MODULE 6

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL

Strength
Ductility
Hardness
Toughness
Fatigue strength

STRENGTH:
Strength is the ability of a material to
withstand an applied load.
TYPES OF STRENGTH:

Tensile
Shear
Torsional
Impact
Fatigue

TENSILE STRENGTH:
This is the ability of a metal to resist
failure when subjected to a tensile
load.
Tensile strength is usually expressed
in two ways:
1. Ultimate tensile strength
2. Yield strength
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS):
Ultimate tensile strength is simply
called tensile strength. It relates to
the maximum load-carrying capacity
of that metal or the strength of that
metal at the exact point when failure
occurs.
Elastic behaviour refers to the
deformation of a metal under load
which causes no permanent
deformation when the load is
removed.
If a metal is loaded within its elastic
range, the stretch is proportional to

the applied load, so the elastic

behaviour is linear.
If a metal is stretched beyond its
elastic limits, it becomes plastic.
That is to say that there is a
permanent deformation or a set.
The point where the materials
behaviour changes from elastic to
plastic is called yield point.
Yield strength:
Yield strength is that strength level
at which the material response to
loading changes from elastic to
plastic.
Tensile test is used to determine both
ultimate tensile strength and yield
strength.
There is a direct relationship
between strength and hardness.
As the hardness increases the
strength increases and vice versa.
Effect of temperature on the
strength:
As the temperature increases the
strength decreases.
Ductility:
Ductility is the ability of a material to
deform, or stretch, under load
without failing.
As the temperature increases the
ductility increases.
A material with high ductility is called
ductile, and a material with low
ductility is called brittle.

Ductility is an important property of

metals during forming and rolling
operation.
Rolling causes the crystals, or grains
to be elongated in the direction of
rolling, than in the transverse or
across the rolling direction.

TOUGHNESS:
Toughness of a material is the ability
to absorb energy. The energy
absorbed equates to area under the
stress-strain curve.
NOTCH TOUGHNESS:

The strength and ductility is greatest

in the direction of rolling.

Ability of a material to absorbed

energy when notched.

In the transverse direction of rolling,

the strength may be decreased by
30% and ductility decreased by 50%.

The toughness of a material is

determined at a particular
temperature.

Ductility is usually determined by

tensile test. Ductility can be
expressed as per cent elongation and
per cent reduction of area.

As the hardness of a metal increases

the notch toughness decreases and
the temperature reduced.

HARDNESS:

In determining the notch toughness

of a metal, the temperature at which
the fracture behavior changes from
ductile to brittle is called transition
temperature.

Hardness is the ability of a material

to resist indentation, or penetration.
Since hardness is directly related to
strength, then its possible to
estimate the hardness of a material if
the strength is konwn.
Hardness can be determined using
indenters as a function of depth or
size of the indentation.

TRANSITION TEMPERATURE:

Measuring notch toughness of a

metal:

Charpy
Drop-weight nil-ductility
Explosion bulge
Dynamic tear
Crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD)

FATIGUE STRENGTH:
Fatigue strength is defined as the
strength necessary to resist failure
under repeated load applications.
Determination of fatigue strength:
1. By reverse bending: this is
accomplished by applying a
stress in tension and then at
the same level in compression.

As the maximum stress increases,

the number of cycles required to
produce failure decreases.
The S-N curve is a graphic
description of how many fatigue
cycles are necessary to produce a
failure at various stress level.
ENDURANCE LIMIT:
Endurance limit is the maximum
stress at which no failure will occur,
no matter how many cycles the load
is applied.
Fatigue strength and impact strength
depends on the geometry of the
member.
A major concern in welding relates to
fatigue strength. Weld surface
discontinuities such as undercut,
overlap, excessive reinforcement or
convexity can have effect on a
menbers fatigue strength.
A surface discontinuity will more
quickly lead to fatigue failure than a
subsurface discontinuity because the
surface stress level is higher than the
internal stress level.
A small weld with a smooth contour
will perform better than a large weld
with sharp surface irregularities.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL:
The chemical composition will also
have effect on its corrosion
resistance and weldability.
Metals can be grouped into alloy
groups: plain carbon steel, low-alloy
steels and high alloy steels.
Stainless steel contains at least 12%
chromium.
Effect of chemical element in steel:

Carbon: carbon is considered to be

the most important alloying element
in steel. Increased amount of carbon
increases the hardness and tensile
strength as well as response to heat
treatment (hardenability). Increased
amount of carbon decreases
weldability.
Sulphur: sulphur is an undesirable
impurity in steel it causes brittleness
and reduces weldability. If added in
amounts .1 to .3% it can improve
machinability. Such types are called
resulfurized of free machining alloys.
Free machining alloys are not
intended for use where welding is
required.
Phosphorous: undesirable impurity
which may cause embrittlement in
hardened steel. 0.10% can improve
strength and corrosion resistance in
low alloy- high strength steels
Silicon: In filler metals act as
deoxidizers.
Manganese: acts as deoxidizers,
prevent formation of iron oxide and
promote greater strength by
increasing the hardenability of the
steel.
Chromium: increases hardenability
and promote corrosion resistance.
Excess chromium can cause
excessive hardening and crack in
Molybdenum: strong carbide former.
It increases hardenability of steel and
strength at elevated temperature. In
austenitic stainless steel it improves
pitting corrosion resistance.
Nickel:
Nickel increases the hardenability of
steel because it improves toughness
and ductility and even increased

strength. Nickel is frequently used to

improve steels toughness at low
temperature.
Aluminium: aluminium is added to
steel in small amount as a
deoxidizer. It is also a grain refiner
for improved toughness. Steel with
moderate aluminium is referred to as
being made to fine grain practice.
Vanadium: vanadium is usually
added in small amounts to steel. This
increases the hardenability of steel.
Vanadium added in excess of 0.05%
can cause embrittlement during
thermal stress relief treatments.
Niobium:
Niobium is also known as columbium.
Like vanadium it increases the
hardenability of steel. It has strong
affinity for carbon, when it combines
with carbon in steel it can decrease
the overall hardenability of steel.
Niobium is used as a stabilizer to
improve as-welded properties of
austenitic steel.

The two general categories in which

aluminium alloys may be placed
1. Heat treatable
2. Non heat treatable

Heat treatable types get the

hardness and strength from the
process called precipitation
hardening.
The non-heat treatable gets the
hardening from strain hardening or
cold working.
Nickel alloys: nickel is tough, silvery
metal about the same density as
copper. It has excellent resistance to
corrosion an oxidation even at high
temperatures.
Copper alloys: copper has high
electrical conductivity. It has
resistance to oxidation below
temperatures of about 400F in fresh
and salt water, ammonia-free
alkaline solutions and many organic
chemicals.

Dissolved gases: hydrogen, oxygen

and nitrogen all dissolve in molten
steel and can cause embrittlement
and porosity

Copper and copper alloys are widely

used for water tubing, valves and
fittings, heat exchangers and
chemical equipment.

ALLOY GROUPS:

The alloy of copper can be divided

into eight major groups:

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:
Aluminium alloys is the largest group
of nonferrous alloys. Aluminium has
some desirable properties for many
applications; these are good
strength, light weight, high thermal
and electrical conductivity and good
corrosion resistance.
Alloying with copper, silicon or zinc
permits heat treating to increase
strength.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Coppers
High copper alloys
Brasses
Bronzes
Copper-nickels
Copper-nickel-zinc
Leaded coppers
Special alloys

Although most of the copper alloys

are weldable and brazable to some
extent, their high thermal

conductivity does present some

problems. They tend to draw the
heat away from the joint quite
rapidly. Surface oxides can present
some problems, so cleaning is
critical.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
TENSILE TESTING:
Tensile test can be used to determine
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Ultimate tensile strength

Yield strength
Ductility
Percent elongation
Percent reduction of area
Modulus of elasticity
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Toughness

Some tensile test can be determined

through direct reading of a gauge.
Others from analysis of stress-strain
diagram.
The test is carried out to show if the
weld zone will perform as well as
base metal. The specimen or strap is
normally removed transverse to the
longitudinal axis of the weld having
the weld roughly centred in the
specimen.
The specimen is usually made to
reduce section at the centre of the
length. This is done to localize the
failure.
For valid result
1. The entire length of the
reduced section must be a
uniform cross section
2. The cross section should be a
configuration which can be
easily measured so a cross
section can be calculated

3. The surface of the reduced

section should be free of
surface irregularities,
especially if perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis of the
specimen.
The two most common cross sections
used are rectangular and circular.
Percent elongation refers to the
amount that the specimen has
stretched between two marks during
a tensile test. The reduced section
usually results in necking.
The extensometer is used to
measure the amount of elongation
which results from a certain load.
The upper yield point is that stress at
which there is a noticeable increase
in strain or plastic flow without the
increase in stress.
Yield strength can also be
determined by drop-beam technique.
When plastic flow occurs at room
temperature this is referred to as
cold working. This action causes the
metal to become stronger and harder
and it is said to be work hardened.
At ultimate maximum strength, there
is necking down.
For less ductile material, there may
be no pronounced change in
behaviour between elastic and
plastic deformation. Therefore the
drop-beam method cannot be used
to determine their yield strength.
An offset technique can be used for
less ductile material.

Toughness of a material can be

deduced from the stress strain

diagram. The area under the stress

strain curve is the toughness.
Hardness testing: hardness testing
permits approximation of tensile
strength. Hardness test are
performed using some penetrator.
Hardness can also be measured
using electronic and ultrasonic
methods.
Indentation hardness:
1. Brinell
2. Rockwell
3. Microhardness

Brinell method:
To perform brinell hardness, the
surface should be smooth. A
penetrator is forced onto the surface
at some prescribed load to create an
indentation; the diameter of the
indentation is measured afterwards.
Based on the size of the indentation,
the applied load and the size and
type of the indenter a brinell
hardness number can be determined.
Brinell test is described by ASTM
E10, standard test method for brinell
hardness of metallic materials.
Rockwell method:
Rockwell test results in smaller
diameter than Brinell. This allows
localized testing of relatively small
metal area.
The applied load is much lower than
those used for Brinell test.
Superficial Rockwell test are used to
determine the hardness of thin metal
samples and wires.

The B and C scales are the most

commonly used. B is used for softer
alloys and C for harder types. For
unknown alloy A scale can be used.
The Rockwell method relies on the
measurement of the depth
ASTM E18: Standard Test Methods for
Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial Hardness of Metallic
Materials.
Microhardness testing:
Impressions are so small that
magnification is used to facilitate
measurement.
This test is so important in the
metallurgist point of view in that
single grain hardness can be
determined at microscopic level.
Types of microhardness test:
1. Vickers
2. Knoop
The load applied in microhardness
test is from 1 to 1000grams
For microhardness testing surface
preparation is very important as
inaccuracy may arise as a result of
small surface irregularities.
Microhardness transverse is the
result from testing the hardness of
heat affected zone.
TOUGHNESS TESTING:
Charpy v notch:
The standard specimen for this test
is 55mm long bar and 10mm by
10mm square.
One of the sides of the specimen is
machined notched 2mm deep. At the
base there is a radius of .25mm.

Most charpy results are expressed in

foot-pounds of energy. Other
expressions are lateral deformation
in mils and percent shear.
Soundness testing:
This test is performed to evaluate
the soundness of a material if it is
free from irregularities.
Soundness test are used routinely for
qualification of welding procedures
and welders.
Soundness test could be destructive
or non destructive.
Destructive test for soundness are:
bend, nick break and fillet break
No destructive methods are RT and
UT.
BEND TEST:
Bend test is mostly used to judge the
adequacy of a welders qualification
test coupon.

discontinuities which appears on the

tension surface.
The governing code or specification
will dictate the exact acceptance/
rejection criteria.
The nick-break test:
Exclusively used in pipeline industry
as described by API 1104.
The weld zone is notched, fractured
and examined for imperfections such
as slag inclusions, porosity or
incomplete fusion. If present, they
are measured and accepted or
rejected based on code limitation.
Fillet weld break:
This soundness test is used primarily
for qualification of welders. This is
the only test required for the
qualification of tackers according to
AWS D1.1

TYPES OF BEND TEST:

1. FACE BEND
2. ROOT BEND
3. SIDE BEND
Bend test are usually performed
using some type of bend jig.
Types of bend jig:
1. Guided bend
2. Roller equipped guided bend
3. Wrap-around guided bend
To perform a bend test, the specimen
is bent 180 degrees to become a Ushape.
The acceptability of bend test is
based on the size and or number of

Fatigue testing:
Fatigue is strongly influenced by
surface finish and configuration. The
preparation of fatigue specimen is
extremely critical.
Specific test depends on the
expected load in service.
Destructive test for chemical
properties:

1. Spectrographic
2. Combustion
3. Wet chemical analysis
The welding inspector is rarely
required to perform chemical
analysis.
The method is covered in ASTM
A751, Standard methods practices
and definitions for chemical analysis
of steel products.
Metallographic testing:
Metallographic testing is generally
classified as macroscopic or
microscopic. Macroscopic uses

magnifications up to 10X,
Microscopic uses magnification
greater than 10X, usually 100X or
higher.
Pictomicrograph and
Pictomacrograph are terms for
pictures produced from Microscopic
and Macroscopic examinations.
Macro specimen need to be roughly
grounded with 80 grit finish. Micro
specimen requires very fine finish
with 600 grit.
Etching is usually used to remove
surface layer and therefore expose
the grain structure below.