Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Topic #8: Materials

Processing: Shaping,
Joining and Surfacing
M. F. Ashby Materials Selection in Design, Ch. 11,12

Review of methods for materials processing via

Shaping
Joining
Surfacing
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Understand how to
select materials
using materials
indices
Understand how to
co-select materials
and shapes
Important because it
gives us a way of
quantifying trade-off
between desired
properties
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Metals,
ceramics, glasses

MATERIALS
Polymers,
composites

Flat and dished

Sheet

SHAPES
Prismatic,
3-D

Casting ,
moulding

PROCESSES
powder
methods,
machining...

Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

What information do we need to know

about processes?
Materials
Size & Shape
Tolerance & Roughness
Batch size & rate
Capital Cost

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Processes
1. Shaping

Sand casting

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2. Joining

Fusion welding

3. Surface

Thermal-spray coating

Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Shaping
Kingdom

Family

Class

Member

Attributes
Size Range

Joining

Processes

Shaping
Surfacing

Casting

Compression

Deformation

Rotation

Min. section
Tolerance
Roughness

Moulding

Injection

Economic batch

Composite

RTM

Material

Powder

Blow

Rapid prototyping

Structured
information

Shape
Supporting information
-- specific

Unstructured
information

-- general

Cast Products formed to shape by solidification in mold

Wrought Products formed to shape by mechanical deformation
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Benefits

Drawbacks

Casting

Metals & Polymers

Complex shapes
Relatively inexpensive

Porosity (metals)
Need to machine surface

Deformation

Metals, Polymers & Ceramics

Can refine microstructure
Large volumes

High capital costs

Simple shapes (not hollow)

Molding

Polymers
Inexpensive

Unique to polymers

Composite

Polymer Composites
Techniques improving

Labour intensive
Relatively simple shapes
Small quantities

Powder

Ceramics & refractory metals

Only method for some materials
Near net shape

Dangerous (fine powders)

Powders are expensive
Batch processing

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Shaping Methods Used Most Frequently

With Different Metals
(from Materials Selector, Materials Engineering Magazine)

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Casting: Pressure Die Casting

Comments: Most common for Al,
Mg and Zn castings (low melting
points). Liquid metal is injected into
mold under high pressure until
solidified. Solid component is then
ejected.

Typical Uses: Very common for

metal casings of household
appliances, housings for electronics,
pulleys and drives, gear boxes, etc.

Economics: Expensive tooling

meaning only large batch sizes are
economical.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Casting: Investment Casting

Comments: Metal is poured into
mold made of wax with ceramic
coating. Wax burns away leaving cast
metal. Can form complex shapes
(hollow) from metals with melting
points < 2200oC (also known as lost
foam technique)

Typical Uses: Jewelry, metal

sculptures, high temperature gas
turbines, automotive engine
components.

Economics: Low tooling costs but

highly labour intensive. Good for small
and large batch sizes.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Casting: Sand Casting

Comments: Mold is made out of
sand (SiO2) plus binder. Molten metal
(aluminum alloys, copper alloys,
steels, cast irons) is poured into mold
and allowed to solidify.

Typical Uses: Automotive engine

blocks, cylinder heads, connecting
rods, pipe fittings, manifolds, heat
exchangers, structures, etc.

Economics: Capital and tooling

costs are low, therefore it is good for
small batches. Cost increases
substantially with complexity of
casting.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Composites: Layup Methods

Comments: Simple repetitive
process where fibre preform is layed
down and resign is painted over top.
Next layer of fibre preform is added
and next layer of resin is painted on.
Continue until the desired number of
plies is reached. Best method for
making optimal composite structures.

Typical Uses: Aircraft panels,

small boats, building panels, tanks,
sleighs.

Economics: Molds are

inexpensive but process is slow and
highly labour intensive.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Composites: Resin Transfer

Molding (RTM)
Comments: Reinforcement is
positioned within closed mold and
resin is pushed (under pressure) into
mold under pressure. Resign cures
under atmospheric conditions.

Typical Uses: Car doors and

side panels, propeller blades, boats,
canoe paddles, water tanks.

Economics: Low tooling costs

and comparatively low labour costs.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Deformation: Extrusion
Comments: Heated
metal/polymer is forced through a die
to form simple shape. Process is
limited to ductile metals/polymers.

Typical Uses: Tubing,

automotive trim, railings, rods,
channels,

Economics: For metals, rolling is

more economical; for polymers tooling
is inexpensive but necessitates
secondary processing therefore
increasing costs.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Deformation: Rolling & Forging

Comments: Metal is deformed
between large rolls (rolling) or heated
dies (forging). Using shaped rolls/dies
a variety of shapes can be produced
(from sheet to I-beams)

Typical Uses: Structural

Members; Rolling: square sections, Ibeams Forging: Highly stressed
mechanical components e.g. aircraft
components, connecting rods, etc.

Economics: High tooling costs

therefore only good for large batches.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Deformation: Sheet Forming

Comments: Sheet metal is
deformed between series of large rolls
(rolling) to give a final shape. Other
processes (e.g. drawing) can form
tubular shapes from sheet metal.

Typical Uses: beverage cans,

automotive body parts, pans and cups,
window frames, etc.

Economics: Relatively high

tooling costs restrict use to large batch
sizes.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Powder Methods: Pressing &

Sintering

Comments: Metal or ceramic powder

(plus binder) is pressed together into a die

to give basic shape. This green body is
subsequently heated for a long time at
high temperature to cause the powder
particles to bond to one another
(sintering).

Typical Uses: Ceramic parts (e.g.

filters, spark plugs, dinnerware), refractory
metals parts (e.g. cutting tools) and metal
parts (e.g. automotive cylinder heads).

Economics: Powders are expensive

but the product can be shaped to high
tolerance.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Molding: Blow Molding

Comments: Polymer tube is
blown with hot air to form against
inside walls of mold.

Typical Uses: Bottles and

containers, car bumpers.

Economics: Relatively cheap

compared to other processes.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Molding: Injection Molding

Comments: Polymer granules are
fed into a spiral press where they
become soft. They are then forced
into a die where they solidify. Best
way to produce small, precise polymer
components with complex shapes.

Typical Uses: Everywhere:

containers, covers, hoods, knobs,
lenses, etc.

Economics: High tooling costs

mean that it is only good for large
batch sizes. Production rate, however,
can be very high.
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Joining & Surface Treatment

Kingdom

Family

Class

Size Range

Solder

Section thickness

Welding

Gas

Relative cost ...

Fasteners

Arc
e -beam ...

Processes

Shaping
Heat treat
Paint/print
Surface
treatment

Coat
Polish
Texture ...

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Attributes

Braze
Adhesives
Joining

Member

Electroplate

Material
Joint geometry
Supporting information

Coating thickness
Surface hardness

Anodise

Relative cost ...

Powder coat

Material

Metallize...

Purpose of coating
Supporting information
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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Joining Methods

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Benefits

Mechanical
Rivet, Stitch,
Staple

Solid State
Cold weld,
diffusion bonding,
friction welding

Liquid State
Resistance weld,
arc weld, thermal

Liquid/Solid
Brazing, soldering,
adhesive
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Drawbacks

Inexpensive
Simple to replace
Does not change structure of
joined parts

Corrosion due to cavity, different

materials

Strong bond between dissimilar

metals
Relatively simple

Change in structure near bond

Only works on simple shapes
Only good for ductile metals
Not good for all combinations of
materials

Cheap
Simple
Strong bond (if done correctly)

Corrosion
Change of structure at bond (heat
affected zone HAZ)

Simple
Cheap (on small scale)
Can form bond with little change
in structure

Can have low mechanical strength

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Mechanical: Rivets & Staples

Comments: Three attractive
features; 1. Do not require heat 2.
Can join dissimilar materials 3. Can
join materials of varying thickness.
Corrosion is an important issue.

Typical Uses: Everything from

automotive & aerospace
components to paper and leather.

Economics: Fast, cheap and

economic.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Solid State: Friction Welding

Comments: Parts are rotated
at high speed and brought together.
The heat generated on contact
causes the parts to fuse together.

Typical Uses: automotive

components, agricultural
equipment, joining high speed steel
ends to twist drills

Economics: Capital costs are

highs but tooling costs are low.
Process can be automated.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Liquid State: Manual Arc Welding

Comments: Arc is developed
between electrode and the
component. Flux creates a gas
shield and the metal slag prevents
oxidation of the underlying metal.
General purpose welding technique

Typical Uses: Pressure

vessels, structural steel, and in
general engineering.

Economics: Versitle and low

cost (easy to transport) but cant be
automated.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Liquid/Solid: Brazing & Soldering

Comments: Used when the
components to be joined cant
withstand the temperatures used in
welding. Low melting point metal
solder/braze is allowed to melt.
This may react with metals to be
joined to give a good bond.

Typical Uses: Pipe work, heat

exchangers, bicycle frames

Economics: Low cost and can

be used to small or large runs.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Surface Treatments
Often it is the surface of a structure that
determines its function
e.g. wear resistance = function of surface
properties
e.g. Superalloys for turbine blades

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Benefits

Drawbacks

Heat
Treatment

Metals
Changes the structure of the
metal only at surface
One material

Must be careful of mechanical

properties through the section

Painting

Simple
Cheap

Need clean unblemished surface

Corrosion problems

Polishing &
Etching

Easy method of producing

surface tolerence

Complex shapes are difficult to deal

with

Coatings

Great for corrosion, diffusion

and thermal barriers
Materials with very different
properties for base and coating

Expensive
Interaction of two or more
materials?

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Heat Treatment: Induction and Flame Hardening

Comments: Allows one to
change the properties of a metal
(steel) at surface only. Use local
heating from flame or induction to
heat surface then quench to form
hard phase (martensite)

Typical Uses: Gear teeth,

connecting rods, shear blades,
sprokets, etc.

Economics: Depends on exact

process from cheap to very
expensive

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Coatings: Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

Comments: Vapourize a metal
(e.g. aluminum) and deposit it on
the surface of the component. By
combining a metal with a reactive
gas, hard ceramic coatings can be
formed.

Typical Uses: Automotive

trim, printed circuit boards, turbine
blades, etc.

Economics: Capital cost is

high, but unlike other processes,
does not use toxic chemicals.

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Metals & Materials, MMAT 280

Sources for more information

General:
Metals Handbooks, ASM Materials Handbooks

Shaping:
J. A. Schey Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
Evans and de Joghe The production of inorganic materials
Edwards & Endean Manufacturing with Materials Open University Text
D.H. Martin-Jones Polymer Processing
P.C. Powell, Engineering with Polymers

Joining:
Edwards & Endean Manufacturing with Materials Open University Text
K. Easterling, Introduction to the Physical Metallurgy of Welding
J. A. Schey Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
J. F. Lancaster, Metallurgy of Welding
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