Unit-4

Soil Sub-grade:
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers
above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable
density, near the optimum moisture content.
Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the
soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactors.
Desirable properties:
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
_ Stability
_ Incompressibility
_ Permanency of strength
_ Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground water
_ Good drainage, and
_ Ease of compaction
Tests on soil
The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design of pavement structure. The main
Function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the pavement and for this the sub grade should
possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to
evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests.
The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into three groups:
_ Shear tests
_ Bearing tests
_ Penetration tests
California Bearing Ratio Test
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard material.
C.B.R. = (Test load / Standard load) x 100
Need and Scope
The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of sub-grade strength
of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to
determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for
the design of flexible pavement.
Equipments and tool required
1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable extension
collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.
3. Metal rammers: Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450 mm.
4. Weights: One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia,
with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.
5. Loading machine: With a capacity of atleast 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head or base that
travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load indicating device.
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves: 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.

PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN

Dynamic Compaction
Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the base. Place
the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction. For light
compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by the 2.6 kg
rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg
rammer.
Remove the collar and trim off soil.
Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate
on to it.
Procedure for Penetration Test
Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load, but in no
case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is established.
Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5
mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less
than 12.5 mm.
Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top 3 cm
layer and determine the moisture content.
If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to the
curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin. Find and record the correct load reading
corresponding to each penetration.
C.B.R. = (PT /PS) x 100
Where
PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load penetration curve.
PS = Standard load for the same penetration
The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the
C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall be taken as C.B.R.
for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If identical
results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.

Properties of Aggregate:

Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii)
Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance
to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the aggregates
exposed at the top surface.
Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement
should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to
another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates.
Shape of aggregates
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence too
flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped
off in presence of water.
Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-in
and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the construction should be
sound enough to withstand the weathering action

Tests on Aggregates:
1) Crushing strength test:
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A
test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
crushing load.
Equipment required:
1) Steel Cylinder
2) Sieves (12.5mm, 10mm)
3) Cylindrical metal measure
4) Tamping Rod
5) Balance (0-10kg)

6) Oven (3000c)
7) Compression testing Machine (2000KN)
Preparation of the sample:
Test sample consist of aggregate passing a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a 10mm IS sieve.
The aggregate to be tested is dried in oven for a period of not less than 4 hours.
Procedure:
1. The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is tamped 25
strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the tamping
rod as a straight edge.
2. The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram (W A)
and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
3. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test sample is
added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25stokes from tamping rod.
4. The surface is leveled and the plunger is inserted so that it rests horizontally on the surface. The
whole assembly is then placed between the platens of testing machine and loaded at a uniform
rate so as to reach a load of 40 tones in 10 minutes.
5. The load is then released and all aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm. IS
sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
6. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (W B)
Aggregate crushing Value = (WB/WA) 100
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be
regarded as weak aggregates.

2) Abrasion test:
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are
suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for
carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
Equipment required:

1) Los Angeles machines

2) Sieves (1.70mm)
3) Cylindrical metal measure
4) Tamping Rod
5) Balance (0-10kg)
6) Oven (3000c)
Preparation of the sample:
Test sample is dried in oven for a period of four hours at a temperature of 100 to 110 C
Procedure:
1. The required weight of test sample (A) is selected conforming to one of the grading mentioned in
Table II of IS : 2386 (Part IV) 1963.
2. The test sample and the abrasive charge is to be placed in the machine and rotated at a speed of
20 to 33 rev/min.
3. An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres
varies according to the grading of the sample.
4. For grading A, B, C & D [as per Table II of IS: 2386 (Part IV)- 1963] the machine is to be rotated
for 1000 revolutions.
5. At the completion of the test, the material is discharged from the machine and separation of the
sample is made on 1.70 mm. IS sieve.
6. The material coarser than 1.70 mm. IS sieve is washed, dried accurately weighed to the nearest
gram (B).

A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For
bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is specified.

3) Impact Test:
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Equipment required:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Aggregate Impact Test Machine

Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
Cylindrical metal measure
Tamping Rod
Balance (0-10kg)
6) Oven(3000c)
Preparation of the sample:
Test sample consist of aggregate passing a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a 10mm IS sieve.
The aggregate to be tested is dried in oven for a period of not less than 4hours.
Procedure:

1. The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is
tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck
off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
2. The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram
(WA) and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
3. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test
sample is placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of tamping rod.
4. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 380 mm. above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregate 15 times, each being
delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
5. The crushed aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm. IS sieve until no
further significant amount passes in one minute.
6. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (WB)
Aggregate impact Value = (WB / WA) 100

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldnt exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base
courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

4) Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting
accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to
disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an
accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.
Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of
either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 to 110 0C to
a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all
undersized particles and weighing. The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with
sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.
5) Shape test:

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher
workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose
least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge is used for this test. Test
procedure had been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles
whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable
to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation gauge is used for this test. This test is also specified
in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no recognized limits for the elongation index.
6) Specific Gravity and water absorption test:
Equipments Required:

1) Wire basket
2) Oven (3000c)
3) Container for filling water and suspending the basket
4) An air tight container
5) Balance[0-10 kg]
6) Shallow tray & absorbent clothes.
Preparation of sample:
1. About 2kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and
then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between
22 to 320C with a cover of at least 50 mm of water above the top of the basket
2. Immediately after the immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting
the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25
times at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and the aggregate should
remain completely immersed in water for a period of 240.5 hours afterwards.
3. The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of
22 to 320C. The weight is noted while suspended in water (W1) g.
4. The basket and the aggregate are then removed from water and allowed to drain for a few
minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes.
5. The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weights in
water (W2) g.
6. The aggregates placed in the dry absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further
moisture could be removed by this clothe.
7. Then the aggregate is transferred to the second dry cloth spread in a single layer, covered
and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry.
10 to 60 minutes drying may be needed. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed
W3 g.
8. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature
of 1100C for 24 hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in air tight container and
weighed W4 g.

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 2.9. Water
absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used in road surfacing.

7) Bitumen Adhesion test:

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and
free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be
dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing
temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated
aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen
binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and
is quite simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in
water maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.
Properties of Bitumen:
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should posses following desirable properties.
The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the
mix should
Not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too
brittle causing cracks.

The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the
bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.

There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates
used in the mix.

Bituminous materials:
Bitumen:
Bituminous materials or asphalts have excellent binding characteristics and water
proofing properties and relatively low cost.
Bituminous materials consist of bitumen which is a black or dark coloured solid
or viscous cementations substances.
It consists chiefly high molecular weight hydrocarbons derived from distillation
of petroleum or natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon
disulphide.
Cut back bitumen:
In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen.
From the environmental point of view also cutback bitumen is preferred.
The solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and the bitumen will
bind the aggregate.
Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction and
maintenance.
Bitumen Emulsion:
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided
condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material.
Normally cationic type emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion
is around 60% and the remaining is water.
When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in release of water and
the mix starts to set.
The time of setting depends upon the grade of bitumen.
Modified Bitumen:
Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve
properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes.
Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen. Polymer modified
bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in
wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic variations.
Tests on bitumen:
1) Penetration Test:
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a
millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS
had standardized the equipment and test procedure.
Equipments required:
1) Container
2) Needle
3) Stop watch

4) Water bath
5) Penetration apparatus
6) Thermometer
Procedure:
1. The bitumen is softened to a paving consistency between 75 0 C and 1000C above the
approximate temp at which bitumen softens.
2. The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it homogeneous and free from air
bubbles and water.
3. The sample containers are cooled in atmosphere of temperature not lower than 13C for
one hour. Then they are placed in temperature controlled water bath at a temperature of
25C for a Period of one hour.
4. The weight of needle, shaft and additional weight are checked. The total weight of this
assembly should be 100 g.
5. Using the adjusting screw, the needle assembly is lowered and the tip of the needle is
made to just touch the top surface of the sample.
6. The needle assembly is clamped in this position. The contact of the tip of the needle is
checked using the mirror placed on the rear of the needle.
7. The initial reading of the penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or the initial reading
is noted.
8. Then the needle is released by pressing a button and a stop watch is started. The needle is
released exactly for a period of 5.0 secs.
9. At least 3 measurements are made on this sample by testing at distance of not less than
100 mm apart.
The difference between the initial and final penetration readings are taken as the penetration value.

2) Ductility test

Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or

elongation. Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample of the material
will be elongated without breaking.
Equipments required:

1) Briquette mould,
2) Ductility machine with water bath and a pulling device
3) A putty knife
4) Thermometer
Procedure:
1. The bitumen sample is method to a pouring temperature (75C to 100C) and poured into
the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate, where a solution of glycerin or soap
solution is applied at all surfaces of briquette mould exposed to bitumen.
2. After the sample is poured to the mould, thirty to forty minutes the entire assembly is
placed in a water bath at 27C.
3. Then the sample is removed from the water bath maintained at 27C and excess bitumen
material is cutoff by leveling the surface using hot knife.
4. After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water
bath maintained at 27C for 85 to 95 minutes. Then the sides of mould are removed and
the clips are carefully booked on the machine without causing any initial strain. Two or
more specimens may be prepared in the moulds and clipped to the machine so as to
conduct these test simultaneously.
5. The pointer is set to read zero. The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled
apart horizontally.
6. While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water at
depth of at least 10 mm.
A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS.

3) Softening point test:

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under the specified condition of test. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball
apparatus.

Equipments Required:
1) Ring and Ball apparatus,
2) Steel balls
3) Brass rings
4) Ball guide
5) Support
6) Thermometer
7) Bath with stirrer
Procedure:
1) Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 100C above the
approximate softening point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings
placed on the metal plate.
2) To avoid sticking of the bitumen to metal plate, coating is done to this with a solution of
glycerin and dextrin.
3) After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are
placed in the support.
4) At this time the temperature of distilled water is kept at 5C. This temperature IS
maintained for 15 minutes after which the balls are placed in position.
5) Then the temperature of water is raised at uniform rate of 5C per minute with a
controlled heating unit, until the bitumen softens and touches the bottom plate by sinking
of balls. At least two observations are made. For material whose softening point is above
80C, glycerin is used for heating medium and the starting temperature is 35C instead of
5C.
The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the
bottom plate of support is recorded as softening point value. An average value of two
tests is reported as softening point value.

4) Viscosity test:
Viscosity is the inverse of fluidity. The degree of fluidity at the application temperature
greatly influences the ability of bituminous material to spread, penetrate into voids and also coats
the aggregate and hence affects the strength and characteristics of resulting paving mixes. At high
fluidity or low viscosity, bitumen binder simply lubricates the aggregate particles instead of
providing an uniform film thickness for binding action.

Equipments Required:
Tar viscometer, cup, valve, receiver, and thermometer.

Procedure:
1) The tar cup is properly levelled and water in the bath is heated to the test temperature.
Stirring is also continued.
2) Material is heated to 20C above the test temperature and material is allowed to cool.
During this material is continuously stirred.
3) When temperature reaches 40C, it is poured into cup of the tar viscometer until levelling
peg on valve rod is just immersed.
4) Receiver is placed under the orifice. Valve is opened after applying kerosene in the
receiver.
5) Stop watch is started when cylinder records 50 ml. Time is recorded for flow upto a mark
of 100ml.

5) Flash and fire point test:

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out
volatiles. And these volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is
essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade. BIS defined the flash point
as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form
of flash under specified test conditions. The fire point is defined as the lowest
temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited
and burns.

Construction of water bound macadam (WBM) roads

Macadam pavement base course made of crushed or broken aggregate mechanically interlocked
by rolling and voids filled with screening and binding material with the assistance of water.
May be used as subbase, base course or surfacing course
Thickness of each layer 10 to 7.5cm depending on size and gradation of aggregates used.
Material Specification:
Coarse Aggregates crushed aggregates or broken stones
Should be hard, durable, acceptable shape, free from flaky and elongated particles.
Property
Los Angeles abrasion value (%)
Aggregate impact value (%)
Flakiness index (%)

Requirements of pavement layer

Sub-base
Base
Surface
course
course
course
60
50
40
50
40
30
--15
15

Screenings:
Used to fill up the voids in compacted layer of coarse aggregates
Consist of small sized coarse aggregates
Nonplastic materials like kankar, moorum etc
LL < 20 %, PI < 6 % & Proportion of fines passing 0.075 mm < 10

Binding Material:
Used to prevent raveling of stone
Fine grained material kankar nodules, lime dust
PI 4%9% in WBM surface course construction
& < 6%
WBM layers as base course and subbase course
Construction procedure:
1) Preparation of foundation for receiving the WBM course
May be either sub-grade or base or subbase course
If existing surface is a bituminous surface, furrows of depth 50 mm and width 50 mm are
cut at 1 m intervals and at 45 0to CL before laying coarse aggregate.
2 2) Provision of Lateral Confinement
Done by constructing the shoulders for a thickness equal to that of WBM layer and trim
ming the inner sides vertically.
3) Spreading of Coarse Aggregates
WBM course compacted thickness of 7.5 cm
4) Rolling
Compaction rollers starting from edges and then shifted to the centre.
5) Application of Screenings
6) Sprinkling and Grouting
Water is sprinkled, swept and rolled
Additional screenings till coarse aggregates are well bonded and firmly set.

7) Application of Binding Material

in two or more successive layers
surface is sprinkled with water and rolling is done
8) Setting and drying