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International Journal of Mathematical

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Constructing the integral concept on

the basis of the idea of accumulation:
suggestion for a high school curriculum
a

Anatoli Kouropatov & Tommy Dreyfus

a

Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education,

Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Published online: 08 Jun 2013.

To cite this article: Anatoli Kouropatov & Tommy Dreyfus (2013) Constructing the integral
concept on the basis of the idea of accumulation: suggestion for a high school curriculum,
International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 44:5, 641-651, DOI:
10.1080/0020739X.2013.798875
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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 2013

Vol. 44, No. 5, 641651, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2013.798875

Constructing the integral concept on the basis of the idea

of accumulation: suggestion for a high school curriculum
Anatoli Kouropatov and Tommy Dreyfus
Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, Tel-Aviv University,
Tel-Aviv, Israel

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(Received 19 September 2012)

Students have a tendency to see integral calculus as a series of procedures with associated
algorithms and many do not develop a conceptual grasp giving them the desirable
versatility of thought. Thus, instead of a proceptual view of the symbols in integration,
they have, at best, a process-oriented view. On the other hand, it is not surprising that
many students find concepts such as the integral difficult when they are unable to
experience these processes directly in the classroom. With a view towards improving
this situation, constructing the integral concept on the basis of the idea of accumulation
has been proposed (Educ Stud Math. 1994;26:229274; Integral as accumulation: a
didactical perspective for school mathematics; Thessaloniki: PME; 2009. p. 417424).
In this paper, we discuss a curriculum that is based on this idea and a design for
curriculum materials that are intended to develop an improved cognitive base for a
flexible proceptual understanding of the integral and integration in high school. The
main focus is on how we (mathematics teachers and mathematics educators) might
teach the integral concept in order to help high school students to construct meaningful
knowledge alongside acquiring technical abilities.
Keywords: integral calculus; accumulation; curriculum

1. Introduction
This paper is motivated by a very real problem in the high school mathematics classroom:
advanced students have great difficulties with the integral concept. Many students do not
acquire comprehension regarding the concept of the integral and are satisfied, in the best
case, by formal techniques to the solution of the problems. The professional literature (e.g.
[13]) and our personal teaching experience support this claim. Students deal successfully
with common integral questions like identifying an antiderivative and calculating area but
usually fail on non-routine questions that require a moderate level of conceptual underb
standing. For example, Orton [1] observes difficulties with the integral a f (x)dx when
f(x) is negative or b is less than a. Mundy [4] reports problems with integrals such as
1
|x + 2| dx. Bagni [5] claims that the traditional study of calculus in high school allows
1
only a limited conception of the integral. Thompson [6] argues that students difficulties
with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) stem from impoverished concepts of
rate of change and from poorly developed and poorly coordinated images of functional
co-variation and multiplicatively-constructed quantities (p. 229). Thomas and Hong,[3]

Corresponding author. Email: anatolik@post.tau.ac.il


C 2013 Taylor & Francis

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Figure 1.

A. Kouropatov and T. Dreyfus

Area.

and Belova [7] present evidence showing that the ways in which students are currently
learning integrals often leave them lacking in conceptual understanding.
We administered a questionnaire with eight conceptual questions about integration
to about 250 advanced level grade 12 students in Israel from 11 different schools, who
had recently finished studying integrals according to the official curriculum. The students
worked on the questionnaire in their classrooms under supervision and were allowed to use
their textbook and a calculator. The purpose of the questionnaire was to gather information
regarding students thinking in non-routine but elementary mathematical situations relating
to integration. The gathered data are very interesting but far too much to be discussed in the
current paper. Therefore, we decided to present two questions along with a little statistics
just to demonstrate the spirit of the questionnaire and students responses.

1.1. Question about area (based on a question from Rosken and Rolka [8])
(a) Write an integral to calculate the area of the rectangle given in Figure 1.
(b) Calculate the area of the rectangle with the help of the integral that you wrote
in (a).
Our results are consistent with those of Rosken and Rolka. Approximately 42% of
the students correctly answered both (a) and (b), and 15% gave no answer. More interestingly, among the remaining students, a minority (12%) did set up the correct integral
b
b
a 2 b
b2
b2
0 adx but made a wrong calculation such as 0 adx = 2 0 = 2 0 = 2 , without
apparently being bothered by the fact that the result was different from the area ab.
The majority (31%) did not set up the correct integral. They produced answers such as
b
b
b
b

0 axdx, a f (x)dx, a f (a)dx, 0 (a b)dx, and F (a) F (b) + c.
1.2. Question about negative integrals
Claim: If the continuous function f (x) is negative on [a, b] (f (x) < 0), then the definite
b
integral of the function on this interval is also negative ( a f (x)dx < 0).
Is the claim correct? Explain your answer.
Only about 9% of the students answered this question correctly, providing a variety
of explanations. The vast majority (58%) answered that the integral will be positive and

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consistently explained their claim by integral is area and area is always positive (with
small variations). The remaining students did not answer the question.
The evidence is consistent with previous research findings and shows that students
comprehension of the integral concept is low. This raises the question whether it is possible
to improve this situation and how?
2. The usual school curriculum
It is widely accepted in many countries, including Israel, that learning the integral concept
is an important part of the high school mathematics curriculum. A common approach
(henceforth called the usual approach) to the instruction of the integral in schools is
based on the definition of the indefinite integral as an inverse operation to the derivative
(antiderivative). Next, one defines the definite integral independently of the antiderivative
as area under a graph. Then some formal claim (usually the NewtonLeibniz formula) is
presented, claiming that the definite integral can be computed using the antiderivative. Such
an approach can be found in almost all high school textbooks in Israel. Sometimes vice versa
(like, for example, in some Russian high school textbooks) the definite integral is defined
as the difference of antiderivative values and then some formal claim says that using the
definite integral, the area under a graph can be computed. In undergraduate education, the
same approach as in school is often used but the definite integral is often introduced more
generally on the basis of Riemann sums (e.g. [911]) average height,[12] or differential
equations.[13] Based on the usual approach, students acquire (or, at least, are supposed to
acquire) technical skills for the treatment of classical problems using integrals, mainly the
computation of areas (and less frequently, volumes) of shapes (bodies) whose boundaries
are defined by means of graphs of some elementary functions (whose antiderivatives are
also elementary functions). The usual approach gives an excellent opportunity to use the
integral (mainly in a formal way) in some applications (e.g. calculating areas) and it
enriches students mathematical culture. While these are among the requirements of school
curricula, the integral concept has, in our view, a far more significant educational potential.
The concept of integral subsumes two main ideas: integral as a limit of some sum (definite)
and integral as antiderivative (indefinite). Historically, the idea of the definite integral shed
light on many problems in mathematics, physics, and astronomy; it is an important tool in
different fields of science. The idea of the indefinite integral led to the development of a
new field of analysis methods of integration of functions that is the core (or at least was
the core until technology put numerical methods at the forefront of calculus) of differential
equations. We consider understanding the link between these two main ideas as the central
aim of the instruction of integral calculus. The usual approach at the high school level
presents the antiderivative (indefinite integral) as formally undoing the derivative. It then
uses antiderivatives to compute areas (definite integral). And then it stops. The reason why
antiderivatives can be used to compute areas and the connection between the definite and
indefinite integrals are rarely considered at the high school level. Therefore, the question
arises whether integration can be taught at the high school level in a way that leads to the
establishment of the connection between the definite and indefinite integrals.
3. Integration as accumulation
Our suggestion is to base the approach on the idea of accumulation,[6,14,15] in its plain
meaning: an accumulating sum that has a very large number of very small terms. The
basic idea is that of Riemann integration, leading in parallel to the definite and indefinite

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A. Kouropatov and T. Dreyfus

integrals, as well as their connection by means of the FTC. The approach usually taken in
university level courses does both: antidifferentiation and Riemann sums and hence imposes
two different, almost separate, notions on the students (indefinite and definite integrals). If
these two are later connected (by the FTC), then this is a satisfactory but costly approach: It
needs a lot of time and effort, and is difficult. We claim that the idea of accumulation is not
more difficult than that of Riemann sums; on the contrary, it seems easier to approach (even
in high school), and yields both notions of integral (definite and indefinite) and the FTC at
the same time, all in one interlinked package. In the context of this paper, the Riemann sum
is a formal, well-defined mathematical object, while accumulation is an intuitive, concrete,
touchable way to understand the integral that can be didactically achieved in typical high
school classrooms.
According to Thompson and Silverman,[15] the concept of accumulation is central to
the idea of integration. Integration as accumulation is at the core of understanding many
ideas and applications in calculus, e.g. curve length, volumes of bodies, work, etc. There
are at least three reasons that strengthen this suggestion.
The idea of accumulation allows in a natural way to combine the concepts of the
definite and indefinite integrals and its connection with the concept of the derivative.
The idea of accumulation allows in a natural way to represent the connection between
the mathematical idea of integral and its applications.
The idea of accumulation allows in a natural way to represent generalizations of the
mathematical concept of integral.
Accumulation has two facets: (a) we accumulate a quantity by obtaining more (or less)
of it and (b) in case we do not have information about some whole thing, we look for and
accumulate information about small parts of the whole.[15] These two intuitive facets of
accumulation are directly linked to the following formal mathematical definition of the
integral as an accumulation function: Suppose a function f(x) is defined on an interval
[a, b] and continuous on it. Then the function Fa (x) is defined as follows: Fx,a (x) =
[ xa
]
x
f (a + ix)x, a x b and Fa (x) = limx0 Fx,a (x), a x b. Fa (x) is
i=0
a function of x, also defined on [a, b].
 x It is called the accumulation function or integral of
f(x), and often denoted by Fa (x) = a f (t)dt.
Intuitively, in this formula, summing more and more smaller terms can be interpreted as
accumulating a quantity, while the terms themselves can be interpreted as small parts (e.g.
areas of tiny rectangles) of the whole. Whether the whole can be interpreted in a concrete
manner (e.g. as the area of a shape) depends on the context of the activity.
The idea of accumulation function has close connections with the central calculus ideas
of function and derivative. The idea of accumulation contributes to a coherent understanding
of the rate of change.[6,16] When something changes, something accumulates. When
something accumulates it accumulates at some rate ([15, p.127]). Therefore, accumulation
and its rate of change are two sides of the same coin. Understanding the deep mutual
relationship of these two facets of accumulation helps one to see the strong connections
between the main calculus concepts of derivative and integral.

4. Accumulation: the didactical story

Assuming that mathematically it would be worthwhile to study integration as accumulation, we now ask what this would mean didactically. Which didactical milestones should

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645

we suggest? The didactical analysis of the above formal mathematical components of the
mathematical object under discussion helped us explore this issue and led us to the following didactical considerations. Taking into account the above two facets of accumulation, it
is not difficult to see that while considering accumulation we are making at least two implicit propositions: We have some meaningful initial point for accumulation, some starting
quantity; and we know how the whole thing is forming from its small parts. In order to
implement these propositions, we need the idea of discrete accumulation (e.g. if the current
process is represented by a step function) and the idea of approximation, where approximation is the only institutionalized approach to obtain a value for the starting quantity (initial
accumulation value) as well as values for any accumulating portions (the need for approximation comes from the limit that is involved in the formal definition of the accumulation
function). Researchers [2,17,18] have used the idea of approximation to develop a strong
conceptual understanding of accumulation by college calculus students. With appropriate
changes, this idea could be very helpful for high school students. Therefore, the first milestone is the concept of approximation as an initial stage towards the concept of the definite
integral. This allows finding different accumulating quantities (e.g. the distance passed
during some specified time interval with constant velocity). More dynamical situations
(e.g. the distance passed during a variable time interval with non-constant velocity) require
versatile co-variation [6] and lead us to the second milestone the accumulation function.
Exploring the accumulation function (including its rate of change) offers opportunities to
pose, in a natural way, questions about antiderivatives and hence to arrive at the FTC, the
third milestone. The idea of calculus in general and the idea of the integral in particular
were born from attempts to understand the world, from applications by Newton [19] and
his followers. In some way, the integral is the application. Therefore, in our eyes, there
is no way to understand integrals without understanding the strong connection between
the mathematical concept and its applications. The heart of this connection is the idea
of accumulation. That is why implementations of accumulation in different contexts are
completing our journey.

5. Accumulation: a suggested curriculum

With the purpose of developing and checking the described didactical ideas, we conducted
a feasibility study in 20092011. One of our main goals was to develop a unit of instruction
on the integral that is based on the idea of accumulation. The integral unit is a 10-session
unit that has been implemented with five small groups of advanced high school students.
As a result we have developed and refined a curriculum with the following structure.
(1) Approximating geometrical shapes (lines, areas, volumes).
(2) Approximating analytical shapes (the size of an object given analytically in a
Cartesian coordinate system can be approximated in a similar manner as the size
of geometrical shapes, with analytical calculations replacing measuring).
(3) Approximating accumulating values (the accumulating value for any continuous
function in a rectilinear, not necessarily Cartesian coordinate system can be approximated in a manner similar to the case of analytical shapes but taking into account
the sign of the function).
(4) A systematic procedure for calculating accumulating values (using rectangles and
trapezoids).
(5) The concept of definite integral.

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(6) Properties of the definite integral.

(7) The concept of accumulation function (as definite integral with a variable upper
bound).
(8) Properties of the accumulation function.
(9) The rate of change of the accumulation function and the FTC.
(10) The concept of antiderivative and its use for calculating definite integrals.
(11) Different ways of calculating definite integrals: geometrical considerations,
calculating accumulating values, using the accumulation function, using the
antiderivative.
(12) Applications of the definite integral.
The suggested curriculum is intended for high school rather than for college calculus.
The main question we dealt with was not what mathematics to teach but how to teach it,
what language to use, what concrete models to use, what questions to ask, what activities
to suggest, and so on. Findings presented elsewhere [20,21] allow us to claim that the
suggested curriculum can be quite efficient for high school students.

6. Examples of some activities

For illustrative purposes, we present two activities from the curriculum. The first one, about
approximation, is the initial activity for introducing the concept of the definite integral
as accumulating value. And the second one, about the accumulation function, is from the
middle part of the curriculum and leads students to constructing the new (for them) concept
of accumulation function. As mentioned above, these two concepts, together with the FTC,
are the three milestones of the suggested curriculum. The entire curriculum is available (in
Hebrew) from the authors.

6.1. Approximating geometrical shapes (lengths, areas, volumes)

Accessories: ruler, compass, protractor, scientific calculator, square paper (with two different mesh sizes).
(1) Consider the given sketches of the four lines (Figure 2). Try to find the lengths of
these lines as precisely as possible.
The following questions might help you.
Can you find a line segment that is definitely longer than the required one?
Explain.
Can you find a line segment that is definitely shorter than the required one?
Explain.
Find a rough approximation of the required length. Explain.
Is it possible to improve the approximation? Explain.
Is it possible to find the exact value of the required length? Explain.

6.2. The concept of accumulation function

In each one of the following sketches (Figure 3), the graph of a function f (x) is given.
For each graph try to characterize both the function f (x)and its accumulation Af (x)in

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Figure 2.

Lines.

Figure 3.

Graphs.

647

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the interval [a, b]. Use the characteristics: constant, increasing, decreasing, negative, and
positive. Explain.
Here, it is important to mention: We see a main difference between college level and
high school level calculus in the quantity of formal mathematics and in the tools we
are using to achieve educational goals. We do not see any possibility to reach all brilliant
and important corners of calculus with school students. In some way, we sacrifice some
formal mathematical issues in favour of intuitive meaningful understanding. For example,
we disregard the case where the whole interval is not an integer multiple of the subinterval.
Of course, this case could be brought up at the high school level and dealt with by an
additional argument showing that the difference tends to zero. However, we decided not to
do this because it would deflect the students attention from the main line of argumentation
to relatively minor technical issues. It also needs time, which often is not available.

7. Learning about accumulation

A challenging task in the field of mathematics education is evaluating suggested didactical
interventions, such as the one set out above. To face this challenge, the researcher needs
a suitable and validated theoretical framework. Given the nature of the intended learning
processes, we used Abstraction in Context (AiC), a theoretical framework designed for
analysing processes of constructing abstract mathematical knowledge,[22,23] whose main
goal is to unveil the processes by which the students new constructs emerge by vertical reorganization of previous constructs in the current context. The students previous
mathematical constructs are the results of previous processes of abstraction. Vertical reorganization consists of establishing new connections between such constructs, integrating
and interweaving them, thus adding a layer of depth to the learners knowledge, and giving
expression to the composite nature of the mathematics involved. For example, according
to the design proposed above, the integral concept is intended to emerge as an abstract
construct by vertical reorganization of previous constructs including function, infinite sum,
approximation, accumulation value, and accumulation function.
A teaching experiment of the proposed curriculum with five small groups of grade 12
students has been carried out. Detailed reports of our analyses of students constructing
processes of approximation,[20] of accumulation function [21] and of other constructs,
which together constitute the integral concept, have been published elsewhere. Here we
only present a global perspective of some results.
The teaching experiment consisted of 10 meetings of about 90 minutes each, during
which the students participated actively in constructing their own knowledge and successfully completed (at different stages according to the suggested curriculum) the following
tasks.
To approximate, by measuring and/or by using known formulas, areas as in Figure 4
or volumes as in Figure 5 (the figures show students work).
To estimate the accumulation value of a graphically given positive increasing continuous function (not shown) and of a sign-changing decreasing continuous function
(Figure 6).
To calculate definite integrals of a given polynomial function (positive, negative, or
sign-changing on a closed interval) in different ways.
To calculate, in different ways, areas defined by polynomial functions and lines.

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Figure 4.

649

Area.

To use the idea of accumulation for developing (on their own) and implementing the
formula for calculating volumes of solids of rotation.
Students who learned about the integral as suggested by the proposed curriculum
were able to give satisfactory answers to conceptual questions such as those posed in the

Figure 5.

Volume.

Figure 6.

Estimating the accumulation value.

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A. Kouropatov and T. Dreyfus

questionnaire discussed above (see [14] for details). However, due to its hierarchical and
multilevel nature, constructing the concept of the integral strongly depends on relevant
previous mathematical concepts. Our empirical evidence shows, for example, how an
insufficient construct for the notion of rate of change may negatively impinge on the
process of constructing the FTC.
Based on the feasibility research carried out, our tentative overall conclusion is that
the proposed curriculum is suitable and effective. We analysed the data gathered in the
teaching experiment using the AiC methodology that helps making processes of abstraction
observable. This claim is based on empirical results from the research reported in [23] and
elsewhere (e.g. [24,25]). We implemented the AiC methodology for analysing students
processes of constructing the concept of approximation,[20] the concept of accumulation
function,[21] and others, which together constitute the integral concept. We thus exhibited
processes by which the integral concept emerges for the students as an abstract construct by
vertically reorganizing previous constructs including function, derivative, and infinite sum.
Our analyses show that all students who took part in the teaching experiment succeeded in
constructing the concepts of approximation and accumulation in a quite satisfactory and
complete manner. Hence, it seems that the suggested curriculum has educational potential
for acquiring the integral concept in high school.
As a next step, we plan to implement the curriculum in whole class settings. We expect
that more conclusive evidence can be obtained from studying the effects of the curriculum
when it is implemented in whole class settings and on a wider scale.

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