Processing Techniques For Functionally Graded Materials PDF

Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105
Processing techniques for functionally graded materials

B. Kieback a , A. Neubrand b,c, , H. Riedel c
a
Institut fr Werkstoffwissenschaft der TU Dresden, Mommsenstrae 13, 01062 Dresden, Germany

b FB 11, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Petersenstr. 23, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
c Fraunhofer-Institut fr Werkstoffmechanik, Whlerstr. 11, 79108 Freiburg, Germany
Received 18 July 2002; received in revised form 7 February 2003
Abstract
An overview of the achievements of the German priority program Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) in the field of processing
techniques is given. Established powder processes and techniques involving metal melts are described, and recent developments in the field
of graded polymer processing are considered. The importance of modeling of gradient formation, sintering and drying for the production of
defect-free parts with predictable gradients in microstructure is discussed, and examples of a successful application of numerical simulations
to the processing of functionally graded materials are given.
2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Functionally graded materials; Powder metallurgy; Sintering; Melt processing; Process simulation
1. Introduction
In a functionally graded material (FGM) the properties
change gradually with position. The property gradient in
the material is caused by a position-dependent chemical
composition, microstructure or atomic order. In the case
of a position-dependent chemical composition the gradient can be defined by the so-called transition function ci (x,
y, z) which describes the concentration of the component
ci as a function of position. Already in 1972, the usefulness of functionally graded composites with a graded structure was recognized in theoretical papers by Bever and
Duwez [1], and Shen and Bever [2]. However, their work
had only limited impact, probably due to a lack of suitable production methods for FGMs at that time. It took
15 more years until systematic research on manufacturing processes for functionally graded materials was carried
out in the framework of a national research program on
FGMs in Japan. Since then, a major part of the research on
FGMs was dedicated to processing of these materials and
This is an overview of parts of the key results obtained within the
Priority Program Functionally Graded Materials funded by the German
Research Foundation (DFG) in the years 19952002.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-761-5142282;
fax: +49-761-5142403.
E-mail address: neu@iwm.fhg.de (A. Neubrand).
0921-5093/$ see front matter 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00578-1
a large variety of production methods has been developed

[36].
The manufacturing process of a FGM can usually be
divided in building the spatially inhomogeneous structure
(gradation) and transformation of this structure into a
bulk material (consolidation). Gradation processes can be
classified into constitutive, homogenizing and segregating
processes. Constitutive processes are based on a stepwise
build-up of the graded structure from precursor materials
or powders. Advances in automation technology during the
last decades have rendered constitutive gradation processes
technologically and economically viable. In homogenizing
processes a sharp interface between two materials is converted into a gradient by material transport. Segregating
processes start with a macroscopically homogeneous material which is converted into a graded material by material
transport caused by an external field (for example a gravitational or electric field). Homogenizing and segregating processes produce continuous gradients, but have limitations
concerning the types of gradients which can be produced.
Usually drying and sintering or solidification follow the
gradation step. These consolidation processes need to be
adapted to FGMs: processing conditions should be chosen in
such a way that the gradient is not destroyed or altered in an
uncontrolled fashion. Attention also has to be paid to uneven
shrinkage of FGMs during free sintering. Since the sintering
behavior is influenced by porosity, particle size and shape
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B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105
and composition of the powder mixture, these problems must

be handled for each materials combination and type of gradient individually referring to the existing knowledge about the
sintering mechanisms [7]. It has been demonstrated that the
introduction of a controlled grain size gradient in addition
to the composition gradient can balance different sintering
rates [8]. In general, this optimization results in unjustifiable
limitations for the gradients design. Additionally, variations
in the particle packing density can lead to deformation of the
part. To overcome some of these limits, the superposition
of the internal driving forces for sintering with an external
pressure by hot pressing [911] or hot isostatic pressing
[12] is possible. If the temperature regions for densification
are very different, application of a temperature gradient
during consolidation [13], liquid-phase sintering [14], laser
assisted sintering [15], and spark plasma sintering [16,17]
have been proposed. Although many of these methods for
functionally graded materials were already developed in the
early 1990s, there were still limitations concerning material
combinations, specimen geometry and cost in 1995. One
of the goals of the German priority program Functionally
Graded Materials was thus the improvement of existing and
the development of new processing techniques for functionally graded materials. Besides the well established powder
metallurgical techniques other production processes suitable
for metals and polymers with a low melting point were investigated in the priority program. Particular emphasis was
also placed on modeling of production processes. Process
simulations may allow the prediction of suitable processing
parameters for FGMs in the future and reduce the considerable amount of experimental effort which is still necessary
to produce a graded material free of macrodefects. In the
following sections on powder metallurgy, melt and polymer
processing and modeling, the achievements of the priority
program are described. Each field is introduced with basic
background information and literature, but a comprehensive literature review of the international literature is not
attempted.
2. Powder metallurgy
The powder metallurgy (PM) or ceramic technology route
for processing of materials and engineering parts includes
powder production, powder processing, forming operations
and sintering or pressure assisted hot consolidation. Powders of many metals, alloys, compounds and ceramic materials with particle sizes ranging from nanometers to several
hundred micrometers are available from industrial sources
or may be produced by the methods developed over decades
in the field of PM [18] or ceramics. Since the material used
to form the sintered part is dispersed into very small portions of individual powder particles nearly ideal conditions
exist to build-up graded materials with varying chemistry
or microstructure by using the particles as building blocks.
Practical considerations towards an efficient process design
suggest the use of powder mixtures with changing average

particle size or composition during deposition of the material prior to the forming operation. It depends on the method
applied for powder deposition whether a smooth change or
a stepwise variation is obtained in the green body. Since
the consolidation of the green parts during sintering or hot
pressing requires high temperatures at which diffusion processes are fast enough to enable densification, chemical reactions between particles of different compositions and the
influence of particle size on the sintering behavior [7] have
to be taken into account for the final microstructure and dimensional control of the part. On the other hand thermodynamic factors acting during sintering may be used to create
a gradient, e.g. during liquid-phase sintering.
By the powder metallurgy route the following types of
gradients can be processed:
(i) Porosity and pore-size gradients: Porosity gradients
may be created either by the deposition of powder mixtures with different particle shape or by varying the
deposition parameters including the use of space holders. Pore-size gradients in general are produced by the
variation of particle size. The different sintering behavior of the powders requires special attention to manage
the problems of part distortion but may also be used to
produce a porosity gradient.
(ii) Gradients in chemical composition of single phase materials: The deposition of powders with a continuous
change in the composition of the mixture during sintering will lead to a single phase material with a smooth
change in the distribution of elements if the phase diagram shows solubility over the chosen range of composition. The condition that has to be fulfilled is that the
diffusion length of the different atoms is bigger than
the average particle size or the characteristic width of
the layered structure if stepwise deposition is applied.
The starting powders may be elemental or chosen in
the range of compositions between which the gradient
should be formed. No application has been reported for
a single phase material so far, but gradients in the microstructure and properties after cooling and heat treatment caused by small changes in the elemental composition might be interesting for intermetallic phase materials based on gamma titanium aluminide. The amount
of 2 and -phase in these two phase materials and the
type of microstructure (lamellar, globular or duplex)
obtained after thermal treatment depend directly on the
Ti/Al ratio.
(iii) Gradients of the volume content of phases and grain
size gradients in two or multiphase materials: Most
of the published literature focuses on gradients of the
volume content of different phases. The phase diagram
of such a multi-component system is characterized
by no or limited solubility. In the latter case grain
growth of the soluble phase during the heat treatment
has to be taken into account, in particular if a liquid
phase is used for activated sintering. The resulting microstructure consists of two or more phases with gradients in volume content or in grain size which were
predetermined during the deposition of the powders.
The combinations of phases can include metalmetal,
metalceramic and ceramicceramic systems. Microstructural gradients can also be produced by controlling the phase equilibrium during liquid-phase sintering with gradients of the components [1924]. The
techniques to obtain a graded material by the powder
metallurgy route [4,2529] are classified in the following section according to their capability to produce a
stepwise or continuous change of the composition of
the powder compact.
2.1. Formation of graded powder compacts
2.1.1. Deposition of layers of powder mixtures with
stepwise changes in the mixture
2.1.1.1. Die compaction of layers (powder stacking). In
this simple and well established method a gradient is formed
by the deposition of powder layers with changing compositions in the compacting die [3035]. The disadvantages of
the process are obvious: discrete changes, limited number
of layers (up to 10 in laboratory scale, but not more than
two or three in potential fabrication), limited thickness of
individual layers (normally not less than 1 mm), limited size
of the part (<100 cm2 ) due the limits of compaction forces,
discontinuous manufacturing with low productivity. Nevertheless this method allows effective laboratory studies of
functionally graded systems.
2.1.1.2. Continuous dry deposition of layers. A continuous process for the deposition of the powder mixture with
changing compositions on a conveyor belt was developed in
[36]. Sequential deposition of powders results in a stepped
gradient. Therefore a special synchronized distributor was
designed which makes a continuous change of the composition feasible.
2.1.1.3. Sheet lamination. Thin sheets with different compositions can be produced by dry or wet powder techniques
(powder rolling [18] or tape casting) and joined to form a
stepped gradient [37,38]. Powder rolling is a well developed
process giving green sheets with a thickness in the range
of 1 mm. Tape casting of very fine powders even allows a
sheet thickness in the double-digit micrometer range. The
high productivity of the green sheet production offers a high
potential for up-scaling by laminating sheets with different compositions. The number of sheets would be limited
mainly by the costs of fabrication. Complex FGM parts can
be varied by stamping or laser-cutting the sheets to different
sizes [39]. For powder rolling only powders which result in
good green strength are suitable, while tape casting needs a
binder that has to be removed before sintering. Hot press-
83
ing is used to join the layers during the final consolidation

step. In some studies [39,40], this step was accompanied by
a simultaneous SHS-reaction.
2.1.1.4. Wet powder spraying. Powder suspensions suitable for deposition with an air brush system were originally
developed to deposit thin powder layers on a substrate [41].
By including a mixing system and controlled feeding of two
or more suspensions graded powder layers can be deposited
on a flat, curved or rotating substrate [42,43]. Simultaneous
drying allows building up parts reaching millimeter thickness with only small variations from layer to layer. The minimum thickness of the layers is controlled by the size of the
sprayed droplets and may be less than 50 m. A German research group used wet powder spraying for the manufacture
of pore-size gradient microfilters [44].
2.1.1.5. Slurry dipping and slip casting. If a porous body
is sequentially dipped into slurries with varying powder
characteristics, liquid drag into pores by capillary forces
leaves surface layers with a stepped gradient behind [45].
The same principles are valid for sequential slip casting
[46,47]. These methods have a high potential for series production if a limited number of layers fulfils the needs of the
application.
2.1.1.6. Solid freeform processes. This class of computercontrolled, tool-less manufacturing methods can be readily
adapted to the production of FGMs. In the jet solidification process a hot powder-binder mixture with suitable flow
properties is deposited with an extrusion jet moved in two
dimensions. During cooling the mixture solidifies and a
free-standing body is formed. If the powder composition is
varied from layer to layer three dimensional graded bodies
can be formed. In a project of the priority program a two piston construction with constant volume flow combined with a
static mixing chamber with a very small mixing volume for
a volume flow rate of 32 mm3 /s (Fig. 1) was developed for
this purpose [48,49]. A CAD model of a part was sliced into
individual layers and a defined composition was associated
with each layer. By changing the feedstock composition for
Fig. 1. Two piston construction for the multiphase jet solidification

equipment.
84
each layer gradients were produced. SiCTiC was chosen as

a non-reacting system. The viscosity of the feedstock (solid
content: 47 vol.%) and the sintering behavior had to be adjusted for varying compositions. With 810% liquid-phase
sintering additives final densities of 9799.5% were obtained
regardless of the SiC:TiC ratio. For smaller parts and thinner individual layers the three-dimensional printing process
is more appropriate. In this process, each layer of the part
is created by spreading a thin layer of powders and selectively joining the powder by ink-jet printing a binder material. After repeated operations the unbound loose powder is
removed to reveal a 3D green body. If the sprayed material
contains a component that is not removed during the burnout
process, microstructural gradients can be manufactured by
3D printing [50,51].
2.1.1.7. Other methods. The laser sintering process combines the deposition of powder layers and subsequent
sintering [52] and can be modified into a stepped gradient
processing method. Gravity or centrifugal sedimentation,
electrophoretic deposition, pressure filtration, and centrifugal powder deposition may be used for the stepped type of
gradient structures, but have a bigger potential since they can
be applied to achieve continuous changes in the material.
2.1.2. Deposition of powders with continuous
changes in the mixture
2.1.2.1. Centrifugal powder forming (CPF) and impeller-dry
blending. In CPF, powder mixtures with a continuous
and computer-controlled change of the composition are fed
onto a rotating distributor plate which accelerates them towards the inner wall of a rotating cylinder. A green body
of sufficient strength is formed by simultaneously spraying
an organic binder onto the wall. The method is limited to
cylindrical parts but offers a great flexibility in gradient
design which is independent of the powder characteristics
[53,54]. Centrifugal powder forming in combination with
liquid-phase sintering was used in the priority program for
the production of W/Cu FGMs [55] with a ring diameter of
120 mm, 40 mm height and up to 8 mm wall thickness. A
tube like geometry may be produced by moving the form
or the distributor plate along the axis of rotation during deposition. A related process is impeller-dry blending where
dry powders are mixed and homogenized in an impeller
chamber prior to sedimentation in a mold [56]. No binder
is required, and the process is restricted to flat FGM parts.
2.1.2.2. Gravity sedimentation. During sedimentation in a
column differences in the particle velocity caused by different density or size of the powder particles lead to de-mixing
of the different particle types [5759]. As a result, a pore size
or composition gradient is produced. If sedimentation occurs
in a liquid column free of particles a gradient with a continuous increase or decrease of the concentration of one particle
type will be formed. If the sediment is directly formed from
the suspension a complicated transition function is retained.

The bottom layer will still have the average composition of
the suspension followed by an increase of de-mixing and the
top of the sediment contains only the powder fraction with
the lowest sedimentation velocity. A similar gradient will be
obtained for a filtration process accompanied by sedimentation [60]. If sedimentation is carried out in highly loaded
suspensions, problems due to interparticle interactions occur
frequently. Another obvious disadvantage of sedimentation
processes are limitations of the types of gradients that can
be produced. The laboratory equipment used in [58] was designed for small cylindrical FGM parts of 50 mm diameter.
The sample height after the final consolidation was 10 mm
or more. In spite of its limitations this method has a potential
for the manufacture of tile-type FGM products with bigger
dimensions due to its simplicity and reproducibility.
2.1.2.3. Centrifugal sedimentation. The formation of a
graded structure by de-mixing of a powder suspension can
be achieved for finer particles using centrifugation [61].
Due to the limited concentration in the suspension only
thin layers can be produced. Centrifugal sedimentation was
used in one project of the priority program aiming at the
development of ceramic filtration elements with a pore-size
gradient. Pore-size graded filters of 18 mm diameter and a
thickness between 0.1 and 1 mm were made by centrifugal
deposition of TiO2 powders from aqueous suspensions containing a mixture of particle sizes between 10 nm and 5 m
[62,63].
2.1.2.4. Electrophoretic deposition. Electrophoretic deposition from suspensions containing more than one component can be used to produce graded bodies. In the simplest
case an external mixing system supplies suspensions with
the variable concentrations of the components or the second component is added with time in calculated proportions
[6467]. The feasibility to produce a graded green body from
homogeneous suspensions using the difference in the electrophoretic mobility of different powders was investigated
in the course of a priority program project [68]. The velocity of ceramic particles in suspensions depends on the
electrophoretic mobility and the electric field strength E,
= E
(1)
The mobility is defined by the properties of the dispersant

and the zeta potential of the particles :
0 r
=
(2)
where is the viscosity and 0 r the dielectric constant of

the dispersant. In a project of the priority program [68] the
higher mobility of Al2 O3 compared to ZrO2 was used to prepare a gradient from a 2 vol.% suspension containing Al2 O3
and ZrO2 . Electrolytic decomposition of the aqueous electrolyte and the resulting formation of gas bubbles in the deposited layer were prevented by deposition of the particles on
a porous membrane. A proper choice of the surfactants and

pH was necessary to guarantee stability of the suspension
and to achieve differences in electrophoretic mobility which
were sufficient for de-mixing. Diluted suspensions were essential to prevent agglomeration and collective deposition
due to particle interactions at higher concentrations. Despite
the resulting longer deposition times graded deposits with
several mm thickness could be produced. Due to the higher
mobility of Al2 O3 , it deposited faster and its concentration
in the suspension and deposit decreased with time. Accordingly, the zirconia concentration increased with time. After
sintering, the gradient of the zirconia concentration was accompanied by a grain size gradient because zirconia inhibits
the grain growth of Al2 O3 .
2.1.2.5. Pressure filtration/vacuum slip casting. By continuously changing the powder composition supplied to the
filtration system it is easy to obtain a defined one dimensional gradient in the deposit [69]. The same principles can
be applied to slip casting [47,70]. The aim of one priority
program project was the development of a SiC fuel evaporator tube for a gas turbine combustor. If the surface of the
evaporator tube is porous a dramatic increase of the evapo-
85
ration rate can be achieved, however a direct transition from

porous to dense SiC leads to operating stresses exceeding
the strength of the SiC. FEM calculations [60] showed that
a properly designed porosity gradient leads to a decrease of
the failure probability at operating conditions by a factor of
106 compared to a non-graded tube, if the permeability and
evaporation rate are kept constant. Pressure filtration with a
variable concentration of space holder particles was selected
to fabricate the required porosity gradients. Two experimental set-ups, one using gas pressure (Fig. 2a) and one using
liquid pressure (Fig. 2b) were tested. A variation of space
holder concentration from 0 to 40 vol.% could be achieved.
After sintering the porosity in the tube was graded from 10
to 50% over a distance of several millimeters (Fig. 3). By
using segmented filter plates that allow for a local adjustment of the filtrate flow the production of axial and radial
gradients is possible [71,72].
2.2. Sintering
The gradient that has been formed in the powder compact
needs to be preserved during sintering. In solid state sintering of bulk specimens diffusion lengths are usually small
Fig. 2. Design of the filtration apparatus (a) using controlled gas pressure; (b) using controlled liquid pressure.
86
Fig. 3. Porosity gradient in a sintered ceramic sample produced by pressure filtration with PMMA beads as space holders.
tering is very important, and that a surface layer of up to

60 m thickness enriched or depleted of binder metal could
be adjusted.
2.3. Methods not requiring a sintering step
Coating techniques using powders for the materials supply easily can be adopted to gradient fabrication by including
a mixing unit in the powder supply chain (e.g. [77,78]). Another possibility is the use of two spraying guns with defined
deposition rate and motion of the guns (e.g. [79]). Feeding
of mixed powders with controlled compositions is also the
basis of the laser cladding technique for building up graded
coatings or graded freeform components [8087]. Two
V24/8: WC0,6m6Co WC11m15Co

20
Co-Content/Hardness/Fracture
Toughness
enough to fulfil this condition. During liquid-phase sintering,

however, macroscopic flow of the liquid phase can easily
occur, and a gradient in the liquid phase is easily destroyed.
Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated by Colin et al. [73]
that it is possible to preserve concentration gradients during liquid-phase sintering of WC/Co hard metals. On the
other hand, it is possible to make conscious use of liquid
flow during liquid-phase sintering for gradient formation. In
a priority program project, this was studied extensively. If
the particle size of the solid component was graded, liquid
redistribution by capillary forces occurred and produced a
concentration gradient [20]. The same effect was found if
the proportion of cubic and hexagonal carbides is graded or
if the carbon or nitrogen content varied in the green compact [20]. These redistribution processes are driven by the
tendency of the system to minimize the free energy of internal surfaces and interfaces. The gradient formation starts
with melting of the liquid phase and is fast. Gradients in
binder content and hardness can extend up to several millimeters (Fig. 4). Distortions of the parts can be prevented
by carefully adjusted green densities of the different regions.
In hard metals the interaction of the gas atmosphere with the
compact during sintering produces chemical gradients with a
strong influence on the phase content in a near-surface layer.
Tough surface layers free of mixed carbides for steel cutting
tools have been obtained and studied [7476] and the role of
nitrogen was described [22]. In WC/Co hard metals a carbon gradient obtained by decarburizing results in a Co-rich
graded surface layer [23,24]. A detailed study performed in
the priority program project showed a very complex behavior for the gradient formation [20]. A continuous change of
W, Ti, Zr, and Co or Ni content was obtained by slow diffusion controlled processes if carbon or nitrogen changes were
produced by interactions with the sintering atmosphere. It
was found that the cooling regime after liquid-phase sin-
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1
10
Distance [mm]
Fig. 4. Co-concentration (), hardness () and fracture toughness ()

gradient in a hard metals with a gradient of the carbide grain size. Lines
are guides for the eye only.
Fig. 5. Left: generation of a metalcarbide composite with compositional gradient by laser beam cladding. Right: graded NiCrBSi tube with
080 vol.% Cr3 C2 .
separately controlled pneumatic powder hoppers were used

to feed Ni-alloy and Cr3 C2 powder simultaneously to deposit
tracks with a height 100400 m and a width 400800 m
with a 600 W Nd-YAG laser (Fig. 5). Subsequent cladding
of overlapping tracks and deposition of tracks onto each
other with a changing ratio of the powder feed rates produces a graded freeform component. The carbide content
was increased from 0 to 80 vol.%. Laser and process parameters have to be optimized to obtain crack and pore free
samples and to control the microstructure. For this study
NiBSi, NiCrBSi and NiCr50 alloys and fine (1045 m)
and coarse (45106 m) Cr3 C2 powder were tested. As
an example the hardness profile of a cylindrical part with
wide change of the carbide content (fine grade) is shown in
(Fig. 6). FEM calculations demonstrated that stress concentrations at the interface with the carbide free substrate are
950
NiBSi + Cr3C2
NiCrBSi + Cr3C2
NiCr50 + Cr3C2
850
Hardness HV0,3
750
87
avoided and a thick wear resistant graded coating can be

manufactured by laser cladding. Other methods using powders as starting materials or PM-related techniques that can
be modified for gradient processing are the Osprey-Process
and centrifugal casting with a SHS-reaction.
In conclusion the disperse state of the materials in powder
metallurgy and ceramics processing offers a great variety of
methods to obtain a graded microstructure or composition
in the final part. Most methods create a one dimensional
gradient, but developments in free form manufacturing and
special deposition units open up the three dimensional design of gradients. The main difficulties to produce graded
parts by powder technology arise from the consolidation of
the inhomogeneous powder compact during sintering. Each
graded system requires carefully selected powders and sintering conditions or the application of external pressure to
reach full density without distortion. Some of the methods
described are very cost-effective and have a good potential
for industrial application. Others will be reserved for laboratory studies or special applications.
3. Melt processing
Gradient formation can be conveniently achieved by transport processes in the molten state and subsequent consolidation. Melt processing is widespread for FGMs containing
a metal as one constituent.
3.1. Centrifugal casting
In centrifugal casting, particles of a refractory phase are
dispersed in a metal melt. These particles may be formed in
situ during cooling of the melt [88] or dispersed in a preceding step. The density difference between particles and
the melt leads to the formation of a particle concentration
gradient if the melt is cast in a centrifuge. Particles with
a lower density (Mg2 Si, [88]) and a higher density (Al3 Ti,
[89]) than the melt have been used to prepare functionally
graded aluminum tubes which are selectively particle reinforced at the inner or outer surface of the tube. If platelets
are used as particles a gradient in particle orientation can be
produced during the casting process [90].
650
3.2. Sedimentation casting
550
In the framework of the priority program, gradient formation by sedimentation of particles was investigated [91]. The
goal of the project was the production of a one dimensional
FGM with an acoustic impedance gradient (the acoustic
impedance is defined as the product of density and sound
velocity). Impedance graded FGMs can reduce the acoustic mismatch between a high impedance PZT ultrasound
transducer and a low impedance material such as body
tissue. The impedance gradient material was produced by
dispersing WC particles in a Cu/Mn alloy and subsequent
450
350
250
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Carbide Content [vol-%]
70
80
90
Fig. 6. Hardness profile of graded NiBSi + Cr3 C2 , NiCrBSi + Cr3 C2

and NiCr50 + Cr3 C2 cylinders obtained by laser beam cladding.
88
Fig. 7. Micrograph of a WC/Cu/Mn alloy gradient and the corresponding spatial distribution of the WC particle concentration.
sedimentation. In this way a particle concentration gradient from 0 to 60% WC was produced (Fig. 7). The high
impedance WC side matched the impedance of PZT exactly. Efforts to produce W/Al and W/Sn FGMs with this
method failed due to solubility problems (W/Al) or poor
wetting of the particles with the melt (W/Sn).
graded A356/Duralcan composites were heated to 400 C

and quenched in water. After 700 thermal cycles a graded
specimen showed no damage (Fig. 9a). In contrast, an ungraded specimen displayed cracks already after 300 cycles
which eventually lead to a complete destruction of the specimen (Fig. 9b).
3.3. Controlled mold filling

In a further project of the priority program, the functionally graded material was produced by successive casting of
two melts [92]. In a gravity casting process, the mold was
partially filled with the first melt, and in a further step, the
second melt was cast on the partially solidified first material (Fig. 8). Gradient formation occurred by forced and
thermal convection, and the width of the graded interface
was predominantly controlled by the degree of solidification of the first melt at the time when the second melt was
cast. In a modification of this process casting was carried
out in a rotating mold, and components with a cylindrical
shape could be obtained. The controlled casting process was
used to produce AlSi7 /AlSi18 and A356/Duralcan graded
materials. In a thermal shock experiment, graded and un-
Fig. 8. Multi-alloy gravity casting process.
Fig. 9. A356/Duralcan composites after 700 thermal cycles at 400 C: (a)

specimen with graded interface; (b) specimen with ungraded interface.
89
Fig. 10. Set-up for directional solidification experiments with natural convection (a) and forced convection (b).
3.4. Directional solidification

The possibilities of generating a macroscopic, onedimensional concentration gradient with radial symmetry
by directional solidification were also investigated in the
framework of the priority program. In this process, the difference between the solidus and liquidus composition during directional solidification of an alloy is used to prepare
a FGM. In order to avoid solidification under steady state
with constant solid concentration, the melt in front of the
solidification front must be stirred as effectively as possible.
This can be achieved by natural convection in a vertical
resistance furnace (Fig. 10a). A temperature gradient was
generated by inserting cooling coils in the top end of the
furnace. Samples were melted inside the furnace and then
moved toward the chilled zone with a constant velocity. The
solidification direction was thus upwards, and for alloying
elements with higher density than the matrix element, a solutally and thermally unstable density gradient in the melt
was generated. For alloying elements with similar density as
the matrix element, an induction furnace was used. A large

temperature gradient was established by submerging the tip
of the sample in cooling water causing forced convection
in the melt (Fig. 10b). Using natural convection, complete
mixing could not be achieved during directional solidification of an Al-4 wt.%Cu alloy even at the lowest sample
velocity of 0.34 m/s. Better mixing could be realized with
forced convection in the induction furnace for specimens
with 8 mm diameter (Fig. 11). The minimum concentration
at a velocity of 0.9 m/s was 0.56 wt.%, which is close
to the theoretical value of 0.48 wt.% for complete mixing.
For this velocity, a Scheil type concentration profile with
the maximum possible degree of segregation was obtained.
The main reason for the higher stirring efficiency in the
induction furnace was the radial temperature gradient introduced by the preferential heating of the sample surface. The
degree of segregation in the induction furnace decreased
with increasing sample velocity and segregation-free microstructures were generated at velocities above 0.3 mm/s
(Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Concentration distributions in Al-4 wt.%Cu alloys, solidified with () 0.9 m/s, () 9.0 m/s, () 46 m/s, () 264 m/s velocity in an
induction furnace.
90
3.5. Infiltration processing

Infiltration is a suitable processing method for functionally graded materials containing phases of very different
melting points. In this process a preform of the more refractory phase possessing a porosity gradient is produced
and infiltrated with the melt of the lower melting component at elevated temperatures. The preform must contain
only open pores and must be insoluble in the melt. Infiltration processing is particularly attractive for metal/ceramic
and glass/ceramic FGMs. However, metal/ceramic systems
are generally non-wetting (with a wetting angle > 90 )
and the preforms are not infiltrated spontaneously. Larger
pores can be infiltrated by applying pressure during infiltration. The required pressure p for a complete infiltration of a
cylindrical pore of radius rp is given by
p=
2LV cos
rp
(3)
where LV is the surface tension of the melt. For a cylindrical pore in a ceramic/metal system with a pore radius
of 5 m, a wetting angle of 120 and a surface tension of
1 J/m2 a pressure of 0.2 MPa is necessary for infiltration.
Pressures required for complete infiltration of real pore structures are higher, but can be reached using squeeze casting or
gas-pressure sintering equipment. An alternative to pressure
application is the improvement of the wettability by precoating the preform, by suitably alloying the melt or changing
the composition of the gas atmosphere. However, even for a
wetting angle of about 30 a pressure of about 1 atm is necessary for complete infiltration of a particulate preform [93].
Further limitations of infiltration processing are caused by
the restricted availability of graded porous preforms which
must not contain closed porosity and need to have a sufficient mechanical strength at high porosity in order to resist
the pressure applied during infiltration.
One processing method for such preforms is based on
powder compacts with a graded particle size. During sintering, the particle size gradient leads to the formation of a
porosity gradient [94]. Since this is accompanied by distortion, shape stabilization during sintering is required. Other
methods which have been used to produce graded preforms
include sintering of green bodies with a graded content of
short fibres [95], transformation of a Al/Al2 O3 gradient into
a porosity gradient during sintering [96], transformation of
a gradient in carbon content in TiCx into a porosity gradient
during sintering [97], plasma spraying with varying process
parameters during coating deposition [98], coating of a polymer foam with ceramic slip in a centrifuge and burn-out of
the polymer [99], and solid freeform fabrication [100].
In a project of the priority program a combination of centrifugal powder forming and liquid-phase sintering was used
to prepare a porosity gradient. For this purpose the amount
of liquid forming Cu was graded in a W/Cu green body by
centrifugal powder forming, and the movement of the liquid Cu towards a more homogeneous distribution caused a
Fig. 12. W/Cu gradient formation: (a) starting condition after centrifugal forming; (b) porosity gradient after liquid-phase sintering; (c) W/Cu
gradient after Cu-infiltration.
porosity gradient in the W/Cu composite [54,55]. Infiltration of the pre-sintered body with additional Cu leads to a
fully dense graded W/Cu composite (Fig. 12).
Electrochemical dissolution of porous precursor materials
as a route to produce graded preforms has been investigated
in a different project of the priority program. The experimental set-up consists of a simple electrolysis cell with a
porous anode material that undergoes dissolution (Fig. 13).
If a current passes through the cell, potential gradients inside
the porous anode develop and lead to a local variation in the
porous anode
contact
electrolyte
cathode
contact
z
0
Fig. 13. Sketch of the experimental configuration for electrochemical

gradation.
Fig. 14. Microstructure of a graded W/Cu composite produced by electrochemical gradation.
rate of dissolution and porosity of the anode. A quantitative description of the porosity evolution was possible by an
electrokinetic model described in Section 5. Electrochemical gradation has been used to introduce porosity gradients
in materials such as bronze [101] and copper [102]. Porosity
graded tungsten preforms also have been produced by this
process [103]. After anodization the tungsten preforms were
infiltrated with molten copper applying 10 MPa Ar pressure
to yield a fully dense W/Cu FGM (Fig. 14).
Electrochemical gradation was also used to produce
porosity graded ceramic preforms. In this case porous carbon was used as an anode material and sacrificial preform.
After electrochemical gradation and infiltration with an
alumina slip of sufficiently small particle size, the carbon
was burnt out [104]. The retained ceramic preform was infiltrated with Al to produce a Al/Al2 O3 functionally graded
material. A very versatile method to produce porosity graded
sacrificial preforms is also the inhomogeneous compaction
of polymer foams as first described by Cichocki et al. [105].
In this so-called gradient materials by foam compaction
(GMFC) process open-celled polymer foam of a low initial
density is used as a starting material. Porosity graded foams
are produced by warm pressing foam wedges of different
shape to a homogeneous thickness or by stacking compacted foam plates with different compaction ratios. With
both methods a well controlled macroscopic porosity distribution inside the foam with minimum values of 40% open
porosity and maximum values of 97% open porosity can be
91
Fig. 15. Manufacture of a Cu/Al2 O3 FGM by the GMFC process (processing stages are numbered consecutively): (1) uncompressed polymer foam;
(2) foam plates compressed with different compaction ratios; (3) stacked
foam plates; (4) foam stack infiltrated with Al2 O3 ; (5) graded Al2 O3 preform after sintering; (6) preform material cut to specimen dimensions;
(7) retained Cu/Al2 O3 FGM after infiltration of the preform with molten
Cu; (8) specimen for burner rig test after grinding and polishing.
produced [106,107]. The compacted foams are infiltrated

with a ceramic suspension. After water removal by filtration
and drying, the polymer foam is burnt out and the ceramic
is sintered. The retained porosity graded ceramic preform
can be infiltrated with a metal to produce a metal/ceramic
FGM. Fig. 15 illustrates the processing steps on the example
of a graded Cu/Al2 O3 material for burner rig testing [108].
In a further priority program project, fiber preforms with
graded fiber spacing were produced by impregnating carbon fibers with slurry [109]. The principle of this method is
to introduce ceramic particles into the fiber bundle thereby
acting as spacers. Fig. 16 shows an illustration of the used
impregnation set-up. It was found that the suspension concentration and the winding speed of the fibers are the most
important parameters to determine the fiber volume content
of the preform (Fig. 17). Higher particle concentrations and
lower winding speeds result in a distinctly more pronounced
accumulation of spacer particles between the fiber filaments
and consequently lower fiber volume fractions. After infiltration of the fiber preforms with different magnesium alloys carbon fiber reinforced composites with graded fiber
content were obtained. The volume content of the reinforcing fibers could be continuously varied between 25 and 60%
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram showing the impregnation process used for the introduction of spacer particles into the fiber bundle.
92
Fig. 17. Influence of the winding speed on the fiber volume content for several Al2 O3 particle concentrations. The fiber content increases with higher
winding speeds, whereas the amount of spacer particles in the fiber bundle decreases.
by adjusting the winding speed during the impregnation

process.
3.6. Reactive infiltration
In reactive infiltration the preform reacts with the infiltrated material to form a graded composite. The advantages
of reactive infiltration are low-cost processes and raw materials and improved wetting. The gradient may be formed by
incomplete infiltration of a homogeneous porous body or by
complete infiltration of a preform that contains a porosity
or composition gradient. Partial infiltration is usually combined with a reaction and sintering step after infiltration in
which a dense body containing the new phases is formed.
Mullite/alumina [110], mullite/aluminumtitanate/alumina
[111] and alumina/calcium-hexaluminate [112] FGMs were
formed by partially infiltrating precursors such as silica sols
or calcium acetate into alumina preforms. Partial infiltration
is a very simple method to produce continuous gradients,
but lacks flexibility in the shape of the composition profile.
If complete reactive infiltration is used to produce gradients,
the composition profile of the product can be controlled by
the gradient in the preform. An example is the so-called
i-3A process [113], in which Al is infiltrated into porous
preforms consisting of Al2 O3 and a metal oxide. The metal
oxide is reduced by the liquid aluminum, and Al2 O3 and
the respective metal aluminides are formed according to the
reaction
aMeu Ov + bAl cAl2 O3 + dMex Aly
(4)
For the production of FGMs by the i-3A process graded

Al2 O3 /TiO2 and Al2 O3 /Fe2 O3 bodies were produced by
powder stacking or slip casting. After gas-pressure infiltration with Al, the graded green bodies were converted into
Al2 O3 /TiAl3 and Al2 O3 /FeAlx FGMs [114]. The aluminide
content in the FGMs varied between 0 and 35 vol.% and had
defect-free interfaces between layers of different composition.
4. Processing of polymer-based FGMs

In polymers, like in other materials, compositional and
microstructural gradients are intended to allow an optimum combination of component properties, for example
weight, surface hardness, wear resistance, impact resistance and toughness. Polymers with a porosity gradient,
so-called polyurethane integral skin foams provide high impact strength at low weight and have been used since long
for instrument panels or head rests in cars [115]. Graded
polymers that have been processed so far include graded
fiber composites [116], graded interpenetrating polymer
networks [117], graded biodegradable polyesters [118] and
graded index polymer fibers and microlenses [119]. Compared to ceramic or metal based systems, the knowledge on
processing methods for polymer FGMs is limited. In the
following, some important processing methods for polymer
FGMs are described where particular attention is given to
the methods used in the priority program.
In polymer composites, a gradient of the reinforcement
can be introduced by centrifuging prior to polymerization
[120]. This method was studied in detail by Klingshirn et al.
in a priority program project [121]. Two resins were used
as matrix materials, while SiC particles, aramide particles,
glass fibers and carbon fibers were used as filler materials.
Rings and tubes with a gradient in filler content were produced by centrifuging a dispersion of particles in a resin
prior to hardening. The average filler content was chosen
between 5 and 45%. After centrifugation the filler content in
the outer portions of the rings increased up to 27% for glass
fibers and to 45% for SiC particles, for an average filler content of 20%. This significant difference between different
filler materials was primarily attributed to the aspect ratio of
the filler particles, which was about 200 for the glass fibers
and 1 for the SiC particles. A smooth gradient in the filler
concentration could be produced by adjusting the rotation
speed of the centrifuge and the viscosity of the resin. The
latter could be increased by gelation for a given time before
centrifugation. A viscosity 25 Pa s. was found suitable for

centrifugation of carbon fibersa lower viscosity of 5 Pa s
lead to a complete sedimentation of the carbon fibers during
thermosetting. The wear resistance of thermosetting polymers was improved by the addition of the hard filler particles or fibers. It was demonstrated that the gradient in filler
content leads to a corresponding gradient in microhardness
and wear resistance [122,123].
Long-fiber reinforced polymers with graded fiber composition or orientation can be produced by lamination techniques [124]. In a priority program project a gradient was
introduced also in the matrix material. Polycyanurate resins
were used as a matrix material. Since the neat polycyanurate
is too brittle for many structural applications, it was modified
by a rubber modifier. Higher modifier contents improve the
toughness, but the good high-temperature stability of neat
polycyanurate and the resistance against water absorption
are reduced. The idea of the project was thus to optimize
the properties of a component by a gradient in modifier
content, in addition to gradients in fiber density and orientation which are already used in lightweight components. The
gradient was achieved by hot press lamination of a stack of
glass fiber prepregs containing differently modified resins.
Since the resins are redistributed between the prepreg layers
during molding, it was necessary to determine the resulting gradient at the end of the process. This was done by
dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) which proved that a
smooth gradient was established during molding [125].
If polymers develop distinctly different microstructures at
different processing temperatures, it is possible to introduce
property gradients by applying a temperature gradient during processing. Such an effect was used in a priority program
project aiming at the development of a polymeric impact protection material consisting of a single component. Sintered
fiber materials were selected as candidates because they have
high energy absorption potential. The properties of the final product depend strongly on the temperature at which the
fibers are sintered together. Low sintering temperatures lead
to an anisotropic microstructure, in which the aligned fibers
are still well discernible. High sintering temperatures lead
to a compact, isotropic material. Components with either of
these microstructures have poor to moderate impact resistance. The anisotropic material fractures by delamination between the fibers, so that small objects can penetrate through
93
the material between the fibers and the high strength of the
fibers cannot be used for the absorption of impact energy. On
the other hand, the isotropic microstructure, per se, has low
impact resistance. The idea of the project was to introduce a
microstructural gradient by applying a temperature gradient
during sintering with the goal to improve the impact properties of the component. For one of the test materials, the
liquid-crystalline copolyester Vectran , the idea was successful. Fig. 18 shows an example of a graded microstructure
with a nearly homogeneous structure at the high-temperature
side and clearly discernible fibers at the low-temperature
side. The impact resistance was measured in a repetitive
drop-weight test, in which the plates are impacted repeatedly with increasing impact energy until penetration occurs.
In this test, the homogeneous isotropic material exhibited
very low energy absorption values around 20 J, while the
homogeneous material with anisotropic structure (sintering
temperature 290 C) gave energy absorption values around
200 J with a small difference between cross-ply and fabric.
The best values, nearly 300 J, were obtained with the graded
material, but only when the anisotropic microstructure was
at the impact side and the isotropic structure is at the opposite side, and cross-ply rather than fabric was used [126].
5. Modeling of FGM processing

The rapidly increasing performance of computers and
computer software has favored the widespread use of numerical simulation tools for the design of parts and for the
optimization of manufacturing processes. Process modeling
may be especially important in connection with functionally graded materials, since gradients often cause special
problems. In some cases the simulation can help to establish the desired gradient, and to maintain it throughout the
entire process by an appropriate process control. In other
cases, process modeling may help to circumvent or at least
minimize problems such as warpage or cracking during the
fabrication of a component.
5.1. Modeling of gradient formation
In many processes such as powder stacking the gradient is
formed directly and there is no need to model the formation
Fig. 18. Graded microstructure of sintered Vectran fibres.
94
of the gradient. When the powders are not deposited directly

but in a filtration process knowledge of the rate of cake formation is necessary to produce pre-defined gradients. It has
been demonstrated by Tuff and Marple that a precise control of gradient formation is possible using a simple analysis
if the casting parameter is known for each slip composition
[127]. As long as particle interactions are small, modeling
of particle sedimentation is straightforward if the particle
size distributions are known. Normally, the Stokes equation
is used to describe the particle velocity, but for heavier particles Newtons law has been used [58]. Reasonable agreement of calculated and observed particle volume fractions
have been achieved for sedimentation experiments [59,128].
Modeling of gradient formation has also been carried out
for centrifugal casting [129,130] and reasonable agreement
with the experimental particle distribution was found [130].
In vapor deposition processes the gradient is usually introduced by dosage of precursors from separate containers or
by adjusting the partial pressure of a reactive gas. For such
processes the relationship between composition of the gas
phase and the composition of the deposit may be complicated and knowledge of the relationship between the partial
pressures of different components in the gas phase and the
film growth rate and composition is required for the design
of controlled gradients [131].
Polyurethane integral skin foam parts exhibit a substantial density gradient, such that the surface is relatively dense
and mechanically stable, while the core of the part has low
density. This is achieved by keeping the tool surfaces relatively cool (typically 80 C), whereas the center of the part is
heated by the foaming reaction to higher temperatures (typically 180 C). This leads to an expansion of the foam bubbles to much larger diameters, which means lower density.
In a priority program project the foaming process was simulated numerically using the finite-element code ABAQUS.
Predicted and optically measured density distributions were
consistent, as Fig. 19 shows [132]. Further, a new method
was developed to detect the gelation of the foam material by
ultrasound transmission and a suggestion was made how a
graded foam structure could serve as a coupling element for
ultrasound between air and a sensor, and how the element
could be fabricated.
In the previous chapter, a priority program project using
anodic dissolution to prepare graded porous preforms for infiltration processing was described. In the following a model
is presented that allows an accurate prediction of the porosity gradient developing during the electrolysis due to the dissolution of the electrode material. A continuum model was
used which regards the porous electrode as a macrohomogenous mixture of the electrode matrix and the electrolyte filling the pores. It was assumed that the local density of the
Faraday current per unit internal surface area jF is governed
by the Tafel equation:

jF () = j0 exp
RT
(5)
where j0 and are constants for a given electrode reaction

and the overpotential (driving the electrode reaction). For
a plate-like porous anode of thickness L where the current
feeder is located at the side opposite to the cathode (Fig. 13)
the current density per unit volume jv (and thus the local
rate of dissolution) could be determined analytically as:

B
B
jv = SjF = j0 S
1 + tg2 [w wmin ]
(6)
2A
2
where the relative position w = x/L and the surface area
per unit volume S have been introduced. A and B are dimensionless constants defined by the following equations:
F
A = (l + s )L2 Sj0
(7)
RT

B
C
D
(8)
arctg
+ arctg
=
2
B
B
with
F
F
and D = l jT L
(9)
RT
RT
The position of minimum overpotential is determined by the
dimensionless quantity wmin :

C
2
wmin =
arctg
(10)
B
B
C = s jT L
s and l are the effective resistivity of the porous electrode and electrolyte, which depend on the pore structure
of the electrode and the resistivity of the employed materials. Eq. (6) is only valid if the current potential relation is
described by the Tafel relation. A finite-difference scheme
based on the same differential equations as the analytic solution was developed in order to be able to use arbitrary
currentpotential relations. As material is removed by the
anodic reaction a position-dependent porosity and specific
surface area develops. This was also included in the numerical model by the dividing the operation time into small
time intervals and adding of the material removal during
all time intervals. The results of the analytical and the numerical model were compared to experimental data for a
porous tungsten electrode (Fig. 20). Already the analytical
model showed a good agreement with experimental data, but
the numerical model could predict the porosity distribution
even with a higher precision. The produced porosity distribution can be controlled by a number of experimental parameters (Fig. 21). Increasing the total current and keeping
the other experimental parameters constant lead to a more
uneven tungsten distribution (compare a and b). Increasing
the resistivity of the electrolyte by decreasing the concentration of electrolyte also leads to a more uneven tungsten
distribution (compare c and d). Preforms with lower initial
porosity graded under the same experimental conditions also
showed more uneven tungsten content (compare b and d).
Porosity distributions produced by the electrochemical gradation process were thus predicted quantitatively in a numerical model of the gradation process taking into account
average density
900
800
density [kg/m]
294 kg/m
376 kg/m
480 kg/m
597 kg/m
680 kg/m
95
700
600
500
400
experiment
simulation
300
0
4
8
2
6
distance from upper surface [mm]
10
Fig. 19. Measured and calculated density distributions across the thickness of a polyurethane plate after the foaming reaction.
microstructural changes of the porous electrode during the

dissolution process.
with an advanced solid-state sintering model. The models

and their application in the priority program are described
in the following paragraphs.
5.2. Modeling of sintering

As a basis for describing the sintering of graded components, models for solid-state and liquid-phase sintering were
developed and applied in the priority program [133135].
The models were implemented in a finite-element code
(ABAQUS), and they were also combined with beam-theory
and plate-theory PC programs in order to predict the
warpage and cracking of graded components. Finally a program for microwave sintering was developed and combined
Fig. 20. Comparison of the predicted and observed tungsten content in

an electrochemically graded W/Cu composite, (- - -) analytical model;
() numerical model. The numerical model includes the effects of structural changes on the current distribution in the porous electrode. Initial
tungsten content was 75 vol.%, current density 12.2 mA/cm2 and NaOH
concentration 2 mol/l.
5.2.1. Application of a liquid-phase sintering

model to Al2 O3
In [134,135] a liquid-phase sintering model was developed, which was used in this project to describe the sintering
behavior of 94% purity Al2 O3 . To determine the parameters of the model, so-called sinter forging tests were carried
out. In this test, a cylindrical specimen is subjected to an
axial load during sintering, and the axial and radial strains
are measured. In addition the evolution of the microstructure was observed, since the models contain the grain size
as an internal state variable. The parameter fit is done using a PC program by integrating the evolution equations of
the model and varying the parameters by hand, until the
simulated behavior agrees with the measured one. Figs. 22
and 23 demonstrate that the evolution of the strains (and
hence of the density) and of the grain size can be described
well by the model. Table 1 shows the resulting parameter
values. It should be noted that a similarly good fit of the data
can be achieved by a solid-state sintering model [133]. This
is not surprising, since for relatively low liquid contents the
structure of the liquid-phase model is similar to that of the
solid-state model.
5.2.2. Warpage of graded plates
The warpage of graded plates during sintering was modeled in two ways. First a relatively simple program was
written in the framework of plate-theory. The equations for
the equilibrium of force and bending moment were given in
[136]. Second, the sinter warpage of a plate with a grain size
gradient was calculated with a finite-element code [62,136].
As an example, a circular plate with 10 mm thickness and
100 mm diameter is considered in [136]. The lower half of
the plate consists of molybdenum and the upper half of ZrO2 .
A linear heating rate of 5 K/min and a hold temperature
of 2173 K are prescribed with a linear temperature gradient
of 100 K over the plate thickness during the rise time, the
60
40
1
20
2
80
60
40
1
20
0
60
40
1
20
0
POSITION [mm]
(a)
TUNGSTEN CONTENT [Vol.-%]
VICKER'S HARDNESS [GPa]
80
(c)
80
60
40
1
20
0
(b)
80
VICKER'S HARDNESS [GPa]
96
(d)
Fig. 21. Comparison of the predicted () and observed () tungsten distribution in electrochemically graded W/Cu for different current density, NaOH
concentration and initial porosity. Open triangles are hardness values of the composites: (a) initial porosity 25%, current density 5.5 mA/cm2 , cNaOH
2 mol/l; (b) initial porosity 25%, current density 12.2 mA/cm2 , cNaOH 2 mol/l; (c) initial porosity 42%, current density 5.5 mA/cm2 , cNaOH 2 mol/l; (d)
initial porosity 42%, current density 5.5 mA/cm2 , cNaOH 1 mol/l.
Table 1
Parameters of the liquid-phase sintering model for 94% purity alumina
Initial values
Relative green density D0

Initial grain radius R0
0.605
1.05 m
Melt formation
Start of melting
Melting rate
Maximum volume fraction of melt
1430 K
0.000595 K
0.1
Grain rearrangement
Maximum solid density by rearrangement

Viscosity, pre-exponential factor
Viscosity, activation energy
0.63
1 105
425 kJ/mol
Solution/re-precipitation
Reaction rate, pre-exponential factor

Reaction rate, activation energy
3.9 104
400 kJ/mol
Diffusion in liquid phase
Diffusion coefficient, pre-exponential factor

Diffusion coefficient, activation energy
5.2 1038
425 kJ/mol
Sintering stress
Solid/liquid interface energy

Liquid surface energy
Volume fraction of large pores
Parameter for size distribution of large pores B
Parameter for size distribution of large pores n
0.25 J/m2
0.25 J/m2
0.1
0.12
1
Ratio shear-to-bulk viscosity
G/K
0.27
40
-0.1
radial strain
-0.2
free sintering
Displacement in mm
Strain
0.0
-0.3
35 N
axial strain
-0.4
45 N
-0.5
200
250
300
40 N
350
ZrO2 side being cooler. The material parameters that are

most important for the sintering behavior of the plate are the
activation energies for grain boundary diffusion, Qb , and for
grain boundary migration, Qm . They are taken from other
investigations to be Qb = 280 kJ/mol for Mo, 271 kJ/mol for
ZrO2 and Qm = 230 kJ/mol for Mo, 310 kJ/mol for ZrO2 .
The relative green densities are assumed to be 0.6 for Mo
and 0.5 for ZrO2 . The initial grain radius is chosen as 2.5 m
for Mo, and that of ZrO2 is varied (0.1, 0.5 and 1 m).
Fig. 24 shows the calculated evolution of the warpage of
the plate (the normal displacement of the edge of the plate
with the center being fixed). The fine-grained ZrO2 sinters
at a temperature where Mo is still practically inactive. This
leads to a displacement of the plate edge in upward direction.
Later also the Mo starts to sinter, but it does not nearly reach
full density, since intense grain coarsening prevents further
densification. Hence the plate is substantially distorted at the
end. This distortion can be minimized by choosing the appropriate grain size for the ZrO2 powder. If the grain radius
of the ZrO2 powder is 1 m the Mo side starts to sinter first,
but slightly later also the ZrO2 shrinks and just compensates
the initial warpage. In this case the final relative densities
are 0.74 in ZrO2 and 0.88 in Mo.
1700
Al2O3
A1894
1600
1500
3.0
1400
Experiment
1300
1200
Model
1100
Temperature in C
Grain Size in m
3.5
2.5
1000
250
300
350
30
20
Grain radius of ZrO2 R= 0.1 m
10
R= 0.5 m
R= 1 m
0
-10
0
Fig. 22. Evolution of axial and radial strains. Solid lines: experiments;
dashed lines: model. Temperature is the same as in Fig. 23.
Temperature
Mo-ZrO2
T = 100 K
400
Time in min
2.0
200
97
400
Time in s
Fig. 23. Evolution of the grain size. Symbols: experiments; dashed line:
model.
10
12
14
Time in h
Fig. 24. Warpage of a plate consisting of molybdenum and zirconia. The
final warpage is small, if the zirconia has a grain radius of 1 m.
Within the framework of plate-theory the distortion

necessarily remains axisymmetric. A three-dimensional
finite-element calculation, however, shows that the initial
symmetry is spontaneously broken. The deformation is
only axisymmetric for small deflections, whereas the plate
assumes the form of a potato chip as sintering progresses
[136]. These predictions are consistent with observations of
Moritz et al. when sintering pore-size graded titania plates
[62]. The sintering temperature was selected such that the
plates acquire enough strength, but still have an open pore
structure, even in the fine-grained top layers. It was found
that up to 800 C, practically no sintering occurred. At
about 850 C the plates developed a certain mechanical
strength, and the pores were still open with pore sizes between 5 and 50 nm at the fine-grained side, and 3 m at
the coarse-grained side (as measured by quantitative image
analysis). With increasing sintering temperature the plates
were distorted, as the fine-grained side sintered faster than
the coarse-grained side (Fig. 25). Part of the warpage was
reversed when also the coarse-grained material sintered in
the temperature range between 900 and 1200 C. The sinter
warpage could be avoided without suppressing the radial
shrinkage by covering the graded plate with an alumina
disc of about 3 g mass.
5.2.3. Prediction of cracking
When graded materials are processed, cracking is a potential danger, since different regions sinter at different rates.
The resulting incompatibilities may either be relieved by
creep accommodation and distortions, or they may lead to
cracking, depending on the material properties and the geometrical conditions.
It is suggested that cracking is initiated in a sintering body
if the mean stress locally exceeds the sintering stress. In this
case the material starts to desinter, which means that it locally softens. Softening may lead to strain localization; the
incompatibilities between areas sintering at different rates
98
Fig. 25. Influence of the sintering temperature on the warpage of graded titania plates.
are accommodated in a narrow desintering layer, i.e. in the

evolving crack. To illustrate the principle, the configuration shown in Fig. 26 is considered: A spherical core of
fine-grained material (region 1) is separated by a thin layer
(region 2) from the coarse-grained bulk (region 3). Tensile stresses develop between the coarse-grained bulk and
the fine-grained core due to the different sintering stresses.
These stresses act on the interface layer, which is intended
Fig. 26. (A) Configuration analyzed in the sintering model. (B) Evolution
of the relative density in the fine-grained core, in the interface layer and
in the coarse-grained bulk. Grain size in the interface: (a) 0.518 m; (b)
0.52 m; (c) 0.522 m.
to serve as a perturbation to initiate cracking. To be specific

the grain size in the bulk is assumed to be 2 m, in the core
it is 0.5 m and in the interface layer it is given a value between 0.5 and 2 m. The initial relative density is chosen
as 0.55 except in the interface layer, where it is 0.54. The
question to be answered is whether the greater sinter activity
of the fine-grained core leads to a decohesion from the bulk
or whether the core remains attached, its sintering rate being constrained by the slowly sintering bulk. Fig. 26 shows
the result of the calculation for three different grain sizes in
the interface layer (cases a, b and c). The numerical values
for the grain sizes are deliberately chosen to illustrate the
sudden transition from stable sintering of the system to unstable desintering (cracking) of the interface. In case (a) the
grain size in the interface layer is 0.518 m. After a period
of retarded densification, the interface, as well as the complete system densify readily. In case (b) the grain size in the
interface layer is 0.52 m. Still the interface remains intact
and reaches full density after a period of initial desintering. In case (c), however, where d = 0.522 m, desintering
leads to a complete loss of density and strength of the interface layer. When the interface layer breaks down, the core
starts to sinter much faster than before when it was still constrained by the slowly sintering, coarse-grained bulk. Hence,
near the instability point, a seemingly minor change of the
grain size in the interface leads to a completely different
result.
In further calculations, the grain size of the interface layer
was varied, while all other parameters remained fixed. It
turned out that stable sintering is only possible, if the grain
size in the interface is close to either that of the core (0.5 m)
or that of the bulk (2 m). If the interface has grain sizes between 0.52 and 1.95 m, decohesion occurs. Hence in this
case, a transition layer with intermediate properties between
the core and the bulk is less favorable for the sinterability
than a sudden transition. This example is intended to illustrate the principle how cracking can be described as a process of localized desintering for a simple configuration. In
the framework of the finite-element method, the principle
can be generalized to arbitrary geometrical configurations
with property gradients.
5.2.4. Microwave sintering

Microwave sintering offers certain advantages compared
to conventional heating, for example for the sintering of
fine-grained ceramic powders, when the fine grain size is
to be preserved during sintering. On the other hand, the
electromagnetic field in the microwave cavity is inhomogeneous, which is an additional difficulty for the sintering of
graded parts. Hence a finite-difference microwave program
was written and combined with the solid-state sintering
model described in [133]. Commercial microwave codes
generally solve Maxwells equations, sometimes coupled
with the heat conduction equation, since the dielectric
properties of materials usually depend on temperature. In
addition to the temperature dependence, the thermal and
electric properties may depend strongly on the sinter density, and the program developed here takes that also into
account [137].
The following example shows that the full coupling of the
sintering model with the electromagnetic and thermal fields
is not a second-order effect, but it may be critical for the
success of a sintering process. Fig. 27 shows the axisymmetric microwave furnace to be analyzed. The energy is fed
into the cavity by the bottom antenna, while the antenna at
the top serves to control the process. The material to be sintered is an alumina ceramic. The susceptors are assumed to
be dense alumina, and the insulation is given the thermal
and electric properties of alumina fibers. The microwave frequency is chosen such that the TE031 mode is excited (for
the microwave terminology see [138]).
Fig. 28 shows the temperature distribution for the case
that a coarse-grained alumina with grain size 2 m is
heated with 1 kW microwave power. The picture shows that
a so-called runaway instability occurs: the temperature is
rather low everywhere in the ceramic (the hatched area in
the center) except in a small region, where it quickly rises
to very high values. In the case shown here the temperature
reaches the melting point of alumina in the hot spot, while
the rest of the ceramic does not even start to sinter. Such a
runaway instability can occur if the microwave absorption
coefficient increases with temperature, if the microwave
power is high, if the heat conductivity is low, and if the
specimen is large. Apparently the conditions for a run-
Susceptor
Ceramic
Insulation
Microwaves
Antenna
Fig. 27. Cylindrical microwave cavity with a ceramic sample and susceptors.
99
Fig. 28. (a) Temperature distribution for 1 kW microwave power. (b)

Maximum and average temperature in the (coarse-grained) ceramic show
the evolution of a runaway instability.
away instability to occur are satisfied here. In practice this

means that the process fails to yield an acceptable sintered
product.
On the other hand, the instability can be avoided, if
fine-grained alumina with grain size 0.1 m is sintered with
500 W microwave power. As Fig. 29 shows, the temperature
distribution in the fine-grained ceramic is very homogeneous. This leads to a density near 100% and a fine grain
size below 0.14 m throughout the specimen. The reason for
the favorable behavior of the fine-grained material is that it
starts to sinter earlier. Since the heat conductivity increases
sharply during the initial stages of densification, the heat is
spread more effectively and hence no localization instability develops. A model which does not couple sintering with
the electromagnetic and thermal fields would not be able
to predict the difference between coarse- and fine-grained
100
Fig. 29. (a) Temperature distribution for 500 W of microwave power. (b)
Maximum and average temperature in the (fine-grained) ceramic.
materials. The development of stable microwave sintering

processes for functionally graded materials without local
over-heating can be substantially facilitated by the use of
simulation tools like the present one.
ponents with a commercial finite-element program. A complete description of drying and the concomitant deformations involves three coupled fields, namely the local water
content, the temperature and the mechanical deformation.
Various aspects of drying theory are described in [139,140].
In a first step, a one-dimensional PC program was developed. The program simultaneously solves the heat conduction equation and Darcys equations for liquid and vapor
transport in the porous solid. The thermodynamic properties
of water (vapor pressure over curved surfaces, latent heat) are
taken into account. It turned out that under all practical drying conditions the temperature was nearly uniform for a wall
thickness of a few centimeters. Hence it is not necessary to
solve the heat conduction equation. It suffices to consider the
global energy balance between the heat flowing into the body
through its surface, the latent heat of the evaporating liquid
and the internal energy in the body. Hence in a numerical
time-stepping algorithm the (uniform) temperature change
can be calculated in each step directly from the current state
of the body and from the temperature and humidity of the
surrounding atmosphere. This greatly simplifies the analysis,
since now only two fields (water content and deformation
field) remain which must be treated in a coupled manner.
This two-field problem is, in principle, accessible to several
finite-element codes. Nevertheless, the problem was further
decomposed into two one-field problems, namely the drying
simulation itself and the deformation problem. The decoupling is based on the assumption that the hydrostatic part
of the stress is small compared to the capillary stress of the
liquid. This excludes the description of situations in which
the water is pressed out of the porous solid by applied forces
like in pressure filtration. On the other hand, the assumption is usually justified for industrial drying processes. The
drying problem is then analogous to a heat conduction problem, and the deformation problem is subsequently solved
as an elasticplastic problem with superimposed volumetric
strains and plastic properties that depend on the local water
content.
5.3. Modeling of drying processes
Water content in wt-%
20
2
15
10
1
5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Shrinkage in %
After wet forming processes it is necessary to dry the

green powder compact, before it can be processed further.
Functionally graded materials are especially susceptible to
warpage during drying. The capillary pressure of the liquid
exerts an increasing pressure on the solid skeleton as the liquid content decreases, which causes the well-known shrinkage during drying. Since the rate of drying and the capillary
pressure depend on the grain size and the green density, the
shrinkage is usually inhomogeneous in a graded component,
which leads to distortions and, in some cases, also to crack
formation.
In the priority program a basis for modeling the warpage
during drying was developed. The aim was to be able to
model the drying and deformation behavior of graded com-
25
0
700
Time in min
Fig. 30. Water content and shrinkage during drying. Measured values and
adjusted theoretical curves.
101
30
28
temperature in C
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
time in s
Fig. 31. Evolution of the temperature in the plate during drying.
The parameters of the model were determined from

a set of experiments, in which the water content, the
shrinkage and the temperature are measured for different
temperatures and humidities of the atmosphere (Fig. 30).
Further, stressstrain curves were measured in compression tests for different water contents to determine the
elasticplastic properties of the wet powder body. After
the determination of the model parameters the drying and
warpage of homogeneous and functionally graded materials can be described. As an example the drying of
Fig. 32. Distribution of the water content in the plate after 650 s (a) and
6600 s (b). The numbers give the range in which the water content varies.
Only a quarter of the plate is depicted.
a graded circular plate with 60 mm diameter and 5 mm

thickness was modeled in an atmosphere with 25 C and
50% humidity. The material is given model parameters
similar to those of a sanitary ware material, and the volumetric drying strain is assumed to increase linearly from
4 to 8% from the top of the plate to the bottom, while
the permeability for liquid water increases by a factor 3.
Fig. 33. Warpage after drying. Initial geometry in the background.

Table 2
Overview of processing methods for FGMs
Process
Variability of
transition function
Layer
thicknessa
Versatility in
phase content
Type of FGM
Versatility in
component geometry
Powder stacking
Sheet lamination
Wet powder spraying
Slurry dipping
Jet solidification
Sedimentation/centrifuging
Filtration/slip casting
Laser cladding
Thermal spraying
Diffusion
Directed solidification
Electrochemical gradation
Foaming of polymers
PVD, CVD
GMFC process
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Very good
Very good
M, L
T, Mb
UT, Tb
UT, Tb
M, L
C
C
M
T
C
C
C
C
C
M, L, C
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Very good
Moderate
Good
Good
Very good
Moderate
Bulk
Bulk
Bulkc
Coating
Bulk
Bulk
Bulkc
Bulk, coating
Coating, bulk
Joint, coating
Bulk
Bulkc
Bulk
Coating
Bulk
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Good
Very good
Poor
Good
Very good
Good
Good
Poor
Good
Good
Moderate
Good
a
b
c
L: large (>1 mm); M: medium (1001000 m); T: thin (10100 m), UT: very thin (<10 m); C: continuous.
Depending on available powder size.
Maximum thickness is limited.
102
As Fig. 31 shows, the calculated temperature of the plate

initially decreases to 19 C due to the evaporation of water,
and returns to ambient temperature as the evaporation rate
decreases. After about 40,000 s the water content in the
plate reaches 1.6%, i.e. it is in equilibrium with the atmosphere and evaporation comes to a standstill. Fig. 32 shows
the distribution of the water in the plate at different times,
and Fig. 33 shows the warpage at the end of the drying
cycle. In a SPP project, extreme warpage was also experimentally observed for direct drying of plates with a particle
size gradient, since the capillary stresses of the liquid in
fine-grained material are much larger than in coarse-grained
material [141]. In practice, planar plates could be obtained
by supercritical drying, since this process does not involve
a direct liquid to vapor transition and hence avoids capillary
forces.
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6. Concluding remarks
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combination. Which of these processing methods is the
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overview is given in Table 2). The German priority program has contributed to the current state-of-the-art of
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Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

Processing techniques for functionally graded materials

Institut fr Werkstoffwissenschaft der TU Dresden, Mommsenstrae 13, 01062 Dresden, Germany

a large variety of production methods has been developed

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

and composition of the powder mixture, these problems must

suggest the use of powder mixtures with changing average

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

ing is used to join the layers during the final consolidation

Fig. 1. Two piston construction for the multiphase jet solidification

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

each layer gradients were produced. SiCTiC was chosen as

the suspension a complicated transition function is retained.

The mobility is defined by the properties of the dispersant

where is the viscosity and 0 r the dielectric constant of

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

a porous membrane. A proper choice of the surfactants and

ration rate can be achieved, however a direct transition from

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

tering is very important, and that a surface layer of up to

V24/8: WC0,6m6Co WC11m15Co

enough to fulfil this condition. During liquid-phase sintering,

Fig. 4. Co-concentration (), hardness () and fracture toughness ()

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

separately controlled pneumatic powder hoppers were used

avoided and a thick wear resistant graded coating can be

3.2. Sedimentation casting

Fig. 6. Hardness profile of graded NiBSi + Cr3 C2 , NiCrBSi + Cr3 C2

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

graded A356/Duralcan composites were heated to 400 C

3.3. Controlled mold filling

Fig. 8. Multi-alloy gravity casting process.

Fig. 9. A356/Duralcan composites after 700 thermal cycles at 400 C: (a)

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

3.4. Directional solidification

the matrix element, an induction furnace was used. A large

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

3.5. Infiltration processing

Fig. 13. Sketch of the experimental configuration for electrochemical

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

Fig. 14. Microstructure of a graded W/Cu composite produced by electrochemical gradation.

produced [106,107]. The compacted foams are infiltrated

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

by adjusting the winding speed during the impregnation

For the production of FGMs by the i-3A process graded

4. Processing of polymer-based FGMs

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

centrifugation. A viscosity 25 Pa s. was found suitable for

5. Modeling of FGM processing

Fig. 18. Graded microstructure of sintered Vectran fibres.

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

of the gradient. When the powders are not deposited directly

where j0 and are constants for a given electrode reaction

B. Kieback et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 81105

microstructural changes of the porous electrode during the

with an advanced solid-state sintering model. The models

5.2. Modeling of sintering

Fig. 20. Comparison of the predicted and observed tungsten content in

5.2.1. Application of a liquid-phase sintering

VICKER'S HARDNESS [GPa]

TUNGSTEN CONTENT [Vol.-%]

TUNGSTEN CONTENT [Vol.-%]

VICKER'S HARDNESS [GPa]