminant ingress episodes. Normal sampling and analysis procedures for the resin
media are costly to perform since they require specialized laboratory equipment and trained
personnel. Kinetics assessment via simulated condenser leak testing is labor intensive and, if not
planned and conducted properly, could put the unit at risk. Further development of the prototype
EPRI Resin Tester described in this report will result in a useful tool that will simplify
monitoring of resin kinetics and other properties.
Approach
EPRI selected a qualified supplier of custom designed and packaged instrumentation for
industrial applications to produce a prototype version of the EPRI Resin Tester. Project
personnel monitored the fabrication process, which also included a shop review prior to
completion of the work. This assessment resulted in only minor refinement of the initial design
and demonstrated that the tester was suitable for field testing. The project team conducted test
work at a host plant, with worker training provided by project personnel, and resins for analysis
provided by member organizations. As a result of these efforts, the project team successfully
demonstrated the capability of the tester to serve as a quick means of checking resin kinetics.
Results
This work has verified the integrity and robustness of the EPRI Resin Tester as a portable,
affordable and simple to use resin kinetics tester device. Initial evaluations focused on anion and,
to a lesser extent, cation resin kinetics. However, the tester should be able to support several
other ion exchange media analysis procedures. Field usage has identified some possible design
variations that may be attractive to individual users. EPRI continues to optimize operational ease
and reliability and completion of this process will result in improved setup and operating
procedures.
11-25

Future activity involves further evaluation of the prototype resin tester unit. Evaluation results
will enable finalization of the tester basic design and operating procedures. It is conceivable that
the basic tester unit could ultimately be set up as either a portable (two-wheel or four wheeled
cart) or fixed (free standing or panel mountable) unit and that some features may be offered as
options depending on the needs of the user. These activities will ultimately lead to production of
one or more commercially available versions of the EPRI Resin Tester.
EPRI Perspective
The development of the EPRI Resin Tester is one of a series of initiatives intended to provide
improved condensate polishing capabilities for customers. This device is versatile and applicable
to conventional deep bed polisher systems as well as other makeup treatment ion exchange units.
Program
History
Keywords
Resins
Ion Exchange Materials
Kinetics
11-26
EPRI Resin Tester: A Simple Tool for Monitoring Resin Kinetics

Product Number
1004541
Date Published
October 2003
Details
Abstract
Many fossil plants use deep bed condensate polishers to control ionic and corrosion product
transport from the condenser. To reduce the likelihood of poor resin performance during a
condenser leak, periodic resin testing is essential; but available test methods for kinetics are time
consuming and must be performed in a laboratory by trained personnel. This report outlines the
conceptual design of the EPRI Resin Tester, a device that would enable plant personnel to make
quick and reliable checks of resin kinetics.
Objective
The EPRI Resin Tester should be of special interest to personnel at all plants that operate deep
bed condensate polishers. Use of such a device will enable plant personnel to assess resin
kinetics as well as other resin properties in the field. These results should minimize problems
related to operation of condensate polishers with degraded or improperly regenerated resin
media. Problems with regeneration should be more quickly identified, assessed, and resolved by
use of the device as a diagnostic tool. This capability is perhaps most crucial at locations where
off-site regeneration of the resins is currently practiced or under consideration.
Approach
To find ways for plant personnel to more easily monitor resin kinetics in the field, a review of
the various test methods currently in use was conducted. Critical evaluation of these methods
was made to identify an approach that could be applied in a portable, simple-to-use monitor that
could be operated by plant staff and provide quick and reliable results. The investigative process
also identified additional resin test methods to which the EPRI Resin Tester could be applied.
Results
The initial assessment of resin kinetics testing procedures presented in this report clearly shows
that the process can be simplified and automated by using a portable, inexpensive device that can
be operated by plant staff. Use of the device to check kinetics and other resin characteristics can
reduce the costs of laboratory analysis and minimize the impacts of the use of unsuitable
condensate polisher resin media on unit operations.
11-27

A prototype tester device will be constructed according to the design outlined in the report. Field
testing will be performed to verify the reliability and robustness of the tester device in
monitoring resin kinetics and other properties. Once this work is completed, the design will be
modified if needed and licensing arrangements will be made for production of a commercial
version of the EPRI Resin Tester.
EPRI Perspective
Operational reliability is essential in deep bed condensate polishing units. This is particularly
true during periods of condensate contamination. If the kinetics performance of the resins is
unsatisfactory, the polisher will not be able to prevent contamination of the boiler water and
steam. The importance of good resin kinetics becomes even greater at plants that elect to enter
into service agreements for off-site regeneration of the media.
Commercialization of the EPRI Resin Tester will give personnel responsible for operation of
condensate polishers in generating units substantial advantages in monitoring and control of the
quality of their resin media. The simplicity of the design and its versatility in conducting and
supporting various resin test procedures represent a powerful diagnostic capability not currently
available within the power industry.
Program
History
11-28
Deoxygenation in Cycling Fossil Plants

Product Number
TR-100181
Date Published
May 1992
Details
Abstract
Minimizing shutdown oxygen levels at a cycling fossil plant can reduce corrosion product
transport to the boilers. In this study two forms of activated carbon were used to catalyze the
oxygen/hydrazine reaction and minimize oxygen levels.
Background
A previous EPRI study (EPRI report CS-5033) at the Port Everglades plant of Florida Power and
Light Company demonstrated that minimizing shutdown oxygen levels at a cycling plant could
reduce corrosion product transport to the boilers. A continuation of the program has been
performed to demonstrate the use of two forms of activated carbon to catalyze the
oxygen/hydrazine reaction as a method to minimize the oxygen levels of cycling fossil plants.
An activated carbon impregnated fiber overlay on a powdered resin precoat was tested at TU
Electric's Tradinghouse Creek Unit 1, and a carbon bed followed by a deep bed demineralizer
was tested at Dusquesne Light Company's Elrama Unit 4.
Objective
To evaluate two deoxygenation methods for boiler water at cycling fossil power plants
Approach
Investigators at Tradinghouse-1 coated a powdered activated carbon and chopped fiber
formulation over the powdered resin ion exchange precoat of the polisher vessels. Tests of the
system were run with the plant cycling between 10 and 100% power, with condensate oxygen
concentration varying from about 30 ppb at near full power to 80 to 100 ppb at 10% power.
Investigators at Elrama-4 used the Ecolochem patented process for catalyzing the
oxygen/hydrazine reaction through a deep bed of activated carbon followed by an ion exchange
bed to remove contaminants added from the carbon. The deoxygenation system was operated
during shutdowns and startups and was bypassed during operation above approximately 20% of
full power. The oxygen level in the deaerator storage tank at Elrama-4 varied from 5 ppb to 2
ppm.
Results
Activated carbon in either form will successfully catalyze the oxygen/hydrazine reaction and can
be used in-line on the condensate to minimize oxygen ingress to the feedwater and boiler at any
power level. The degree of completion of the reaction appears to be a function of the amount of
hydrazine above stoichiometry as well as the resident time available for contact between the
11-29
charcoal and oxygen/hydrazine. The use of activated carbon on recirculating condensate could be
beneficial in combination with other oxygen exclusion methods such as vacuum deaeration or
inert gas blanketing of the condenser.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI is conducting ongoing research under this project to determine the relationship of the
deoxygenation of feedwater to lower levels of corrosion product transport. In these studies
deoxygenation is accomplished by blanketing the condenser with nitrogen during shutdown
rather than through the use of activated carbon. The longrange goal is to demonstrate that
deoxygenating feedwater can lead to less deposition on feedwater heater and boiler tube walls
and to fewer tube failures.
Program
History
2001 Program 057.0 Rights-of-Way Environmental Issues in Siting, Development, and
Management
11-30
Condensate Filtration Technologies for Electric Power Generating

Stations
Product Number
1014129
Date Published
December 2007
Details
Abstract
The reduction of metal oxide transport is essential to ensuring fossil plant component availability
and reliability. This report presents the findings of an investigation of Large Diameter High Flow
(LDHF) single-use disposable condensate filtration technologies. Plants with condensate
filtration have reduced metal oxide transport and considerably shortened unit start-up times. The
information in this report will help operators reduce deposition from metal oxide transport and
thereby achieve significant operation and maintenance cost reductions.
Objective
This investigation was designed to evaluate the technical issues, costs, and benefits of using
LDHF condensate filtration in fossil fuel power plant applications. The objective of this
technology assessment was to provide current and prospective users of LDHF condensate filters
with a comprehensive vetting of the technical concerns associated with their selection,
installation, and operation. Additionally, this report provides guidance to potential users of
LDHF systems on design considerations and commissioning and guidance to users on assessing
online performance.
Approach
This investigation focused on examination of the specific application of non-precoat condensate
filtration and how such equipment will improve plant performance, reduce operational cost, and
benefit long-term plant investment. The investigators conducted interviews with power plant
operators, consultants, and vendors specializing in condensate filtration. The report reflects the
feedback provided by representatives of the power plants that took the initiative to control
corrosion product transport through the use of common sense and engineering review. The
equipment and filter manufacturers also provided excellent technical design information as well
as crossover information from the chemical and municipal water treatment market.
Results
This technology assessment found that filtration technologies used in other industries have direct
application in the filtration of boiler feedwater. LDHF technology has been used in potable water
facilities and chemical plants for several years. The first plants to initiate condensate filtration to
control corrosion product transport have found it a practical approach that performed well and
was cost effective.
11-31
The major finding of this report is that utilities planning to install LDHF units need to have a
dialogue with filter manufacturers and establish a filter design. The flux rate is the single design
parameter for condensate filtration that provides equivalency in selecting filter design. This
investigation found that a flux rate of 1 to 2 gpm/ft2 (2.4 to4.8 cm/h/m2) produced excellent
removal efficiency and a reasonable filter life.
This document will be useful to fossil power plants that currently use or are planning to install
condensate filtration to reduce and control corrosion product transport and the resulting heat
transfer losses and to reduce the need for chemical cleaning of the boilers. Condensate filtration
is also beneficial for plants with either deep bed or powdered resin condensate polishing systems
already in place since filtration reduces the solids loading on the ion exchange beds and thus
prevents channeling and increases the operating time by reducing the rate of increased pressure
drop on the vessels. As a result of this investigation, it is expected that utilities will have a
greater number of filter supplier to choose from and a greater selection of filtration products.
Increased competition between suppliers equipment will probably lead to cost reductions.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI recommends hold points for iron and copper during unit start-up to achieve appropriate
levels of water purity. Plants with condensate filtration have shortened their start-up times
considerably. However, most drum-type plants have no method to assure reduction of these
metal oxides and cannot satisfactory meet the desired iron and copper limits during these
transition periods. The inability to control the transport of metal oxides results in increased boiler
deposition and boiler corrosion, boiler tube failures, loss availability, and the increased chemical
cleaning cost associated with the rapid build-up of boiler deposits. This document will provide
important guidance to the selection of economical alternatives to implement condensate filtration
for the control of metal oxide transport.
Program
Keywords
Condensate
Feedwater
Metal Oxides
11-32
Corrosion Products
Filtration
Water Chemistry
Program on Technology Innovation: Assessment of Advanced Feedwater

Filtration for Electric Power Generating Stations
Product Number
1014483
Date Published
November 2006
Details
Abstract
There is a need to find and explore high temperature filtration technologies for power plants to
improve their water chemistry via further reductions in metal oxides transport to vulnerable
components. This report presents the findings of an investigation of various high-temperature
filtration technologies, including some currently available commercially and others on the
horizon, that may have application in the high-temperature, high-pressure environment found in
the feedwater systems of electric power generating stations.
Objective
Accumulation of corrosion products as deposits in fossil boilers, heat recovery steam generators,
and nuclear steam generators is undesirable as the metal oxides of the deposits create an
environment in which various corrosion damage mechanisms become active. Prevention of such
damage is generally based on optimal selection and application of feedwater chemistry treatment
to minimize corrosion product formation and transport. In addition, chemical cleaning of boilers
and steam generators is performed as needed to remove deposits and avoid internal damage. The
availability and use of suitable feedwater filtration technology would reduce the levels of
corrosion products reaching steam generation surfaces and thus reduce or eliminate the need for
chemical cleanings.
Approach
The project team consulted utilities, vendors, and experts in the field of high temperature
filtration to assess existing and projected filter technologies. The team described commercially
available technology and defined the requirements specific to the power plant application that
need to be addressed through further research and engineering in high temperature filtration.
Results
The investigation concluded that there are no commercial filtration products that have been
specifically designed and developed for use in feedwater filtration in high-pressure steam-water
cycles. On the other hand, a number of products used in other industries appear capable of
operating under feedwater conditions. These products include flow-through filters employing
magnetic filters or metal alloy elements and cross-flow filters employing metal alloy or ceramic
filter elements.
11-33

While this preliminary investigation identified some potentially applicable filtration techniques,
considerable work is needed to determine their operational compatibility and cost effectiveness.
Follow-up work is envisioned in which these issues would be considered further. Results of
activity would help to define those filtration technologies considered worthy of testing under
plant conditions; initial test efforts would involve small units that process relatively low flows
under the temperature and pressure conditions of interest.
EPRI Perspective
The concept of filtering high temperature feedwater to remove corrosion products addresses an
issue of longstanding concern to the power industry. Identification of potentially suitable
technologies for this purpose is an important first step. Other emerging filtration technologies
should continue to be assessed with respect to their potential applicability to high temperature
feedwater. Many technical issues have been identified related to the design, installation,
operation, and maintenance of filtration systems in new units as well as possible retrofits to
existing units. It is especially important to appraise the expected cost, benefits, and net value of
such filters.
High temperature filter technology may also apply to the ultra-supercritical generating units that
are now in the early stages of development. The challenges of cycle chemistry control in these
cycles could prove to be considerable, and development of suitable filtration techniques could be
very beneficial in these units.
Program
Keywords
Feedwater
Filtration
Corrosion products
Metal oxides
11-34
12
TURBINE CORROSION
12-1
Inhibition of Pitting and Crevice Corrosion by Filming Amines and Vapor Phase
Corrosion Inhibitors
Product ID
1023065
Date Published
17-Jan-2012
Details
Abstract
The increase of fossil units that are being removed from service for indeterminate periods due to
economic dispatch, seasonal conditions of excess generating capacity, or temporary
decommissioning of generating assets necessitates alternative protective measures to prevent and
reduce deterioration of the system components during these periods of idle operation.
Preservation methods and techniques using vapor phase corrosion inhibitors and film-forming
hydrophobic amines may provide an effective alternative for equipment protection.
This research provides an evaluation of the efficacy of the barriers resulting from the application
of film-forming (polyamines) and vapor phase corrosion inhibitors for the proper preservation of
metals, specifically those present in the phase transition zone of the low-pressure steam turbine.
Although filming amines and vapor phase corrosion inhibitors are widely marketed in the
industry, little definitive research has been released on the effectiveness and potential impacts
from the use of these products for offline preservation.
Three metals (1018 mild steel and 304 and 410 stainless steels) and three corrosion inhibitors
(VpCI-357, a volatile vapor phase corrosion inhibitor, and NALCO-2857 and Anodamine, both
filming amines) were evaluated to explore the effectiveness of the inhibitors for protecting
turbine blade and disc steels from corrosion and to assess the propensities of the inhibitors to
induce depassivation of the steel. Inhibitor efficacy studies were carried out in closed vessels
with the specimens exposed to an aqueous solution of the inhibitors to determine general
corrosion rates by immersion test. From electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies, the
properties of the passive state and the impact of the inhibitor were defined.
Additional studies were directed at corrosion inhibition of pitting and to creviced areas such as
those that would be found in the blade-root-to-disk attachment of a turbine blade. Creviced
specimens were fabricated so that the coupling current between the crevice and the external
surface could be measured to determine if a properly applied protective barrier resulting from the
application of film-forming corrosion inhibitors provides corrosion inhibition to creviced areas.
Findings of the initial studies and preliminary conclusions are presented in this technical update.
12-2
Program
Keywords
Corrosion inhibitors
Cycle chemistry
Filming amine
Layup
12-3
Inhibition of Pitting and Crevice Corrosion in Turbine Steels

Product Number
3002000093
Date Published
April 2013
Details
Abstract
The increase in fossil units being removed from service for indeterminate periods due to
economic dispatch, seasonal conditions of excess generating capacity, or temporary
decommissioning of generating assets necessitates alternative protective measures to prevent and
reduce deterioration of the system components during these periods of idle operation.
Preservation methods and techniques using vapor-phase corrosion inhibitors and film-forming
hydrophobic amines may provide an effective alternative for equipment protection.
The research documented in this report provides an evaluation of the efficacy of the barriers
resulting from the application of film-forming compositions (polyamines) and vapor-phase
corrosion inhibitors for the proper preservation of metals, specifically those present in the phase
transition zone of the low-pressure steam turbine. Although filming amines and vapor-phase
corrosion inhibitors are widely marketed in the industry, little definitive research has been
released on the effectiveness and potential impacts of the use of these products for offline
preservation.
Three metals1018 mild steel, 304 stainless steel, and 410 stainless steelwere investigated
using three corrosion inhibitors. VpCI-357, a volatile vapor-phase corrosion inhibitor, NALCO2857, and Anodamine, a filming amine, were evaluated for their effectiveness as inhibitors for
protecting turbine blade and disk steels from corrosion. Also evaluated were the propensities of
the inhibitors to induce depassivation of the steel. Inhibitor efficacy studies were carried out in
closed vessels with the specimens being exposed to an aqueous solution of the inhibitors to
determine general corrosion rates by immersion test. Different preconditioning treatments were
evaluated. The passive films were analyzed with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to
verify the effect of Anodamine. Electrochemical methods such as potentiodynamic testing, cyclic
potentiodynamic polarization, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used to study
the effects of inhibitors on the corrosion behavior of the materials.
Findings of the initial studies and preliminary conclusions are present in this technical update.
Program
Keywords
Corrision inhibitors
Crevice corrosion
Filming amine
Passive film
12-4
Cycle chemistry
Development of Steam Phase Sensors

Product Number
1012206
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). EPRI has developed a new deterministic model to describe
information on the initial development of sensors that will measure the important chemistry
Objective
The overall deterministic model (see EPRI Report 1012204) represents a major new approach to
understanding and controlling corrosion in the PTZ, and describes all of the stages in the
propagation of corrosion damage. However, none of the current cycle chemistry instrumentation
has the capability of measuring the properties of the liquid films that form on PTZ surfaces in the
steam turbine. The objective of this work is to develop a system to condense steam and to
monitor the condensation for chloride, pH, and redox potential.
Approach
The project teams built atmospheric and high pressure facilities to research the optimum
capillary condensation medium and to test the chloride and pH sensors. They injected chloride
into the test facilities and verified the accuracy of the two sensors.
Results
The results demonstrated that sensors can measure the parameters of interestpH and chloride
in the steam phasefor corrosion in the PTZ. The work also established the viability for
capillary condensation as a way to maintain a continuous electrolyte layer in a nano-porous
medium. Tests were conducted in atmospheric and high pressure systems up to 100C (212F).
Cycle chemistry and stress effects are considered to have longer term influences on the
development of damage and failure in the PTZ of the steam turbine. The EPRI work has clearly
illustrated that the dominant phase in the damage occurs during unprotected shutdowns of the
steam turbine. Crack growth, however, occurs during operation; thus, it is during the operating
phase when monitoring is required of the liquids on turbine surfaces. Such a sensor will have
application in every steam turbine.
12-5
EPRI Perspective
This work has confirmed the proof-of-concept studies to develop on-line sensors to monitor
superheated steam (see EPRI Report 1013099). The chloride and pH sensors have been shown to
provide reasonable accuracy. The redox potential sensor will be tested in the next phase of the
work, together with an attempt to combine all three sensors in one probe. The final stages will
involve ruggedizing the probe/sensors for in-field testing.
Program
12-6
Development of Model to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion

Fatigue of Low Pressure Turbine Components
Product Number
1012204
Date Published
February 2007
Details
Abstract
Most outage hours for steam turbines are the result of corrosion of low pressure (LP) blades and
disks in the phase transition zone (PTZ). Developing an effective localized corrosion damage
prediction model is essential to successfully avoid unscheduled outages of steam turbines. This
report provides the latest analytical model for predicting failure and includes the electrochemical
data for a blade material (17-4PH) that will be used in the model.
Objective
The development of the model represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling
corrosion in the PTZ. For the first time, a mechanistic/deterministic description of all stages in
the propagation of corrosion damage has been developed. The evolution of damage can now be
described by the damage functions. The remaining challenge in developing the model is to
describe the evolutionary history of the local environment, the stress, and the operation.
Approach
The project team refined the deterministic model for all stages of initiation and propagation of
corrosion damage in the PTZ. The project team also used a rotating disk electrode to determine
the current density versus potential curves for the 17-4PH material.
Results
The deterministic model for predicting failure in LP steam turbine disks and blades caused by
corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking, under development for a number of years, has
been documented in the EPRI reports 1010184, 1009690, and 1004190. This report further
refines the damage function analysis for the progressive corrosion events of active and passive
pit growth and the development and growth of cracks. Particular attention has been given to three
different mechanisms of pit repassivation. Equations have also been developed for calculating
the corrosion potential and current of 17-4PH stainless steel blade material.
of the steam turbine. Failures still occur, despite much laboratory and field study. Results of this
work will finally provide the needed understanding of the key PTZ processes and, thus, the
means for better failure analysis. More importantly, the projects results will be used in the
predictive model that can be used across the turbine fleet.
12-7
EPRI Perspective
It has been more than 30 years since research was initiated to improve industrys understanding
of processes in the so-called thermodynamic salt zone and deposit buildup and behavior in the
PTZ as well as how these influence the major corrosion mechanisms. However, it is clear that
these results did not lead to a marked improvement in the overall reliability statistics of steam
turbines. Development of this model represents the first step to bring together the latest EPRI
information on the PTZ, particularly the presence of liquid films during operation that have
potential and conductivity but contain no oxygen. The model has also confirmed the effects of
unit operation and clearly shows that pitting and corrosion damage is initiated during unprotected
shutdown conditions. Reliable electrochemical data for oxygen, hydrogen, and water reduction
along with values for the passive corrosion current densityhave now been determined in this
parallel EPRI research. The model will continue to be tested in real corrosion situations.
Ultimately, an EPRI code for corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking of LP turbine
components will be developed.
Program
12-8
Development of Code to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and

Corrosion Fatigue of Low Pressure Turbine Components
Electrochemical and Corrosion Properties of Turbine Steels
Product Number
1010184
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). Developing an effective localized corrosion damage
prediction model is essential for successfully avoiding unscheduled outages of steam turbines.
This report provides the initial electrochemical data needed for the model development.
Objective
The overall work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling corrosion in
the PTZ. For the first time, a mechanistic/deterministic description of all stages in the
propagation of corrosion damage has been developed. The evolution of damage can now be
described by the damage functions. The remaining challenge in developing the model is to
describe the evolutionary history of the local environment, the stress, and the operation.
Approach
The project team used a rotating disk electrode to determine the current density versus potential
curves for the PTZ materials. The teams determined the corrosion potential and corrosion
currents characterizing dissolution in a pit from the Tafel portions of the anodic and cathodic
polarization curves. They also used visual and microscopic examination of the material surfaces
to quantify the pitting phenomena.
Results
Key results of the experimental stage of the ongoing work can be summarized as follows:
The general theoretical basis for the damage function analysis has been developed further to
describe the different corrosion events of active and passive pit growth, development of
cracks, and growth of stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue cracks.
The quantitative characterization of the principal partial corrosion reactions on two low
pressure steam turbine materials has been completed
The kinetic equations for hydrogen evolution and oxygen reduction have been developed.
The experimental data has indicated an order of resistance to pitting of three common PTZ
materials: 17-4PH, 403SS, and A470/471.
12-9

of the steam turbine. Failures still occur despite much laboratory and field study. Results of this
means for better failure analysis. More importantly, the project results will be used in the
predictive model that can be used across the turbine fleet.
EPRI Perspective
It is over 25 years since research was initiated to improve understanding of processes in the socalled thermodynamic salt zone, deposit buildup and behavior in the PTZ, and how these factors
influence the major corrosion mechanisms. However, it is clear that the results of this research
did not lead to a marked improvement in the overall reliability statistics of steam turbines.
Development of this model represents the first step in bringing together all the latest EPRI
Strategic Science & Technology (SS&T) information on the PTZ, particularly the presence of
liquid films during operation that have potential and conductivity, but contain no oxygen. The
model also has confirmed the effects of unit operation and clearly shows that pitting and
corrosion damage is initiated during unprotected shutdown conditions. Reliable electrochemical
data for oxygen, hydrogen, and water reductionalong with values for the passive corrosion
current densityhave now been determined in this parallel EPRI research. The next step will be
to test the model on real corrosion situations. Ultimately, an EPRI code for corrosion fatigue and
stress corrosion cracking of LP turbine components will be developed.
Program
12-10
Development of Code to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion

Fatigue of Low-Pressure Turbine Components
Product Number
1009690
Date Published
March 2005
Details
Abstract
prediction technology is essential for successfully avoiding unscheduled outages of steam
turbines.
Objective
This work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling corrosion in the
PTZ. For the first time, a mechanistic/deterministic description of all stages in the propagation of
corrosion damage has been developed. The evolution of damage can now be described by the
damage functions. The remaining challenge in developing the model is to describe the
evolutionary history of the local environment and the stress.
Approach
The project team refined the initial mathematical models (EPRI report 1004190) for all stages in
the initiation and propagation of corrosion damage: passivity breakdown, initiation of metastable
pits, transition to stable pits, growth of stable pits, transition to crack, growth of a subcritical
crack, and final unstable fracture. During this process, the team identified two key areas of data
deficiency, which needed to be researched. EPRI has initiated this research. The project team has
now completed the development of the initial models, which in the next stage of the work will be
optimized and tested.
Results
Key results of this stage of ongoing work can be summarized as follows:
The general theoretical basis for the damage function analysis has been developed further to
describe the different corrosion events of active and passive pit growth, development of
cracks, and growth of stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue cracks.
Particular emphasis has been given to the growth of pits and cracks in realistic environments
that exist in the liquid films present on operating turbines.
Significant evidence suggests that pitting damage accumulates during unprotected shutdowns
of steam turbines. It is predicted that shutdown protection of turbines with warm
dehumidified air will dramatically reduce the probability of failure.
12-11

of the steam turbine. Failures still occur despite much laboratory and field study. Results of this
means for better failure analysis. More importantly, the projects' results will lead to a predictive
tool that can be used across the turbine fleet.
EPRI Perspective
It is over 25 years since research was initiated to improve understanding of processes in the socalled thermodynamic salt zone, deposit buildup and behavior in the PTZ, and how these
influence the major corrosion mechanisms. However, it is clear that these results did not lead to a
marked improvement in the overall reliability statistics of steam turbines. Development of this
model represents the first step to bring together all the latest EPRI Strategic Science &
Technology (SS&T) information on the PTZ, particularly the presence of liquid films during
operation that have potential and conductivity, but contain no oxygen. The model also has
confirmed the effects of unit operation and clearly shows that pitting and corrosion damage is
initiated during unprotected shutdown conditions. Reliable electrochemical data for oxygen,
hydrogen, and water reduction -- along with values for the passive corrosion current density -are being determined in parallel with EPRI research. The next step will be to test the model on
real corrosion situations. Ultimately, an EPRI code for corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking of LP turbine components will be developed.
Program
History
12-12
Development of Code to Predict Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion

Fatigue of Low Pressure Turbine Components
Product Number
1004190
Date Published
February 2004
Details
Abstract
prediction technology is essential for successfully avoiding unscheduled outages of steam
turbines.
Objective
This work represents a major new approach to understanding and controlling corrosion in the
PTZ. For the first time, a mechanistic/deterministic description of all stages in the propagation of
corrosion damage has been developed. The evolution of damage can now be described by the
damage functions. The remaining challenge is to describe the evolutionary history of the local
environment and all stress effects.
Approach
The project team developed the initial mathematical models for all stages in the initiation and
propagation of corrosion damage: passivity breakdown, initiation of metastable pits, transition to
stable pits, growth of stable pits, transition to crack, growth of a subcritical crack, and final
unstable fracture. During this process, the team identified two key areas of data deficiency for
which EPRI has already begun research. The project team has completed the initial models, and
they will be optimized and tested in the project's next stage.
Results
The key results of this intermediate stage of work can be summarized as follows:
The general theoretical basis for the damage function analysis has been developed to describe
the different corrosion events of active and passive pit growth, development of cracks, and
growth of stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue cracks.
Particular emphasis has been given to the growth of pits and cracks in realistic environments
that exist in the liquid films present on operating turbines.
Significant evidence has been developed that shows that pitting damage accumulates during
unprotected shutdowns of the steam turbine.
12-13

Cycle chemistry and stress effects are most often longer term for damage and failures in the
steam turbines PTZ. Failures still occur despite much laboratory and field study. Results from
this work will provide the needed understanding of key PTZ processes and, thus, the means for
better failure analysis. More importantly, these results will provide a predictive tool that can be
used across the turbine fleet.
EPRI Perspective
Research was begun over 25 years ago to improve understanding of processes in the salt zone,
deposit buildup, behavior in the PTZ, and how these influence the major corrosion mechanisms.
However, it is clear that these results have not led to a marked improvement in the overall
reliability statistics of steam turbines. Development of this model represents the first step to
bring together all the latest EPRI Strategic Science & Technology Program (SS&T) information
on the PTZ, particularly the presence of liquid films during operation that have potential and
conductivity, but contain no oxygen. The model also has confirmed the effects of unit operation
and has clearly shown that pitting is initiated during unprotected shutdown conditions. Reliable
electrochemical data for oxygen, hydrogen, and water reduction -- along with values for the
passive corrosion current density -- are being determined in parallel EPRI research. The next step
will be to test the model on real corrosion situations. Ultimately, a model for corrosion fatigue
and stress corrosion cracking of LP turbine components will be developed.
Program
History
12-14
Steam Turbine Efficiency and Corrosion: Effects of Surface Finish, Deposits, and
Moisture
Product Number
1003997
Date Published
October 2001
Details
Abstract
The causes of steam turbine losses have been recognized for over 50 years. In practice, deposits
and surface finish account for major losses during turbine blade path audits. This report presents
new experimental information on the effects of surface finish, moisture removal, and deposits.
Background
It has been shown from field experience that up to 15 percent of MW generating capacity loss
can be caused by blade deposits, and several percent of turbine efficiency can be lost due to
deterioration of blade surface finish and deposits. Condensation processes can lower the
efficiency in low-pressure (LP) turbines by as much as 8 percent due to thermodynamic and
mechanical losses. Moisture also causes erosion and flow-accelerated corrosion, leading to
expensive blade replacement. Detailed experimental and field studies were needed to develop a
better understanding of these phenomena.
Objective
To improve steam turbine efficiency and MW generating capacity and to reduce corrosion
and water droplet erosion.
To determine the effects of blade surface finish, moisture and condensation, and deposits.
Approach
The project team used the extensive previous EPRI work on understanding steam, chemistry, and
corrosion in the phase transition zone (PTZ) of the LP turbine as a starting point (EPRI Reports
TR-108184, 108185, 111340, and 113090). The team used a converging-diverging nozzle to
simulate low-pressure turbine deposits and developed a converging nozzle that could address
high-pressure (HP) blade deposits. They connected these nozzles to steam turbine extractions
and measured the deposition rate as a function of surface finish. They next developed theoretical
models to assess turbine efficiency as a function of surface finish. Finally, they contacted turbine
manufacturers around the world and reviewed the literature on the effects of moisture on
efficiency and the attributes of various moisture removal techniques.
12-15
Results
Significant benefits can be achieved by improvements in surface finish of turbine blades and
disks, by operating with higher steam purity, and by extracting moisture.
In the high-pressure turbine, the highest efficiency gain of about 1 percent was seen in the
impulse design with a surface finish of 6.3 micrometers (0.16 micrometers). In the HP turbines
with copper deposition problems, the rougher surface finishes have larger weight increases. For
LP blades and steam chemistry meeting EPRI guidelines, there was no difference between the
standard surface finish of 63 micrometers (1.6 micrometers) and rougher surface finishes, but
with chemistry worse than EPRI guidelines, the deposition rate increases.
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of much larger efforts to quantify the effects of the PTZ in nuclear and fossil
turbines and to address deposition around the fossil plant cycle. In parallel research and
development (EPRI report 1000557), EPRI is building a model that will address unit operation
and the mechanical stress aspects of corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking in the PTZ. It
is recognized that pitting can initiate during unprotected shutdown and that the surface finish and
deposition phenomena investigated in the current work are key. The current work has also helped
to identify the mechanism of copper deposition in the HP turbine of fossil plants and fully
supports EPRIs new Copper Guideline (EPRI report 1000457). The converging nozzle for HP
systems and the converging-diverging nozzle for LP systems are powerful monitoring tools that
utilities can use in identifying deposition phenomena.
Program
History
12-16
Corrosion of Low Pressure Steam Turbine Components

Product Number
1000557
Date Published
November 2000
Details
Abstract
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). The development of an effective localized corrosion damage
prediction technology is essential for the successful avoidance of unscheduled outages of steam.
Background
Over the last 10 years, EPRI and international collaborative work have described most aspects of
the PTZ environment: moisture nucleation, early condensate composition, thickness and
composition of liquid films on blade surfaces, deposition of salts on blade surfaces, and most
recently the effect of charged droplets and liquid films. EPRI held a workshop on Corrosion of
Steam Turbine Blading and Disks (TR-111340) to review the comprehensive information and to
formulate the next stages. The development of a predictive modeling capability was recognized
as being the central thrust.
Objective
To develop an initial model for predicting the evolution of corrosion damage in PTZ
components of the LP turbine
Approach
The project team developed the initial mathematical models for all stages in the initiation and
propagation of corrosion damage: passivity breakdown, initiation of metastable pits, transition to
stable pits, growth of stable pits, transition to a crack, growth of a subcritical crack, and final
unstable fracture. During this process, the team identified two key areas of data deficiency,
which need to be researched. EPRI has initiated this research. The project team has completed
the development of the prototype models, which in the next stage of the work need to be
optimized and tested.
12-17
Results
The key results of this preliminary stage of the work can be summarized as follows:
The model's overall structure has been developed and includes an overall damage module
and modules for nucleation, growth, repassivation, and transition.
An environment module provides the vital information on the environment of the liquid film
on the blade/disk surface: composition, conductivity, thickness, corrosion potential,
temperature, and mechanical conditions.
EPRI Perspective
It is over 20 years since research was initiated to improve the understanding of processes in the
salt zone, deposit buildup and behavior in the PTZ, and how these influence the major corrosion
mechanisms. However, it is clear that these results have not led to a marked improvement in the
overall reliability statistics of steam turbines. The initial development of the model represents the
first step to bring together all the latest information on the PTZ, particularly the presence of
liquid films during operation that have a potential and contain no oxygen. The model also will
address the effects of unit operation and recognize that pitting can initiate during unprotected
shutdown conditions. Once reliable electrochemical data for oxygen, hydrogen, and water
reduction-along with values for the passive corrosion current density-are determined in the EPRI
parallel research, they will be incorporated into the model. The next step will be to test the model
on real corrosion situations. Ultimately, it is anticipated that this model for corrosion fatigue and
stress corrosion cracking of LP turbine components will be incorporated into EPRI's BLADE
code and ChemExpert.
Program
History
12-18
13
STATOR COOLING
13-1
Prevention of Flow Restrictions in Generator Stator Water Cooling

Circuits
Product Number
1006684
Date Published
February 2002
Details
Abstract
Generator stator water cooling systems are designed to operate with dissolved oxygen (DO)
concentrations of either more than 2 parts per million (ppm) or less than 50 parts per billion
(ppb). Large- and small-scale experimental studies and literature surveys show that if the system
operates with DO concentration in either design range, copper corrosion-product-particle release
rates are low and do not lead to plugging of hollow strands or clogging of strainers. In the range
between the extremes -- particularly when DO levels are between 200 and 500 ppb -- particulate
release rate greatly increases and plugging and clogging become possible.
Background
Large electrical generator stators are normally cooled by water. Occasionally, generator
availability has been reduced because the stator winding coil hollow strands have become
plugged or the strainer has become clogged by oxides of copper. Such flow restrictions reduce
the capacity of the system to cool the generator. Low-DO stator cooling water systems work on
the principle that copper corrosion does not occur when there is no DO in the water. At low-DO
concentrations (below 50 ppb), corrosion rates are low and cuprous oxide forms at the strand
surface. On the other hand, high-DO systems operate on the principle that oxygen reacts with the
copper surfaces it contacts and forms a stable layer of cupric oxide, which protects the copper
from further corrosion. To be effective, the DO in the water must be maintained at 1.5 ppm or
higher, with levels above 2 ppm being most desirable. Available evidence suggested that when
DO concentration is in the intermediate range of 100 ppb to 1 ppm, the cooling water system has
a significantly increased risk of strands plugging or strainers clogging. A proposed 3-step
mechanism of plugging involves initial formation of adherent copper oxide on the strand surface,
followed by release of oxide particles during electrochemical corrosion potential (ECP)
excursions and, finally, localized deposition of the particles to form the flow restriction. The
critical ECP excursion, caused, for instance, by a departure from normal DO conditions, was
thought to trigger a change in oxide type -- cupric oxide to cuprous oxide or vice versa. In the
proposed mechanism, surface stresses created by this change in oxidation state cause disruption
of the copper oxide and release of oxide particles into the flow.
13-2
Objective
To understand mechanisms controlling copper corrosion, corrosion product transport, and
corrosion product deposition in high-DO and in low-DO cooling water systems when
transient chemistry conditions lead to strainer clogging and stator bar plugging; to devise
methods that will provide early warning of these transients; and, to determine how to prevent
or greatly reduce clogging and plugging risk.
Approach
The U.S. contingent of the project team reviewed U.S. and European literature, while the Korean
contingent covered Asian literature and surveyed plugging and clogging in Korean power plants.
Large- and small-scale flow loop tests were performed to investigate the validity of the plugging
mechanism proposed above for both normally low-DO and normally high-DO conditions.
Thermal transients also were investigated to examine the impact of thermal stress on particle
release rates. Parameters monitored on-line included particle size distribution, water pH,
conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), dissolved oxygen, and dissolved hydrogen.
Results
Observations of corrosion and plugging in the large-scale test loop were much more consistent
with field experience than those seen in the small-scale tests. Tests in the large-scale loop
validated the proposed plugging mechanism and indicated how conditions could be changed to
mitigate the problem. The study identified the ECP range in which the copper oxidation state
changed and concluded that stresses induced by this change were the principal cause of
particulate release and the resulting plugging or clogging.
A particle release and transport model was developed; predictions based on this model agreed
well with measured data. In addition, chemical reactions occurring inside the strands and the
water tank were identified by the pattern of changes in chemical and electrochemical parameters
between the inlet and exit of each component. Experimental results support the recommendation
that copper strand ECP should be monitored and not be allowed to reach the dangerous range
associated with a change in copper oxidation state.
EPRI Perspective
Generator system operating guidelines based on conclusions from the literature search, an
industry survey of plants that have experienced plugging or clogging, and this experimental
study can be found in EPRI report 1004004. An important conclusion of these experimental
studies is that risk of plugging or clogging in a low- or high-DO system is minimal if the DO is
carefully maintained within design specifications. This conclusion has relevance to a recent
EPRI study on water-cooled generators that are susceptible to crevice corrosion in the strand-toclip connection (report TR-111180). Results of this experimental study indicated that crevice
corrosion was only a significant problem in high-DO systems and that conversion to low DO
offered a cost-effective solution. However, critics of this recommendation suggested that the risk
of crevice corrosion in a high-DO system would be replaced with an increased susceptibility to
strand plugging in a low-DO system. The current work suggests that plugging should not be a
concern in a properly operated cooling water system.
13-3
Program
History
13-4
Generator Cooling System Operating Guidelines: Cooling System Maintenance

and Performance Guidelines During Start-Up, Operation, and Shutdown
Product Number
1004004
Date Published
December 2001
Details
Abstract
Generator stator water cooling systems have been designed to operate with dissolved oxygen
(DO) concentrations of either more than 2 parts per million (ppm) or less than 50 parts per
billion (ppb). If the system operates with the DO concentration in either design range, copper
corrosion rates are low and do not lead to reduced cooling capacity or adversely affect generator
availability. In the range between the extremes -- when the DO levels are between 50 ppb and 1
ppm -- cooling systems have lost at least some of their capacity as a result of clogging or
plugging, making it necessary to reduce the generator load or shut it down altogether. These
operating guidelines apply to systems with either high- or low-DO concentrations and are
intended to mitigate excursions into the detrimental range, or at least minimize the time spent
there.
Background
Large electrical generator stators are normally cooled by water. Occasionally, generator
availability has been reduced because the stator winding coil hollow strands have become
plugged or the strainer has become clogged by oxides of copper. Such flow restrictions reduce
the capacity of the system to cool the generator. Low-DO systems work on the principle that
copper corrosion does not occur when there is no DO in the water. Conversely, an increase in
DO above 50 ppb is necessary before corrosion will be rapid enough to degrade cooling system
capacity. On the other hand, high-DO stator cooling water systems operate on the principle that
oxygen reacts with the copper surfaces it contacts and forms a stable layer of cupric oxide, which
protects the copper from further corrosion. To be effective, the DO in the water must be
maintained at 1.5 ppm or higher, with levels above 2 ppm being most desirable. When DO
concentration drops below 1.5 ppm, formation of both cupric and cuprous oxides is possible, and
the system has a significantly increased risk of clogging or plugging.
Objective
To develop cooling system maintenance and performance guidelines for application during
startup, operation, and shutdown
Approach
These guidelines are based on conclusions drawn from a worldwide literature search, an industry
survey of plants that have experienced plugging or clogging, and an EPRI-funded experimental
study. Details can be found in EPRI report 1006684, which should be available in early 2002.
13-5
Results
The guidelines are split into two major sections -- one applicable to low-DO systems and the
other to high-DO systems. In each case, the guidelines describe the general cooling water system
design characteristics, possible plugging or clogging problems, and common causes of the DO
transients. They recommend frequent or continuous monitoring of DO, and suggest other system
changes to help monitor or minimize corrosion and the associated plugging and clogging. The
guidelines include cooling system maintenance as well as shutdown, startup, and outage
management procedures to minimize the risk of plugging and clogging problems during normal
operation. Finally, the guidelines recommend both short- and long-term actions that should be
taken in response to specific symptoms associated with upset conditions. Upset conditions
considered include various levels of DO and specific conductivity, coil-to-coil and inlet-to-outlet
temperature differentials, inlet-to-outlet pressure differential and electrochemical corrosion
potential.
The project review team, comprising representatives from member utilities, GE, SiemensWestinghouse, and Alstom, reviewed these guidelines. As such, they represent the group
consensus.
EPRI Perspective
An important conclusion of the experimental study upon which these guidelines are based is that
the risk of plugging or clogging in a low- or high-DO system is minimal if the DO is carefully
maintained within design specifications. This conclusion has relevance to a recent EPRI study on
water-cooled generators that are susceptible to crevice corrosion in the strand-to-clip connection
(report TR-111180). The results of this experimental study indicated that crevice corrosion was
only a significant problem in high-DO systems and that conversion to low DO offered a costeffective solution. However, critics of this recommendation suggested that the risk of crevice
corrosion in a high-DO system would be replaced with an increased susceptibility to strand
plugging in a low-DO system. The current work suggests that plugging should not be a concern
in a properly operated cooling water system.
Program
2005 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines Generators and Balance-of-Plant
History
13-6
Conversion to Deaerated Stator Cooling Water in Generators Previously Cooled

With Aerated Water: Interim Guidelines
Product Number
1000069
Date Published
June 2000
Details
Abstract
This project was initiated because water-cooled generators, subject of GE Technical Information
Letter 1098, have been susceptible to clip-to-strand leakage due to localized crevice corrosion.
Research indicates that this corrosion could be prevented or inhibited if the water's oxygen
content were reduced to what is normally achieved in low-oxygen Stator Cooling Water (SCW)
systems. The purpose of these Interim Guidelines is to outline the conversion process from an
aerated SCW system to a deaerated one.
Background
The corrosion described in GE Technical Information Letter 1098 for water-cooled generators
manufactured between 1972 and 1986 initiates in the pores of the BCuP-1 braze material where
the Cu3P component of the braze dissolves locally to produce a low-pH phosphate solution.
Once this acid pore environment develops, adjacent copper strands may corrode and result in
water leakage into the stator bar insulation. Analysis of service failures reveals that the leakage
path almost always involves localized corrosion of the copper strands. Tests show that the
reaction is greatly mitigated or entirely stopped in the absence of dissolved oxygen (see TR111180). Therefore, by converting from aerated (greater than 2 ppm oxygen) to deaerated (less
than 30 ppb oxygen) stator cooling water, crevice corrosion present in the system can be halted,
or at least greatly reduce the localized corrosion rate.
Objective
To outline how generator stator coolant water can be safely and economically converted from
an oxygen-rich (aerated) to an oxygen-poor (deaerated) condition
To survey and publish experience with aerated and dearated water cooling systems
To publish a 1998 survey on experience with water leaks
Approach
The research team performed a literature review on worldwide experience of operating both
aerated and deaerated SCW systems. To gather first-hand knowledge of industry experience,
they conducted phone conferences with representatives of users and manufacturers. Based on
their literature review and phone conferences, the team prepared an interim report that
summarized what they had learned. A team of experienced generator design and maintenance
engineers and a water chemistry engineer was assembled; using their own knowledge and the
13-7
reports conclusions, they first determined the major ideas to include in the Interim Guidelines
and then prepared a table of contents for EPRI review. Following EPRI's recommendations, the
team prepared these Interim Guidelines.
Results
These Interim Guidelines describe the steps necessary for a successful conversion from aerated
to deaerated SCW. The physical conversion involves piping outside the generator only. To insure
success, a fundamental requirement is continuous communication and teamwork among all
parties involved in the conversion (owners, engineering staff, plant engineers, plant operators,
plant maintenance personnel, vendors, and consultants). Before describing the general process
for conducting a typical conversion, the guidelines outline planning steps around which these
parties must coordinate their activities.
For the project's demonstration test, the guidelines recommend a monitoring period of at least six
months to evaluate the conversion's long-term performance. This document will be continually
updated and expanded with feedback and correspondence from test-site personnel regarding all
problem scenarios.
EPRI Perspective
By following these guidelines, any adverse corrosion effects that may exist during the
demonstration's transition are expected to be minimized. This demonstration project (HU111353) also is expected to show that the initial cost of converting-along with costs of
maintaining a deaerated water system -- are minimal when compared to repairing repeated
outages or performing a complete rewind. When the demonstration test is completed, a final set
of guidelines will be prepared that can be applied to any unit that would benefit from such a
conversion. We will work towards GE and industry acceptance of this preventative solution.
Program
History
13-8
Preventing Leakage in Water-Cooled Stator Windings (Phase 2)

Product Number
TR-111180
Date Published
November 1998
Details
Abstract
An easy and inexpensive method for controlling corrosion of strand-to-clip connections in the
stator cooling systems of electrical generators might be to deaerate the stator cooling water. This
project was begun to determine the feasibility of this approach, with Phase II specifically focused
on establishing an understanding of the dependence of the copper strand corrosion on
preliminary corrosion of the braze material.
Background
The leakage of brazed strand-to-clip connections in the stator cooling systems of electrical
generators involves corrosion of both the braze material and the adjacent copper strands. Since
the presence of dissolved oxygen is theoretically a prerequisite for copper corrosion, it was
suggested that deaerating the stator cooling water would be a convenient way to control
corrosion of the strand-to-clip connection. To determine the feasibility of this approach, EPRI
initiated Phase 1 of this project, which used two-compartment electrochemical cells to study
corrosion kinetics (TR-107681). However, because of shortcomings in the experimental setup,
test results were eventually considered misleading. This second phase of the project dealt with
the mechanics of the braze corrosion and how this leads to final failure by copper corrosion.
Objective
To establish an understanding of the mechanisms of corrosion in brazed strand-to-clip
connections in the stator cooling systems of electrical generators.
Approach
In tandem with conventional kinetic studies, the research team constructed various divided
electrochemical cells to further the approach used in Phase I. Tests included standard occluded
cell techniques (two-compartment cells), isolated small cell tests, measurements of the anodic
behavior of copper in phosphoric acid solutions, and artificial crevice tests.
Results
Attempts to simulate corrosion of the strand-to-clip connection by a two-compartment
electrochemical cell were not entirely successful although the simulation was better than in
Phase 1 tests. For instance, corrosion currents were higher than those reported in Phase I and
were closer to values predicted from analysis of field failures. Nevertheless, the twocompartment cell model was determined to be inadequate for accurate display of the effect of
deaeration or inhibitors.
13-9
Isolated small cell tests showed that the copper phosphide phase in the braze can dissolve in the
absence of dissolved oxygen to produce phosphoric acid with evolution of hydrogen. When
formed in a pore or crevice in a strand-to-clip connection, phosphoric acid formed by braze
corrosion can provide the conductive environment needed to induce corrosion of nearby copper
strands. The anodic polarization data in phosphoric acid solutions allowed estimation of possible
corrosion rates for copper in such a crevice environment. The project determined that the only
way to accurately simulate the galvanic corrosion process was to closely simulate the actual
geometry of crevices in the strand-to-clip connections. The researchers deduced on theoretical
grounds and demonstrated experimentally that oxygen, dissolved in the bulk cooling water
outside of the acid-filled crevice, was a necessary cathodic reactant for copper corrosion. This
result suggests that deaeration of the cooling water should halt the corrosion of the copper
strands. Results indicated that the corrosion inhibitors investigated in this study were unsuitable
for this application and could potentially accelerate crevice corrosion instead of controlling it.
EPRI Perspective
This work has shown that leakage of brazed strand-to-clip connections can be understood as a
conventional corrosion process, but with some novel aspects and interesting features.
Understanding the processes involved lends scientific credibility to deaeration as an appropriate
remedial measure for controlling corrosion of strand-to-clip connections in the stator cooling
systems of electrical generators.
Program
History
2004 Program 023032 Technology for Equipment Assessment & Maintenance (TEAM)
2004 - 2001Program 041.0 Nuclear Power
2004 2001 Program 065.0 Steam Turbines Generators and Balance-of-Plant Program
2002 Program 023032 T041T Plant Technology--TEAM
1998 Program 052 Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance-of-Plant
13-10
14
CONDENSER
14-1
Interim Guidelines for Control of Steamside Corrosion in Air-Cooled Condensers

of Fossil Units
Product Number
1015655
Date Published
December 2008
Details
Abstract
EPRI has developed interim guidelines to provide the best available information on cycle
chemistry treatments and equipment to manage the issues of corrosion and corrosion products
emerging from air cooled condensers (ACC). This report investigates the corrosion mechanisms
and flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) and identifies deficiencies to be further addressed to
provide improved operating reliability and availability of both conventional and combined-cycle
heat recovery units that use ACCs.
Objective
These interim guidelines have been derived to address serious corrosion problems that have been
experienced in ACC. It is becoming increasingly common for new conventional and combinedcycle units to be fitted with ACCs, and it is expected that this trend will continue as the
worldwide fossil fleet of generating units is expanded and upgraded. Decreasing availability,
increasing costs, and environmental constraints for water resources are issues that may either
require assessment of or mandate the selection of an ACC for new fossil power stations. For
primarily cost and constructability reasons, the materials of ACCs are principally low-grade
carbon steel. Operating experience to date with these units has been marked by a trend of high
levels of iron in the steam condensate. Operating in this condition invites deposition of iron on
heat transfer surfaces, most notably in boilers and heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs).
These guidelines provide direction for improved control of corrosion and the impact of corrosion
products in units with ACCs.
Approach
The project team of experts and technical advisors, experienced in the operating chemistries and
operational problems with ACC, researched available literature and visited multiple installations
worldwide to gather operating data and experience in the operation of ACCs. These included end
users, plant designers, and ACC manufacturers. The ASME Power Plant and Environmental
Chemistry Committee working group investigating corrosion of ACCs and possible mitigation
strategies was a key contact. The findings were assessed by the project team to provide interim
guidance and the best available information and to identify further research needs.
14-2
Results
Corrosion products emerging from ACCs are generated by a combination of corrosion and FAC.
It is now apparent that following the current EPRI Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for feedwater in
units with water-cooled condensers (WCCs) will not give optimal performance with respect to
carbon steel corrosion within the ACC and resulting iron transport in units with ACCs. It is clear
that operation at a higher pH than indicated in the current guidelines can greatly reduce levels of
corrosion and iron transport; however, the situation becomes more complicated when the unit has
mixed-metallurgy feedwater and/or includes a deep bed condensate polisher.
A growing trend is for more new and existing generating facilities to include ACCs as a
replacement for more efficient WCCs. These guidelines provide the required changes in pH
control and feedwater filtration to accommodate corrosion control in association with other types
of chemistry control requirements. These guidelines are applicable to all types of fossil boilers
and HRSGs.
EPRI Perspective
ACC corrosion damage and the impact of corrosion products on the balance-of-plant cycle can
be controlled and managed through the proper understanding of the corrosion mechanisms and
required changes in the cycle chemistry control. Current Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for allvolatile feedwater treatments (AVT-R, AVT-O, and OT)provided in EPRI Reports 1010438,
Combined Cycle/Heat Recovery Steam Generators; 1004187, Fossil Plant All-Volatile
Treatment; 1004925, Fossil Plant Oxygenated Treatment, and 1004188, Fossil Plant Phosphate
Continuum and Caustic Treatmentlack the adequate pH control to address the corrosion
behavior of the condensing steam in ACCs. In the interim guidelines, elevated pH control is
provided with the understanding of the potential implications of condensate polisher operation
and impact on mixed metallurgy systems. Alternative treatment chemicals, such as amines with
better properties of dissociation and distribution, may be required to satisfactorily control ACC
corrosion. Further research activity is needed to improve the understanding of the corrosion
problem faced by many organizations now operating fossil units with ACCs.
Program
14-3
Update Report on Condenser Air In-Leakage Monitoring

Product Number
1015663
Date Published
June 2009
Details
Abstract
One of the most common losses in condenser performance is a result of air in-leakage. Air inleakage is responsible for deficiencies in turbine backpressures that lead to reductions in plant
generation, and it often contributes to subcooling and increased levels of dissolved oxygen in
condensate.
This report is an update on the impact of air in-leakage on power plant performance and the
instrumentation that measures air in-leakage in a condenser. A summary of the advantages and
disadvantages of the types of available instruments is presented. This report provides power plant
personnel with a perspective that will allow them to take appropriate action in regard to this
important, frequently overlooked measurement and its impacts.
Objective
Plant operators frequently ignore (or do not take seriously) the problem of air in-leakage, often
relying on station chemistry personnel to identify an excess of condensate-dissolved oxygen
levels before initiating action. There is not a direct correlation between the quantity of air inleakage and the dissolved oxygen in the condensate. This report lists the effects and the
measurement of air in-leakage and clarifies the problem with air in-leakage and condenser
performance so that these daily, silent costs are evident. New developments in the field will be
listed along with new recommendations of realistic air in-leakage limits and how to test the
condenser for its sensitivity to air leakage.
Approach
The project team provided an update of factual and theoretical content on air removal mechanics
in a modern power plant condenser and the limitations on effective or complete air removal and
then summarized this information. A utility survey of air in-leakage monitoring practices and
measurement instruments was conducted to provide an overview of current practices and
experiences.
The goals of this report are the following:
To identify current air removal monitoring equipment and to provide a summarized

assessment of different measurement techniques and equipment
To highlight the current importance of condenser air in-leakage on power plant performance
and revenues
14-4
To explain how to measure and improve air in-leakage measurement
To summarize new developments related to the measurement and field
To define a realistic threshold of air in-leakage of a particular condenser size before action to
locate leaks needs to be taken.
Results
Excessive condenser air in-leakage can easily cause an increase in turbine backpressure of 0.1 in.
Hg (338.64 Pa). A slight 0.1 in. Hg (338.64 Pa) rise in backpressure for a large baseload facility
can result in annual revenue loss of more than US $1,000,000. Losses of this magnitude
demonstrate the importance of accurately determining the level of condenser air in-leakage and
knowing when to take action to reduce it. Appropriately responding to condenser air in-leakage
above minimum threshold values that impact performanceand accurately monitoring the inleakage to ensure that it is below the thresholdcan result in a significant improvement in plant
heat rate and revenues.
The application of information and methods outlined in this report will provide thermal
performance or condenser system engineers the basis with which to eliminate these deficiency
gaps regarding air in-leakage. Using the recommendations of the document regarding greater
efforts to monitor air in-leakage and subsequently to minimize that leakage will provide station
overall cost or revenue improvements. In conjunction with EPRIs 2008 report Air In-Leakage
and Intrusion Prevention Guidelines (1014125), a move toward continuous control room
readings of the air in-leakage as well as the implementation of more definitive, accurate, and
extensive condenser performance monitoring could advance the industry achievement of energy
conservation.
14-5
Air In-Leakage and Intrusion Prevention Guidelines

Product Number
1014125
Date Published
March 2008
Details
Abstract
Effective control of condenser air in-leakage in fossil generating units is vital to successful
optimization of the cycle chemistry and to attainment of the best possible levels of unit
efficiency and performance. The costs of air in-leakage are enormous, yet the control practices at
many plants are deficient. Principles of condenser operation and removal of unwanted
noncondensable gases are addressed.
Objective
The Air In-Leakage and Intrusion Prevention Guidelines will assist engineers and chemists in
identifying and locating air and water in-leakage. It outlines the principles of operation of
common condenser air-removal equipment and provides basic practices for keeping the air inleakage within the capability of the air-removal equipment and maintaining condenser back
pressure.
Over the years, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has sponsored the development of
various techniques used to find the sources of air in-leakage. The knowledge needed to
understand, identify, and correct the deficiencies is largely available. However, the level of
success at individual fossil plants indicates that gaps often exist in the interpretation and
application of this knowledge. These guidelines, dedicated to this subject, have been developed
to provide thermal performance or condenser system engineers with documentation of current
information regarding air in-leakage as a way to eliminate these deficiency gaps.
Approach
EPRI developed these guidelines with the assistance of a project team of specialist personnel and
a leading expert in the field of condenser design and performance, Dr. Joseph Harpster of the
Institute of Mature Imagination, Inc. The team conducted a thorough literature search and
employed case studies for including important information.
Results
The principles of operation of common condenser air-removal and the influences of air intrusion
on cycle chemistry and unit performance are discussed. Scientific concepts of partial pressures
and the relationship between air in-leakage and condensate dissolved oxygen are identified.
Methods of measurement, detection, and control provide resolution to the problems of
identifying and quantifying air in-leakage.
14-6

The EPRI benchmarking process for cycle chemistry clearly demonstrates the benefit of control
of air in-leakage and intrusion in controlling both dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
roadmaps for cycle chemistry control and frequently asked questions in the guidelines rely on the
prerequisite control of dissolved oxygen and cation conductivity (carbon dioxide) for
optimization of the chemical treatment.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has long recognized that the condenser provides a critical barrier between the high-purity
steam/water cycle and contamination from air intrusion and cooling water in-leakage. The EPRI
guidelines for fossil plant chemistry regimes have established stringent operating limits to restrict
the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, which contributes to corrosion and
performance losses. This guidelines document provides standards that will help fossil generating
units meet the goals of the chemistry guidelines.
Program
14-7
Condenser Tube Failures: Theory and Practice

Product Number
1010188
Date Published
December 2005
Details
Abstract
This report summarizes information on all aspects of condenser tube failure (CTF) including
failure mechanisms, possible root causes, and corrective actions.
Objective
The Volume 1 and 2 reports represent important technology transfer references for generating
plant staff and technical support personnel. The roadmap approach to CTF management
presented in Chapter 2 of Volume 1 and reprised in Chapter 15 of Volume 2 provides clear
guidance on how multidisciplinary teams can take control of ongoing CTF issues and work
together to reduce the risk of future problems. Successful implementation of the roadmap
approach offers opportunities to improve unit availability and performance while helping to
reduce the exposure of steam generators and steam turbines to contamination entering the cycle
during CTF incidents.
Approach
The Volume 1 and 2 reports were developed to serve as comprehensive source of information on
all aspects of CTF and to provide the basics of condenser design and operation needed to
understand the various CTF mechanisms, possible root causes, and corrective actions. Where
possible, the discussions include case studies to illustrate specific aspects of interest. In
developing the reports, the project team considered available information from the published
literature over the last six decades and EPRI research findings from publications dating to the
1970s. In addition, the project team contacted several recognized experts to discuss many aspects
of condenser technology and CTF. Review of draft materials by many of these experts and EPRI
members provided further insights.
Results
The two volumes of this report present a summary of information relevant to the understanding
and mitigation of condenser tube failures. Volume 1 focuses on condenser fundamentals,
providing the information needed by generating plant personnel involved in condenser reliability
and CTF prevention. Volume 2 focuses on the damage mechanisms that lead to damage and
failures, resulting in negative impacts on unit availability and increasing the risk of damage to
other cycle components. Each volume lays out a comprehensive CTF management strategy that
considers the variety of possible damage mechanisms and the needs of plant personnel.
14-8

These reports are designed to facilitate technology transfer to generating plant and technical
support personnel and may be used as manuals. As such, they represent a primary resource that
may be used in CTF management. As a follow-up activity, EPRI plans to provide additional
support in the form of interactive workshops to members seeking to establish Condenser Tube
Failure Prevention Programs
While the majority of condensers in generating plants are water-cooled, air-cooled condensers
are gradually assuming a larger presence in the power industry due primarily to the scarcity of
water and environmental restrictions at plant sites. These units are included in the Volume 1 and
2 reports. However, it is expected that there will be a need for additional assessments of this
technology as the experience base increases.
EPRI Perspective
The condenser represents an integral part of the steam-water cycle. Its performance has direct
influence on the performance of the cycle. In addition, the condenser serves as the gateway for
most of the contamination that enters the cycle. Contamination includes dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide that enter via air inleakage and, in water cooled condensers, cooling water
dissolved solids that enter via condenser tube leaks.
Unfortunately, the condenser is often the most neglected component in the cycle. Condenser
related contamination problems have become quite serious recent years since many generating
units have now been in service for over 30 years. An additional concern is the change in staff
size and experience levels at many plants.
Program
14-9
Control of Biofouling Using Natural Furanones to Eliminate

Biofilms
Product Number
1007578
Date Published
January 2003
Details
Abstract
Biofilms in plant water systems, which can stimulate microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC) and foul heat transfer surfaces, are typically controlled by adding oxidizing biocides and
other chemicals. Naturally occurring compounds, called furanones, have been evaluated as
nontoxic alternatives to these chemicals. Furanones interfere with bacterial cell-to-cell signaling,
thereby inhibiting biofilm growth and circumventing associated corrosion and biofouling
problems. This feasibility study demonstrated that natural brominated furanones are able to
inhibit swarming, biofilm formation, siderophore synthesis, and corrosion of mild steel in waters
containing various bacteria.
Objective
Use of oxidizing biocides, corrosion inhibitors, and other chemicals in power plant service water
systems is expensive and is coming under increasing scrutiny by federal and state environmental
agencies. Nontoxic alternatives to these chemicals are needed. While further development of
furanone technology is necessary, early results suggest it is a promising new approach to biofilm
control. Furanones are produced naturally by marine red algae, suggesting that this class of
chemicals is inherently more compatible with the environment than conventional chemical water
treatments. Nevertheless, before furanones can replace conventional treatments, further research
and development would be needed to discover furanones that are highly effective and have wide
applicability in plant water systems. Specifically, additional natural furanones would need to be
isolated and studied, and combinatorial synthesis methods could be used to make synthetic
furanones that are potentially even more effective. Also, combinations of a wider range of
furanones should be investigated to identify the optimum combination for corrosion inhibition.
Toxicological studies also may be necessary to satisfy the needs of the Environmental Protection
Agency.
Approach
Recent reports indicated that bacterial cell-to-cell signaling based on quorum sensing molecules
is important for biofilm formation. The marine red algae, Delisea pulchra, inhibits bacterial
quorum sensing and swarming without affecting the growth of bacteria in biofilms by making an
analog of the compound bacterial signal. These signal analogs, brominated furanones, also have
antimicrobial effects on Gram-positive bacteria. The project team synthesized two brominated
furanones: (5Z)-4-bromo-5-(bromomethylene)-3-butyl-2(5H)-furanone (#1) and 3-butyl-5(dibromomethylene)-2-(5H)-furanone (#2). They tested the ability of furanone #1 to inhibit the
14-10
following: swarming of E. coli and B. subtilis; biofilm formation of E. coli and B. subtilis on
mild steel 1018 coupons; siderophore synthesis of P. putida F1; and mild steel corrosion
promoted by sulfate reducing bacteria D. orientis and Desulfovibrio vulgaris. The genetic basis
for interrupting cell signaling also was investigated using the quorum sensing reporter system
based on Vibrio harveyi. The project team also developed a 96-well-plate biofilm assay and
tested furanones #1 and #2 for their ability to inhibit biofilm formation of various bacterial
strains including P. aeruginosa PAO1, E. coli JM109, P. putida F1, and Serratia liquefaciens. The
biofilms and corroded metal surfaces were characterized using confocal laser scanning
microscopy and environmental scanning electron microscopy.
Results
The research team synthesized two brominated furanones -- (5Z)-4-bromo-5-(bromomethylene)3-butyl-2(5H)-furanone (#1) and 3-butyl-5-(dibromomethylene)-2-(5H)-furanone (#2) -- and
confirmed their structures with nuclear magnetic resonance and gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry. Furanone #1 inhibited the swarming of Escherichia coli without affecting its
growth rate. Also, it decreased the thickness of its biofilm by 52 percent, reduced the number of
water channels, and decreased the percentage of live cells by 87 percent. Furanone #1 also
inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis, its swarming motility, and its biofilm formation. At a
concentration of 40 micrograms/mL, this furanone decreased the biofilm thickness by 25 percent,
decreased the number of water channels, and reduced the percentage of live cells by 63 percent.
Furanone #1 reduced siderophore synthesis of Pseudomonas putida F1 three-fold and inhibited
corrosion of mild steel in water containing the corrosive sulfate-reducing bacteria,
Desulfotomaculum orientis. By using 96-well-plate biofilm assays, both furanone #1 and #2
were found to inhibit the biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and E. coli
JM109.
Optimizing this furanone technology may eliminate the need for dosing plant circulating water,
fire protection systems, and other water systems with oxidizing biocides. If successful,
application to other industries, including the chemical process industry, seems likely.
EPRI Perspective
These results are the first ever published on the use of nontoxic, natural brominated furanones to
inhibit biofilm formation and the associated problems of MIC and heat exchanger biofouling.
This approach to biofouling control is radically different from any other currently in place or
being considered and may be one of only two feasible environmentally friendly approaches. The
other approach, also under EPRI development (see EPRI reports 1004659, 1001421, TR-114824,
TR-113713, and TR-110734), is called corrosion control using regenerative biofilms (CCURB).
Program
History
14-11
15
VALUE AND COST
15-1
Cycle Chemistry Upsets During Operation: Cost and Benefit Considerations

Product Number
1008085
Date Published
January 2005
Details
Abstract
Good cycle chemistry in a power plant is of fundamental importance, yet the work and expense
of maintaining good chemistry can often be neglected in favor of more immediate concerns. In
no circumstances is this tension more marked than during a real time excursion incident. The
pressure to rectify a chemistry problem during operation can be enormous; but the pressure to
stay online can be equally intense; and plant management and staff are very often caught in a
serious quandary. This report outlines a body of decision guidance designed to help reconcile
this tension.
Objective
This report is the fourth in a series that has addressed cycle chemistry valuation issues in fossil
power plants and endeavored to provide a consistent, value-based rationale for decision-making.
Previous studies (EPRI reports 1001557 and 1004641) have focused on chemistry upgrade and
improvement justifications. A preliminary report on operational decision guidance (EPRI report
1004935) was published in 2003. This study continues the development suggested in 2003 and
further extends the overall approach to real-time chemistry excursion situations. The objectives
of this study were:
To provide an overall framework for decision guidance in the face of real-time cycle
chemistry excursion situations.
To better understand the underlying origins and risks of long-term damage resulting from
real-time chemistry excursions.
Approach
The project team began this research with a conceptual model of values and costs expected from
a real-time chemistry excursion, developed by the research team in consultation with EPRI and
key utility advisors. As this development progressed, a fundamental unknown became identified,
namely the relationship between length and severity of excursion and the degree of long-term
damage expected. The project team formulated a statistical approach to characterize this
relationship and suggested a format for data collection in the future.
15-2
Results
The risk of long-term equipment damage grows as chemistry excursion episodes increase in
length and severity, and this risk must be traded off against the certain impacts of a
shutdown/repair alternative at each stage of an excursion situation. The exact nature of this
tradeoff can never be known with precision, but some statistical inferences can be drawn from a
wide variety of incidents experienced by many power plant operators. These statistical
relationships take into account such nuances as the way such excursions are measured, i.e.,
which indicators are usedlength, severity, and frequency, among other factors.
Cycle chemistry effects are very often longer term, uncertain as to timing and magnitude, and
hidden by other root causes. Therefore, quantifying the degree of purity needed and whether it is
economically justifiable can be quite difficult and dependent on professional judgment. The
methodology under development in this project will ultimately incorporate cost and value
considerations into the EPRI guidelines and ChemExpert software.
EPRI Perspective
The results from this series of projects have begun to help chemists and operators better
understand and value cycle chemistry practice and activity. Through the use of standard financial
valuation tools combined with risk and decision analysis, this work has been useful in providing
a framework for analysis and a better means of communication between the technical needs of
chemists and the budgetary process. Interest in these approaches is spreading as a result of this
success, and they are currently being applied in the areas of nuclear cycle chemistry, basic
materials, and power plant instrumentation.
Program
History
15-3
Real-Time Cycle Chemistry Excursions:

An Approach to Valuation and Decision Guidance
Product Number
1004935
Date Published
December 2003
Details
Abstract
Good cycle chemistry in a power plant is of fundamental importance, yet the work and expense
of maintaining good chemistry can often be neglected in favor of more immediate concerns. In
no circumstances is this tension more intense than during a real-time chemistry excursion. The
pressure to rectify a chemistry problem during operation can be enormous, but the pressures to
stay online can be equally enormous, leaving plant management and staff caught in a serious
quandary. This report introduces a developing methodology designed to help reconcile this
tension.
Objective
This report is the third in a series that has addressed cycle chemistry valuation issues in fossil
power plants, with emphasis on providing a consistent, value-based rationale for decisionmaking. Previous studies (EPRI reports 1001557 and 1004641) have focused on chemistry
upgrade and improvement justifications. This study begins a process of extending the overall
approach to real-time chemistry excursion situations. The objectives of this study were to
provide a framework for decision guidance in the face of a real-time cycle chemistry excursion
situation, and to better understand the underlying origins and risks of long-term damage resulting
from real-time chemistry excursions.
Approach
The project team began this research with a conceptual model of values and costs expected from
a real-time chemistry excursion, in consultation with EPRI and key utility advisors. As this
development progressed, a fundamental unknown became identified, namely the relationship
between the length and severity of an excursion and the degree of long-term damage expected. A
more exact characterization of this relationship is planned for the next phase of research.
Results
The key finding from this first round of study is the real-time framework, itself, and its
fundamental relationship to the EPRI cycle chemistry guidelines. The risk of long-term
equipment damage grows as excursion episodes increase in length and severity. This factor must
therefore be traded off against the certain impacts of a shutdown/repair alternative at each stage
of an excursion situation, when considering cycle chemistry practices.
15-4

Cycle chemistry effects are very often longer term, uncertain as to timing and magnitude, and
hidden by other root causes. Therefore, quantifying the degree of purity needed and whether it is
economically justifiable can be quite difficult and dependent on professional judgment. The
methodology being developed will ultimately incorporate cost and value considerations into the
EPRI guidelines and ChemExpert.
EPRI Perspective
The results from this series of projects have begun to help chemists and operators better
understand and value cycle chemistry practice and activity. Through the use of standard financial
valuation tools combined with risk and decision analysis, this work has been useful in providing
a framework for analysis, and a better means of communication regarding the technical needs of
chemists and the budgetary process. The next phase of this project will concentrate on gathering
and analyzing multiple examples of this relationship and extracting generic conclusions.
Program
History
15-5
Valuing Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Power Plants

Product Number
1004641
Date Published
November 2002
Details
Abstract
Cycle chemistry in a power plant is of fundamental importance for reliable and efficient
operation; but it often gets neglected in the budgetary process and in resource allocation, because
its effects are long term and sometimes hard to pinpoint. This report provides case studies of
EPRIs new approach to assist plant chemists and managers to develop project justification and
achieve budgetary approval.
Background
The cycle chemistry in a power plant is fundamental to profitability. However, cycle chemistry
effects can be hard to predict, subject to major technical uncertainty in timing and magnitude,
and very often masked by other conditions. In recognition of these difficulties, EPRI published
Justifying Cycle Chemistry Upgrades to Improve Availability, Performance and Profitability
(EPRI report 1001557). A series of case studies was needed to illustrate the methodology.
Objective
To demonstrate a methodology for plant chemists to use to evaluate, justify, and rank cycle
chemistry improvement projects or to maintain an existing level of excellence; to clearly
illustrate the value of improving cycle chemistry in a power plant.
Approach
The project team visited and worked with six organizations to assist them in a number of case
studies, each of which involved analysis of competing alternatives and of new or upgraded cycle
chemistry equipment. In each case, the team applied EPRI's new methodology for evaluating
cycle chemistry. The project team also reviewed the EPRI benchmarking process for cycle
chemistry improvement, as well as the extensive results of reviews conducted by EPRI with
approximately 50 organizations worldwide. The team then demonstrated the value of improving
cycle chemistry by using the benchmark scores to illustrate quantitatively for the first time the
tremendous benefits involved.
Results
The new methodology and case studies account for key uncertainties through decision
analysis. The methodology has now been used to address the following valuation issues that
plant chemists and managers face in today's business environment:
How to justify new or upgraded cycle chemistry equipment or processes
How to determine the value of the current chemistry and how to justify improvements
15-6
How to assess and discriminate between several alternatives that may help to overcome a
problem
How to assess the value of cycle chemistry projects in competition with other improvement
areas.
EPRI Perspective
The current analysis has focused on three important cycle chemistry areas: instrumentation,
condensate polishing, and overcoming the problems of copper in a fossil plant. The case studies
provide templates for organizations to follow when considering all aspects of cycle chemistry
improvement and upgrades. Linking the benchmarking process with key business indicators now
enables an organization to demonstrate the cost of operating with "average" or "below average"
cycle chemistry and, more importantly, the value to an organization of improving towards
World Class. The next phase of the work will address the cost and compensating value of "outof-specification" chemistry during operation.
Program
History
15-7
Justifying Cycle Chemistry Upgrades to Improve Availability, Performance and

Profitability
Product Number
1001557
Date Published
June 2001
Details
Abstract
Cycle chemistry in a power plant is of fundamental importance for reliable and efficient
operation; but it often gets neglected in the budgetary process and in resource allocation, because
its effects are long-term and sometimes hard to pinpoint. This report presents an initial look at a
methodology to help plant chemists and managers effectively understand the business impacts as
well as the engineering impacts of cycle chemistry, and to develop and present project
justification and budgetary arguments that illuminate real tradeoffs and aid communication.
Background
The chemistry of the water cycle in a power plant is fundamental to profitability. Because of the
extreme heat and pressure to which cycle water is continually subjected, even minor impurities
can quickly wreak havoc on performance, availability, and even safety. Despite this criticality,
however, cycle chemistry maintenance is often misunderstood by management, put off in favor
of higher-profile projects, and given lower priority than it should. Cycle chemistry effects can be
hard to predict, subject to major technical uncertainty in timing and in magnitude, and are very
often masked by other conditions. Plant chemists have sometimes had a hard time
communicating the value of good cycle water chemistry to management and justifying needed
maintenance and upgrades in budgetary negotiations.
Objective
To develop a methodology for plant chemists to use to evaluate, justify, and rank cycle
chemistry improvement projects or to maintain an existing level of excellence.
To demonstrate the approach conceptually through several simple case study discussions
drawn from real power plant examples.
To begin design of a software embodiment of the methodology, to be implemented in the

next project phase.
Approach
The project team consulted a range of chemists and associated power plant personnel to
understand the difficulties inherent in valuing cycle chemistry improvements. The team used this
information to develop a methodology to evaluate, justify, and rank improvement projects. They
illustrated the methodology with case studies.
15-8
Results
Management has not always understood the role and value of cycle chemistry, while chemists
have sometimes been ignorant of budget and resource allocation processes and imperatives in a
competitive market. Because of the central role uncertainty plays in cycle chemistry, it is
difficult to predict how much damage bad chemistry can cause or good chemistry can mitigate,
or to quantify the economic costs and benefits of cycle chemistry improvement projects. In light
of these difficulties, an approach that accounts for key uncertainties through decision analysis
has been developed and demonstrated in preliminary form in this report. Specific classes of cycle
chemistry improvement -- such as major capital upgrades, maintenance spending, and
instrumentation installations -- have been formulated as generic templates. In the next project
phase, this approach will be automated and subjected to yet further testing, both as to its utility
and the practicality of developing a Web-based platform for user interaction and results
archiving.
EPRI Perspective
For power plant management and for chemistry staffs alike, allocating resources appropriately to
the needs of cycle chemistry can have an enormous payoff. In the emerging competitive market,
the fundamental measure of success is availability at key times, with the efficient and
economical generation of power not far behind. Keeping cycle chemistry tuned is critical to
achieving these goals. Therefore, despite the difficulties of quantifying its impact, cycle
chemistry must be taken very seriously.
In a larger sense, the difficulties that cycle chemistry projects experience in budget negotiations
are not really unique. Communication issues cloud all types of power plant projects, and neither
technical nor market uncertainties will ever disappear for any maintenance or upgrade project in
the power plant environment. For this reason, the methodology defined in this report has the
potential to be generalized and applied more widely in the future, as it is refined and as new
issues are suggested.
Program
History
15-9
16
RELIABILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY
16-1
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants, 2007

Product Number
1015445
Date Published
December 2007
Details
Abstract
The Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants (1006315), now in its third
edition, has included descriptions of advanced techniques and products, successfully applied and
tested. Many of these have been described in the 2005 publication Productivity Improvement for
Fossil Steam Plants 2005: 100 Hundred Case Studies (1012098) and in Productivity
Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants 2006 (1014598). Since then, further productivity
improvement case studies have been reviewed on the Productivity Improvement Expert Reviews
(PIER) website. These studies have been critically assessed by technical experts who have
discussed the improvements with power plant staff and judged their potential for future use in the
industry. This report assembles these case studies on subjects spanning the power plant, from the
boiler to the steam turbine, including plant auxiliaries and environmental control equipment. In
addition, this 2007 report looks at emerging technologies that promise major new breakthroughs
for fossil plant operations. Improvements are described in reliability, performance, plant
flexibility, emissions control, and equipment life. Demonstrated case studies and future advances
are described in chapters on boilers, steam turbines, environmental controls, and plant-wide
designs.
Background
Over the years, many reports, tests, conferences, and case studies have been published on
maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam turbine-generators, heat exchangers, environmental
control equipment, and other major equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, creative
ways of using better technology have been demonstrated in operating plants around the world.
As these new innovations continue to emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the advances for
plant operators. Further, generation companies increasingly require plant staff to be trained in the
best methods to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies so that operating and
maintenance costs can be minimized.
Objective
To identify key issues that permit fossil steam plants to operate productively.
To review recent improvements on fossil steam plants that have been tested and validated in
operating power stations.
To extract from published conferences and reports salient features of each improvement,
including the problem to be solved and any issues that arose during the upgrade process.
16-2
To uncover the costs of carrying out the improvement and perceived benefits of the upgrade
through discussions with involved power plant staff.
To make an objective, technical assessment of the improvement and suggest how others
might use that information.
Approach
Using the Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants, Edition 3, key issues in the
fossil power industry were identified to form the basis for selecting new plant improvements.
Conferences and reports from EPRI and other sources were reviewed to identify the most
significant fossil steam plant productivity improvements. These case studies were then pared
down to their salient features and each case study described in concise, readable text.
The work was discussed with power plant and generating company personnel to ensure that the
latest information was available and that the costs and benefits were correctly described.
Depending on the topic, a selected industry expert wrote an assessment of the project from an
overall industry perspective, drawing out key aspects of the work that others could find useful in
further application of the advancement.
Results
In the collection of productivity improvements described, case studies fall into sections covering
boilers and auxiliaries, steam turbines and auxiliaries, environmental control, and overall plant
design and construction. In keeping with the state of the generating business climate today, much
of the interest falls into the category of mercury and NOx control. Other key case studies discuss
improvements in boiler tube corrosion, pulverizer enhancements, slagging and fouling control,
turbine increased efficiency, and better condenser maintenance. Improved fossil plant designs
and materials for CO2 control and for oxygen-fired boilers are included in this 2007 report.
EPRI Perspective
The descriptions and critical reviews of productivity improvement case studies will be of
particular interest to plant engineers and plant operators in identifying successes of the past few
years, as well as an opportunity to look forward to new advances almost ready for broad
application. All companies and plants cited here have taken positive steps to advance the
operational performance of their plants and should take credit for this.
To provide timely updates on future case studies, EPRI continues its Productivity Improvement
Expert Reviews (PIER) website that regularly publishes these reports. Specific information on
this user group can be obtained from EPRI project managers Tony Armor at 650/855/2961
(aarmor@epri.com) and Alan Grunsky at 704/595/2056 (agrunsky@epri.com).
Program
Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance-of-Plant
16-3
Guidelines for New High Reliability Fossil Plants

Product Number
1012203
Date Published
February 2007
Details
Abstract
reliability. New plants should have the optimum cycle chemistry features designed in, and the
guidelines provided in this report will assist owners and operators of new plants in specifying
these features during the design phase.
Objective
Between 2002 and 2004, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) published the latest series
of fossil plant cycle chemistry guidelines:
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment (1004925)
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Continuum and Caustic Treatment
(1004188)
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment, Revision 1 (1004187)
These reports address the major cycle chemistries used worldwide, and their use has resulted in
major operating savings for operators. As new drum and once-through supercritical plants are
specified and designed, it is of paramount importance that the chemistries and associated
equipment are incorporated through specification.
Approach
The EPRI team reviewed the benchmarking skeleton of chemical features for new highreliability fossil plants. The team used this skeleton with numerous organizations that were
developing specifications for new plants. The EPRI team then developed a draft report, which
was reviewed and finalized as this report.
Results
For a typical 700-MW unit, the difference between operating with world-class cycle chemistry
performance compared to average performance equates to savings of more than US$1 million
per year. This report specifies cycle chemistry features that are known to result in world-class
performance. The following topics are included: boiler tube failures, steam turbine corrosion
mechanisms, condensers (water- and air-cooled), air in-leakage, makeup systems, condensate
polishing, feedwater heaters and drain lines, flow-accelerated corrosion, deaerators,
instrumentation and control, shutdown and layup, and sampling requirements.
16-4

The EPRI benchmarking process for cycle chemistry has been applied to more than 100
organizations worldwide. The results clearly show the tremendous benefits of operating units
with the oxidizing treatments (AVT(O) or OT). New supercritical units must operate with
oxygenated treatment, and the guidance in this report has been designed to be applicable to all
new units.
EPRI Perspective
The all-volatile and oxygenated treatment guidelines have helped utilities to achieve plantspecific goals in the areas of availability, reliability, and performance. However, in many cases,
it has taken a major effort to change a plant chemistry treatment even when economic advantages
are obvious. In addition, it is often difficult to customize the oxidizing treatments to plants that
have operated with different treatment schemes for many years. It is now expected that
owners/operators will be able to immediately see the benefits of specifyingas inherent
processes at the design phasethese optimum chemistry treatments and equipment philosophies.
Program
16-5
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants, 2006

Product Number
1014598
Date Published
December 2006
Details
Abstract
The Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants (EPRI report 1006315), now
in its third edition, includes many descriptions of advanced techniques and products successfully
applied and tested. Many of these were described in the 2005 publication Productivity
Improvement for Fossil Steam Plants 2005: 100 Hundred Case Studies (1012098). Since then,
many productivity improvement case studies have been reviewed on the website of the
Productivity Improvement User Group. These improvements have been critically assessed by
technical experts who have discussed them with power plant staff and judged their potential for
future use in the fossil industry. This report assembles these case studies on subjects spanning the
power plant from the boiler to the steam turbine, including plant auxiliaries and environmental
control equipment. This 2006 report also looks at emerging technologies that promise major new
breakthroughs for fossil plant operations. Improvements are described in reliability,
performance, plant flexibility, emissions control, and equipment life. The demonstrated case
studies and future advances are described in chapters on boilers, steam turbines, balance-of-plant
equipment, environmental controls, and plant-wide designs.
Background
maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam turbine generators, heat exchangers, environmental
control equipment, and other major equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, creating
ways of using better technology have been demonstrated in operating plants around the world.
As these new innovations continue to emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the advances for
plant operators. Further, generation companies increasingly require that their plant staffs are
trained in the best methods to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies so that
operating and maintenance costs can be minimized.
Objective
To identify key issues that permit fossil steam plants to operate productively.
To extract from published conferences and reports the salient features of each improvement,
including the problem that was to be solved and any issues that arose during the upgrade
process.
16-6
To uncover the costs of carrying out the improvement and perceived benefits of the upgrade
through discussions with the power plant staff involved.
might use the information that has been learned.
Approach
Using the Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants, Edition 3, as a basis, the
project team identified key issues in today's fossil power industry to form the basis for selecting
new plant improvements.
The team reviewed conferences and reports from EPRI and other sources to identify the most
significant fossil steam plant productivity improvements. These case studies were then pared
down to their salient features and each case study described in concise, readable text.
latest information was available and that the costs and benefits were correctly described.
Depending on the topic, a selected industry expert wrote an assessment of the project from an
overall industry perspective, drawing out key aspects of the work that others could find useful in
any further application of the advancement.
Results
In collecting productivity improvements described here, the case studies fall into sections
covering overall plant, boilers, steam turbines, balance-of-plant, environmental control, and plant
design. In keeping with the current state of the generating business, a good deal of the interest
falls into the category of integrated emissions control. Other key case studies discuss
improvements in boiler tube corrosion, slagging and fouling control, turbine increased efficiency,
and better feedwater heater and condenser maintenance.
EPRI Perspective
particular interest to plant engineers and plant operators in identifying the successes of the past
few years. In addition, the emerging technologies will give readers an opportunity to look
forward to new advances almost ready for broad application. All companies and plants cited here
have taken positive steps to advance the operational performance of their plants and should take
credit for their efforts.
To provide timely updates on future case studies, EPRI continues its web-based Productivity
Improvement Expert Reviews (PIER) that regularly publishes these reports. Specific information
on this user group can be obtained from EPRI project managers Tony Armor (650/855/2961,
aarmor@epri.com) and Steve Hesler (704/547/6183, shesler@epri.com).
Program
Steam Turbines Generators and Balance-of-Plant
16-7
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants 2005:

One Hundred Case Studies
Product Number
1012098
Date Published
August 2005
Details:
Abstract
The Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants (EPRI report 1006315), now
in its third edition, has included many descriptions of advanced techniques and products
successfully applied and tested. Many of these were described in the 2003 publication
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Plants: Industry Case Studies (1009239). Since
2001, more than one hundred productivity improvement case studies have been described in
some detail on the website of the Productivity Improvement User Group. These have been
critically assessed by a total of forty technical experts who have discussed the improvements
with power plant staff and judged their potential for future use in the industry. This report
assembles these case studies on subjects spanning the power plant from the boiler to the steam
turbine, including plant auxiliaries and environmental control equipment.
Background
Over the years, many reports, test results, conference papers, and case studies have been
published on maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam turbines, generators, heat exchangers,
environmental control equipment, and other major equipment items in fossil steam plants. In
addition, ways to better use technology have been demonstrated in operating plants around the
world. As these new innovations continue to emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the
advances for plant operators. Further, generation companies increasingly require that their plant
staffs are trained in the best methods to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies so
that operating and maintenance costs can be minimized.
Objective
To identify the key issues that permit fossil steam plants to operate productively and to
review recent improvements on fossil steam plants that have been tested and validated in
To extract from published conference papers and reports the salient features of each
improvement, including the problem that was to be solved and any issues that arose during
the upgrade process and to uncover the costs of carrying out the improvement and perceived
benefits of the upgrade through discussions with involved power plant staff.
might be able to use the information that has been learned.
16-8
Approach
Using the "Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants, Edition 3," as a basis,
the project team identified key issues in today's fossil power industry to form the basis for
selecting new plant improvements. Conferences sponsored by EPRI and others, EPRI and nonEPRI reports, and trade journals were then reviewed to identify the most significant fossil steam
plant productivity improvements. The team pared down these case studies to their salient features
and described each case study in concise, readable text.
latest information was available and that costs and benefits were correctly described. Depending
on the topic, a selected industry expert wrote an assessment of the project from an overall
industry perspective, drawing out key aspects of the work that others could find useful in any
further application of the advancement.
Results
In the report's collection of productivity improvements, the case studies cover overall plant,
boilers, turbines, generators, balance-of-plant, and environmental control. In keeping with the
state of the generating business today, a good deal of the interest falls into the category of
emissions control, particularly the control of NOx, SO2, SO3, mercury, and particulates. Other
key case studies discuss improvements in boiler tube failure reduction, coal handling advances
(particularly for Powder River Basin coals), slagging and fouling control in boilers, turbine
blades for increased efficiency, and better feedwater heater and condenser maintenance.
Improvements are specifically described in reliability, performance, plant flexibility, emissions
control, and equipment life. Each chapter opens with a summary of key issues facing equipment
as originally described in the "Productivity Improvement Handbook, Edition 3." This report can,
therefore, be used as a primer on plant operation and performance, providing examples of how
new ideas have been applied to operating power plants.
EPRI Perspective
particular interest to plant engineers and plant operators when assessing what technologies have
been found valuable in operating plants. This collection of productivity improvement
information will be helpful in identifying the successes of the past few years. Individual
companies and the staff of the more than 100 plants cited here are to be congratulated for taking
the bold steps necessary to upgrade their operating units. The 40 case study assessors have added
greatly to the value of the report with their perceptive technical reviews.
Program
16-9
Repairs of Deaerators
Product Number
1008069
Date Published
June 2004
Details
Abstract
This report provides a brief background of deaerator operation, including types of deaerators.
Materials of construction are reviewed along with inspection, failure mechanisms, and repair
methods. Some general information is provided to calculate minimum wall to see if deaerators
are suitable for continued operation with defects in place.
Objective
This report can be utilized by plant managers, plant engineers, and maintenance supervisors to
guide in the inspection and repair of deaerator pressure vessels and internals.
Approach
This report demonstrates in a clear, easy-to-understand method what types of damage can be
found in all areas of deaerators and what repairs or replacements must be made to return the
vessel to service.
Results
Users of this guideline will gain an understanding of failure mechanisms that may lead to
deaerator damage and appropriate corrective measures.
EPRI Perspective
EPRI has over the last twenty years developed a clear understanding of failure mechanisms in
power plant components. The Materials and Repair Program guides utilities in repair
applications to these components. Use of alternate repair methods can return components to
service quickly while substantially reducing costs associated with standard repair methods.
Program
History
16-10
Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Power Plants Industry Case Studies
Product Number
1009239
Date Published
November 2003
Details
Abstract
The Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Plants, now in its third edition, has
included many descriptions of successfully applied advanced techniques and products. In the last
few years, an increasingly diverse set of plant case studies have been described in some detail on
the website of the Productivity Improvement User Group. This report assembles more than sixty
of these case studies on subjects spanning the power plant from the boiler and the steam turbine,
through plant auxiliaries and environmental control equipment. Improvements are described in
reliability, performance, plant flexibility, and equipment life. Each case study is critically
assessed to see how it might have further application in the fossil steam plant industry.
Background
maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam turbine-generators, heat exchangers, and other major
equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, creating ways of using better technology has
been demonstrated in operating plants around the world. As these new innovations continue to
emerge, it is valuable to review and assess advances for plant operators. Further, generation
companies increasingly require that their plant staff is trained in the best methods to detect and
avoid equipment failures and anomalies so that operating and maintenance costs can be
minimized.
Objective
To extract from published conferences and reports salient features of each improvement,
including the problem that was to be solved and any issues that arose during the upgrade
process.
To uncover costs of carrying out the improvement and perceived benefits of the upgrade
through discussions with involved power plant staff.
might be able to use the information that has been learned.
16-11
Approach
To identify significant fossil steam plant productivity improvements, the project team reviewed
reports, conference proceedings, and trade journals. These case studies were then pared down to
their salient features and described in concise, key text. The team discussed the work with power
plant and generating company personnel to ensure that the latest information was available and
that costs and benefits were correctly described. Depending on the topic, an industry expert
wrote an assessment of the project from an overall industry perspective, drawing out the key
aspects of the work that others could find useful in further applications of the advancement.
Results
In the collection of productivity improvements described here, case studies fell into book
sections that covered broad issues, boilers, turbines, generators, balance-of-plant, and
environmental control. In keeping with the state of the generating business today, a good deal of
the interest fell into the category of emissions controlparticularly the control of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) through combustion modificationsand in boiler tube failure reduction
techniques. Other important improvements were made in coal handling (particularly for Powder
River Basin coals) for removing slagging and fouling problems in boilers and for turbine blade
improvements for increased efficiency and aerodynamic performance. However, interest remains
high for providing better ways of maintaining feedwater heaters and condensers.
EPRI Perspective
These descriptions and critical reviews of productivity improvement case studies will benefit
plant engineers and operators when assessing technologies that have been found valuable in
operating plants. A timely collection of productivity improvement information, it comes at a time
when maintaining fossil units at peak condition is an essential aid in running a generating
company profitably. Individual companies and plants cited here are to be congratulated for
taking the bold steps necessary to upgrade their operating units.
To provide timely updates on future case studies, EPRI has put in place a web-based Productivity
Improvement User Group that regularly receives these updates.
Program
History
16-12
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants:

Third Edition
Product Number
1006315
Date Published
November 2002
Details
Abstract
This handbook discusses how to inspect, maintain, and repair major equipment in fossil-fired
generating plants. It provides guidance for those involved in renovating and preparing fossil
steam plants for operation in a competitive generation market. The first two editions of this
handbook in 1998 and 2000 quickly found application in fossil plants, and were broadly
distributed within generating companies worldwide. Since then, the book and its regular updates
have been available through an epri.com website to members of the Productivity Improvement
User Group. This edition includes those updates, specifically the critically assessed case studies
describing innovative technologies that have found considerable value within operating
generating units.
Background
equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, applications of new technology have been
demonstrated in operating plants around the world. As these new innovations continue to
emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the advances for the benefit of plant operators. In
addition, generation companies increasingly require that plant staff is trained in the best methods
to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies in order to minimize operating and
maintenance costs. The information in this handbook is organized so a reader can quickly and
easily grasp the current state of the art in maintaining fossil steam units, obtain guidance on
specific plant problems, and implement solutions.
Objective
To document causes of equipment failure and identify ways to inspect and maintain boilers,
steam turbines, and balance-of-plant components.
To underscore cost-effective approaches for minimizing downtime due to planned and

unplanned outages.
To review and critically assess the application of new technology and ideas in operating
generating units.
16-13
Approach
For each major piece of equipment in a fossil steam plant, the authors reviewed past EPRI
reports, industry experience, and specific plant case studies. They extracted current practices that
have been most effective in the areas of maintenance, inspection, and repair. Particular attention
has been paid to new methods and technologies implemented in operating units.
Results
This handbook deals first with overall plant issues and then addresses equipment concerns,
beginning with the boiler. Turbine, generator, and balance-of-plant chapters follow. Each major
piece of equipment is discussed in terms of failures, inspections, and maintenance/repair actions.
The handbook provides case studies of productivity improvements in operating plants, many
with critical technical assessments.
The productivity handbook will guide generating company staff in detecting, understanding, and
resolving the most commonly experienced problems. To delve more deeply into specific
engineering practices for an identified failure mode, each chapter includes an extensive reference
and bibliography. Generating companies should look at this handbook as a first-level assessment
for station personnel and for all those involved in maintaining fossil steam plants or in making
asset management decisions.
EPRI Perspective
Reliable operation of a fossil power plant is not a simple charge, particularly when the generating
unit is required to cycle up and down or on and off to match demand. The most essential step is
to understand the consequences of this duty on key equipment and be ready to handle any
maintenance needs. This handbook therefore provides plant personnel with a starting point when
faced with plant maintenance, refurbishment, or upgrades. The descriptions and critical reviews
of productivity improvement case studies will be of particular interest when assessing what
technologies have proven valuable in operating plants. To provide timely information on these
case studies, EPRI has instituted a web-based Productivity Improvement User Group that
regularly receives technology updates. Specific information on this user group can be obtained
from EPRI project manager Tony Armor at (650) 855-2961, aarmor@epri.com.
Program
History
16-14
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants:

Second Edition: Chapters 16
Product Numbers
1006366 Chapter 1
1006367 Chapter 2
1006368 Chapter 3
1006369 Chapter 4
1006370 Chapter 5
1006371 Chapter 6
Date Published
November 2002
Details
Abstract
This handbook discusses how to inspect, maintain and repair major equipment in fossil-fired
steam plants for operating in a competitive generation market.
The first two editions of this handbook, in 1998 and 2000, quickly found application in fossil
plants, and were broadly distributed within generating companies worldwide. Since then the
book, and its regular updates, have been available through an epri.com website to members of
the Productivity Improvement User Group. This edition includes those updates, specifically the
critically assessed case studies describing innovative technologies that have found considerable
value within operating generating units.
Background
Over the years, many reports, tests, conferences and case studies have been published on
maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam-turbine generators, heat exchangers, and other major
equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, creative ways of using better technology have
been demonstrated in operating plants around the world. As these new innovations continue to
emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the advances for plant operators. Further, generation
companies increasingly require that their plant staff is trained in the best methods to detect and
avoid equipment failures and anomalies so that operating and maintenance costs can be
minimized.
16-15
Objectives
steam turbines and balance-of-plant components
To underscore the cost-effective approaches for minimizing downtime due to planned and
unplanned outages
To review and critically assess the application of new technology and ideas in operating
generating units
Approach
For each piece of equipment in a fossil steam plant, the authors reviewed past EPRI reports,
industry experience and specific plant case studies. They extracted those current practices that
have been most effective in maintenance, inspection and repair. Particular attention has been
paid to those new ideas that have been implemented in operating units.
Results
The handbook deals first with overall plant issues and then addresses equipment concerns,
starting with the boiler. Turbine, generator and balance-of-plant chapters follow. Each major
piece of equipment is discussed in terms of failures, inspections and maintenance/repair actions.
Case studies of productivity improvements in operating plants are described, many with critical
technical assessments. The handbook will orient plant staff in the direction of detecting,
preventing and fixing common problems. To delve more deeply into specific engineering
practices for an identified failure mode, an extensive reference and bibliography is provided for
each chapter. Generating companies should look at this handbook as a first-level assessment for
station personnel and for all those involved in maintaining fossil steam plants, or in making
assets management decisions.
EPRI Perspective
A fossil steam power unit is required to operate as an integrated set of many pieces of equipment
and is frequently called on for months of continuous, reliable service. For this to happen, it is
vital that equipment is adequately prepared for the task. This is not a simple charge, particularly
when the generating unit is required to cycle up and down, or on and off, to match demand. The
first essential step is to understand the consequences of this duty on key equipment and be ready
to handle any maintenance and refurbishment needs that occur. This handbook provides plant
personnel with a starting point when faced with plant maintenance, plant refurbishment or plant
upgrades. The descriptions and critical reviews of productivity improvement case studies will be
of particular interest when assessing what technologies have been found valuable in operating
plants. To provide timely updates on these case studies, EPRI has put in place a web-based
Productivity Improvement User Group that regularly receives these updates.
16-16
Damage to Power Plants Due to Cycling

Product Number
1001507
Date Published
July 2001
Details
Abstract
The duty cycle for power plants ranges from baseloading or consistently operating at or near
fully rated capacity to two-shifting or shutting down during off-peak demand periods.
Quantifying the cost of cycling and finding ways to mitigate and control those costs are critical
to profitability. European Technology Development Ltd. (ETD) originally prepared and
published this report and has agreed to the current revision by EPRI. The report evaluates the
effects and implications of cyclic operation on equipment in steam-based fossil-fueled power
plants.
Background
Because of the rigorous demands imposed by load-varying operations in competitive markets,
asset managers need to quantify the incremental costs of cycling generating units to ensure
profitability and to better select, run, and upgrade production units. Furthermore, technical,
operations, and maintenance staff need to understand, plan, and react to the complex nature and
interaction of equipment, processes, and failure modes brought on by cycling. The welldocumented (but not so well understood) time lag effect of two-shift operation, in which cost
implications do not occur for as many as three years, must also be considered.
Objective
To survey, compile, and report on the global utility industry status and needs in the area of
cyclic plant operation
To highlight the main factors that increase the operation and maintenance costs, with a view
to discussing the feasibility of technical and management palliatives required to minimize or
control such costs
To help generators increase plant availability and efficiency and better understand cycling
costs
To identify problem areas requiring research and development (R&D)
Approach
Because of the range of technical and economic issues involved, ETD engaged a five-member
multidisciplinary team to perform this study. In addition, the project team conducted surveys of
plant operators, manufacturers, and R&D organizations. The surveys were conducted mainly
16-17
through two questionnaires -- one focused on plant operation and costs, and the second on R&D
issues. In some cases, face-to-face interviews were conducted through visits to various
organizations and interviews with experts. These organizations are based in the United Kingdom,
Italy, Ireland, the United States, Canada, Hong Kong, and Australia.
Results
This report is an effective guide for individual station management and senior engineering staff
on cost-effective cyclic operation and on moving from baseload to two-shift operation. It
presents information on operating problems, mechanisms of component failure, and preventive
maintenance and includes sections on repair and costs. Additional information on the nature and
effects of two-shifting is presented in the appendices. This multiclient study, of which EPRI was
a sponsor, assesses the status of cyclic operation of fossil power plants internationally and
describes the ways in which operators are coping with the ensuing problems and identifying
areas of research that could benefit the entire industry.
EPRI Perspective
As a result of privatization or deregulation and ensuing competition, volatile demand and supply
conditions will prevail, resulting in changing duty cycle roles for the output of fossil power
stations. Steam plants are the focus of this report; however, large frame combustion turbines and
combined-cycle plants may also suffer from cyclic duty. Understanding the correlation between
cost and cycle duty is critical to planning, allocating resources, and performing day-to-day
operations. Preliminary work by EPRI and others indicates that this correlation is strong,
suggesting that pooling large groups of industry data can lead to better planning tools. However,
understanding costs is just the beginning; controlling and mitigating costs should be the major
objective. Because a close and complex link exists between the technical and cost issues, both
sophisticated cost models and a clearer understanding of technical issues need to be advanced in
parallel.
Program
2005 Program 067.0 Understanding Power and Fuel Markets and Generation Response
History
2001 Program 067.3 Cycle Duty in Fossil Plants: Impacts on Cost
16-18
Impact of Operating Factors on Boiler Availability

Product Number
1000560
Date Published
December 2000
Details
Abstract
As utilities strive to achieve higher reliability and lower operation and maintenance (O&M) costs
for their fossil-fired power plants, changing plant operating conditions will provide even greater
challenges in meeting those objectives. This report summarizes the cause and effect relationships
that exist between operating conditions and boiler component reliability. It is an initial step in
developing the tools and technology that will enable utilities to meet their objectives in an ever
more competitive generation market.
Background
The restructuring of the utility industry has created and continues to create major changes in how
generating units are operated and maintained. With competition anticipated in the deregulated
market place, utilities must reduce production costs. Nearly 70 percent of U.S. fossil power
plants are reaching their design lives, and there is no plan to retire them in the near future.
Evolving emission regulations have placed more financial and operational burdens on these same
fossil power plants. In today's environment, systems and equipment are required to perform at
levels and under conditions not considered in their original design.
Objective
To summarize the impact on reliability of boiler components caused by operational changes
as produced by cycling duty, fuel switching, and environmental controls
To establish the initial basis for assessing the quantitative relationships between operating
changes and boiler component reliability
To provide a more complete assessment basis for the economic costs associated with plant
operating changes
To identify additional research that will provide utilities with the tools necessary to achieve
high reliability plant operations at the lowest cost
Approach
EPRI and others have sponsored considerable research in the area of boiler reliability and
operations. This prior work provides the starting point for this current work in which the key
parameters that characterize operating changes are identified in terms of their impact on boiler
16-19
component reliability. For example, plant cycling duty can produce thermal transients that
accelerate the rate of damage occurring in some of the boiler components, such as high
temperature and pressure headers. On this level, the report consolidates a large body of prior
research and development.
On a second level, this report extends the previous work by focusing on the impact of changes on
boiler components and on the identification of opportunities to mitigate damage (resulting in loss
of reliability). Many studies have demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of damage prevention
versus damage repair in achieving least-cost O&M. Accordingly, this report addresses preventive
measures that should be considered when making operating changes.
Results
Changing operating conditions can significantly impact boiler component reliability. In a
competitive power generation market, such loss of reliability usually has severe economic
consequences. In the case of boiler components, loss of reliability translates almost directly into
increased forced outages of the unit. Frequently, the basis of an operating change -- meeting new
environmental limits -- does not explicitly include the impact on reliability. This report identifies
the potential boiler reliability impact of operating changes so that a complete economic
assessment can be made.
EPRI Perspective
This work is part of an initiative in the Boiler Life and Availability Improvement Target to
develop technology and tools to assist utilities in fully managing the life of boiler components to
achieve safe and reliable operation. Many operating changes are made without full consideration
of possible negative impacts. Coal supply, for example, may be changed to take advantage of a
lower cost on the basis for energy per unit weight. As noted in this report, however, the
characteristics of the new coal may be such that it increases damage rates to critical boiler tubing
sections and increases both the risks and actual occurrences of forced outages to the unit. Such
negative impacts may well exceed the benefits produced by the reduced fuel cost. Utilities
operating in a competitive market must fully consider all cost factors in their decision making to
achieve truly least-cost power production.
Program
History
2004 2001 Program 063.0 Boiler Life and Availability Improvement Program
16-20
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants

Product Number
TR-111217
Date Published
October 1998
Details
Abstract
This handbook discusses how to inspect, maintain, and repair major equipment in fossil-fired
steam plants for operating in a competitive generation market.
Background
equipment items in fossil steam plants. As ways are sought to improve plant productivity, new
innovations continue to emerge. Generation companies increasingly require that their plant staff
is trained in the best methods to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies so that
operating and maintenance costs can be minimized.
Objective
steam turbines, and balance-of-plant components.
To underscore cost-effective approaches for minimizing downtime due to planned and

unplanned outages.
Approach
For each major piece of equipment in a fossil steam plant, the authors reviewed past EPRI
reports, industry experience, and specific plant case studies. They extracted those current
practices that have been most effective in maintenance, inspection, and repair.
Results
The handbook deals first with overall plant issues and then addresses equipment concerns,
starting with the boiler. Turbine, generator, and balance-of-plant chapters follow. Each major
piece of equipment is discussed in terms of failures, inspections, and maintenance/repair actions.
The handbook will orient plant staff in the direction of detecting, preventing, and fixing common
problems. The depth of discussion reflects the impact of the equipment on plant unavailability,
so, for example, the boiler section is most extensive. For those who wish to delve more deeply
into specific engineering practices for an identified failure mode, an extensive reference and
bibliography is provided for each chapter. Facilities should look at this handbook as a first-level
assessment for station personnel and for all those involved in maintaining fossil steam plants or
making assets management decisions.
16-21
EPRI Perspective
A fossil steam power unit is required to operate as an integrated set of many pieces of equipment
and is frequently called on for months of continuous, reliable service. For this to happen, it is
vital that equipment is adequately prepared for the task. This is not a simple charge, particularly
when the generating unit is required to cycle up and down, or on and off, to match demand. A
first essential step is to understand the consequences of this duty on key equipment and be ready
to handle any maintenance and refurbishment needs that occur. This handbook will be an aid to
plant personnel dealing with those needs.
Program
2005 Program 068.0 I&C and Automation for Improved Plant Operations
2005 Program 070.0 Workforce Training an
2005 Program 071.0 Combustion Performance and NOx Control
2005 Program 073.0 Post-Combustion NOx Control
2005 Program 075.0 Integrated Environmental Controls (Hg SO2 NOx & Particulate)
16-22
Retrofits for Improved Heat Rate and Availability: Circulating Water Heat
Recovery Retrofits
Product Number
GS-7009
Date Published
November 1990
Details
Abstract
Circulating water heat recovery is a means of directly increasing the thermal efficiency of a
power plant. If only fuel savings are considered, the economic benefit is often only marginal.
However, when increased megawatt output and heat-rate improvements are included in the
economic analysis, such retrofits can be attractive, with break-even fuel costs sometimes
approaching $1/million Btu.
Background
This project is part of research project RP1403, Improved Coal-Fired Power Plants, an
industrywide effort to develop improved cost-effective technology for construction or retrofit of
fossil-fired power plants. Circulating water heat recovery is a direct method to improve cycle
thermal efficiency, but the economic attractiveness of this retrofit technology is strongly tied to
the specific configuration of a plant, local fuel costs, and other site-dependent factors. This
project was undertaken to provide a consistent methodology for determining what combination
of factors makes the technology economically advantageous at a specific plant site.
Objective
To provide a general technique for evaluating the economic potential of a circulating water
heat recovery retrofit for a fossil fuel power plant.
Approach
In this generic study, the researchers first reviewed utility experience with circulating water heat
recovery and then developed guidelines for retrofit of this technology, based on physical,
operational, and economic considerations. Four basic concepts were considered for in-depth
evaluation: combustion air preheating with condenser circulating water, a preheating loop for
post-flue gas desulfurization system reheat, building heating with circulating water, and
combustion air preheating with condensate. Heat pump retrofit options were also studied.
Retrofit evaluation included plant performance characteristics and an economic evaluation based
on heat exchanger design.
16-23
Results
Utility operating experience with circulating water heat recovery has been generally favorable.
Two cases are documented in detail. Heat pumps were not found to be economically attractive in
this application. The capital and operating costs of the heat pumps were essentially additive to
other costs, and the option was therefore expensive. Fuel costs, ambient temperature, sulfur
content of the fuel, and plant life were found to influence retrofit economics significantly. The
benefits of incremental improvements in heat rate and increased megawatt output (in a winter
peaking situation) as a result of the retrofit produced favorable retrofit economics. These benefits
resulted in break-even fuel costs for the retrofit approaching $1/10 million Btu in some of the
cases considered. A graphical summary of results provides a convenient means to estimate
break-even costs at a specific plant site.
EPRI Perspective
This report should provide a useful guide to utility engineers interested in the economics of a
circulating water heat recovery retrofit for a specific power station. The 11 examples considered
in this study, plus a list of the various factors that should be considered in an evaluation, provide
a solid basis for the guidelines. In performing a retrofit evaluation, the utility engineer should be
sure to assign appropriate value to improvements in plant heat rate and increased megawatt
output rather than consider fuel savings alone. This report is one of a series from research project
RP1403, Improved Coal-Fired Power Plants, which includes EPRI report GS-6772, Variable
Pressure Operation: An Assessment, and other EPRI technical reports to be published in 1991 on
header feedwater heater retrofits.
Program
Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry
16-24
17
PROCEEDINGS
17-1
Cycle Chemistry Conferences

Ninth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil and Combined Cycle
Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators
Product Number
1020563
Date Published
January 2010
Details
Abstract
Proper selection, application, and optimization of cycle chemistry have long been recognized as
integral to ensuring the highest possible levels of component availability and reliability in fossilfired generating plant units. These proceedings of the Ninth EPRI International Conference on
Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants address state-of-the-art practices in conventional and
combined-cycle plants. The content provides a worldwide perspective on cycle chemistry
practices and insight on industry issues and research priorities.
Objective
The EPRI International Cycle Chemistry Conferences are held at three-year intervals. The
objective is to collect, present, evaluate, and exchange technical information on established cycle
chemistry and chemistry-related corrosion control practices for the steam-water cycles of fossilfired conventional and combined-cycle units with heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs).
Approach
EPRI sponsored, arranged, and publicized the Ninth International Conference on Cycle
Chemistry in Fossil and Combined-Cycle Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators, which
was held June 30July 2, 2009, in Boston, Massachusetts. The organizers developed a program
to provide a comprehensive view of cycle chemistry, including such topics as organizational
approaches to cycle chemistry, boiler and HRSG chemistry, steam purity and turbine chemistry,
monitoring instrumentation, deposition, condensate polishing, makeup water treatment,
shutdown protection for idle units, and international chemistry practices. The conference was
attended by 125 delegates from 16 countries, representing 82 organizations involved in fossil
power generation.
17-2
Results
The conference program reflects the improvements that have been made in cycle chemistry in
fossil plants over the last two decades. The forum permitted an open exchange of ideas among
the attendees through question and answer sessions. Attendees provided input for a survey on
plant cycle chemistry and participated in discussion groups that identified and prioritized future
research needs. These proceedings include all of the conference papers, group discussion reports,
and survey results. Collectively, this information provides a clear picture of fossil chemistry
practices and needs. Trends and concerns of interest include the following:
Drum boiler chemical control treatment regimes remained unchanged from the 2006 survey;
with phosphate treatment remaining the most common boiler water treatment regime (>50%)
followed by all-volatile treatment (~35%).
Once-through boiler chemical control treatment remained unchanged from 2006, oxygenated
treatment was the most prevalent treatment by a 2 to 1 margin over all-volatile treatment.
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) damage awareness reached a new high, with 86% of the
responding organizations indicating problems in their plants.
For the first time, the use of alternative amines was surveyed and found to be in use in 8% of
drum boilers.
The number one concern expressed by attending members was managing fossil unit
shutdown, lay-up, and startupdespite the very limited use of shutdown protection methods
by most of the attending organizations (there was an increase from previous survey results).
Improved methods for monitoring corrosion product transport and corrosion damage on a
continuous basis was also an interest of attending members, particularly the use of particle
monitoring technology for monitoring iron corrosion product transport.
Increased emphasis was placed on tracking the costs of cycle chemistry; many organizations
reported that their costs were substantial. Improving the understanding of the value of good
chemistry was cited as an area of need by many of the attending organizations.

The conference proceedings are a valuable information source for personnel responsible for
chemistry in fossil generating units. This content may be used in evaluating existing chemistry
practices as well as chemistry-related damage and failures. It also provides an overview of the
practices and perspectives of other organizations around the world.
EPRI Perspective
Deficiencies in cycle chemistry problems represent possible root causes for a host of damage
mechanisms affecting conventional boilers, HRSGs, steam turbines, feedwater heaters,
deaerators, condensers, and other components and piping of water and steam touch surfaces in
fossil units. Avoidance of such damage through an understanding of the responsible mechanisms
and implementation of proper chemistry programs minimizes the risk of chemistry-related
damage, component failures, and resultant impacts on unit availability and reliability. The
conference structure allows the sharing of knowledge and experience that can help fossil plant
technical and operations personnel to evaluate and identify possible improvements for their cycle
chemistry programs.
17-3
Proceedings: Eighth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil and

Combined Cycle Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators June 2022, 2006, Calgary, Alberta Canada
Product Number
1014831
Date Published
March 2007
Details
Abstract
Proper selection, application, and optimization of the cycle chemistry have long been recognized
as integral to ensuring the highest possible levels of component availability and reliability in
fossil-fired generating plant units. These proceedings of the Eighth EPRI International
Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants address state-of-the-art practices in conventional
and combined cycle plants. The content provides a worldwide perspective on cycle chemistry
practices, and insight as to industry issues and research priorities.
Objective
The EPRI International Cycle Chemistry Conferences are held at three-year intervals. The
objective is to collect, present, evaluate and exchange technical information on established cycle
chemistry and chemistry-related corrosion control practices for the steam-water cycles of fossilfired conventional and combined cycle units with heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs).
Approach
EPRI sponsored, the Eight International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil and Combined
Cycle Plants with Heat Recovery Steam Generators, which was held June 20-22, 2006, in
Calgary, Alberta Canada. The organizers developed a program to provide a comprehensive view
of cycle chemistry, including such topics as organizational approaches to cycle chemistry, boiler
and heat recovery steam generator chemistry, steam purity and turbine chemistry, monitoring
instrumentation, deposition, condensate polishing, makeup water treatment, shutdown protection
for idle units, and international chemistry practices. The conference was attended by 142
delegates from 15 countries, representing 45 organizations involved in fossil power generation.
Results
The conference program reflects the improvements that have been made in cycle chemistry in
fossil plants over the last two decades. The forum permitted open exchange of ideas between the
attendees through question and answer sessions, which are appended to the presentations. Survey
attendees provided input to a survey on plant cycle chemistry and participated in discussion
groups that identified and prioritized future research needs. These proceedings include all of the
conference papers, documented floor discussions, group discussion reports, and survey results.
17-4
Collectively, this information provides a clear picture of fossil chemistry practices and needs.
Some trends and concerns of interest include the following:
Greater use of oxidizing feedwater treatments, oxidizing All Volatile Treatment (AVT (O))
and Oxygenated Treatment (OT), with essentially all units with once-through boilers now
using OT
Increased awareness of Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) damage, with 70% of the
organizations indicating problems in their plants
Reduced usage of Phosphate Continuum (PC) and other phosphate treatments in drum boilers
as evaporators and increasing use of AVT and OT with signs of growing interest in the use of
Caustic Treatment (CT)
Increased recognition and concern with respect to chemistry during fossil unit shutdown,
layup, and startup, this despite very limited use of shutdown protection methods by most of
the organizations attending the conference65% of participants indicated that improvement
in this area is needed to help improve chemistry in their units.
Contamination due to leaking condensers is an area of continuing concern to many

organizations with nearly half of the organizations indicating this problem was one of their
most serious chemistry concerns.
Increased emphasis on tracking the costs of cycle chemistry with many organizations
reporting their costs were substantialactivity to improve understanding of the value of
good chemistry was cited as an area of need by many of the attending organizations.

The conference proceedings are a valuable information source for personnel responsible for the
chemistry in fossil generating units. This content may be used in evaluating existing chemistry
practices as well as chemistry related damage and failures. It also provides an overview of the
practices and perspectives of other organizations around the world.
EPRI Perspective
Deficiencies in cycle chemistry problems represent possible root causes for a host of damage
mechanisms affecting conventional boilers, heat recovery steam generators, steam turbines,
feedwater heaters, deaerators, condensers, other components and piping of water and steam
touch surfaces in fossil units. Avoidance of such damage through an understanding of the
responsible mechanisms and implementation of proper chemistry programs minimizes the risk of
chemistry-related damage, component failures, and resultant impacts on unit availability and
reliability. The conference structure provides for sharing of knowledge and experience that can
help fossil plant technical and operations personnel to evaluate and identify possible
improvements for their cycle chemistry programs.
17-5
Proceedings: 7th International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants

Product Number
1009194
Date Published
February 2004
Details
Abstract
The purity of boiler water, feedwater, and steam is central to ensuring component availability
and reliability in fossil-fired plants. These proceedings of EPRI's Seventh International
Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants address the state of the art in fossil plant and
combined cycle/heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) cycle chemistry as well as international
practices for corrosion control and water preparation and purification.
Objective
The objective of this conference was to evaluate and exchange technical information on
established chemistry and corrosion control practices for water and steam systems in fossil-fired
power plants and for HRSGs.
Approach
EPRI sponsored the Seventh International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants, held
June 3-5, 2003, in Houston, Texas. More than 140 participants attended the conference,
representing 12 countries and 55 utilities/operators. The presentations focused on technical areas
related to boiler, turbine, and feedwater chemistry, instrumentation and analysis, condensate
polishing, combined cycle/HRSG chemistry, and cycle chemistry improvement programs. In
addition, EPRI conducted a survey of participants to determine their experience with cycle
chemistry as well as priorities for cycle chemistry improvements and future research and
development.
The industry continues to make great strides in cycle chemistry since the first international
conference in 1985. These proceedings contain the papers, discussions, and survey results of the
Seventh International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants. Some key points follow:
In conventional plants, most drum units (around 65%) continue to operate with phosphate
treatment. Phosphate hideout and acid phosphate corrosion have been reduced markedly
since the introduction of EPRI's 1994 phosphate guidelines, "Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for
Fossil Plants: Phosphate Treatment for Drum Units" (report number TR-103665). However,
over 80% of operators are experiencing cycle chemistry influenced tube failures, with most
occurring in units operating with very low levels of phosphate (equilibrium phosphate
treatment, EPT).
17-6
Approximately 60% of organizations continue to experience flow-accelerated corrosion

(FAC), with the heater drain lines being the most predominant area. Two-phase FAC is now
being recognized, especially in the shell side of low pressure heaters, even on units operating
with oxygenated treatment.
Very slow progress is being made in improving shutdown and layup procedures. For
example, only 12% of organizations provide any protection to the steam turbine during
shutdown.
More than 75% of organizations do not know the total cost/year of cycle chemistry and
corrosion problems. Corporate-supported cycle chemistry improvement programs have been
shown to produce tremendous benefits.
Among the leading cycle chemistry problems in conventional plants are condenser leaks,
turbine corrosion and deposition, and boiler tube failures (corrosion fatigue and hydrogen
damage). Education of management and operators remains the biggest need.
In HRSGs, the leading chemically influenced problems include FAC, corrosion fatigue, and
hydrogen damage. Too many operators still do not select and optimize the feedwater and
evaporator treatments to address these damage mechanisms.
EPRI Perspective
Failure mechanisms in the boiler, turbine, feedwater heaters, and condensers of fossil power
plants and in HRSGs can be directly related to water and steam purity. By understanding the root
cause of problems relating to water and steam contaminants, utilities and operators can eliminate
or mitigate damage from corrosion, scaling, and deposition. Additionally, enhancing water and
steam quality through cycle chemistry control can greatly improve fossil plant and HRSG
availability. To help operators establish good cycle chemistry control techniques, EPRI has
sponsored six previous conferences, held every three years since 1985. EPRI also has published a
number of guideline documents, which most utilities have customized. The conference
confirmed the need for a revised set of EPRI treatment guidelines. A revised all-volatile
treatment (AVT) guideline was published in 2002 (EPRI Report 1004187), and a new phosphate
continuum and caustic treatment guideline will be published in 2004 (1004188).
Program
History
17-7
Proceedings: Sixth International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry

Product Number
1001363
Date Published
March 2001
Details
Abstract
and reliability in fossil-fired plants. These conference proceedings address the state of the art in
fossil plant and combined cycle/heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) cycle chemistry as well
as international practices for control of corrosion and water preparation and purification.
Background
plants and in HRSGs can be directly related to water and steam purity. By understanding the root
cause of problems relating to water and steam contaminants, utilities and operators can eliminate
or mitigate damage from corrosion, scaling, and deposition. Additionally, enhancing water and
steam quality through cycle chemistry control can greatly improve fossil plant and HRSG
availability. To help operators establish good cycle chemistry control techniques, EPRI has
sponsored five previous conferences, held every three years since 1985. EPRI also has published
a number of guideline documents, which most utilities have customized.
Objective
To evaluate and exchange technical information on established chemistry and corrosion control
practices for water and steam systems in fossil-fired power plants and for HRSGs.
Approach
EPRI sponsored this international conference on June 27-29, 2000, in Columbus, Ohio. More
than 180 participants attended the conference, representing 20 countries and over 50 utilities and
operators. The presentations focused on technical areas related to boiler, turbine, and feedwater
chemistry instrumentation and analysis, condensate polishing, combined cycle/HRSG chemistry,
and cycle chemistry improvement programs. Participants in four working groups discussed
priorities for cycle chemistry improvements and for future research and development. In
addition, EPRI conducted a survey of participants concerning their experience with cycle
chemistry.
17-8

The industry continues to make great strides in cycle chemistry since the first conference in
1985. These proceedings contain the papers, discussions, working group summaries, and the
survey results of this conference. Some key points follow:
An increasing number of utilities (around 80 percent) believe that their boiler water and
steam purity limits are in agreement with EPRI guidelines. About 65 percent believe their
cycle chemistry monitoring is adequate.
The detection or recognition of flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) has increased from 40 to

60 percent of utilities over the last three years. The most predominant area for FAC is now in
heater drain lines, followed by piping/tubing around the economizer inlet header and around
the boiler feed pump.
Most organizations (around 75 percent) still use phosphate to control boiler water. However,
the introduction of the EPRI Phosphate Guidelines (EPRI Report TR-103665) has
contributed to a major improvement in the industry since its introduction in 1994. Phosphate
hideout and corrosion have been reduced markedly.
The whole area of shutdown and layup is not advancing in the industry despite the
publication of EPRI's new guideline (TR-107754). Only 12 percent of the utility participants
nitrogen blanket feedwater heaters during shutdown, only 38 percent blanket the boiler, and
almost 80 percent of operators put makeup into a vented storage tank.
Over 70 percent of utilities do not know the total cost/year of cycle chemistry and corrosion
problems. An increasing number of utilities recognize that training operators, management,
and chemical staff is vital for cycle chemistry improvement and that an expert system is
useful to control cycle chemistry.
The items that ranked highly for further development include tools to quantify the value of
good chemistry, the development of inexpensive condensate polishers, the revision of EPRI's
treatment guidelines, and the development of new steam limits.
Program
History
17-9
Proceedings: Fifth International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry

Product Number
TR-108459
Date Published
June 1997
Details
Abstract
and reliability in fossil-fired plants. These conference proceedings address the U.S. state-of-theart in fossil plant cycle chemistry as well as international practices for control of corrosion and
water chemistry.
Background
plants can be directly related to water and steam purity. By understanding the root cause of
problems relating to water and steam contaminants, utilities can eliminate or mitigate damage
from corrosion, scaling, and deposition. Additionally, enhancing water and steam quality through
cycle chemistry control can greatly improve fossil plant availability. To help utilities establish
good cycle chemistry control techniques, EPRI sponsored four previous conferences in 1985,
1988, 1991, and 1994. EPRI has also published a number of guideline documents, which most
utilities have customized.
Objective
To evaluate and exchange technical information on established chemistry and corrosion
control practices for water and steam systems in fossil-fired power plants
Approach
EPRI sponsored this international conference, with Duke Power as the host utility, June 10-12,
1997, in Charlotte. More than 200 participants attended the conference, representing 19 countries
and over 65 utilities. The presentations focused on technical areas related to boiler, turbine, and
feedwater chemistry, instrumentation and analysis, condensate polishing, combined cycle
chemistry and cycle chemistry improvement programs. Participants in working groups discussed
priorities for cycle chemistry improvements and future R&D. In addition, EPRI conducted a
survey of participants concerning their experience with cycle chemistry.
17-10

The utility industry continues to make great strides in cycle chemistry since the first conference
in 1985. These proceedings contain the papers, discussions, working group summaries, and the
survey results of this conference. Some key points follow:
An increasing number of utilities (over 80%) believe that their boiler water and steam purity
limits are in agreement with the EPRI guidelines. Over 70% believe that their cycle
chemistry monitoring is adequate. However, it is clear that availability and corrosion
problems such as flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) and copper deposition on HP turbines are
occurring and that major research efforts are required to understand the phenomena.
A marked improvement in the use of phosphate treatment has occurred since the last
conference as EPRI's new phosphate guideline is being used by the industry. Over 30% fewer
utilities are now experiencing hideout and corrosion.
FAC has emerged in fossil plants over the last three years as a serious corrosion mechanism
in the feedwater. The following areas are primarily affected: piping around the boiler feed
pump and economizer inlet header, economizer inlet header, economizer inlet header tubing,
HP feedwater heater tubesheet and tubes, and heater drain lines.
Only 13% of the utility participants nitrogen blanket feedwater heaters during shutdown, and
only 35% blanket the boiler. These procedures will need to be further adopted and will be
one focus in the new EPRI Cycling/Startup/Shutdown/Layup Guideline.
Over 60% of the utilities do not know the cost/yr of cycle chemistry and corrosion problems.
However, an increasing number (around 70%) now recognize that an expert system/advisor
will be key to controlling cycle chemistry in the future and reducing the costs associated with
corrosion.
Program
History
17-11
Proceedings: Second Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Conference

Product Number
GS-6166
Date Published
December 1988
Details
Abstract
and reliability in fossil-fired plants. These conference proceedings present discussions on the
state of the art in U.S. and international practices for the control of corrosion and water and
steam chemistry.
Background
Failure mechanisms in the boiler, turbine, feedwater heaters, and condensers can be directly
related to water and steam quality. By understanding the root cause of problems relating to water
and steam contaminants, utilities could eliminate or mitigate damage from corrosion, scaling,
and deposition. In addition, improving water and steam quality through cycle chemistry control
can greatly improve fossil plant availability. To help utilities establish good cycle chemistry
control techniques, EPRI sponsored a conference in 1985 (EPRI report CS-4950) and issued
interim consensus guidelines (report CS-4629)--which many utilities have customized--and
complementary instrumentation and control guidelines (report CS-5164).
Objective
To evaluate and exchange technical information on established chemistry and corrosion
control practices for water and steam systems in fossil-fired power plants
Approach
EPRI sponsored a second conference on plant cycle chemistry in Seattle, August 30-September
1, 1988. More than 150 participants attended the conference, representing 14 countries and 65
utilities. The 26 presentations focused on technical areas related to boiler, turbine, and cycling
chemistry: monitoring (including instrumentation and diagnosis), alternative control chemistries,
chemical cleaning, and ion-exchange systems. Participants, in working groups, discussed
priorities for cycle chemistry improvements.
17-12

The utility industry has made major strides since the first cycle chemistry conference in 1985.
This report contains the 26 papers, highlights from the associated discussions, and summaries of
discussions from the working groups. Key points follow:
North American utilities predominantly use phosphate or all-volatile treatment (AVT)

chemistries for subcritical units and deoxygenated AVT chemistry for supercritical, oncethrough units. Phosphate use presents many problems: hideout, serious water-wall corrosion,
and ineffective control of cycling units. For all types of units and chemistries, deposition of
feedwater corrosion products occurs on water-wall surfaces. These deposits--the precursors
of most boiler tube failures--require periodic chemical cleaning for removal.
Most utilities in countries other than the United States use AVT or caustic chemistry in
subcritical units and an oxidizing chemistry with neutral or alkaline pH on supercritical units.
These utilities report much lower transport of feedwater corrosion products, longer intervals
between chemical cleaning or often no need for such cleaning, and a very low incidence of
corrosion-related boiler tube failure and turbine low-pressure blade problems.
Many utilities worldwide are monitoring the entire cycle in great detail. This effort is
providing data that will ultimately help utilities to improve steam purity control, to better
understand contaminant distribution between water and steam, and to identify key parameters
and locations requiring continuous monitoring.
The working groups defined major areas for further work, including studies of steam quality
as a function of operation and comparisons of phosphate with alternative chemistries used
internationally, such as AVT and sodium hydroxide. They also expressed a need for
guidelines for cycling plants, advanced supercritical plants, and fluidized-bed units.
Program
History
17-13
Boiler & HRSG Tube Failure Conferences

Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures
and Inspections
November 25, 2004
Product Number
1013629
Date Published
August 2006
Details
Abstract
Tube failures are the leading cause of availability loss in conventional fossil plants and combined
cycle/heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) plants. The conference proceedings address
worldwide state-of-the-art practices and techniques for understanding and reducing tube failures.
Objective
In conventional fossil plants, the availability loss due to BTF in the United States is
approximately 3% and has increased annually from a minimum of 2.5% in 1991. Similar
deteriorating trends have been experienced around the world. BTF influenced by cycle chemistry
have been increasing since the BTF conference in 1997 (Proceedings: Third International
Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants EPRI report TR-109938). There are no
comprehensive statistics for HRSGs, but cycle chemistry-influenced HTF represents over 70% of
the total. This was the second international conference at which tube failures in both types of
plants were discussed at the same time. The objectives of the conference were to evaluate and
exchange technical information on established BTF and HTF analysis, the prevention of these
failures, and to increase the understanding of conventional and combined cycle/HRSG power
plants.
Approach
EPRI sponsored the international conference on BTF and HTF in San Diego, California, on
November 2 5, 2004. The 39 presentations focused on leading failure mechanisms, cycle
chemistry, NDE, remaining life, and BTF/HTF reduction programs. In addition, EPRI conducted
a survey of conference participants concerning their experiences with BTF and HTF and on
possible future research and development topics.
17-14
Results
The proceedings contain the papers and survey results from the 2004 conference. Some key
points of these findings are:
The leading causes of boiler tube failures (BTF) in conventional fossil plants are flyash erosion,
corrosion fatigue, longterm overheating/creep, sootblower erosion, and under-deposit corrosion.
The leading causes of HRSG tube failures (HTF) are flow-accelerated corrosion, thermal fatigue,
corrosion fatigue, and under-deposit corrosion.
Over 75% of conventional fossil plants experience corrosion-influenced BTF. Hydrogen damage
remains the most prevalent form of BTF.
Over 80% of organizations have management-supported BTF reduction programs, but only about
70% address BTF to the root cause level.
The primary areas that are in need of further research are optimum approaches for corrosion
fatigue, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques for corrosion fatigue and hydrogen damage,
and solutions for supercritical waterwall thermal fatigue cracking.
The conference discussions are applicable to all BTF and HTF mechanisms that occur
worldwide.
EPRI Perspective
The BTF/HTF conferences, held every three years, provide an excellent perspective on the
leading causes of availability loss in fossil and HRSG plants. The survey results help drive the
needed research. Subsequent to this conference, EPRI initiated large projects on corrosion and
thermal fatigue, and is currently developing a concentrated approach of NDE for hydrogen
damage and corrosion fatigue. Work has also been started on a radically new approach for NDE
and repair of HRSG tubes from inside the tubing.
Program
17-15
Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures and Heat

Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Tube Failures and Inspections
Product Number
1007347
Date Published
December 2002
Details
Abstract
Tube failures remain the leading cause of availability loss in conventional fossil plants and
combined cycle/heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) plants. These conference proceedings
address state-of-the-art practices and techniques worldwide for understanding and reducing tube
failures.
Background
In conventional fossil plants, the availability loss due to boiler tube failure (BTF) in the United
States is around 3 percent and has been increasing annually from a minimum of 2.5 percent in
1991. Similar deteriorating trends have been experienced around the world. It has been observed
since the last BTF Conference in 1997 (EPRI report TR-109938) that BTFs influenced by cycle
chemistry have been increasing. There are no equivalent overall comprehensive statistics for
HRSGs. It is known that most of the HRSG tube failures (HTF) are similar to those in
conventional plants. There was an urgent need for a conference where tube failures in both types
of plants could be discussed together.
Objective
To evaluate and exchange technical information on established BTF and HTF analysis,
prevention, and understanding in conventional and combined cycle/HRSG power plants.
Approach
EPRI sponsored an international conference on BTF and HTF in Phoenix, Arizona on November
6-8, 2001. The 36 presentations focused on leading failure mechanisms, cycle chemistry,
nondestructive evaluation (NDE), remaining life, and BTF/HTF reduction programs. In addition,
EPRI conducted a survey of participants concerning their experiences with BTF and HTF and
possible future research and development topics.
17-16
Results
These proceedings contain the papers, discussions, and survey results from the 2001 conference.
Some key points:
Major strides have been made since the last conference in 1997 in understanding the
mechanisms and root causes for all tube failures. Particular attention has been given to HTF.
However, because of continuing changes in the industry, corporate BTF reduction programs
are not being maintained and there has been a serious deterioration in availability.
The leading causes of BTF are corrosion fatigue in waterwalls, longterm overheating/creep in
superheaters and reheaters, fly ash erosion, and underdeposit corrosion.
The leading causes of HTF are corrosion fatigue in evaporators and economizers, thermal
fatigue, and flow-accelerated corrosion. The primary locations of these failures are the low
pressure economizer, the superheater, the high pressure economizer, and the low pressure
evaporator.
Over 80 percent of utilities are experiencing cycle chemistry influenced failures, which is a
marked increase over the last four years. A very disturbing trend is that hydrogen damage
failures are increasing, with almost 60 percent of utilities experiencing these failures.
Over 60 percent of organizations have management supported BTF reduction programs.

However, over 70 percent never train their operators.
The primary areas needing further work were NDE techniques for HRSGs, procurement
guidelines for HRSG, NDE techniques for hydrogen damage, and corrosion fatigue.
Program
History
17-17
Failures and Inspections of Fossil-Fired Boiler Tubes: 1983 Conference and

Workshop
Product Number
CS-3272
Date Published
December 1983
Details
Abstract
Boiler tube failures, a major cause of forced outages in power plants, cost utilities over $500
million a year in replacement power and maintenance expenses. Companies need further
information on the causes of boiler failures and faster, more accurate inspection techniques to
detect boiler defects before extensive damage occurs.
Objective
To provide an opportunity for utility engineers, manufacturers, and consultants to exchange
information on failure modes, root causes, maintenance procedures, and nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) techniques for boiler tubes.
To identify the research and development needs of utilities in the area of boiler tube failures
and inspections.
Approach
EPRI and the Florida Power and Light Company cosponsored a three-day conference and
workshop that incorporated both formal presentations and working group sessions. Prior to the
workshop, a comprehensive survey of utilities had identified major boiler tube problems, the
techniques they commonly used to inspect boilers, and the limitations of those techniques.
Workshop organizers used those responses to focus the meetings on the topics most relevant to
utilities.
Results
About 200 representatives from utilities, vendors, consulting firms, and EPRI gathered to discuss
their experiences with boiler tube problems and to update their knowledge of operational
problems and maintenance procedures related to tube failure. Working groups developed
information on utility operational experience, current NDE practices, and R&D
recommendations for five problem areas:
Wastage, erosion, and corrosion
Overheating, creep, fatigue, and vibration
Hydrogen damage, pitting, and deposits
17-18
Welds, swaged joints, cracks, and attachments
Water chemistry and operating parameters
These proceedings include all formal presentations, output from the working groups, and
questionnaire results.
The survey pinpointed the top four problem components in boilers: water wall, superheater,
reheater, and economizer. Each of these components has defect problems related to operational
parameters, metallurgy, and corrosion or erosion effects. Present maintenance and inspection
techniques were considered inadequate for predicting these failures. The results of the survey
indicate a great need for faster, more accurate inspection methods.
The working groups made specific recommendations for R&D projects in the five problem
categories. The recommendations ranged from the development of an operating guide on water
chemistry to guidelines on tube wall thickness to assist in run-repair-replace decision making.
Further studies of corrosion fatigue failures were also recommended.
Program
History
17-19
Turbine Steam Chemistry & Corrosion Conferences

Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water, Steam, and
Materials During Evaporation, Superheating and Condensation;
June 2225, 1999, Frieburg, Germany
Product Number
TR-114837
Date Published
August 2000
Details
Abstract
The continued protection of the steam turbine in the phase transition zone (PTZ) is vital to the
reliability of power generating and other energy-related equipment. This conference was
dedicated to the fundamental aspects of the corrosion processes and efficiency improvements
that involve the formation of moisture droplets, liquid films, and deposits on turbine surfaces.
Background
This conference was the third of a series dealing with the fundamental scientific and technical
aspects of the interaction of materials with water and steam. The first conference (Heidelberg,
Germany, 1992) was focused on iron-based materials (EPRI Report TR-102101). The second
conference (Piacenza, Italy, 1996) was dedicated to the fundamental aspects of oxidation,
corrosion, erosion, and dissolution of non iron-based materials and their oxides in high purity
and contaminated water and steam (EPRI Report TR-108236). Over the last 8-9 years, much
research effort has been directed towards understanding the phase transition zone (PTZ); and
thus there was a need to bring together the latest knowledge.
Objective
To review research on corrosion processes in the phase transition zone (PTZ) and means of
mitigating them
Approach
EPRI (United States) and VGB (Germany) cosponsored a conference on chemical interactions in
the PTZ of steam turbines. An organizing committee solicited and selected papers for
presentation. The conference was held in Freiburg, Germany on June 22-25, 1999. Over 100
participants from 21 countries attended the conference.
17-20

The conference included sessions on the following themes:
Volatility and Solubility Phenomena
Early Condensate
Moisture Generation and Steam Condensation
Measurement Techniques
Problems and Solutions
Corrosion
Steam Guidelines
Chemical Cleaning and Layup
Some of the key points follow:

It is over 20 years since research was initiated to improve the understanding of processes in
the salt zone and of deposit buildup and behavior in the phase transition zone (PTZ), and how
these influence the major corrosion mechanisms. However, it is clear that these results have
not led to a marked improvement in the overall reliability statistics of steam turbines.
The conference was introduced to the newly measured phenomena of charged condensate
and the whole area of electrostatics in steam and condensate in the PTZ, the turbine exhaust,
and the condenser entry. Research in electrostatics has already led to measurements of the
potential in the liquid films on blade and other surfaces in the PTZ.
There is also evidence that some of the wetness losses and erosion processes can be reduced
by control of the surface tension of the aqueous fluids and/or the surface finish.
The consensus was that this new developing knowledge may result in two major
breakthroughs: improvement in overall unit efficiency by modifying the condensation
process by the application of a high potential (corona) across the turbine exhaust or at the
condensate entry and improvement in corrosion control by combining the electrochemistry of
the charged liquid films with the chemistry and the applied stress.
Program
History
2004 - 2001 Program 041.0 Nuclear Power
17-21
Proceedings: Workshop on Corrosion of Steam Turbine Blading and Disks in the

Phase Transition Zone
Product Number
TR-111340
Date Published
September 1998
Details
Abstract
in the phase transition zone (PTZ). EPRI's Workshop on Corrosion of Steam Turbine Blading
and Disks in the PTZ critically reviewed the state of knowledge of corrosion fatigue and stress
corrosion cracking of LP blade and disk materials, with particular emphasis on the influence of
the local environment.
Background
Over the last seven years, EPRI and international collaborative work have described most aspects
of the PTZ environment: moisture nucleation, early condensate composition, thickness and
composition of liquid films on blade surfaces, deposition of salts on blade surfaces, and most
recently the effect of charged droplets and liquid films. This detailed information needed to be
paired in a workshop format with the state of knowledge of PTZ corrosion mechanisms.
Objective
To critically review the state of knowledge of corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking
of LP turbine materials, identify key deficiencies in this knowledge, and define priorities for
future R&D.
Approach
EPRI sponsored this specialist Workshop on Corrosion of Steam Turbine Blading and Disks in
the PTZ -- held in Palo Alto, California, February 9-11, 1998 -- and invited 24 experts in the
areas of electrochemistry, materials evaluation, metallurgy, instrumentation, corrosion testing,
and the turbine environment. Each made a presentation to define the state of knowledge, while
subsequent working groups developed and prioritized the areas of deficiencies. Two further
working groups identified the R&D needed to address the top eight items.
Results
These proceedings contain the papers and presentations by each attendee, as well as annotated
summaries of each topic. The document details the two sets of working group discussions and
delineates the final R&D plan. Some key points follow:
17-22
In terms of the PTZ environment, the greatest interest was directed at the effect of oxygen.
Research has shown that no measurable level of oxygen can be detected in the early condensate
or in liquid films that form on blade surfaces. In addition, the lowest concentrations of chloride
and sulfate appear in the liquid films under oxygenated treatment (high oxygen, low ammonia).
As oxygen does not appear to be a key influence in the corrosion mechanisms, workshop
participants discussed two other aspects extensively: 1) the new finding that the liquid films are
charged or have a potential, and 2) the effect of crevices on initiation of corrosion cracking.
Workshop participants also discussed the fact that very few operators provide layup protection to
turbines during shutdown periods. This could lead to pitting.
The following R&D items were ranked as the most important areas needing immediate work: 1)
Control of the shutdown/startup environment; 2) Complete understanding of the PTZ
environment, including the crevice environment and measurement of the electrical charge of
liquid films; 3) Detailed understanding of stress; 4) Development of a predictive modeling
capability; 5) Corrosion studies in the reference environment; and 6) Understanding of how pits
transition to cracks.
EPRI Perspective
This workshop resulted in a road map illustrating how the various R&D topics interrelate into a
comprehensive and coordinated approach to addressing serious corrosion mechanisms in the LP
turbine. Future EPRI and international R&D work should be directed toward these items. Most
importantly, any future corrosion testing must be conducted in the clearly defined environments
and not in environments that contain high levels of oxygen. If this test protocol is followed, the
workshop results will lead to a major improvement in turbine availability.
Program
History
17-23
Condenser Conferences
Condenser Technology Conference
Product Number
1010322
Date Published
August 2005
Details
Abstract
This report documents the proceedings of EPRIs 2005 Condenser Technology Conference. This
meeting, held every three years, is designed and organized to provide a forum for the exchange
of knowledge and experience, to identify major problems, and to determine priorities for
additional R&D. The conference attracted participants from throughout the industry, including
vendors, consultants, utilities, and EPRI experts. Examples of the six papers presented over two
days in the plenary sessions included Condenser Tube FailuresTheory and Practices: An
EPRI Manual and Gray Water Cooling in Surface Condensers and Heat ExchangersTrend or
Aberration. Multiple presentations in separate sessions also were made on fouling control and
performance and maintenance technologies. Each conference day ended with panel discussions
exploring a variety of topics, including but not limited to performance monitoring, leak
detection, and condition assessment.
Background
A large body of information exists on damage in condenser tubes and related condenser
components such as tubesheets and waterboxes. Although technical understanding of damage
mechanisms is generally good, past efforts often have not emphasized the practical, actionoriented steps needed to effectively deal with the various forms of damage. These proceedings
were organized to help utility users identify, resolve, and prevent tube failure.
Objectives
To provide a forum to exchange knowledge and experience.
To identify major problems and to establish a clear understanding of priorities for additional
R&D to improve condenser technology.
Approach
The conference was held in San Diego, California, and spanned two days, 31 August to 1
September, 2005. Participants included representatives from vendors, consultants, utilities, and
EPRI experts.
17-24
Key Points
Each of the conferences two days included a plenary session. Plenary presentations for day one
were Condenser Tube FailuresTheory and Practices: An EPRI Manual, Improving The
Reliability of a BWR Through a Condenser Condition Assessment, and Modification of
Extraction Steam Expansion Joints in Low Pressure Condensers to Improve Plant Reliability,
Availability, and Reduce Maintenance. Day twos plenary session topics were Vibration
Prevention Goes Beyond Support Plate Spacing, AmerenUE Labadie Unit 2 Copper-Beryllium
Tube Development of a Cobalt-Phthalocyanine Catalytic Thin Film to Inhibit Tubeside Biofilm
Adherence in Copper-Beryllium Heat Exchanger Tubing, and Gray Water Cooling in Surface
Condensers and Heat ExchangersTrend or Aberration. Over the two days, multiple
presentations also were made on both performance and maintenance technologies as well as
fouling control. Each day ended with a panel discussion, Innovations in Performance
Technology on day one and Innovations in Maintenance Technology on day two.
17-25
Condensate Polishing Conferences

Proceedings: 2003 EPRI Workshop on Condensate Polishing
Product Number
1010322
Date Published
August 2005
Details
Abstract
Successful condensate polishing operations maintain control of ionic and particulate impurity
transport to the pressurized water reactor (PWR) steam generator and the boiling water reactor
(BWR) reactor and recirculation system, thus allowing the units to operate more reliably. This
report contains the work presented at EPRI's 2003 Workshop on Condensate Polishing, where 30
papers were presented on current issues, research, and utility experiences involving polishing
issues at both PWR and BWR units.
Background
EPRI sponsors the Workshop on Condensate Polishing approximately every eighteen months to
provide a forum for technical exchange concerning new technologies, data, research, and
practical experiences concerning polishing issues in both nuclear and, to some extent, fossil
plants. Members of the utility, academic and vendor communities have traditionally attended this
workshop. The last two workshops were held in 2000 and 2002 (EPRI reports 1001490 and
1007028, respectively).
Objective
To facilitate exchange of information on current events and new technology developments in
condensate polishing for both PWR and BWR units
Approach
These workshops have traditionally focused on five main areas: (1) current issues in condensate
polishing, (2) PWR issues and plant experience, (3) BWR issues and plant experience, (4)
condensate polishing and system performance, and (5) ion exchange performance. On utility
recommendation, recent workshops have expanded to include reactor water cleanup (RWCU)
issues. RWCU was carried forward into this workshop and also included the chemical and
volume control system (CVCS). As part of the workshop agenda, a poster session and reception
were included, which facilitated the exchange of information in a more informal atmosphere for
the attendees. An informal discussion session also was held during the last hour of the second
day, in which all participants had the opportunity to discuss topics of their choice.
17-26
Results
Over 100 participants attended the 2003 workshop, held on June 16-18, 2003, in San Diego,
California. Participants included personnel from domestic and foreign utilities, consultants,
nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) vendor representatives, resin and filter suppliers, university
faculty members, and EPRI staff members. Thirty formal papers were presented, along with
poster presentations at the poster session.
A variety of topics were discussed. They included ongoing work investigating resin fouling
associated with ethanolamine (ETA) use in PWRs; results from BWR performance monitoring
funded through EPRI; utility operating experiences with new resins, polisher bypass, and
alternate system configurations (including retrofits and vessel servicing); and scientific
developments and considerations.
EPRI Perspective
Continued industry enthusiasm for cooperation and technical exchange results in tangible
benefits for all participants. Long-term advancements have been made in condensate polishing
technology over the years, with significant improvements continuing to be made. These
advancements are driven by the type of exchange made during workshops such as this one. EPRI
plans to continue sponsoring these workshops as long as utility feedback endorses their
usefulness.
Program
History
2004 Program 014863 Water Chemistry Control
17-27
Interactions of Materials, Water, and Steam (Including Organics)

Conferences
Proceedings: Second International Conference on the Interaction of Organics and
Organic Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam and Materials
Product Number
1020761
Date Published
March 2010
Details
Abstract
The current worldwide suite of cycle chemistry guidelines contains little information on the
presence of organics in the cycle. In addition, the guidelines do not advocate the use of organic
additives during operation or shutdown. This second international conference was organized to
continue the discussion initiated at the first international conference on all aspects of organics in
power plants.
Objective
The presence and use of organics in power plants remain controversial and subjective because of
insufficient unbiased research or detailed monitoring. The objectives of the conference were to
evaluate and exchange technical information and practical experiences and to derive a set of
needed research and development (R&D) activities.
Approach
EPRI and PowerPlant Chemistry sponsored this international conference on organics in Lucerne,
Switzerland, on November 46, 2008. The 30 presentations focused on all aspects of organics in
fossil, nuclear, heat recovery steam generator, and industrial power plants. A series of discussion
groups was also held. The results of the needed R&D and the conference summary are included
in these proceedings.
Results
These proceedings contain the papers from the 2008 International Conference on the Interaction
of Organics and Organic Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam, and Materials. Key
points include the following:
There was no irrefutable quantitative evidence that organics and/or organic breakdown
products are directly involved in power plant damage.
A great deal of work has been conducted on the identification of organics in the plant cycle,
but a more thorough understanding of decomposition products and chemical properties (such
as surface tension, viscosity, and solubility) is required.
17-28
More research is needed on the application of organics as treatment chemicals and for
shutdown and layup.
Very little work has been conducted on the use of organics to improve power plant efficiency
or on the economics of use.

The papers, discussions, and summary contained in these proceedings are applicable to all power
plants.
EPRI Perspective
This conference was the fifth in a series dealing with the fundamental scientific and technical
aspects of the interaction of materials with water and steam. The first conference, Interaction of
Iron-Based Materials with Water and Steam: Proceedings of an International Conference
(Electric Power Research Institute [EPRI] report TR-102101) held in Heidelberg, Germany, in
1992, was focused on iron-based materials. The second conference, Interaction of Non-IronBased Materials with Water and Steam (EPRI report TR-108236), held in Piacenza, Italy, in
1996, was dedicated to the fundamental aspects of oxidation, corrosion, erosion, and dissolution
of non-iron-based materials and their oxides in high purity and contaminated water and steam.
The third conference, Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water, Steam, and
Materials During Evaporation, Superheating, and Condensation (EPRI report TR-114837), held
in Freiburg, Germany, in 1999, concentrated on the aspects of evaporation, condensation,
nucleation, and corrosion in the phase transition zone of the low-pressure steam turbine. The
fourth conference, International Conference on the Interaction of Organics and Organic Cycle
Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam, and Materials (EPRI report 1013630), held in Stuttgart,
Germany, in 2005, reviewed the current state of knowledge on organics with respect to cycle
chemistry. The current conference was a follow-up effort and will similarly lead to further EPRI
research that will allow the current suite of cycle chemistry treatment guidelines to be revised.
Program
17-29
Proceedings: International Conference on the Interaction of Organics and

Organic Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam, and Materials
Product Number
1013630
Date Published
August 2006
Details
Abstract
The current worldwide suite of cycle chemistry guidelines contains little information on the
presence of organics in the cycle. The guidelines also do not advocate the use of organic
additives during operation or shutdown. This international conference was organized in order to
provide a forum for discussion on all aspects of organics in power plants.
Objective
The presence and use of organics in power plants remain controversial and subjective due to
insufficient unbiased research or detailed monitoring. The objectives of the conference were to
evaluate and exchange technical information and practical experiences, and to derive a set of
needed research and development activities.
Approach
EPRI and PowerPlant Chemistry sponsored this international conference on organics in Stuttgart,
Germany, on October 46, 2005. The 38 presentations focused on all aspects of organics in
fossil, nuclear, HRSG, and industrial power plants. A series of discussion groups was also held.
The results of the needed research and development and the conference summary are included in
this proceedings.
Results
These proceedings contain the papers from the 2005 International Conference on the Interaction
of Organics and Organic Cycle Treatment Chemicals with Water, Steam, and Materials. Some
key points are:
There was no irrefutable quantitative evidence that organics and/or organic breakdown
products are directly involved in power plant damage.
A great deal of work has been conducted on the identification of organics in the plant cycle,
but a more thorough understanding of decomposition products and chemical properties
(surface tension, viscosity, and solubility) is required.
17-30
More research is needed on the application of organics as treatment chemicals and for
shutdown and layup.
Very little work has been conducted on the use of organics to improve power plant efficiency
or on the economics of use.

The papers, discussions, and summary contained in these proceedings are applicable to all power
plants.
EPRI Perspective
This conference was the fourth in a series dealing with the fundamental scientific and technical
aspects of the interaction of materials with water and steam. The first conference, Interaction of
Iron-Based Materials with Water and Steam: Proceedings of an International Conference (see
EPRI report TR-102101 for the proceedings) held in Heidelberg, Germany in 1992, was focused
on iron-based materials. The second conference, The Interaction of Non Iron-Based Materials
with Water and Steam (see EPRI report TR-108236 for the proceedings), held in Piacenza, Italy
in 1996, was dedicated to the fundamental aspects of oxidation, corrosion, erosion, and
dissolution of non-iron-based materials and their oxides in high purity and contaminated water
and steam. The third conference, Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water,
Steam, and Materials During Evaporation, Superheating, and Condensation (see EPRI report TR114837 for the proceedings), held in Freiburg, Germany, in 1999, concentrated on the aspects of
evaporation, condensation, nucleation, and corrosion in the phase transition zone of the lowpressure steam turbine. The current conference will similarly lead to further EPRI research that
will allow the current suite of cycle chemistry treatment guidelines to be revised.
Program
17-31
Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with Water, Steam and

Materials During Evaporation, Superheating and Condensation: June 22-25, 1999,
Frieburg, Germany
Product Number
TR-114837
Date Published
August 2000
Details
Abstract
The continued protection of the steam turbine in the phase transition zone (PTZ) is vital to the
reliability of power generating and other energy-related equipment. This conference was
dedicated to the fundamental aspects of the corrosion processes and efficiency improvements
that involve the formation of moisture droplets, liquid films, and deposits on turbine surfaces.
Background
This conference was the third of a series dealing with the fundamental scientific and technical
aspects of the interaction of materials with water and steam. The first conference (Heidelberg,
Germany, 1992) was focused on iron-based materials (EPRI Report TR-102101). The second
conference (Piacenza, Italy, 1996) was dedicated to the fundamental aspects of oxidation,
corrosion, erosion, and dissolution of non iron-based materials and their oxides in high purity
and contaminated water and steam (EPRI Report TR-108236). Over the last 8-9 years, much
research effort has been directed towards understanding the phase transition zone (PTZ); and
thus there was a need to bring together the latest knowledge.
Objective
To review research on corrosion processes in the phase transition zone (PTZ) and means of
mitigating them.
Approach
EPRI (United States) and VGB (Germany) cosponsored a conference on chemical interactions in
the PTZ of steam turbines. An organizing committee solicited and selected papers for
presentation. The conference was held in Freiburg, Germany on June 22-25, 1999. Over 100
participants from 21 countries attended the conference.
Volatility and Solubility Phenomena
Early Condensate
Moisture Generation and Steam Condensation
17-32
Measurement Techniques
Problems and Solutions
Corrosion
Steam Guidelines
Chemical Cleaning and Layup
EPRI Perspective
It is over 20 years since research was initiated to improve the understanding of processes in the
salt zone and of deposit buildup and behavior in the phase transition zone (PTZ), and how these
influence the major corrosion mechanisms. However, it is clear that these results have not led to
a marked improvement in the overall reliability statistics of steam turbines.
The conference was introduced to the newly measured phenomena of charged condensate and
the whole area of electrostatics in steam and condensate in the PTZ, the turbine exhaust, and the
condenser entry. Research in electrostatics has already led to measurements of the potential in
the liquid films on blade and other surfaces in the PTZ.
There is also evidence that some of the wetness losses and erosion processes can be reduced by
control of the surface tension of the aqueous fluids and/or the surface finish.
The consensus was that this new developing knowledge may result in two major breakthroughs:
improvement in overall unit efficiency by modifying the condensation process by the application
of a high potential (corona) across the turbine exhaust or at the condensate entry and
improvement in corrosion control by combining the electrochemistry of the charged liquid films
with the chemistry and the applied stress.
Program
History
17-33
The Interaction of Non Iron-Based Materials with Water and Steam

Product Number
TR-108236
Date Published
July 1997
Details
Abstract
Continued protection of non-iron-based materials is vital to the reliable operation of power
generating and other energy-related equipment. This conference was dedicated to the
fundamental aspects of oxidation, corrosion, dissolution, and transport of non-iron-based
materials and their oxides in high-purity and contaminated water and steam.
Objective
To organize and conduct an international conference on the interaction of non-iron-based
materials with water and steam; to determine the state of knowledge; and, to identify areas
for further research and development.
Approach
Co-sponsors for the conference were ENEL (Italy), EPRI (United States), and VGB (Germany).
An organizing committee solicited and selected papers for presentation. An international
advisory committee of 36 scientists from organizations worldwide reviewed all the papers that
were then revised by the authors. The conference was held in Piacenza, Italy, on June 11-13,
1996.
Copper base alloys in condensate and feedwater
Volatility and transport of copper and its oxides
Electrochemistry and monitoring of copper alloys in high-purity feedwater systems
Chemical cleaning
Titanium in power plants
Materials in light water reactor (LWR) nuclear plants
Generator water cooling systems.
17-34
EPRI Perspective
Cycle chemistry in fossil cycles with copper or copper alloys is a compromise, which means that
the optimum can never be achieved for both iron-based or copper-based materials. Despite
conference papers on the use of oxidizing feedwater chemistries, the consensus was that reducing
conditions in cycles with copper alloys remains the only reasonable alternative.
Titanium and stainless steel are a reasonable alternative for condenser and feedwater heater
tubing. Elimination of all copper or copper-alloys in a fossil plant cycle makes the application of
oxygenated treatment possible.
The papers confirmed the incomplete understanding of the actual copper corrosion process,
copper oxide transport around the cycle, and particularly deposition of copper oxides onto highpressure turbine surfaces.
The deposition in, and the cleaning of, water-cooled generator windings is a very important issue
for utilities operating large generators. Conference papers document the necessity of further
investigations that should result in optimum generator cooling system chemistry.
Non-iron-based materials are applied in nuclear power plants on a large scale. Conference
presentations covered the state of the art for interactions of pressurized water reactor (PWR)
steam generator tubing materials (Alloys 600, 690, 800) and of fuel cladding tubing materials
(zirconium alloys) with the operational environment. Further investigations in this area are
clearly needed and are important for the availability and the reliability of nuclear plant cycles.
A compilation of all plant cycle-related thermodynamic and physical chemistry data into one
volume is urgently needed.
Program
History
17-35
The Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

(EPRI,
www.epri.com) conducts
research
and
development relating to the generation, delivery and

use of electricity for the benefit of the public. An
independent, nonprofit organization, EPRI brings
together its scientists and engineers as well as
experts from academia and industry to help address
challenges
in
electricity,
including
reliability,
efficiency, affordability, health, safety and the

environment. EPRI also provides technology, policy
and
economic
analyses
to
drive
long-range
research and development planning, and supports

research
in
emerging
technologies.
EPRIs
members represent approximately 90 percent of the

electricity generated and delivered in the United
States, and international participation extends to
more than 30 countries. EPRIs principal offices and
laboratories are located in Palo Alto, Calif.;
Charlotte, N.C.; Knoxville, Tenn.; and Lenox, Mass.
TogetherShaping the Future of Electricity
2014 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights reserved.
Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE
FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are registered service marks of the Electric
Power Research Institute, Inc.
3002004151
Electric Power Research Institute

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
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Descriptions of Past Research - Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program PDF

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Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Program

Descriptions of Past Research

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

2 DAMAGE: THEORY AND PRACTICE .................................................................................2-1

Development of In Situ System for Monitoring or Indicating Flow-Accelerated

Evaluation of Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue, Volume 1: Roadmap for Addressing

Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil-Fueled Power Plants: Progress on

11 CONDENSATE POLISHING AND FILTRATION ..............................................................11-1

Boiler Chemical Cleaning Waste Management Manual

Applications, Value, and Use

Influence of Cycling and Low-Load Operation on Cycle Chemistry Control and

Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline: Revision 2

Open Cooling Water Chemistry Guideline

Primer on Flexible Operations in Fossil Plants

Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle/Heat Recovery

OT, which adds oxygen and ammonia to the feedwater

Optimizing applied feedwater and evaporator/drum water treatments

Comprehensive Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants

Application, Value, and Use

Optimizing applied feedwater and boiler drum water treatments

Identifying and responding to chemistry control upset conditions, including identifying

Power plant availability

Compilation of EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines

guidelines address controlling flow-accelerated corrosion, or FAC. (1008082); startup,

Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment

Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment

Application, Value, and Use

Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile Treatment:

Assessment of Amines for Fossil Plant Applications

Interim GuidanceAmine Treatments in Fossil Power Plants

Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC)

Thermal Degradation of Amines in Supercritical Water

Shutdown Protection of Steam Turbines Using Dehumidified Air

Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program

Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program

Cycle Chemistry Corrosion and Deposition: Correction, Prevention, and Control

Developing a multidisciplinary CCIP team involving corporate and plant personnel

Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment

Interim Guidance on Chemical Cleaning of Supercritical Units

Oxide Growth Characteristics in Waterwall Tubes of Supercritical Units

Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment

Power plant availability

Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment

Performance monitoring considerations.

The reports content organization facilitates access to specific subjects.

Guidelines for Turbine Deposit Collection and Analysis

Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice

Plant Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice

Damage to steam path components by various mechanisms continues to result in significant

Field Guide: Turbine Steam Path Damage

Revision of EPRI's Boiler Tube Failure Books

Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures

Application, Value, and Use

Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure

Field Guide: Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure

Feedwater Heater Tube Failure Manual

Application, Value and Use

Condenser Tube Failures: Theory and Practice

Application, Value, and Use

Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants