2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at

00:58:53 UTC on 26 December with the epicentre o
the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The shock had a
moment magnitude of 9.19.3 and a maximum Mercalli
intensity of IX (Violent). The undersea megathrust earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted
by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of devastating
tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering
the Indian Ocean, killing 230,000 people in 14 countries,
and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30
metres (100 ft) high. It was one of the deadliest natural
disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the hardesthit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand.

by the tsunami) was felt simultaneously in Bangladesh,

India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the
Maldives.[19] Splay faults, or secondary pop up faults,
caused long, narrow parts of the sea oor to pop up in
seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased
the speed of waves, causing the complete destruction of
the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga.[20]

It is the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a

seismograph and had the longest duration of faulting ever
observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes.[10] It caused the
entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre (0.4
inches)[11] and triggered other earthquakes as far away as
Alaska.[12] Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia.[13] The plight of the aected people and
countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response.
In all, the worldwide community donated more than
US$14 billion (2004) in humanitarian aid.[14] The event
is known by the scientic community as the Sumatra
Andaman earthquake.[15][16] The resulting tsunami was
given various names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, the
The epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and associChristmas tsunami and the Boxing Day tsunami.
ated aftershocks in French.

Earthquake characteristics

The earthquake was initially documented as moment

magnitude 8.8. In February 2005 scientists revised the
estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.[17] Although the Pacic
Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not
changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in
2006 have obtained a magnitude of M 9.19.3. Dr.
Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that M 9.2 is a good representative value
for the size of this great earthquake.[18]
The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately 160 km (100 mi) o the western coast of northern
Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level
(initially reported as 10 km (6.2 mi)). The northern
section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length
of 1,300 km (810 mi).[13] The earthquake (followed The epicentre of the earthquake, just north of Simeulue Island.
1

1 EARTHQUAKE CHARACTERISTICS

Indonesia lies between the Pacic Ring of Fire along

the north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and
the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from
Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor.
Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event,
which are invariably associated with megathrust events
in subduction zones, have seismic moments that can account for a signicant fraction of the global earthquake
moment across century-scale time periods. Of all the
seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years
from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to
the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with
the Good Friday earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great
Chilean earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the
total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic A pie chart comparing the seismic moment release for the largest
1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the dia- earthquakes from 1906 to 2005 compared to all other earthquakes for the same period
gram for perspective. M denotes the magnitude of an
earthquake on the moment magnitude scale.
Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater riding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantamagnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake neously but took place in two phases over a period of
(magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday earth- several minutes:
quake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other
recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were
o Kamchatka, Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0)[21] and Thoku, Japan (magnitude 9.0) in
March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also
spawned tsunamis in the Pacic Ocean. However, the
death toll from these was signicantly lower, primarily
because of the lower population density along the coasts
near aected areas and the much greater distances to
more populated coasts and also due to the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan.
Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in
1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate);
1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American
Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South
American Plate) and 1700 (western North America, Juan
de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). All of them
are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.

1.1

Foreshock

The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a

foreshock, predating the main event by over two years.[22]

1.2

Tectonic plates

Main article: Plate tectonics

The megathrust earthquake was unusually large in
geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600
kilometres (1,000 mi) of fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about 15 metres (50 ft) along the subduction zone
where the Indian Plate slides (or subducts) under the over-

Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the

rst phase involved a rupture about 400 kilometres
(250 mi) long and 100 kilometres (60 mi) wide, located 30 kilometres (19 mi) beneath the sea bed
the largest rupture ever known to have been caused
by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed
of about 2.8 kilometres per second (1.7 miles per
second) (10,000 km/h or 6,200 mph), beginning
o the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly
over a period of about 100 seconds.
A pause of about another 100 seconds took place
before the rupture continued northwards towards the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south,
at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) (7,500 km/h or 4,700
mph), continuing north for another ve minutes to
a plate boundary where the fault type changes from
subduction to strike-slip (the two plates slide past
one another in opposite directions).
The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate,
which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and
is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per
year (2.4 inches per year). The India Plate meets the
Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great
Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries
the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern
Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature
and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate.
These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing partial
melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma
intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earths crust
through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The

1.4

Energy released

volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate tering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks
subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.
as the 7th largest earthquake on record since 1900.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates,
the sea oor is estimated to have risen by several metres,
displacing an estimated 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi)
of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The
waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths
of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire
1,600-kilometre (1,000 mi) length of the rupture (acting
as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as
far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the
sea oor signicantly reduced the capacity of the Indian
Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level
by an estimated 0.1 millimetres (0.004 in).[23]

1.3

Aftershocks and other earthquakes

Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to

shake the region daily for up to three or four months.[25]
As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by
the original earthquake continued to make its presence
felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its
reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable
scientic data about the Earths interior.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days
after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealands subantarctic Auckland Islands, and north of Australias Macquarie Island. This
is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average.[26] However, the
U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.[27]
The December earthquake is thought to have triggered
activity in both Leuser Mountain[28] and Mount Talang,[29] volcanoes in Aceh province along the same range
of peaks, while the 2005 NiasSimeulue earthquake had
sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra.

1.4 Energy released

The tsunami strikes Ao Nang, Thailand.

Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks measuring
greater than 4.0 from 26 December 2004 to 10 January 2005.
The site of the original quake is marked by the large star in the
lower right square of the grid.

The energy released on the Earths surface only (ME,

which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004
Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at
1.11017 joules,[30] or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba,
the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, the
total work done MW (and thus energy) by this quake was
4.01022 joules (4.01029 ergs),[31] the vast majority underground. This is over 360,000 times more than its ME,
equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of energy
use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.081020 J.

Numerous aftershocks were reported o the Andaman

Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The
magnitude 8.7 2005 NiasSimeulue earthquake, which
originated o the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is
not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the
epicenter, and was most likely triggered by stress changes
associated with the 2004 event.[24] This earthquake was
so large that it produced its own aftershocks (some regis- The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MW were

1 EARTHQUAKE CHARACTERISTICS

the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with

2.51023 joules (250 ZJ) and 7.51022 joules (75 ZJ)
respectively.[32]
The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the
Earths surface of up to 2030 cm (812 in), equivalent to
the eect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon.
The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the
planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where
vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded.
By February 2005, the earthquakes eects were still detectable as a 20 m (0.02 mm; 0.0008 in) complex harmonic oscillation of the Earths surface, which gradually
diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation
of the Earth more than 4 months after the earthquake.[33]
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic
ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge
Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm (0.4
in) in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record
section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earths
surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS
Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to
time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal
axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale).
The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from
the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude,
signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes
about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the
antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can
be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the
closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently
encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after
about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1)
can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the
200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered
a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is
dwarfed by the mainshock.

Vertical-component ground motions recorded by the IRIS/USGS

Global Seismographic Network.

laterally and 45 m (1316 ft) vertically along the fault

line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate
(the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have
moved south-west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (8 in).[37]
Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some
coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted
south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk
by 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[38]
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott
surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which
varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and
2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-metre-high
(5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides
several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of
a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long
(300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs
of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km
(6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.[39]

The shift of mass and the massive release of energy

very slightly altered the Earths rotation. The exact
amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68
microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the
Earth.[34] It also caused the Earth to minutely wobble
on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145
east longitude,[35] or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 or
2.4 in).[36] However, because of tidal eects of the Moon,
the length of a day increases at an average of 15 s per
year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will
be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble
of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50
ft), will eventually oset the minor wobble produced by
the earthquake.
The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to
[40]
More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.
These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the

5
height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50
cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these
satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of
the earthquake and tsunami.[41] Unlike data from tide
gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the
middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to
the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.

Tsunami

NOAAs tsunami travel time (TTT) map for the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami. The TTT map calculates the rst-arrival travel
times of the tsunami, following their generation at the earthquake epicenter. Note that the maps do not provide the height
or the strength of the wave, only the arrival times. The number
tags represent hours after the initial event. Map contours represent 1-hour intervals. Red indicates 1- to 4-hour arrival times,
Yellow indicates 5- to 6-hour arrival times, Green indicates 7to 14-hour arrival times, and Blue indicates 15- to 21-hour arrival times. Maps were generated from earthquake epicenters in
the NGDC Global Historical Tsunami Database using NGDC 2Minute Gridded Global Relief Data bathymetry. The map was
created through models based on quality-controlled source data,
and an integration of many data sets together.

Scale showing the size of the tsunami waves that hit Indonesia

kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh
found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 metres (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of
the coastline, rising to 30 metres (100 ft) in some areas
when traveling inland.[4]
Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in
deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was 60 centimetres (2 ft). These are the rst
such observations ever made. Unfortunately these observations could not be used to provide a warning, since the
satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took
hours to analyze.[43][44]

The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres

during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the
Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away
from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami
much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about ve megatons of TNT (20 petajoules). This
the seabed than by horizontal motion.[42]
The tsunami, like all others, behaved very dierently in is more than twice the total explosive energy used during
deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs)
tsunami waves form only a small hump, barely noticeable but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the enplaces the
and harmless, which generally travels at a very high speed ergy released in the earthquake itself. In many[45]
waves
reached
as
far
as
2
km
(1.2
mi)
inland.
of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault aected by the

TSUNAMI

Canada. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis

measured in some parts of South America were larger
than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean.
It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and
directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run
along the margins of the continental plates.[50]

2.1 Signs and warnings

Tsunami wave eld in the Bay of Bengal one hour after the
M=9.2 earthquake. View to the northwest.

earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the

greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west
direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of
the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicenter. It
also beneted from the fact that the earthquake proceeded
more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.
Coasts that have a landmass between them and the
tsunamis location of origin are usually safe; however,
tsunami waves can sometimes diract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami
despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit
harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.
Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fteen minutes to seven hours to reach the
coastlines.[46][47] The northern regions of the Indonesian
island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka
and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to
two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later
despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami
traveled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea o its
western coast.

Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach, Thailand, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in
the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 am local
time.

Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the
victims were taken completely by surprise. There were
no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect
tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around
the ocean.[51] Tsunami detection is not easy because while
a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network
of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even
bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of
the world.

Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacic Ocean

because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire", and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place
there. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring
of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where
this earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that
ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last
major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of
1883. It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7
Some of the tsunamis energy escaped into the Pacic earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean
Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis but did not result in a major tsunami.
along the western coasts of North and South America, The rst warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthtypically around 20 to 40 cm (7.9 to 15.7 in).[49] At quake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of
Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) crest-to-trough kilometres away where the earthquake is only felt weakly
tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami
enough to be detected in Vancouver, British Columbia, strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast.
The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South
Africa, some 8,500 km (5,300 mi) away, where a 1.5 m
(5 ft) high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the
earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach this spot
at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of
the broad continental shelf o South Africa and because
the tsunami would have followed the South African coast
from east to west. The tsunami also reached Antarctica,
where tidal gauges at Japans Showa Base recorded oscillations of up to a metre (3 ft 3 in), with disturbances
lasting a couple of days.[48]

2.2

Aceh province, Sumatra, Indonesia

This was observed on the eastern side of the rupture zone

of the earthquake such as around the coastlines of Aceh
province, Phuket island and Khao Lak area in Thailand,
Penang island of Malaysia and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the
coast to investigate and collect stranded sh on as much
as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results.[52]
However, not all tsunamis cause this disappearing sea
eect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all:
the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising
many people and giving them little time to ee.
As a matter of fact, scuba divers diving around the abundant coral reefs in Thailand and the Maldives were reportedly caught o guard by violent, swirling underwater A two story house damaged by the tsunami showing the tsunami
inundation height in downtown Banda Aceh.
currents. The divers described the experience like being
in a 'washing machine'. Coral reef animals like sh were
also absent as the tsunami pass by.[53]
bigger than the rst. This is the same as that in Khao Lak
One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the
and Phuket Island in southern Thailand. A local resident
tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, very
living at Banda Aceh states that the giant wave was 'higher
close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earththan my house'.[61] Another resident living 2 km (1.2 mi)
quake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders ed to innear the coast on the outskirt of the city informed that the
land hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami
tsunami was 'like a wall, very black' in colour and had a
struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous gener'distinct sound' getting louder as it nears the coast.[62]
[54]
ations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants.
On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket, Thailand, a 10- The maximum runup height of the tsunami was measured
year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied at a hill between Lhoknga and Leupung, located on the
tsunami in geography at school and recognised the warn- west coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda
ing signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She Aceh, and reached more than 30 m (100 ft).[5]
and her parents warned others on the beach, which was The tsunami heights in Sumatra:[63]
evacuated safely.[55] John Chroston, a biology teacher
from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay 1530 m (49 ft-98 ft) on the west coast of Aceh.
north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and lo- 612 m (19.7 ft-39.4 ft) on the Banda Aceh coast.
cals to safety on higher ground.
6 m (19.7 ft) on the Krueng Raya coast ( 3 oil tanks
Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal pop- oated out)
ulation of the Andaman Islands to be badly aected
by the tsunami and even feared the already depopu- 5 m (16.4 ft) on the Sigli coast.
lated Onge tribe could have been wiped out.[56] Many 36 m (9.8 ft-19.7 ft) on the north coast of Weh Island
of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suered fewer directly facing the tsunami source.
casualties.[57][58] Oral traditions developed from previ 3 m (9.8 ft) on the opposite side of the coast of Weh
ous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the
Island facing the tsunami.
tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of
huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water. The tsunami height on the Banda Aceh coast is lower than
Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived half of that on the west coast. Even within the Banda
Aceh coast, the tsunami height was reduced by half from
the tsunami.[59]
12 m (39.4 ft) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m (19.7 ft) a further 8 km (4.97 miles) to the northeast. One of the reasons seems to be that there is an archipelago between
2.2 Aceh province, Sumatra, Indonesia
Lhoknga and Banda Aceh. The tsunami advanced about
The tsunami rst struck the west and north coasts 4 km (2.49 miles) inland at Banda Aceh. Within 23 km
of northern Sumatra, Indonesia particularly in Aceh (1.24-1.86 miles) from the shoreline, houses, except for
province in the fresh morning. At Ulee Lheue in Banda strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls,
Aceh, a survivor described three waves, with the rst which seemed to have been partially damaged by the
completely
wave rising only to the foundation of the buildings. This earthquake before the tsunami attack, were
[63]
swept
away
or
destroyed
by
the
tsunami.
was followed by a large withdrawal of the sea before the
second and third waves hit.[60] The tsunami reached shore In Lhoknga, a town in Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Spe1520 minutes after the earthquake, and the second was cial Region, Indonesia, located on the western side of

8
the island of Sumatra, 13 km (8.08 miles) southwest
of Banda Aceh was completely attened and destroyed
by the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, where its population
dwindled from 7,500 to 400. The tsunami waves were
almost 30 m (98.4 ft) high. Eyewitnesses reported 10
to 12 waves, the second and third ones being the highest. The sea receded (drawback) 10 minutes after the
earthquake and the rst wave came rapidly landward as
a turbulent ow (ood) with depths ranging from 0.5 to
2.5 m (1.64 ft-8.20 ft) high. The second and third waves
was 1530 m (49.2 ft-98.4 ft) high at the coast, described
having an appearance to a surf wave (cobra-shaped) but
'taller than the coconut trees and was 'like a mountain'.[64]
Consequently, the tsunami also stranded cargo ships and
barges and destroyed a cement factory near the Lampuuk coast.[5][65][66] Moreover, surveyed areas by scientists show runup heights over 20 m (65.6 ft) on the northwest coast of Sumatra in the Aceh province with a maximum runup of 51 m (167.3 ft).[67]
In Meulaboh based on survivor testimonies, tsunami arrived after the sea receded about 500 m (0.31 miles), followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and
third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the
height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is
about 5 km (3.1 miles).[68]
Such high and fast waves arising from the epicentre by
a megathrust earthquake were later found to be due to
splay faults, secondary faults arising due to cracking of
the sea oor to jut upwards in seconds, causing waves
speed and height to increase. A large slip of 30 m (98.4
ft) was estimated on the subfault located o the west coast
of Aceh province. Another factor is subsidence at Banda
Aceh (2060 cm), Peukan Bada (>20 cm), Lhok Nga and
Leupung (>1.5 m).[63]

TSUNAMI

The very high fatality in the area is mainly due to the

unpreparedness of the population from such an event.
Helicopter survey showed entire settlements virtually destroyed with destruction miles inland with only some
mosques left standing, which provided refuge for the people from the tsunami.

2.3 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

The major islands aected by the tsunami were in the
South, Middle, and North Andaman Islands. The tsunami
arrived in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands minutes after the earthquake, and it caused extensive devastation to
the islands environment. Specically, the Andaman Islands were moderately aected while the island of Little
Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely aected
by the tsunami.[69][70]
Eyewitnesses at Port Blair recall that the water receded
before the rst wave, and the third wave was the tallest and
caused the most damage. However, at Hut Bay, Malacca
and Campbell Bay locations far south of Port Blair
it was reported that the water level rose by about 12
m (3.3 ft-6.6 ft) from the normal sea level and remained
there before the rst wave crashed ashore.
Reports of tsunami wave height:[71]
8 m (26.2 ft) high at Campbell Bay (in Great Nicobar
Island),
1012 m (32.8 ft-39.4 ft) high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay (in Little Andaman Island).
3 m (9.8 ft) high at Port Blair (in South Andaman Island).
The signicant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay
by steep mountainous outcrops may have contributed to
the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas
the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and
Hut Bay likely contributed to the great height of the
tsunami waves [70][72]
Indeed, many infrastructures near the coasts and buildings were harshly damaged by the waves.

2.4 Sri Lanka

An overturned cement carrier, the Sinar Andalas caused by the

tsunami in Lhoknga.

Other towns on Acehs west coast hit by the disaster included Leupung, Lamno, Patek, Calang, Teunom, and
the island of Simeulue. Aected or destroyed towns on
the regions north and east coast were Pidie Regency,
Samalanga, Panteraja and Lhokseumawe.

The tsunami rst arrived on the eastern coast and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri
Lanka (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some
of its energy has been reected from impact with the
Maldives.[73] Sri Lanka is located 1,700 km (1056.33
miles) far from the epicenter and the tsunami source,
so no one felt the ground shake and the tsunami hit the
entire coastline of Sri Lanka around 2 hours after the
earthquake.[74] It seems that the tsunami ooding consisted of three main waves, with the second being the
largest and most destructive.[75] The rst tsunami waves

2.5

Thailand

had initially caused a small ood (positive wave) as it

struck the Sri Lankan coastline. Moments later, the ocean
oor was exposed to as much as 1 km (0.62 miles) in
places due to drawback (negative wave). This was followed by a massive second tsunami wave, which is in the
form of a ood. Certain locations managed to reduce the
power of the waves through construction of seawalls and
breakwaters.
The largest run-up measured was at 12.5 m (41 ft) with
inundation distance of 390 m to 1.5 km (0.242 miles0.932 miles) in Yala.[76] In Hambantota, tsunami run-ups
are measured at 11 m (36.1 ft) with the greatest inundation distance of 2 km (1.24 miles), and tsunami run-up
measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at 2.411
m (7.87 ft-36.1 ft).[73][76] Tsunami waves measured on
the east coast ranged from 4.5 m-9 m (14.8 ft-29.5 ft) at
Pottuvill to around Batticaloa, 2.6 m- 5 m (8.53 ft-16.4 ft)
in the northeast around Trincomalee and 4 m-5 m (13.1
ft-16.4 ft) in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda.

9
on a nearby building place the tsunami 7.59 m (24.6 ft
to 29.5 ft) above sea level and 23 m (6.6 ft to 9.8 ft)
higher than the top of the train.[74]
In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only
to those in Indonesia. Reports vary on the number of
deaths since many people are still missing and the country lacks adequate communications. The eastern shores
of Sri Lanka faced the hardest impact since they were
facing the epicenter of the earthquake. The southwestern
shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe.
The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists as well
as the shing economy. Tourism and shing industries
created high population densities along the coast.[78]
The coastal lifestyle of people and degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high
death tolls. In addition to the high number of fatalities,
approximately 90,000 buildings were destroyed. Houses
were easily destroyed since they were built mostly from
wood.[78]

2.5 Thailand

9 m (29.5 Ft) at Koggala.

The tsunami hit the southwest coast of southern Thailand,

which was about 500 km (310.69 miles) from the epicenter. The region is famous for its high quality resorts, pristine beaches, spectacular islands with warm Andaman
blue waters and stunning scenery making it prominent
with tourists internationally. Since the tsunami hit around
high tide, its damage was severe. Approximately 5,400
people were killed and 3,100 people were reported missing in Thailand. The places where the tsunami attacked
were Khao Lak, Phuket Island, the Phi Phi Islands, Koh
Racha Yai, Koh Lanta Yai, Ao Nang of Krabi province,
oshore islands like the Surin islands, the Similan islands, and in Satun, Ranong, Phang Nga, Trang and Krabi
provinces.

6 m (19.7 ft) at Galle port.

The tsunami heights recorded:[79][80]

4.8 m (15.7 ft) around the Galle coast.

610 m (19.7 ft-32.8 ft) in Khao Lak.

8.71 m (28.6 ft) at Nonagama.

4.9 m (16.1 ft) at Weligama.

36 m (9.84 ft-19.7 ft) along the west coast of Phuket

island.

4 m (13.1 ft) at Dodundawa.

3 m (9.84 ft) along the south coast of Phuket island.

4.7 m (15.4 ft) at Ambalangoda.

2 m (6.56 ft) along the east coast of Phuket island.

4.7 m (15.4 ft) at Hikkaduwa Fishery Harbour.

46 m (13.12 ft-19.7 ft) on the Phi Phi Islands.

10 m (33 ft) at Kahawa.

19.6 m (64.3 ft) at Ban Thung Dap.

4.8 m (15.7 ft) at North Beach of Beruwala.

5 m (16.4 ft) at Ramson.

6 m (19.7 ft) at Paiyagala.

6.8 m (22.3 ft) at Ban Thale Nok.

The Sumudra Devi, a passenger train out of Colombo,

was derailed and overturned by the tsunami.[77] The
tsunami caused the 2004 Sri Lanka tsunami-rail disaster
which took at least 1,700 lives, making it the largest single rail disaster in world history by death toll. Estimates
based on the state of the shoreline and a high-water mark

5 m (16.4 ft) at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources

Research Station).

Fishermens boat stranded in Kallady, Batticaloa, Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:[74][75]

6.3 m (20.7 ft) at Thai Muang district.

6.8 m (22.3 ft) at Rai Dan.
The country experienced the largest tsunami runup height

10
of any location outside of Sumatra, which occurred at
Khao Lak and the areas of Takua Pa district that are facing the Andaman Sea. Many local villagers and tourists
lost their lives during the event. A maximum inundation of approximately 2 km (1.2 miles) and the inundated depths were 47 m (13.12 ft-23 ft) in Khao Lak.
Surveys conducted show that the tsunami inundated the
third oor of a resort hotel. The tsunami heights in Khao
Lak were much higher than Phuket Island. The reason
for this dierence seems to have been caused by the local bathymetry o Khao Lak. According to some interviews with local residents and aected tourists, the leading wave produced an initial depression, called a tsunami
drawback or 'disappearing sea' eect and the second
wave was largest.[79] The highest recorded tsunami runup
measured was at 19.6 m (64.3 ft) at Ban Thung Dap,
located on the southwest tip of Ko Phra Thong Island
and the second highest at 15.8 m (51.8 ft) at Ban Nam
Kim.[80]

TSUNAMI

Tsunami wave striking Phuket coast.

some eyewitnesses accounts, the tsunami came from the

north and south, and totally washed the central area away.
The ground level here was about 2 m (6.6 ft) above sea
level, but there were many cottages and hotels. Therefore,
the tsunami waves from the north and south destroyed the
area, the south bay opens to the southeast. It faces in the
opposite direction to which the tsunami was propagated.
Further, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don
Island. The measured tsunami height, however, was 4.6
m (15.1 ft) in this port. It indicated that the tsunami propagated around the islands.[79]
Many amateur videos recorded by tourists and locals of
the tsunami at Thailand were televised popularly in the
media.

2.6 Mainland India

Thai navy boat 813 ( police boat ) stranded almost 2 km inland
by the Khao Lak tsunami.

A Phuket island, many of its west coast beaches were affected. At Patong Beach a highly popular tourist place
the tsunami heights were 56 m (16.4 ft-19.7 ft) and the
inundated depth was about 2 m (6.6 ft). The tsunami
heights became lower from the west coast, the south coast
to the east coast of the island. On Karon beach on the west
coast, the coastal road was built higher than the shore and
it acted as a seawall, protecting a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, which was
not facing the tsunami source, the tsunami height was
about 2 m (6.6 ft). In one river mouth, many boats were
damaged. The tsunami propagated anticlockwise around
Phuket Island, as was the case at Okushiri Island in the
1993 Hokkaido earthquake. According to some interviews with the people, the leading wave produced an initial depression and the second wave was the largest.[79]

The tsunami arrived in the states of Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu along the southeast coast of the Indian mainland shortly after 9:00 a.m. At least two hours later, it
arrived in the state of Kerala along the southwest coast.
Tamil Nadu, the union territory of Pondicherry and Kerala were extensively damaged, while Andhra Pradesh sustained moderate damage. There were two to ve waves
of varying height that coincided with the local high tide
in some areas.[81][82][83][84]

The Phi Phi Islands are a group of small islands that were
aected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don
Island opens to the northwest, thus it faced in the direction that the tsunami came from. The measured tsunami
height on this beach was 5.8 m (19.02 ft). According to Tsunami destruction in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

2.7

Maldives

The tsunami run-up was only 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in areas in

the state of Tamil Nadu that were shielded by the island of Sri Lanka, but was 45 m (13.1 ft-16.4 ft) in
coastal districts such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu
that were directly across from Sumatra, which happen
to be the highest on the Indian mainland. On the western coast, the runup elevations were 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at
Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu, and 3.4 m (11.2 ft)
each at Kollam and Ernakulam Districts in Kerala. The
duration between the waves also varied from about 15
minutes to about 90 minutes.[81][83][85] Additionally, the
tsunami varies in height when it struck the Indian coast,
ranging from 210 m (6.6 ft-33 ft) on average based on
survivors accounts.[84]

11
from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including
the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam
district, caused by a 4 m (13.1 ft) tsunami.[84]
The worst aected area in Tamil Nadu was Nagapattinam
district, with a reported 6,051 fatalities caused by a 5 m
(16.4 ft) tsunami, followed by Cuddalore district, with
many villages destroyed.[84] The 13 km (8.1 miles) Marina Beach in Chennai was battered by the tsunami which
swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware.
Besides that, a 10 m (33 ft) black muddy tsunami reportedly ravaged the city of Karaikal, where 492 lives were
lost. The city of Pondicherry, protected by seawalls relatively escaped unscathed in comparison to other areas in
the state.[84]

The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by At the same time, many villages from many districts at
Ministry of Home Aairs:[84]
the state of Andhra Pradesh was destroyed. In the Kr 3.4 m (11.2 ft) at Kerala, inundation distance of 0.5- ishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi
1.5 km (0.31-0.62 miles) with 250 km (155.3 miles) of and on Machalipattanam Beach, which came like a runcoastline aected.
ning wall at the latter. The most aected was Prakasham
damage at
4.5 m (14.8 ft) at southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum
[84]
Singraikonda,
a
beautiful
beach
hamlet.
inundation distance of 0.2-2.0 km (0.12-1.24 miles) with
100 km (62.1 miles) of coast aected.

Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the shing

5 m (16.4 ft) at eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing industry suered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of
transport sector was reported in the tens
tsunami source, inundation distance of 0.4-1.5 km (0.25- damages in the
[84]
of
thousands.
Many buildings and infrastructures near
0.93 miles) with 800 km (497 miles) of coastline aected.
the coast were obliterated.
4 m (13.1 ft) at Pondicherry, inundation distance of
0.2-2.0 km (0.12-1.24 miles) with 25 km (15.5 miles) Conclusively, the tsunami eects varied greatly across
dierent parts of the coast according to the number of
of coast aected.
waves experienced, the inundation distance and height of
2.2 m (7.22 ft) at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance waves, and the population density of the area, as well as
of 0.2-1.0 km (0.12-0.62 miles) with 985 km (612 miles) topological and geographical features that made some arof coast.
eas more vulnerable than others. Besides these factors,
The tsunami traveled 2.5 km (1.55 miles) at its maxi- the number of lives lost was inuenced by exposure to
mum inland at Karaikal city.[84] The inundation distance previous disasters and the local disaster management cavaried between 100500 m (0.062 miles-0.311 miles) in pability. Most of the people killed were members of the
most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more shing community and, in some cases such as Marina
than 1 km (0.62 miles). The inundation distance varied Beach at Chennai and Velankanni in Nagapattinam, they
[84]
with topology and vegetation. Areas with dense coconut were visitors on the beach.
groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw
much larger inundation distances.Presence of seawalls at 2.7 Maldives
the Kerala coast and some of Tamil Nadu coast helped
to reduce the impact of the waves. However, when the The tsunami of 26 December 2004 severely aected the
seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were dis- Maldives at a distance of 2,500 km (1553.4 miles) from
placed and carried a few metres inland.[81][83][85]
the epicenter of the magnitude 9.0 earthquake. IdentiThe state of Kerala experienced tsunami-related dam- cally to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with
[75]
age in three southern districts, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, the second wave being the most powerful. Being rich
and Kollam, which are densely populated with villagers, in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for
due to diraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls.
southernmost district of Thiruvananthpuram, however, The signicantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives
escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the compared to Sri Lanka is largely due to the topogradiracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage oc- phy and bathymetry of the atoll chain with oshore coral
curred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its
by the Arabian Sea and on the east by a network of arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the
[86]
backwaters - Kerala backwaters. The waves receded be- tsunami.
fore the rst tsunami with the highest fatality reported The largest tsunami wave measured was 4 m (13.1 ft)

12

DEATH TOLL AND CASUALTIES

at Vilufushi Island (Thaa Atoll). The tsunami arrived 2.9 Elsewhere in the Indian Ocean
approximately 2 hours after the earthquake.The greatest
tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male The tsunami also devastated Malaysia, mainly on the
island at 250 m (0.155 miles) along the streets.[75]
northern states such as Kedah, Perak, Selangor and
Penang and on oshore islands such as Langkawi island.
[75]
The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:
Peninsular Malaysia was shielded by the full fury of the
1.3 m-2.4 m (4.27 ft-7.87 ft) at North Male Atoll, Male tsunami due to the protection oered by the island of
Island.
Sumatra, which lies just o the western coast.[88]
2 m (6.56 ft) at North Male Atoll, Huhule Island.
1.7 m-2.8 m (5.58 ft-9.2 ft) at South Male Atoll, Embudhu Finothu.
2.5 m-3.3 m (8.2 ft-10.8 ft) at Laamu Atoll, Fonadhoo
Island.
2.2 m-2.9 m (7.2 ft-9.51 ft) at Laamu Atoll, Gan Island.
2.3 m-3 m (7.5 ft-9.8 ft) at North Male Atoll, Dhiushi
Island.
2.2 m-2.4 m (7.2 ft-7.87 ft) at North Male Atoll, Huraa
Island.
more than 1.5 m (4.92 ft) at North Male Atoll, Kuda
Huraa Island.
Tsunami ooding the streets of Tanjung Tokong, George Town,
Penang.

2.8

Somalia

The tsunami spawned from the megathrust earthquake

near Sumatra travelled 5000 km (3106.86 miles) west
across the open ocean and ravaged the East African country of Somalia. Around 289 mortalities were reported
in the Horn of Africa, drowned by four tsunami waves.
The hardest hit was a 650 km (403.9 miles) stretch of the
Somalia coastline between Garacad (Mudug region) and
Xaafuun (Bari region), which forms part of the Puntland
Province. Most of the victims were reported along the
low-lying Xaafuun Peninsula.[87] The Puntland coast in
northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the
waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves
arrived around noon local time.[87]

In Myanmar, the tsunami caused moderate damage.

Though the countrys western Andaman Sea coastline lies
at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were fewer
damages compared to Thailand due to combined geographical and political factors. Bangladesh, located on
the northern Bay of Bengal escaped major damage and
deaths because the water displaced by the strike-slip fault
was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In Yemen, the tsunami
killed 2 people with a maximum runup of 2 m (6.6 ft).[89]

The tsunamis immense power was even detected as far

away as Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that faces the
Indian Ocean. Countries apart from Somalia that were
Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from 5 m (16.4 majorly aected with deaths include South Africa (the
ft) to 9 m (29.5 ft) with inundation distances varying from furthest)- 2, Kenya- 1, The Seychelles- 3 and Tanzania44 m (0.027 miles) to 704 m (0.44 miles). The maximum 10.[90][91]
runup height of almost 9 m (29.5 ft) was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on
a cli near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness ac3 Death toll and casualties
count.
The highest death toll was in Xaafuun, also known as
Hafun, with 19 bodies and 160 people persumed missing out of its 5000 inhabitants, this amounts to the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the
largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west
of the Indian subcontinent. In Xaafuun, small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful
tsunami ood the town.[87]

According to the U.S. Geological Survey a total of

227,898 people died (see table below for details).[1] Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes
in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in
history. Indonesia was the worst aected area, with most
death toll estimates at around 170,000.[92] However, another report by Siti Fadilah Supari, the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be
Apart from lives and livelihood lost during the disaster, as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of
numerous shing boats and buildings were devastated.
280,000 fatalities.[8]

3.1

Countries aected

Chennais Marina Beach after the tsunami.

13

Patong Beach, Thailand, after the tsunami

The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as

the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death
due to the tsunami occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa,
8,000 km (5,000 mi) away from the epicentre. In total,
eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high
sea levels and waves.

rate estimates are available, the number in this column is

the same as reported under 'Conrmed'.
2
Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people
initially declared by Tamil Tiger authorities from regions
under their control.
3
Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners.
4
Does not include South African citizens who died outRelief agencies reported that one-third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high pro- side of South Africa (e.g., tourists in Thailand). For more
portion of children in the populations of many of the af- information on those deaths, see this
fected regions and because children were the least able to
resist being overcome by the surging waters. Oxfam went
on to report that as many as four times more women than 3.1 Countries aected
men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the shermen to return and looking
after their children in the houses.[93]
In addition to the large number of local residents, up to
9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the
peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic countries. The European nation hardest hit may have been Sweden, whose
death toll was 543.[94]
States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the
costliest in human history. Then-UN Secretary-General
Ko Annan stated that reconstruction would probably
take between ve and ten years. Governments and nongovernmental organisations feared that the nal death toll
Countries most aected by the tsunami, with the earthquakes epimight double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive center.
humanitarian response. In the end, this fear did not materialise.
Main article: Countries aected by the 2004 Indian
For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, Ocean earthquake
the time zones of aected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya,
Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, The earthquake and resulting tsunami aected many
Runion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including
(India, Sri Lanka); UTC+6: (Bangladesh); UTC+6:30: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives,
(Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (west- Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others.
ern), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since Many other countries, especially Australia and those in
the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC, add the above Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the reosets to nd the local time of the earthquake.
gion on holiday. Sweden lost 543 citizens in the disaster,
1

Includes those reported under 'Conrmed'. If no sepa- while Germany had 539 identied victims.

14

3.2

4 IMPACT

Event in historical context

See also: Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian

Ocean earthquake
The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about
A.D. 1400.[113][114] In 2008, a team of scientists working
on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west
coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the
most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team
found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a
province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in soil below the second sand layer
German tsunami relief mission team members of AGSEP visiting
led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predetsunami-hit Mullaitivu in Northern Province, Sri Lanka in Jancessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between uary 2005
A.D. 1300 and 1450.[115]
The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined are the
worlds deadliest natural disaster since the 1976 Tangshan
earthquake. This earthquake was the third most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The deadliest known
earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China,
with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though gures
from this period may not be as reliable.[116]
The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history.
Prior to 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and
Pacic Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa,
thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to
120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the
region. In 1782 about 40,000 people are thought to
have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the
South China Sea.[117] The most deadly tsunami prior Memorial dedicated to victims of the tsunami, Batticaloa, Eastern
to 2004 was Italys 1908 Messina earthquake on the Province, Sri Lanka
Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami
killed about 123,000.[118]
In the days following the tsunami, signicant eort was
spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease
spreading. However, the public health risks may have
been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been
4 Impact
the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people aected by the tsunami.[120]
4.1 Humanitarian impact
Further information: Health risks from dead bodies
Main article: Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake
A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because
of widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of
food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were
of special concern due to the high population density and
tropical climate of the aected areas. The main concern
of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide
sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the
spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery,
typhoid and hepatitis A and B.

Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions,[121] with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including
a US$760.6-million aid package for Indonesia), Germany
oering US$660 million, Japan oering US$500 million, Canada oering US$343 million, Norway and the
Netherlands oering both US$183 million, the United
States oering US$35 million initially (increased to
US$350 million), and the World Bank oering US$250
million. Also Italy oered US$95 million, increased later
There was also a great concern that the death toll could to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated
increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because by the population using the SMS system[122] According
to USAID, the US has pledged additional funds in longof the initial quick response, this was minimized.[119]

4.3

Environmental impact

term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild

their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked
Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of
US$950 million. Ocials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former
President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill
Clinton to lead a U.S. eort to provide private aid to the
tsunami victims.[123]

15
national economies will be minor because losses in the
tourism and shing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm elds may have been
contaminated for years by salt water from the ocean.[129]
Even though only coastal regions were directly aected
by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect eects have
spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even
though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple eect could especially be felt in the
inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted
like a starting point for many other tourist destinations in
Thailand.[130]

In mid-March the Asian Development Bank reported

that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments
was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had
received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous.[124] Many charities were
given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom the public donated roughly
330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This
considerably outweighed the donation by the government Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have aected
and came to an average of about 5.50 (US$10) donated shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia
by every citizen.
and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the
In August 2006, fteen local aid sta working on post- depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys
tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths
Lanka after heavy ghting, the main umbrella body for were previously up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m), and are now
aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports only 100 feet (30 m) in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the
and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.
delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new
navigational charts may take months or years. However,
ocials hope that piracy in the region will drop o as a
4.2 Economic impacts
result of the tsunami.[131]
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the
tsunami depends on the scale examined. While local
economies were devastated, the overall impact to the national economies was minor. The two main occupations
aected by the tsunami were shing and tourism.[125] The
impact on coastal shing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been
devastating with high losses of income earners as well as
boats and shing gear.[126] In Sri Lanka artisanal shery,
where the use of sh baskets, shing traps, and spears are
commonly used, is an important source of sh for local
markets; industrial shery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the shery industry has emerged as
a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial
foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the shing eet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave
surges, which will have adverse economic eects both at
local and national levels.[127]

Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return,

pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were completely untouched by the tsunami
were hit by cancellations.[132]

4.3 Environmental impact

While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri

Lankas shing industry, it also created demand for berglass reinforced plastic catamarans in boatyards of Tamil
Nadu. Since over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami,
the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led
to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacriced to cut prices for those who were
impoverished by the tsunami.[128]
Tsunami inundation, Khao Lak, North of Phuket, Thailand
But some economists believe that damage to the aected ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model.

16

4 IMPACT

Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean

earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will aect the region for many years to come. It
has been reported that severe damage has been inicted
on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests,
coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversity and groundwater.
In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of
sewage collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental
impact will take a long time and signicant resources to
assess.[133]
According to specialists, the main eect is being caused
by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil
by saltwater inltration and a deposit of a salt layer over
arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16
to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves
are completely without fresh water and could be rendered
uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served
communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and
aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over
soil becomes sterile, and it is dicult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants
and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice,
mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. On
the islands east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells
on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The
Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the eects of saltwater and concluded that
the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality
one and a half years after the event.[134] IWMI developed
protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater;
these were subsequently ocially endorsed by the World
Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency
Guidelines.[135]

Tsunami aftermath in Aceh, Indonesia

the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the aected

regions state that a relative of the family must bury the
body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to
be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach
from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique
needs.
Conicts and a cease-re

The hardest hit area, Aceh, is considered to be a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no
tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due
to armed conict between the Indonesian military and
Acehnese separatists. Some believe that the tsunami was
divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily
prayers and/or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others
have said that Allah was angry that there were Muslims
killing other Muslims in an ongoing conict.[138] Saudi
cleric Muhammad Al-Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers who used to
in pubs overowing with
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) sprawl all over the beaches and[139]
wine
during
Christmas
break.
is working with governments of the region in order
to determine the severity of the ecological impact and The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led
how to address it.[136] UNEP has decided to earmark a the main rebel group GAM to declare a cease-re on
US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian governForce to respond to requests for technical assistance from ment, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace
countries aected by the tsunami.[137] In response to a talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 Aurequest from the Maldivian Government, the Australian gust 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as
Government sent ecological experts to help restore ma- a justication.[140]
rine environments and coral reefsthe lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has Media coverage
been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef,
in Australias northeastern waters.
In a poll conducted in 27 countries by GlobeScan for
BBC World Service, 15 percent of respondents named
the tsunami the most signicant event of the year. Only
4.4 Other eects
the Iraq War was named by as many respondents.[141] The
extensive international media coverage of the tsunami,
Psychological trauma
and the role of mass media and journalists in reconMany health professionals and aid workers have re- struction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and
ported widespread psychological trauma associated with broadcast media in tsunami-aected areas, in special

17
video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacic Journalism
Centre.[142]
Fraud, false alarms, and panic

5 In popular culture
5.1

Apung 1

Apung 1, a 2600-ton ship, was ung some 23 km

26 December 2004 Asian Tsunami left both the people
inland by the tsunami, and has become a popular
and government of India in a state of heightened alert.
tourist attraction in Banda Aceh
On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, the
Portland, Oregon-based company Terra Research notied the India government that its sensors indicated there
was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in 5.2 Films and television
the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand.[143]
In response, the India Home Aairs minister announced
Children of Tsunami: No More Tears (2005), a 24that a fresh onslaught of deadly tidal waves were likely
minute documentary lm
along the India southern coast and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulence in the
Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006), a two-part televiregion.[143] The announcement generated panic in the Insion miniseries about its after-eects
dian Ocean region and caused thousands to ee their
homes, which resulted in jammed roads.[144] The an The Impossible (2012), an English-language Spannouncement was a false alarm and the Home Aairs minish lm based on the story of Mara Beln and her
ister withdrew their announcement.[144] On further invesfamily
tigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of
Dasavathaaram (2008), a Tamil disaster lm which
a self-described earthquake forecaster who had no teleculminates with 2004 Tsunami
phone listing and maintained a website where he sold
copies of his detection system.[145] Three days after the
Kayal (2015), a Tamil drama lm which culminates
announcement, Indian National Congress president Sonia
with the 2004 Tsunami
Gandhi called Science & Technology minister Kapil Sibal
to express her concern about Sibals 30 December public
The Wave That Shook The World (2005), a PBS
warning being "hogwash".[146]
NOVA educational television-series documentary
about the 2004 tsunami.
Impact on Sweden
Hereafter (2010), a main characters life is aected
The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political imafter surviving the tsunami while on vacation.
pact in Sweden. The hardest hit country outside Asia, 543
Swedish tourists, mainly in Thailand, died. With no single incident having killed more Swedish people since the 5.3 Museum
battle of Poltava in 1709, the cabinet of Gran Persson
was heavily criticized for lack of action.
Aceh Tsunami Museum, located in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, was designed as a symbolic reminder of the
Tsunami warning system
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami disaster, as well as an educational center and an emerSmith Dharmasaroja, a meteorologist who predicted the
gency disaster shelter in case the area is ever hit by
tsunami before it hit, was assigned the development of
a tsunami again.
the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean
Tsunami warning system was formed in early 2005 immediately after the tragedy of 26 December 2004 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around 5.4 Rediscovery of Mahabalipuram
the Indian Ocean coasts.[147]
Another result of the tsunami, respective of Indian
culture, was the water that washed away centuries
Eect on the Earth
of sand from some of the ruins of a 1,200-year-old
The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth
lost city at Mahabalipuram on the south coast of Indue to the seism had several consequences. It displaced
dia. The site, containing such notable structures as
the North Pole by 2.5 cm. It also changed slightly the
a half-buried granite lion near a 7th-century Mahshape of the Earth, more specically it decreased Earths
ablipuram temple and a relic depicting an elephant,
oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially
is part of what archaeologists believe to be an anincreasing Earths rotation a little and thus shortening the
cient port city that was swallowed by the sea hunlength of the day by 2.68 microseconds.[148]
dreds of years ago.[149][150]

18

See also
2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami
2006 Yogyakarta earthquake
Aid Still Required
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System
List of earthquakes in 2004
List of earthquakes in Indonesia
Megatsunami
Pornthip Rojanasunand, a prominent Thai doctor
who took charge of identifying the bodies
Seismotectonics
Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

References

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External links
M9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake & Tsunami,
2004 Amateur Seismic Centre (ASC)
The Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake IRIS
Consortium

EXTERNAL LINKS

Tsunami Surges on Dry Coastal Plains: Application

of Dam Break Wave Equations, Coastal Engineering Journal, 48 4: 355370
The 26 December 2004 Tsunami: a Hydraulic Engineering Phenomenon of International Signicance.
First Comments, Journal La Houille Blanche, No.
2, pp. 2532
The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Thomson
Reuters & IFRC
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in the
Newseum archive of front page images from 200412-27.
Satellite images of tsunami-aected areas National
University of Singapore
Asian Tsunami Anniversary - Thailand Tsunami
Then and Now Comparison Series Zoriah Miller
Recovering a future: Rebuilding lives after the
tsunami British Red Cross
The 26 December 2004, Sumatra Earthquake and
Indian Ocean Tsunami: Field Perspectives on the
Impacts to the Peoples, Cultures, Politics, and
Economies of One of the Worlds Most Vibrant
Regions, Speaker: Tom Casadevall, 26 September
2006. Sponsored by The Center for Global Studies
and Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

23

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami?

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24

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, RibotBOT, Semafore, Sophus
Bie, WebCiteBOT, Ian Gottherd, Therius, Samwb123, Robert Gentel, SpaceDJ3, Hyperboreer, FrescoBot, Sandgem Addict, KSWarrior8,
Aliotra, Michael93555, YUKATRONICS, Citation bot 1, DrilBot, SpacemanSpi, I dream of horses, LittleWink, GWST11, Hoo man,
Ppt1973, RedBot, MastiBot, Serols, , Luph25, Davidcon, Pristino, Electricmaster, Pb541, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Lotje, TBloemink,
Ak2431989, DragonofFire, Jigglydders, Reaper Eternal, GGT, Smishra173, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Lushhhhhhhh, Issueplant,
Britishredcross, DASHBot, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Helium4, Racerx11, GoingBatty, USAir Flight 621, Julian106, Passionless, Stormchaser89, Dcirovic, K6ka, Listmeister, Prayerfortheworld, F, Wackywace, Iwanttoeditthissh, Athn, Chai Wei Jie, Medeis,
H3llBot, SporkBot, Furries, NGPriest, Wayne Slam, Milei.vencel, , John KB, Gsarwa, Platypusmonotreme, Damirgrati, Kristijh,
RockMagnetist, Nz101, RedJohn, TBM10, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Aslamwonders, Iiii I I I, Pmccawley, Intoronto1125, Rtucker913,
Richard-VS-545, Tim PF, Name Omitted, Frietjes, Delusion23, Monsoon Waves, Tomwoollatt, Toodlepop, Kierana402, Runehelmet,
Waorca, Morgandakotahailey, Dreh8293, Ilham muhammad, Laniltm, Spbone, KharlF, Trueblack, RusselP2, Scottyintstone1, Katyperryluv101, Kr1st1 crazydeejay97, Adamthegreat666, Editor 2050, BG19bot, M0rphzone, Nightmare 4U, Mynameisnoted, Boobababe115115,
Kiah123, Si Gam, MusikAnimal, Dynima72, SugarRat, Adriano.93, Ddineshk, ASCIIn2Bme, Tropixblue, Zedshort, MDEVER802, BattyBot, Millennium bug, David.moreno72, NGC 2736, Veevaughan, Cyberbot II, Nelsonwill, ZappaOMati, Adnan bogi, Juandanikevin2012,
Cpt.a.haddock, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Junior5a, G.Kiruthikan, AndiPersti, AldezD, Copperchloride, Alexander1257, FallingGravity,
Redd Foxx 1991, Lizabetha, Melonkelon, PraetorianFury, Everymorning, Soredo, NYBrook098, Ugog Nizdast, Jwratner1, DrBungle,
Tshuva, Whizz40, Liz, Stamptrader, Wolf456123, L Manju, Austrartsua, Japanese Rail Fan, Mohamad Ali Shaq Azizan, Patient Zero,
, Joedo128, MRD2014, ChamithN, Crystallizedcarbon, AmyEBHC, Julietdeltalima, Frevel8093, Masa 117, ThE~fUtUrE~2014,
Jasharpay, AgustinusHal, Prinsgezinde, MB298, Ihmeinen, Sampath347, Willy2000, Quackriot, Srednuas Lenoroc, Lappspira, CAPTAIN
RAJU, AMERIXANPSYCHO, Medstudent95, Rajan51, Destinybossandrebel, Richhomonidquan, GSS-1987, Qzd, Fuortu, Gnash-2016,
SuperCyclonicStorm Imran, GreenC bot, Cr7omg5, Dakota3333777755555, Stannyboy1999, Waughc and Anonymous: 2645

9.2

9.2

Images

25

Images

File:2004-tsunami.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally at Bild:Davidsvgfoto.JPG. Original artist: David Rydevik (email: david.rydevik@gmail.com), Stockholm, Sweden.
File:2004IndianOceanTsunami.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/2004IndianOceanTsunami.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source: NOAA Ocial website, [1]. Original artist: ?
File:2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_-_affected_countries.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/
2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_-_affected_countries.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/2004_Indonesia_
Tsunami_Complete.gif License: Public domain Contributors: NOAA Original artist: Animation fournie par Vasily V. Titov, Sous-directeur
du Service de Cartographie des Raz de mare et Inondations (TIME) du NOAA, aux USA
File:Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Chennai_beach2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Chennai_beach2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Fotograferad av Henryk Kotowski. Original artist: User Kotoviski on sv.wikipedia
File:Chennai_damage_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Chennai_damage_1.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Earthquake_20041226_epicentre.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Earthquake_20041226_
epicentre.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:German_Tsunami_Relief_Mission_Team_in_Mullaitivu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/
German_Tsunami_Relief_Mission_Team_in_Mullaitivu.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jrgenser
File:Graph_of_largest_earthquakes_1906-2005.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Graph_of_
largest_earthquakes_1906-2005.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Richard Aster (New Mexico Tech). Original uploader was 718 Bot at en.wikipedia
File:KataNoiReceding.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/KataNoiReceding.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Khao_Lak_Police_Boat_813.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Khao_Lak_Police_Boat_813.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/electrostatico/321172469/in/set-72157594418089264/ Original
artist: Electrostatico [1]
File:Neic_slav_fig72.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Neic_slav_fig72.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Phuket_after_tsunami_(2004).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Phuket_after_tsunami_
%282004%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Milei.vencel
File:SanFranHouses06.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/SanFranHouses06.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:
Scanned from the personal collection of en:User:Infrogmation Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here.
Original artist: ?
File:Seisme_Sumatra_CADRE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Seisme_Sumatra_CADRE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.ipgp.jussieu.fr/~{}lacassin/Sumatra/SumatraMARS.html Original artist: Robin Lacassin
(CNRS-IPGP) 2005
File:Street_in_downtown_Banda_Aceh_after_2004_tsunami_DD-SD-06-07372.JPEG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Street_in_downtown_Banda_Aceh_after_2004_tsunami_DD-SD-06-07372.JPEG License: Public domain
Contributors:
http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#guid=2d049a5eac608743d0bbca7e2865442b1eccac7d Original artist:
Michael L. Bak
File:Sumatra_waveform_large.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Sumatra_waveform_large.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Rasteraster
at English Wikipedia
File:Tanjungtokongwave.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Tanjungtokongwave.png License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket_NASA.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/
TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket_NASA.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Photojournal - http://photojournal.jpl.
nasa.gov/catalog/PIA06671 Original artist: ASTER: NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team
SRTM: NASA/JPL/NGA

26

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh,_Indonesia,_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10730623535).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730623535%29.
jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Tsunami 2004 aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo: AusAID Original artist: AusAID
File:Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh,_Indonesia,_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10730863873).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.
jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Tsunami 2004 aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo: AusAID Original artist: AusAID
File:Tsunami_26-12-2004_-_Kallady,_Batticaloa.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Tsunami_
26-12-2004_-_Kallady%2C_Batticaloa.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anton Croos
File:Tsunami_Phuket.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Tsunami_Phuket.jpg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Original picture by Zalzadore (under Creative Commons Licence) Original artist: FlyAkwa
File:Tsunami_disaster_memorial_plaque_in_Batticaloa.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/
Tsunami_disaster_memorial_plaque_in_Batticaloa.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Camera007
File:Tsunami_size_scale_26Dec2004.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Tsunami_size_scale_
26Dec2004.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Tsunami_wavefield_for_the_2004_Sumatra-Andaman_earthquake.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/6b/Tsunami_wavefield_for_the_2004_Sumatra-Andaman_earthquake.webm License: Public domain Contributors: USGS
Original artist: U.S. Geological Survey
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0