Suhrawardī's Theory of Knowledge-Mehdi Amin Razavi

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Suhrawardis theory of knowledge

Aminrazavi, M ehdi, P h.D .
Temple University, 1989
UMI
300 N . Zeeb Rd.

Ann Arbor, M I 48106
SUHRAWARDI'S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO
THE TEMPLE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE BOARD
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
BY
MEHDI AMINRAZAVI
APRIL 1989
FOAM IV
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE BOARD
Title o f Dissertation:
SUHRAWAKDI^S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Author:
Mehdi Aminrazavi
Read and Approved by:
...
............
Date submitted to Graduate Board:
Accepted by the Graduate Board of Temple Universityjn partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Date ...................................
................
(Dean o f Graduate School)
I dedicate_ this work to the memory of my

father Javad and my living mother Tayyebeh Xt was their love and support which made
this work possible.
There is a Light whose Light can only be seen by Light

The eye who has seen it is certain who has seen it
Shah Na'mat allah vali
ii
1- The transliteration system I have used is one that S.H. Nasr

uses in his works. This is because it incorporates the
linguistic characteristics of Persian and Arabic which is
essential in writing a thesis on Suhrawardi.
2All the translations of Hikmat al-ishrag have been made from
the Persian translation of this work by S.J. Sajadi.
I have
checked such translations against the Arabic text but the page
numbers belong to the Persian text.
3All translations from Arabic and Persian into English are
mine unless otherwise stated in the footnotes.
4Since the word Hikmat has been repeated throughout this
dissertation I have not underlined it.
5Since the following three words have been used in numerous
occasions I will only put the phonetics here to indicate how they
should be pronounced and not in the text.
SUHRAWARDI
HIKMAT
ISHRAQ
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1:
PART I:
123-
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS TO BE ACHIEVED
METHODOLOGY USED IN THIS WORK
PART 2:
4567-
THE LIFE AND THOUGHT OF SUHRAWARDI:
SUHRAWARDI'S LIFE AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL

SITUATION OF HIS TIME
INTELLECTUAL BACKGROUND OF SUHRAWARDI'S TIME
SIGNIFICANCE OF SUHRAWARDI IN ISLAMIC THOUGHT
CENTRAL THEMES OF SUHRAWARDIAN PHILOSOPHY
AB.
C.
D.
E-
89-
1
3
7
ONTOLOGY
ANGELOLOGY
PHYSICS
PSYCHOLOGY
ESCHATOLOGY
8
16
20
22
23
25
29
31
33
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY AFTER SUHRAWARDI

CONCLUSION
34
37
CHAPTER 2:
A BRIEF SURVEY OF SUHRAWARDI'S WORKS:
44
PART 1 :
123456789101112-
AL-TALWIHAT (THE BOOK OF INTIMATIONS)

ALMUQAWIMAT (OPPOSITES)_
AL-MASHARI6, W A *L-MUTARAHAT (THE PATHS
AND THE CONVERSATIONS)
HIKMAT AL-ISHRAQ (PHILOSOPHY OF ILLUMINATION)
PARTAW NAMAH_ (TREATISE ON ILLUMINATION)
HAYAKIL AL-NUR_(THE LUMINOUS BODIES)
AL-ALWAH ALIMADIYAH (TABLETS OFcIMAD AL-DIN)
RISALAT AL-TAIR (TREATISE ON THE BIRDS)
AWAZ-I PAR-I JIBRÎL (THE SOUND OF GABRIELS WING)
4AQL-I_SURKH (THE RED_INTELLECT)
RUZI BA JAMAAT-I SUFIYAN_(A DAY AMONG THE SUFIS)
RISALAH FI HALAT ALTUFULIYAH (ON THE STATE OF
52
56
56
60
65
67
68
71
78
79
81
83
iv
131415-
CHILDHOOD)
_
c
RISALAH FI
HAQIQAT AL-ISHQ (TREATISE ON
THE TRUTH OF LOVE)
___
AL-WARIDAT WA> L-TAQDISAT
CONCLUSION
85
87
88
Part 2:
PHILOSOPHY VERSUS HIKMAT
90
CHAPTER 3 :
A SURVEY OF SUHRAWARDI1S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS:
103
1.
104
ONTOLOGY:
A.
B.
C.
2.
EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE

NECESSARY AND CONTINGENT BEINGS
LIMIT AND INFINITY
METAPHYSICS
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
105
113
116
GOD'S EXISTENCE
MIND- BODY PROBLEM
LIFE AFTER DEATH
LOGIC
119
123
130
135
CONCLUSION
137
CHAPTER 4:
PHILOSOPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY:
142
A Rationalistic Approach to the Problem of Knowledge

1234-
SUHRAWARDI
SUHRAWARDI
SUHRAWARDI
SUHRAWARDI
ON
ON
ON
*S
KNOWLEDGE BY DEFINITION
KNOWLEDGE BY SENSE PERCEPTION
KNOWLEDGE THROUGH INNATE IDEAS
PHILOSOPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY
144
157
169
171
CHAPTER 5:
AN ANALYSIS OF SUHRAWARDIS THEOSOPHICAL VIEWS
179
12345678-
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF ALL BEINGS

LIGHT AS THE EXISTENTIAL CAUSEOF ALL THINGS
LIGHT AS CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE SELF
LIGHT AND ITS VARIETY
ON UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY
ANGELOLOGY
GOD'S OMNISCIENCE
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 6;
181
183
186
191
194
205
211
214
220
SUHRAWARDI S THEOSOPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY: KNOWLEDGE BY PRESENCE

A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
ARGUMENT FROM THE "I/IT" DICHOTOMY

ARGUMENT FROM THE PRE-COGNITION MODE OFKNOWLEDGE
ARGUMENT FROM ATTRIBUTES
CONCLUSION
AN ARGUMENT AGAINST PRESENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
222
228
230
248
253
CHAPTER 7:
INFLUENCE OF SUHRAWARDI ON ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
266
1-
267
THE GREATER PERSIA

A.
B-
C.
2.
3.
4-
SAFAVID PERIOD
1.
ISHRAQI PHILOSOPHERS BEFORE THE
SCHOOL OF ISFAHAN
2.
SCHOOL OF ISFAHAN
3.
MULLA SADRA AND SUHRAWARDI
270
272
279
QAJAR PERIOD
286
1.
2.
287
293
SABZIWARI _
THE SHAIKHIYAH SCHOOL
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
SUHRAWARDI IN THE SUB-CONTINENTOF INDIA

SUHRAWARDI IN SYRIA AND ANATOLIA
SUHRAWARDI IN THE WEST
296
301
303
CONCLUDING REMARKS
vi
12-
SUHRAWARDI AND PERSIAN NATIONALISM: SHUCUBIYYAH

THE PERTINENCE OF SUHRAWARDI FOR CONTEMPORARY
SCHOLARSHIP
APPENDIX:
TranslatiQn_of the introduction by Qutb

-alDin Shirazi to the Hikmat ai-ishracr
BIBLIOGRAPHY
313
316
322
341
vii
CHAPTER ONE
PART 1.
1.
INTRODUCTION:
The
history
of
Islamic
philosophy
provides
excellent representation of how divine wisdom
(theosophy)
manifests itself in various intellectual tendencies.

diversity
t he
of intellectual
rationalistic
fm a s h s h a i 's 'i
and
"iiruminationists'*
inquiries in Islam ranges
philosophy
of
the
intellectual
(ishraciwun) ,
inner journey of the Sufis.
the
The
from
peripatetics
intuition
to
an
of
asceticism
the
and
However, there have been very
few philosophers who have dared to synthesize these diverse

schools of thought into a unified philosophical paradigm.
Suhrawardi,the
century
(ishrag)
was
and
the
an
Persian
various
universal
truth
advocate
schools
that
revealed religions.
of
the
6th/12th
founder of the school of illumination
wisdom", (Hikmat al-atial.

unifying
philosopher
of
he
called
"ancient
He understood the necessity of

in
lies
what
order
at the
to
heart
demonstrate
the
of all divinely
It is in this context that one should
see his celebrated attempt to create a bridge between Islam

and
the
pre-Islamic
Pythagorianism
and
philosophies
of
Hermeticism,
Platonic philosophy and
in particular
between Islam and the wisdom of the ancient Persia.

Suhrawardi's writings not only provide us with an
account of the history of Islamic philosophy but they also

seek
to
demonstrate
traditions,
the
inadequacies
in particular the Peripatetics.
of
previous
He,
like al-
Farabi 2., lived at a time when there was a need to reunify

the
Islamic
different
sciences
and
by
often
bringing
about
contradictory
synthesis
schools
of
of
thought.
Suhrawardi's achievements can only be appreciated when his

attempt
to
bring
about
new
theory
of
knowledge
is
paralleled with his critique of the Peripatetics.

Unlike
earlier
Sufis
Suhrawardi* maintained
that
etnd
gnostics
philosophical
in
Islam,
discourse
was
necessary for the presentation of an argument or thesis.

This
was
quite
rationalistic
Peripatetics,
revolutionary
philosophy
who
in
as
turn
since
Sufis
rejected
exemplified
rejected
by
the
Sufism.
The
significance of Suhrawardi becomes more clear when he is

viewed as a gnostic who advocates philosophical discourse
and asceticism at the same time.
philosophical
discourse
and
Perhaps his emphasis on

asceticism
was
for
the
following reasons:
1)
Truth
is
ultimately
attainable
through
both
rationalistic philosophy and illumination.

2)
Philosophical
ishragi
discourse
doctrine
and
facilitates
also
the
prepares
teaching
the
mind
illumination.
of
for
3)
The
validity
of
philosophical
principle
ultimately checked against one's vision,

view
is
authentic,
it
ought
to
match
is
and if its
that
of
the
philosophical principle.
2.
WHAT IS TO BE ACHIEVED IN THIS WORK
What makes Suhrawardi's philosophy unique and distinct

from other philosophical paradigms,
heart
of
illuminationist
and what lies at the
(IshragjL)
doctrine,
is
particular methodology and mode of cognition. The central

task of this
work is to undertake an in-depth study of
Suhrawardi's theory of knowledge and his claim that it is

only through
illumination that one is able to understand
and disclose the truth directly and without mediation.

particular
issue
with
which
am
concerned
is
The
what
Suhrawardi means when he says that he knows the truth.

To demonstrate Suhrawardi's notion of truth one has to also
examine the following.
1-
The means by which illumination is attained.
2-
The
rational
basis
of
illumination
as
pure
methodology for the knowing of truth.

3-
The scope and limits of this type of knowledge.
4-
The nature and the type of knowledge that is attained

through illumination.
5-
The
relationship
between
illumination,
knowledge,
truth and certainty.
This
study is different from other expositions on
Suhrawardi,
such as valuable works of C. Corbin and S.H.
Nasr in that I will not only illustrate the Suhrawardian

doctrine but also analyze its specific arguments.
To do so
I will examine most of his works in Persian and Arabic with

special
emphasis
on
his
magnum
opus. the
Philosophy
of
Illumination. (Hikmat al-ishragl .

In
number
his
of
Peripatetic
traditional
writings
Suhrawardi
philosophical
extensive commentaries on them.
addresses
themes
and
offers
One of the issues that he
discusses is the problem of knowledge and how knowledge is

attained.
Since
Suhrawardi maintains
that philosophical
analysis is a proper mode of cognition if one is to gain

knowledge
world,
of
the
have
existent
beings
called this
"philosophical epistemology".
opposed
knowledge
to
of
"theosophical
those
things
within
the
corporeal
epistemological
system
This is to be understood as
epistemology"
that
are
which
attained
is
the
through
illumination (ishrajj) .
To argue for the above, Suhrawardi relies on different
literary styles namely,
philosophical,
ishragi), symbolic
metaphorical.
and
gnostic
His
flisan al-
philosophical
writings, which are rather similar to those of Farabi and

certain parts
of Ibn Sina,
will be analyzed in order to
demonstrate
those
philosophical
epistemology.
however,
elements
revolves
which
The
around
his
constitute
core
of
the
thesis,
theory
of
theosophical
epistemology often called "knowledge by presence"

al-hudurif
.
This
theory,
his
which
will
(al-ilm
bediscussed
extensively in chapter 6, will demonstrate the significance

and the impact of Suhrawardi on the tradition of Islamic
philosophy.
In
order
knowledge
by
philosophy,
to
presence
we
Peripatetic,
important
demonstrate
and
its
Suhrawardi's theory of
full
impact upon
have to show the relationshipbetween his
symbolic
because
and
gnostic
Suhrawardi
writings.
maintains
illumination.
Therefore,
This
that
"discovered by way of philosophical discourse,

through
Islamic
what
he
one should be
is
he
"saw"
able to
arrive at his theosophical epistemology through an analysis

of his philosophical, gnostic or symbolic writings.
Most of the Persian works of Suhrawardi which are of
an esoteric nature constitute the core of his theosophical
views
in
symbolic
examine
such
symbols
in
works
so
far
and
metaphorical
and
as
try
this
to
demonstrate
upon
how
his
theosophical
these
two
disclose
is possible.
Suhrawardi's philosophical views,

elaborate
concepts.
some
I
of
will
these
Having analyzed
I will then proceed to

writings
systems have
in
order
to
been synthesized
into one coherent epistemological system called "The School
of Illumination."
The
main
concentrate
emphasis
on
ishraq. which
of
Suhrawardi's
he
believes
such
main
an
work,
represent
between philosophy and theosophy.
analysis
the
will
Kikmat
perfect
al-
wedding
While in the first part
of this work he presents his philosophical epistemology, in

the
second
part,
which
is
the
more
important
part,
argues for his theory of knowledge by presence.
he
This work
is a perfect representation of how Suhrawardi incorporates

different
literary
styles
into
single
epistemological
theory called "knowledge through illumination"
(al-ilm al-
ishraqivah)
In a philoisophical system such as Suhrawardi's,
always
faces
the
problem
of
verification,
since
one
the
validity of numerous declarative propositions rests on the

authenticity
validity
of
one's
becomes
demonstrate,
independent
the
spiritual
experience;
tautologous.
impossibility
However,
of
therefore,
as
verification
will
by
an
observer as to the truth of a certain claim
does not necessarily imply that the system as a whole or

its individual parts are fallacious or irrational.
Therefore, an examination of the rational basis of the
ishraqi
school
of
thought
is another
intention
of
work.
this
3.
THE M E T H O D O L O G Y USED XN THIS WORK:
In the analysis of these topics and issues I shall be

using a variety of methodologies, each of which is suited
to one
his
aspect of Suhrawradi*s philosophy.
philosophical
arguments
for
or
Where he offers
against
certain
positions, I shall use an analytical method which
entails
reducing an argument to individual premises.
Then I will
attempt to construct a valid argument on that basis and

check
the
argument
for
its
soundness
through
extensive
discussions relying on an analytical method.

It is,
more
however,
esoteric
more difficult to expound upon the
writings
of
Suhrawardi
since
thorough
understanding of the school of illumination is only open to

the initiates or those who can relate to his philosophy on
an experiential and existential level.
those.
However,
illustrate what
I am not one of
as far as it is possible,
the
symbols stand
I will try to
for and how they have
contributed to the formulation of Suhrawardi's theosophical

epistemology.
What
is
hermeneutics
fTa 'will 3.
needed
is
to
do
spiritual
which takes the symbol and traces
the meaning behind it to its origin.
As I indicated, this
requires
the
having
Suhrawardi
is
direct
alluding;
vision
of
otherwise,
truth
to
the treatment
which
of the
issues involved would remain on a semantic and discursive

level.
The objection can be raised at this point that since

I am not speaking
universe,
how
philosophy?
not
be
able
Suhrawardi's
from within the Suhrawardian spiritual
can
then
elaborate
on
his
ideas
and
What needs to be realized is that while I may

to
fully
disclose
esoteric doctrine,
certain discursive level
the
inner
secrets
I can elaborate
it
of
on a
since his philosophical arguments
lend themselves to logical analysis,
and familiarity with
the traditional symbolism of Sufi literature enables me to

at least begin to explore the surface.
PART 2. THE LIFE AND THOUGHT OF SUHRAWARDI
4.
SUHRAWARDI'S
LIFE AND
THE
SOCIO-POLITICAL SITUATION
OF HIS TIME:
Before
embarking
on
survey
of
Suhrawardi's
epistemology, it is important to have a general view of his

life and thought since an understanding of his life as a
Persian who lived in the Arab world during a turbulent time
is important for a better understanding of his philosophy.
Suhrawardi
was
born
northern Iranian city.
in
His
village
full name
near
Zanjan,
is Shahab al-Din
Yahya ibn habash ibn Amirak Abul Futuh Suhrawardi, known as
"al-Macrtul"
(the Martyr) , who
also
received the title
Shaikh al-ishraa" (the Master of Illumination".
"
The date
of
his
birth
is
not
certain
but
his
most
notable
biographer, Shahrazuri, 4. indicated that he was born in 545

AH/1166AD
or
550AH/1171AD.
S.H.Nasr,
Suhrawardi's
most
notable scholar in contemporary Iran, has stated the date

to be 549AH/1170AD.5
At an early age he went to the city of Maragheh, where
he
studied
hikmat
with
Majd
al-DTn
Jili,
and
he
then
traveled to Isfahan, where he studied philosophy with Zahir

al-Din al-Farsi and the Observations
(al-Basa1ir^ of fUmar
*
ibn Salah al-Sawi.
He then set out upon a long journey
through the Islamic lands to meet the Sufi masters while

practicing asceticism and withdrawing
retreats.
for long
spiritual
He tells us that he had looked for a companion
with a spiritual
insight equal to his,
but he failed to
find one. 7
Having wandered through Anatolia and Syria on one of
his journeys from Damascus to Alleppo, he met Malik Zahir,
the son of the famous Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) .
Yaqut
ibn fflbdallah alHamawi 8, put the date of this journey to

Syria
at
579/1200.
Shahrazuri
his
contemporary
and
bibliographer, writes:
Malik liked the Shaikh and he liked him.
fulama*
of Syria gathered around the Shaikh
heard his words . In discussion she clarified
thoughts of the hukama and their validity
weakened the opinion of the opponents of
hukama.9
The
and
the
and
the
It is not known whether Suhrawardi did train a number
of students or not, but it is known is that he had a circle

of
close
friends
and
companions
on
whose
request
he
composed the Philosophy of Illumination fHikmat al-ishraq).

Towards the end of this book, he refers to his companions
as
"bis brothers",
indicating his closeness to them,
and
asks them to preserve the book from the enemies of wisdom.

This again alludes to the existence of a certain group of
friends or followers who knew him personally. Perhaps for
political reasons his friends found it difficult to write
his biography. Shahrazuri is the only one who speaks of him
in a manner that suggests he had met him personally, though
this is highly unlikely because neither Suhrawardi nor any
other biographer of him makes reference to this point . It
is possible that he came to know of Suhrawardi through some
individual who knew him personally.
Suhrawardi's keen intelligence, his vast and profound
knowledge
esoteric
and
doctrine of
antagonized
Yusuf
finally
the
his
Islam,
doctors
of
openness
in
revealing
the
brought about hostility and

law at Malik
Zahir*s
court.
ibn Taqhribirdi in his book al-mi-prm al-zahirah fi
muluk misr wa al-Oahirah. 10 describes a meeting between

himself and Suhrawardi in which he calls him a "man with
vast knowledge and a small mind". 11
In comparison to other Muslim philosophers especially
Ibn Sina he ranked himself as equal and stated:
In
discursive
sciences
am
equal, if
not
superior, but
superior. 12
Having
in
advocated
intellectual
type
intuition
of
wisdom
am
wbich
was
inconsistant with the views of the orthodox jurists, they

finally asked Malik Zahir to put Suhrawardi to death for
advocating heretical ideas.
When he refused they signed a
petition and sent it to Saladin,

have him killed.
father's
order
587/1208.
took
who ordered his son to
Malik Zahir reluctantly carried out his

and
Suhrawardi
was
killed
in
the
year
Taqhribirdi indicated 13 that Suhrawardi's death
place
on
the
Friday
of
the
month
of
July
(Dhul
hajjah).
According to Shahrazuri, there are different accounts
of how he died.
Shahrazuri writes:
.- .he was thrown in jail and eating and drinking

was denied to him until he died.
Some say he
fasted until he joined with his Origin. Some are
of the opinion that he was suffocated and yet
others believe he was killed by the sword and
there are those who say he was dropped from the
wall of the fortress arid then burned.14
Suhrawardi's
death
is
as
mysterious
as
his
life.
Except for a number of works, he did not leave much behind

to shed light on his life.
He shied away from people and
only sought the companionship of learned men. His manner of

dressing is said to have varied from day today. One day he
would dress in court style
and the very next day he would
dress modestly.
In
order
to
understand
Suhrawardi's
philosophy
the
socio-political
understood.
conditions under which, he
This
is
not
to
say
that
lived must be
his
philosophy
is
subject to historical interpretation, but that some of the

issues
involved
in
his
death
as
well
as
certain
philosophical trends in his ideas, may be further clarified

if the circumstances under which he lived are better known.
As S.H. Nasr states:
The causes for Suhrawardi's death cannot be truly
discovered untilthe situation of the region,
historically, religiously, philosophically and
socially is thoroughly investigated. 15
Suhrawardi
lived
during
a turbulent
period
when
northern Syria was undergoing a major change from being a

strong Shi'ite center to a Sunni dominated region.
Whereas
before the Crusades, northern Syria was entirely dominated

by the Shi'ites, after the defeat by the Crusaders of the
Fatimids who were
Shiîtes, the Muslim
population rallied
around the famous Saladin who himself was a Sunni.
It was
for this reason that the Shi'ite strong hold began to lose
ground and the process of the creation of a Sunni oriented
society begem.
Kamal SalT-bi, in his book "Tarikh Lubnan" .
16 alludes to this point and considers the defeat of the

Fatimids to have played a key role in this process.
Suhrawradi
came
to
Aleppo at
time
when
this
transformation was taking place and when Saladin was seen

as the last hope for Muslims as the strong man who could
confront the Crusaders.
In a situation such as this the
more exoteric jurists were not in any mood to allow a young
philosopher,
"corrupt"
perhaps
Saladin* s
with
son,
some
Shi'ite
Malik
Zahir,
tendencies,
in
whose
to
court
Suhrawardi lived.
In light of the above factors one can view Suhrawardi
in a new way.
He can be seen as a Persian who inherited a
rich culture with Zoroastrian elements in it, a philosopher

well versed
in Peripatetic philosophy,
and a mystic who
tried to demonstrate that at the heart of all the divinely

revealed traditions of wisdom there is one universal truth Perhaps his desire to demonstrate such a unity had to do
with the apparent hostility of different religions to one
another,
in particular Christianity and Islam.
At a time
when Christians and Muslims were engaged in a bloody war,

Suhrawardi's
dangerous
message
and
even
of
a
unity
was
heretical
perceived
doctrine.
to
This
be
noble
attempt by Suhrawardi to formulate a rapprochement between

different traditions of wisdom with divine origin can be
seen not only in its transhistorical role as a response to
the apparent antagonism between various religions
culminated
in
the
Crusades,
but
also
as
which
advocating
an
ecumenical movement on an existential level.

There
are
numerous
controversies
as to
the
likely
reason for Suhrawardi's death which car* be formulated as

follows:
1
Suhrawardi
was
advocating
form
of
Persian
nationalism which is generally considered to be a reaction
to the domination of Arabs over Persia.
This view is often
supported by the presence of Zoroastrian elements in his

doctrine.
This theory is highly unlikely not only because
it is contrary to the spirit of his philosophy, but also

because Suhravardi must have understood that the court of
Malik Zahir in the middle of the Arab world is not the best
place to advocate such ideas.
2
H.
Zia i,
Political
in his article "the Source and Nature of
Authority
Illumination"17
in
argues
Suhrawardi's Philosophy
that
Suhrawardi
of
advocated
political doctrine which considered the "king-theosopher"

to be the rightful ruler.
both the
This must have been offensive to
Caliph in Baghdad and Salah al-din Ayubi.
As
Zia i states:
While
S u h r a v a r d i 1s
c a t e g o r i e s of Divine
philosophers sages include a wide range of types
the most general being composed of the type
called Brethren of Abstraction (ikhwan al-tairid)
which also includes
the perfect philosopher
(referred to as God's vicegerent
(khalifat
Allah) who may be the actual ruler (rajjis) of an
era. 18
Such an idea as advocated in the beginning of Hikmat
alishracr
must
have
been
rather
alarming
to
the
more
orthodox elements in Malik Zahir's court.
3-
It has been argued by many, including Shahrazuri, that
some of Suhrawardi's companions called him "a prophet of

God", (Abul Putuh rasul allahl. 19
If the above is true
then
it may
have been the
likely cause of Suhrawardi's
execution.
One can make a case for this by arguing that
since Suhrawardi believed that he was the unifier of two

branches of wisdom,
then he must have assumed a role for
himself which was above and beyond that of a philosopher

and mystic.
The argument becomes stronger when Suhrawardi
tells us that wisdom as such began by prophet Hermes and

then
was
divided
into
two
branches.
Suhrawardi
then
implicitly argued that he was at least at the same rank as

Hermes.
4
I believe that the true cause of Suhrawardi's death
was
combination
of
all
the
above.
On
one
hand
he
advocated an alternative political system and a different

set of qualifications for a just ruler,
theosopher.
On
the
other
hand,
that of being a
Suhrawardi
not
only
advocated the wisdom of ancients but he may have assumed a

status for himself which was more them a teacher of wisdom.
Finally, I believe that he may have been accused of having
some Shi'ite tendencies, especially that of Xsmai'lis.
If
this were the case then Saladin, who was vehemently against
the Batinis, would naturally be against Suhrawardi and his
presence in Malik Zahir*s
court. 20
1
Suhrawardi*s
emphasis
on
esoteric
knowledge,
his
political view based on the idea of kingtheosopher, which

later on became the basis for the wilavat al-faqih in the
Shi' ism,
grounds
and his tolerance

for
the
orthodox
for other religions

elements
to
provided
consider
him
Shi' ire, which at that time was not at all popular with the
rulers.
5.
INTELLECTUAL BACKGROUND OF SUHRAWARDI'S TIME:
It
is
generally
agreed
that
the
history
of
intellectual activities in Islam began with the rise of the

Mu^tazilite's. the religious rationalists whose school of
thought was a response to those who challenged Islam from a
rational point of view.
Despite their original stamina Muttazilite's did not
last very long,
and with the emergence of the Â s h 1rites
their influence was substantially curtailed. The result of

the Mu*tazilite's rationalization was the*A s h 'arite Kalam.
which
paved
the
way
for
more
literary
and
exoteric
interpretation of Islam.
While the debate among the advocates of intellectual
sciences continued,
philosophical and theological schools
were also challenged by the more experiential school of the

Sufis,
whose
epistemological
methodology
questioned
the
very foundation upon which intellectually oriented schools

had established their theories
sages
were
as
instrumental
knowledge.
was
Bayazid
an
of knowledge.
and Hallaj, who

in
the
Such Sufi
influenced Suhrawardi,
development
of
his
theory
of
Their reliance upon purification and asceticism
alternative to
the
more
philosophically
oriented
epistemological paradigms.
At
this
prestigious
historical
master
religious
sciences,
reliance
solely
certainty.
of
juncture
Kalam
attacked
upon
Ghazzali
and
the
as
learned
man
philosophers
reason
for
the
the
most
in
for
the
their
attainment
of
Ghazzali's attempt to demonstrate the above,
exemplified in the Tahafut al-falasafah. paved the way for

Sufism
to
challenge
schools of thought.
the
more
philosophically
oriented
Sufism, therefore, came to be viewed
in a different light as a school whose intellectual merit

had to be recognized and is not only limited to outbursts
of emotions embodied in lyrics, poetry and the practice of
asceticism.
Considering
the
apparent
polarization
between
the
Peripatetics and Sufis, the question may have been on the

intellectual horizon of the time whether it was possible to
bring about
schools
a rapprochement
between these two opposing
Suhrawardi, as we will see, demonstrated that
such a synthesis was not only possible but necessary and

that a thorough familiarity with the Peripatetic philosophy
was
the
philosophy
bridge
prerequisite
of
between
for
illumination.
the
the
This
rationalistic
understanding
attempt
tradition
to
in
of
the
create
Islamic
philosophy and Sufism dominated philosophical activities in

Persia for several centuries.
At the center of these controversies stood Ibn Sina
with his all encompassing philosophical system.

philosophy
in
by the time of Suhrawardi had been interpreted
different
schools
ways
which
and
were
this
brought
essentially
about
wanted
to
number
Ibn Sinian but
emphasis on certain aspects of his ideas.

have
Xbn Sina's
synthesize
put
of
more
Suhrawardi may
these
conflicting
interpretations.
First,
there
were
those
sections
of
Ibn
Sina's
philosophy which were purely Aristotelian in nature and I

refer to
as
"Peripatetic"
philosophy.
The peripatetic
tradition flourished and it was this interpretation of Ibn

Sina which was mainly opposed to Sufism.
There were also
those such as the exponents of Kalam who found Ibn Sina's

logic and metaphysics to be a useful means of analysis and
therefore adopted them.
the works
of
logic
metaphysics
and
Fakhr
Such a trend reached its climax in
al-Din Razi
to
solve
who applied
the
Ibn
problems
Sinaian
of
Kalam.
Finally,
there was the mystical aspect of Ibn Sina which
received
less
attention than his rationalistic writings.
In these types of writings such as H a w i b n vagdan and the

m
final chapters of the Isharat. the Neoplatonic aspect of

Ibn Sina's
philosophy is most
well aware of such writings.

Ghurbat al-qharbivah
where
Ibn
Sina
had
apparent.
Suhrawardi
was
For example in his work al-
(the Occidental Exile) , he picked up

left
off
using
some
of
the
metaphors.
same
Suhrawardi, therefore,
appeared
on the
intellectual
scene at a time when various interpretations of Ibn Sina

had
resulted
often
were
in
the
emergence
antagonistic
of
to one
different
another.
schools
It
is
who
also
reasonable to conclude that since Suhrawardi believed that

Reality is one,
then he may have wanted to bring about a
synthesis of different interpretations made of Ibn Sina.

Also,
Suhrawardi's
literary
style
used
in
his
Persian writings has to be addressed if we are to gain an

understanding
of the
intellectual milieu of this period.
Persian Sufi poetry and prose were just beginning to become

the
were
vehicle
through
expressed.
which
This
profound
was
an
mystical
attempt
to
experiences
convey
Sufi
teachings to a wider audience who otherwise may not have

been
able
analysis.
to
penetrate
The
lucidity
allowed Suhrawardi
ishraqi doctrine,
religion,
the
to
intricacies
of using
assimilate
of philosophical
the
language of prose
some key themes
of the
such as pre-Islamic history of Persia,
and mythology,the tradition of "king-sage",
and
finally the dualism of light and darkness.

To
the
existing
differences
interpretations of Ibn Sina, one has to

foreign
ideas
and
philosophies.
between
various
add the influx of

This
intellectual
diversity was the result of the translation of Greek texts

and
the
interaction
of
the
learned
masters
of
such
traditions as neo-Platonism, Pythagoreans, Hermeticism and
Greek philosophy with the Muslim intellectual circles.

Suhrawardi's
acquaintance with
Greek philosophy
and
his familiarity with the school of Alexandria enabled him

to study the ancient wisdom of those civilizations which
had
developed
elaborate
precisely
this
create
synthesis
metaphysical
familiarity
of
that
all
theories.
enabled
these
him
traditions
to
It
was
finally
within
the
matrix of Islamic spirituality.
6.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SUHRAWARDI IN ISLAMIC THOUGHT
Suhrawardi's
ideas
are
particularly
important
for
three group of people, Persians, 21 other Muslims, and the

leading scholars of our time.
His
significance
for
Persians
is
special
in
that
there has always been an awareness on the part of Persians

of
their
Zoroastrian
past,
especially
for
the
more
modernized Persians who identify the Zoroastrian era with

glory
and military might of the ancient Persia.
This has
been a problem since they consider the downfall of Persia

to
be
due
to
the Arab
invasion
of
Persia.
Suhrawardi
demonstrated to this group of people that on a deeper level

Zoroastrianism
and
Islam
are
not
to
be
viewed
as
two
opposing forces but that what lies at the heart of them is

a universal truth.
As S.H. Nasr states:
Suhrawardi for his part is a figure who has

united this mother and father on the same level
of thought, and in this respect his ideas had

held
a vital
importance
for
modernized
P e r s i a n s .... for he
brought
into
a single
spiritual horizon a union between two different
heritages,
those
of
Islam and of ancient
Persia.22
As for the rest of the Muslim intelligentsia in other
parts
of
the
Islamic
world,
analyses
and criticism of
offer.
His
ideas
the
permeated
Suhrawardi's
penetrating
Peripatetics have much to

the
tradition
of
Islamic
philosophy and provided the Sh i 'ite philosophers with the

means
to
offer
explanation
for
more
the
more
intellectually
esoteric
aspects
justifiable
of
Islam,
in
contrast to the more scriptual or exoteric interpretation

of Islam.
Suhrawardi,
as
thinker
who
was
to
reconcile
rationalism and mysticism within one single philosophical

s y s tem,
bridged
the
deep
division
between
two
interpretations or approaches to the message of Islam.
The
type of wisdom that Suhrawardi developed known as al-Hikmat

*
al- >ilahiyyah. (Transcendental Theosophy which from here on

we
shall
refer
to
as
'Theosophy'),23.
rationalism and yet goes beyond
encompasses
it by being based on a
direct vision of the truth.

His contributions to contemporary scholarship in the
field of religious studies lie not only in the comparative
aspects
of
his works
but
also
different religious traditions.
in his
attempt
to
unify
Also of great significance
for contemporary
scholarship
in the
studies
Suhrawardi
provides
is
that
field
a
of ecumenical
framework within
which dialogue between different traditions can take place.

"Suhrawardi
did
not
concern
himself
with
some
sort
of
verbal synthesis but went much deeper" 24., to consider the

issue
on
an
ecumenical
existential
analysis
Pythagorianism
esoteric level.
and
level.
with
He
carried
Zoroastrian
Hermeticism
on
an
out
religion,
existential
Perhaps his major achievement is that
pioneered what H.
Corbin calls,
"Spiritual
his
and
he
Hermeneutics"
(talwil), 25 a forgotten art of interpretive nature that

maintains not only that ecumenical work has to be carried
out by those who speak from within a tradition, but that
their very being has to be
the manifestation of the truth
of the tradition in question.
In other words, the person
who wants to engage in a dialogue with another tradition

must have arrived at the core and inner meaning of the
tradition with which he is concerned.
It is only then that
he is justified in making a truth claim with regard to that

tradition.
7.
CENTRAL THEMES OF SUHRAWARDI'S PHILOSOPHY;
Suhrawardi
was
first
and
foremost
influenced
by
Ghazzali and his famous work Mishkat al-1anwar that was of

great significance
in formulating the
ishraai doctrine.
He was also influenced by Hallaj, whom he quoted so often,

and
Bayazid,
who
for
Suhrawardi
was
representation of a true philosopher.
the
perfect
Suhrawardi provides
us with an account of a conversation with Aristotle that

took' place in his dreams with Aristotle in which Bayazid is
said by the
First Teacher to represent true wisdom.
Finally,
there was Ibn Sina,
Although
Suhrawardi
26
the master of Peripatetics.
criticized
him,
he
also
adhered
to
certain strands of his philosophical structure such as Ibn

Sina's idea of hierarchy. With regard to logic, Suhrawardi,
despite some major contributions, accepted the logic of the
Peripatetics as a useful means of analysis.
A.
ONTOLOGY
Suhrawardi adheres to the traditional ontology as far

as the
hierarchical structure of reality is concerned and
sought to offer an exposition of various philosophical and

mystical issues within that framework.
What he did was to
change the matrix of this ontology from one of "being" to

that of "light".
It was precisely this kind of fundamental
change that allowed him to offer an exposition of mystical

and
esoteric
issues
which
cculd
not
have
been
done
otherwise.
Suhrawardi1s thought,
ishracr. is
more
as expressed in his Hikmat al-
systematic
attempt
to
represent
his
philosophy in that it is made up of two parts each of which

is considered by him to be essential in the understanding
of
the
other part.
Contrary to the Peripatetics,
whose
ideas he discusses in the first part of the book and for

whom
reality
is
made
up
of
gradations
of
being,
for
Suhrawardi it is light that make up the very nature of this

reality.
Light, being an axiomatic truth and thereby self-
evident, is made up of an infinite succession of contingent

dependent lights and each light is the existential cause of
the light below it.
The ultimate light which is the same
as the Necessary Being fwaiib al-wuiud), is for Suhrawardi

the
Light
of
Lights
(nur
al-anwar)
which
is
also
the
ultimate cause of all things.

Although
Suhrawardi1s
ontological
criticized by some of his successors,
scheme
was
later
such as Mulla Sadra
and Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari, it nevertheless provides a

means by which ontological issues can be analyzed. As S.H.
Nasr puts it, for Suhrawardi:
The ontological status of all beings, therefore,
depends on the degree in which they approach the
supreme light and are themselves illuminated. 27
For
Suhrawardi,
just
intensity, so does darkness.

in
accordance
necessity,
status
of
his
with
the
criterion
lights
themselves or not.
is
as
light
has
degrees
of
Although he classifies light
extent
to
which
light exists by
for determining the ontological

whether
they
Self- awareness,
are
conscious
of
therefore, becomes a
criterion for having a higher ontological status , which in

the ishraai system means a more intense degree of light.
For
Suhrawardi
it
is ultimately
awareness
of one's
true nature that elevates a person's ontological

To
demonstrate
this,
he
employed
Zoroastrian
symbols of
light
and darkness to depict the contradictions
inner
strife
existential
struggle
that
exists
dilemma
between
that
the
ego
Weltanschauung is darkness,
for Suhrawardi
within
is
man.
the
The
status.
and the
key
to
the
result
of
this
(nafs), which
in
Zoroastrian
and man's divine self,
inner
light,
is knowledge or awareness of what reality
is.
B. Angelology
Having
used
the
symbolism
of
light
and
darkness,
Suhrawardi goes on to develop an elaborate angelology based

on Zoroastrian angels,
which he considers to be Islamic;
thereby once again he joined two religious universes, those

of
Islam
and
Zoroastrianism.
He
achieves
this
by
identifying different grades of lights with various angelic

ordersthere
Between the Light of Lights and total darkness,

are
levels
upon
levels
of
light
with
different
degrees of intensity, each level corresponds to an angel.

This new schemata of angels
view
of
angels
as
the
changes the traditional
sustainers
of
the
universe.
According
to
functions,
Suhrawardi,
the
most
angels
important
served
of
which
number
is
their
intermediary role between the Light of Lights and man.

instance
S.H.
the
Nasr
"lordly
calls
light"
"seignural
Suhrawardi as that which

that everywhere his
fal-nur
light",
of
For
al-isfahbodi) which
28. is
defined
is "within the soul of man,
by
so
signs are manifested and all things
attest to his presence". 29

Suhrawardi's ontology and its byproduct,
angelology,
is meant to map out the interior reality of man rather than

to provide a logical explanation for such things as angels
"out there".
The Peripatetic view, especially that of Ibn
Sina and Farabi,
who simply saw the angels as beings who
perform certain functions out there in the universe such as

rotation
of
the
heavens,
was
criticized
by
Suhrawardi.
While Suhrawardi accepts the view that angels are realities

which exist in the universe, he maintains that the number
of angels are equivalent to the number of the fixed stars,
which means a virtually unlimited number of them. In this
sense he departs from the traditional Peripatetic view.
From the hierarchy of angels arise two angelic orders;
a longitudinal (Tuli), and a latitudinal (Aradi) order with
two
separate
functions.
The
longitudinal
angelic order
represents the vertical axis or hierarchy of light similar

to a ladder.
The latitudinal angelic order for Suhrawardi
is where the archetypes or "forms" reside.
Suhrawardi goes
on to argue that at the top of the longitudinal order of

light there stands the Supreme Light which he calls by its
Quranic and Mazdean names,
Light)
there
al-nur al-a**zam
(the Supreme
and Vohuman. (Bahman) . From this Light of

issues the
Lights
lower order that is illuminated by the
higher order and the process of one light issuing a lower

one continues until it reaches darkness. The higher light,
which is marked by
intensity,
dominates
(gahr)
the lower
order and the
ontological status of the lower order,
marked by yearning and love for the higher one. 30.
is
This
process remains valid for the entire succession from the

nur al-anwar to darkness.
As we will see later, Suhrawardi
applies this scheme to offer a new epistemological system

which for him can replace the Aristotelian categories as a
means of epistemic analysis.
For Suhrawardi there exists a veil between each level
of light which acts as a "purgatory" or Barzakh and allows
the
passage
primordial,
system,
of
only
original
through
amount
of
light.
and all-encompassing nature
which
esoteric doctrines,
certain
Suhrawardi
expresses
is such that he calls
The
of this
number
of
it al-ummahat
(the mother), since all that exists originates from this

hierarchy
and,
therefore,
it
contains
within
itself the
"ideas" feJyan thabitat whose unfolding is the world.

In his attempt to equate the angels of ancient Persia
with the Platonic forms or archetypes, Suhrawardi considers
the longitudinal order to have given rise to a latitudinal

order that is none other than the Platonic Forms or Ideas.
Each being in the world has its own archetype
anwaf)
and,
in
order
to
identify them,
extensive use of Zoroastrian angelology.
farbab al
Suhrawardi
make
For example,
he
identifies water with the Mazdean angel Khurdad, fire with

Urdibihisht, vegetables as Murdad. and finally, minerals as
Shahrivar.
These angels and many more are the archetypes
whose actualization or manifestation

fa (van
thabita). appear
in
from the
the material
archetypes
forms mentioned
above.
Suhrawardi considers the heavenly bodies and the more
visible
have
and materialized
come
latitudinal
such
as
the
from
the
aspect
of the angelic
longitudinal
order,
order to
while
the
order gives rise to more esoteric phenomenon

lordly
light
(al-anwar
al-isfahbodi^ , which
governs the human soul.

Suhrawardi's angelology not only intends to provide an
explanation
for
outside world.
the
angels
as
beings
who
exist
in
the
Rather it is the exteriorization of man's
interior reality expressed in a symbolic language.
Since
Suhrawardi knows that in the final analysis the ultimate

truth to which he is alluding lay at the heart of all the
divinely
from
words,
revealed traditions,
different
whether
traditions
the
symbols
the use of various
becomes
secondary.
be Mazdean
symbols
In
or Quranic,
other
they
allude to truths which are profoundly Islamic as well as

Zoroastrian.
This above issue is probably what was the cause of his
death.
There were those then,
as now,
who thought that
believing in the presence of truth in other traditions is

heresy,
and Suhrawardi left no doubt that he indeed does
advocate
such
therefore,
while
traditions,
notion.
Suhrawardi* s
relying
on
the
angelology,
symbolism
of
31.
other
sought to provide a map of man's interior,
cosmological doctrine which alludes to the presence of a

unifying element in all the traditional religions of man,
namely a universal truth.
C.
PHYSICS
In putting forth his views on physics,

begins
with
discussion
regarding
the
32. Suhrawardi
nature
of
the
universe, which from his point of view is pure light.
The
views
the
of
the *Ashari *te
Atomists
who
were
one
of
predominant intellectual schools of the time was based on

the principiality
of
study
for
of
physics
Suhrawardi
argued
form and matter and therefore,

them
against
became
them
the
by
study
saying
material bodies are constituted of light
the
of matter.
that
since
, then study of
physics is the study of light.

Having
defined
the
nature
of
things
as
light,
30
Suhrawardi
goes
degree
their
of
objects which
air,
are
in
on
to
classify things
transparency.
For
according to
example,
all
allow light to pass through them,

a different ontological
the
those
such as
category from those
which obstruct light, such as earth.

In
explaining meteorological
phenomena
, Suhrawardi
follows Ibn Sina and Aristotle, but he rejects their views

with regard to the occurrence of change within the nature
of
things.
For
example,
whereas Aristotle
argues
that
boiling water is due to the coming in contact of the atoms

of
fire
and water, Suhrawardi
states
that
boiling
is
because there exists a quality in water such that when it

comes close to fire this potentiality is actualized.
He
argues that when water boils in a jug of water, fire does

not come in contact with the water nor does the volume of
water change.
is
to
argue
Therefore, the only conclusion one can draw

for
the
existence
attribute within water .
of a
special
quality
or
As he states.
Qualitative change is due rather to the coming in

to being of a
quality which is intermediate
between the qualities of the original bodies and
which is shared by all the particles of the new
compound.33
It is obvious that such a theory has implications not
only
for
the field of physics, but also
doctrine
that
different
things
beings.
seeks to
may
explain
create
This principle is
how
qualitative
as an esoteric
the
associationof
changes
within
one of the crucial elements in
the
development
of
spiritual
alchemy
which
appears
in
Islamic esoteric writings. 34
D.
PSYCHOLOGY
Suhrawardi's views on physics are closely related to

his
concept
of
related to the
psychology,
which
in
turn
is
directly
ontological hierarchy that serves as the
foundation of his philosophy. The following diagram helps

to demonstrate this connection:3 5
DOMINANCE------>
Light of
>Angelic order
>Souls
>heavens
>Bodies
of Lights
Universal Intellect
>Intelligence
>Souls
>Heavens
<-------- l o v e
Such a hierarchy influences the human psyche in the

following
manner:
The
ontological
status
of
being
necessitates a certain psychological apparatus, and how the

psyche and the faculties of this being function, therefore,
depends on their place within the hierarchical structure of
the universe.
Suhrawardi's view of psychology, though influenced by
Artistotle's
psychology
as discussed
in the
De Anima.36
does not follow Aristotle's classification, and in fact is
closer to Ibn Sina than Aristotle.
Suhrawardi classifies
all beings in to three categories: vegetable, animal and

human.
The only major difference between his view and the
Peripatetics lay in his notion of body as the theurgy of

Ispahbad.
The classification of different faculties according to
Suhrawardi, based on the outline made by S.H. Nasr, 37. is
as follows:
f Feeding (ghadh i w a h )
Vegetable
Attraction(jadhibah)
7 Growth (namiyyah)
Retention (masikah)
Soul
Reproduction fmuwallidah)
Digestion(hadimah)
Repulsion fdafiah)
Animal
Power of motion fmuharrikahf
Soul
Power of lust
(shahwah)
Power of desire (n u z u i w a h )
Power of anger
(ghadhab)
Sensus Communis
The center where all the information
fhiss mushtarik^
and data of the external world

collected.
The location is in the
front of the brain
Fantasy
The place where sensus communis is
(khival)
stored.
It is located in the back of
the cavity.
Apprehension
Governs sensible things which the senses
(wahnO
are not capable of gathering and it is

located
in the
middle
of
the
middle
cavity.
Imagination
Often is identified with the
(mutak h a w i l a h )
apprehension
further
but
and
it
its
function
goes
synthesizes
and
analyses.
Memory
The place where apprehension is stored.
(hajFizah)
It
is
located
in
the
back
of
the
middle cavity. 38.
E.
ESCHATQLOGY
Finally,
eschatology,
psychology.
we
come
which
is
to
Suhrawardi's
derived
from
his
notion
of
notion
of
3.9 According to Suhrawardi, the goal of man is
to become illuminated and return to his origin in the other

world.
The other world is only a continuation of this one,
and the status of soul in the other world depends on the

degree to which a person is purified here and now.
Suhrawardi
identifies
three
groups
of
people
with
respect to the degree of their purity and illumination and

establishes
a causal connection between their purity and
their ontological status in the other world.
These three
groups are:
1-
Those
who
remained
in
the
darkness
of
ignorance
(Ashcriva1)
2-
Those who purified themselves to some extent fSudad)
3-
Those
who
purified
illumination.
themselves
and
reached
fmuta>allihun)
In his book Yazdan Shinakht. 40 he demonstrates the

type
of
connection
ontological
world.
status
that
he
in this
establishes
world
and
between
one's
that of the
other
He argues that, regardless of the degree of one's
purity, the soul is in essence immortal.

His argument is as follows:
Know that the soul remains, it is inconceivable
for it to perish since its cause (of coming to
be) which is the active intellect is eternal
therefore, it remains eternal because of its
cause(which is eternal).41
8.
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY AFTER SUHRAWARDI
Suhrawardi
had
profound
influence
on
Islamic
philosophy,
laid
the
especially
corner
philosophical
in Shi'ite
stone
systems,
for
but
the
his
circles.
He
development
school
of
not
of
only
future
illumination
became a foundation upon which an esoteric interpretation

of Shi'ite Islam was made. Unlike Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd,
however,
his
works
were
not
translated
into
Latin,
and
therefore, despite the fact that his ideas traveled to the

West and became the basis of the Jewish illuminationists 42
such
as
Ibn
discovered
Gabirol,
by
the
Suhrawardi
West.
as
The
a person
reason
may
was
never
have
been
political, since Suhrawardi was put to death by the Saladin

and,
therefore,
his
works
meant
advocating
those
ideas
which were considered to be heretical.

It was not until the 7th/13th century that we see the
effects of Suhrawardi's philosophy on certain philosophers
such as Shahrazuri and Tusi.
Let me briefly elaborate on
these two figures.

Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Mahmud Shirazi Shahrazuri,
is the author of Nuzhat al-arwah wa ruzat al-afrah which
was
written
between
586/1186-611/1211.
43. Ziai
al-Din
Darri in the introduction to his translation of Nuzhat alarwah
quotes
Mulla
shamsa-yi
Gillani
44
as
Shahrazuri was a close relative of Suhrawardi.

has not been
what
is
confirmed by
generally
accepted
other scholars
is
that
the
saying
that
While this
of Suhrawardi,
way
Shahrazuri
describes Suhrawardi indicates that he must have known him
personally.
Shahrazuri,
Suhrawardi,
light
and
wrote
its
Persians.
who
on
was
profoundly
illumination
relationship
The
author
of
with
Kashf
influenced
by
and the philosophy

the
wisdom
al-zunun
of
45
of
ancient
says
that
Shahrazuri wrote a book titled Kitab al-rumuz wa^ 1-mithal

al-hutivat fi al-anwar al-mu~iarrad al-malakut 46 which is
apparently lost.
first
ishraai
elaborated
It can be said that Shahrazuri was the
philosopher
upon
the
after
Suhrawardi
Zoroastrian
roots
who
of
further
Suhrawardi's
philosophy.
Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi is the Persian philosopherscientist who also was influenced by Suhrawardi.
Through
his excellent commentary on the Isharat of Ibn Sina, Tusi

attempted to revive Peripatetic philosophy by offering an
ishraai
reading
of
Ibn
Sina.
His treatment of certain
topics such as God's omniscience indicates the extent to

which he was under the influence of Suhrawardi.
be
elaborated
on
chapter
7,
where
will
This will
discuss
the
influence of Suhrawardi on Islamic philosophy.

The
influence of Suhrawardi stretches from the
continent of India to Spain.
sub
This influence appeared in
the form of different commentaries written upon his works,

by such figures as Khawjah Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Qutb
al-Din Shirazi,
the celebrated
scientist and philosopher
and Shahrazuri the most notable biographer of Suhrawardi.
While
the exposition and commentary of Suhrawardi's
and thought by
one,
Shams al-Din Shahrazuri
such works
47
life
is a masterly
reached their climax during the Safavid
period 48 and continue up to the present day.
The school
of Illumination was first revived during the Safavid period

by Mir Damad and reached its climax with his pupil, Mulla
Sadra,
in the 11th/17th century.
ishrag. by way of translation,

philosophical
named:
commentary and building of
schools on its basis,
ibn
(8th/14th),
Among the exponents of
Kammunah,
the following can be
(7th/13th),
Jalal al-Din Dawani,
Wadud Tabriz!, (10th/16th).
Allamah
Hilli,
(9th/15th), and finally,
These figures,
and many more
who will be discussed in a separate chapter, brought about

a spiritual union between the wisdom of the ancient Persia,
Greek
thought
and
that
of
Islam,
while
preserving
the
authenticity of the spiritual message.
9.
CONCLUSION
The prime
concern of Suhrawardi's
entire
philosophy
is to demonstrate the complete journey of the human soul

towards
its
awareness
followed
original
abode.
One
of the path that he

the
teachings
of
begins
ought to
master
who
by
gaining
follow.
can
an
Having
direct
the
disciple through the maze of spiritual dangers, one reaches

a state where spiritual knowledge can be obtained directly
without
mediation.
knowledge
to
come
In
this
from
state,
the
Suhrawardi considers
divine
soul,
fnafs
al-
cfudsiwahl ,a mode of cognition distinct from that of the

Peripatetics.
To
demonstrate
Suhrawardi
concepts,
the
establishes
the
spiritual
journey
of
a tightly woven web of
validity
of
which
depends
on
man,
ideas
and
the
entire
system, and in turn are the principiality of Light.
As we
shall see, his entire system rests on the validity of the

principle that,
since all things are defined in terms of
Light and because the necessary condition for being able to

establish any epistemic relationship between a subject and
object
is
the
very
existence
of
Light,
it
is
only
reasonable to establish a philosophical paradigm on such an

axiomatic principle.
In our discussion, we have outlined Suhrawardi's views
of various classifications of light and darkness and how
they are related to his physics, psychology and eschatalogy
and ultimately his ontology.
Suhrawardi's
The
theory of knowledge is implicitly at issue.
ultimate
essentially
knows well
Throughout these discussions
question
an
with
which
epistemological
that
in putting
he
one.
is
This
concerned
is
is because he
forward his views on various
issues, he will be confronted with one question and that is

"how do you know?"
It
is,
therefore,
imperative
that
his
entire
metaphysical system be understood; otherwise his theory of

knowledge cannot be comprehended.
classical
example
of_ the
This is where we see a
"hermeneutical
circle"
which
maintains that to understand part of something one has to

have an understanding of the whole, but one cannot know the
whole unless something is known of the parts.
an
understanding
crucial
of
Suhrawardi's
metaphysical
Therefore,
views
in the understanding of various branches
philosophy.
is
of his
E N D NOTES:
CHAPTER
1-
From here on I will give the dates both in the Islamic

and Christian calendar that are roughly six hundred
years apart.
2-
For more information on this see S.H. Nasr, "Why Was

Farabi Called the Second Teacher", Islamic Culture.
59(1985):4
3-
Ta * w i l
or
the
sc i e n c e of
interpretation
is
particularly
important in the Shicite
tradition.
According to Ta'wil only those who have understood the
universal message of Islam on an existential level
have the right to engage themselves in ecumenical
work.
4-
Nuzhat al-arwah_ wa rawdat al-arfah fi tarikh alhukama wa~1

falasifa. ed. S. Khurshid Ahmad,1976,
pp.119-143. (From hereon I shall refer to this work
as Nuzhat al-arwaht
5-
S.H. Nasr, Introduction to Opera 3
p. 12.
6-
S.H. Nasr, Three Muslim Sages. 1964, p.60.
7-
Shahrazuri, introduction to Opera 3, p.23,27.
8-
Yaqut al-Hamawi, Mu *iam al-udaba *. Vol.19, No 20, Ciro

626
9-
Nuzhat al-arwah. Introduction to Opera 3, pp.27-28.
10-
Ibn Taqhrebirdi, Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf,

zahirah fi muluk misr wa al-Oahirah.
p.114.
11-
Ibid, p.115.
12-
Ibid,
al-Nuium alVol.6 1936,
p.30.
13- Ibid, p.114.

14-
Shahrazuri, introduction to Opera 3, p.28.
15-
Nasr, S.H., " Suhrawardi: The Master of Illumination,

Gnostic and Martyr" ( Translated by W. Chittick).
Journal of Regional Cultural Institute. 2( 1969):4,
p.212.
16-
Kamal
Salibi
however
does
not make
it clear
as to
41
whether he thinks Suhrawardi was accused of being _a

Shiîte or notHe does argue that Salah al-Din
Ayyubi was sensitive to Shi'ite tendencies in the
region and Suhrawardi may have been suspected of
trying to convert Malik Zahir.
17-
H. Ziai, "The Source and Nature of Political Authority

in Suhrawardi *s Philosophy of Illumination", in the
Proceedings
of the Conference on the Political
Aspects of Islamic Philosophy. 1988, p.3.
18-
Ibid, p.10.
19-
Shahrazuri, Nuzhat al-arwah. p.126.
20-
For a more complete discussion surronding Suhrawardi1s

death see: H. Zia i, "The source and Nature of
Political Authority in Suhrawardi's Philosophy of
Illumination",
Proceedings of Conference on the
Political Aspects of Islamic_ Philosophy. 1988. Also
See S.J. SajadI, ^Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi wa Falsafah
ishrag" . in the Yad namah Henry Corbin. 1969, p.83.
21-
Suhrawardi had_ been accused by many to have been one

of the Shuubiwah who were advocating a medieval
Persian nationalistic movement.
It is argued that
they tried to down play the importance of Islam in
bringing anything new as a means of confronting Arab
supremacy.
22-
Nasr, S H. " Suhrawardi: "The Master of Illumination,

Gnostic and Martyr"
(Translated by W.
Chittick)
Journal of Regional Cultural Institute. 2(1969):4
P.211
23-
The word Theosophy is the nearest equivalent in the

English
language to "Hikmat",
which is neither
philosophy nor theology but alludes to a type of
knowledge that a particular faculty is able to
attain.
It is indeed equivalent with "Theo-Sophia"
or "Divine Wisdom" in its original sense and it is
not
to be confused with the pseudo- spiritual
movement of the 19th century that began in England.
24-
S.H. Nasr, Suhrawardi: "The Master of Illumination,

Gnostic and Martyr" (Trans, by W. Chittick), Journal
of Regional Cultural Institute. 2(1969):4 p.215.
25-
Henry Corbin in his numerous writings discusses this

concept in great detail.
For more information see:
C.
Adams The Hermeneutics of Henry Corbin. in
Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies. University
42
of Arizona Press., Tucson: 1985 Also see, H. Corbin,

"The Force of Traditional Philosophy in Iran Today",
Studies in Comparative Religion. 2(1968), p.12-26.
26-
Opera 1, p.70.
27-
Nasr, S.H. Three Muslim Sages. 1964, p.69.
28-
Ibid, p.70.
29-
Ibid,
30-
It is not until Mulla Sadra'S time that the mechanism

by which beings yearn for the higher order is
thoroughly
discussed.
His
notion of
"Transsubstantial motion" CHarakat al-iwhariyyah) explains
the
inner yearning of beings towards a higher
ontological status.
31-
For further discussion of Suhrawardi's concept

angelology see, H.Corbin, Opera 2, 125 ff.
32-
For a complete discussion of Suhrawardi's physics see,

H. Corbin, Opera 2, 187ff
33-
A History of
Vol.l, p.391.
34-
For more information see, Nasr,S.H.

Science and
Civilization in Islam. Harvard University Pr., 1968.
and T . Burkhardt Alchemv: Science of the Cosmos,
Science of the Soul. Trans.
from German by W.
Stoddart, London: 1967.
35-
For a more complete discussion see, H.Corbin, 0pera2,

ff.203.
36-
Aristotle, De Anima. ed. by Richard McKeon,. New York,

Randon House, 1941
37-
A History of Muslim Philosophy.ed. M.M. Sharif p.392.
38-
Ibid, pp.392-393.
39-
Opera 2, p.225.
40-
Opera 3, pp.53-63.
41-
Opera 3, p.65.
42-
For more information on the survival of Suhrawardi's

mystical ideas in Alleppo and his influence upon the
p.70.
Muslim
Philosophy, ed.
M.M.
of
Sharif,
Jewish community see the work of Maimonides greatgreat-grandson,

translated and commented by Paul
Fenton, Deux Traites de mvstioue iuive.Paris. 1987
43-
M o 4in, M.
Hikmat ishraq
Maimuca Maqaiat. p.436.
wa
farhang
Iran",
in
44-
Darri calls this translation Kanz al-hikmah.

more information on this see: Darri, *Z. Kanz
hikmah . Tehran 1939.
45-
D^rri, Z. Kanz al-hikmah. p.11.
46-
Kashfal-zunun. Vol.l, p.913.
47-
Shaikh fAli Muhammad known as "Musanafak" has written

a commentary upon this work and the author of
Tadhkirat al-nawa alludes to this. See: p.147.
48-
Shahrazuri, Nuzhat al-arwah ,1976, 11, pp.119-143.
49-
For more information on the revival of the school of

ishraq see: Nasr. S.H., Three Muslim Sages. 1964,
pp.80.
For
al-
u,
CHAPTER TWO
A BRIEF SURVEY OF SUHRAWARDI'S WORKS:
The
first
analyze
the
problem
works
unsystematic
nature
one
of
of
encounters
Suhrawardi
his
in
is
writings.
attempting
the
to
apparently
His writings
are
diverse and dynamic and he often moves from the exposition

of a purely philosophical argument to a profoundly mystical
narrative.
It is in such a situation that the case of a
"hermeneutical circle" occurs since an understanding of his

truth
claims
requires
philosophical views.
one
has
to
an
of
his
overall
To arrive at such an understanding
understand
tightly woven
understanding
the
view and,
individual
since
his
components
of
his
works are written
in
different styles, i.e. Peripatetic, symbolic, theosophical,

it is difficult to rely on one particular methodology to
analyze them.
H.
Corbin
in
his
1 *Archanae
of
empourpree.
the
JL
Persian works
has
translated
large sections
of
Suhrawardi.
Also, Corbin's newly published translation of
all but the
logic of the Hikmat
al-ishraq. 2 along with
much of Qutb al-Din Shirazi and Mulla Sadra's commentary

upon the Hikmat
al-ishraa provides an excellent source for
the
students of
Thackston
in
Suhrawardi.
the
Mystical
It
and
is
noteworthy that
Visionary
Treatises
W.M.
of
Shihabuddin Yahva Suhrawardi. 3. has also translated some of

the Persian works of Suhrawardi. 4
Despite the translations and commentaries of H. Corbin
and S.H.Nasr,
not all of his works have been published.
Some of these include his writings on the natural sciences,

mathematics and logic that are included in the two major
books Mutarahat
(the Book of
Conversations)and Muaawamat
(the Book of Opposites) , as well as Talwihat (the Book of

*
Intimations^.
Also, the complete Arabic texts of al-Alwah
al-imadivah
(the Tablets of cImad al-Din) , al-Lamahat
Flashes
Light)
of
and
al-Waridat
wal-Taordisat
are
(the
not
available.
Despite
the
above
existing
problems,
attempts
have
been made to offer a classification of Suhrawardi's works.

However,
this
has
proven
to
be
difficult
task.
L.
Massignon's classification of Suhrawardi's works based on

the period when he produced them is as follows: 5
1-
Writings of Suhrawardi in his youth (early works)
2-
Peripatetic writings
3-
Writings which represent a synthesis of Ibn Sina and

Plotinus.
The problem which this classification poses
is that
Suhrawardi did not live a long life, and therefore most of

his works were composed when he was quite young.
Also, how
do we account for such works as al-Alwah al-imadivah which

is
one
of
his
early
writings
and
yet
contains
strong
ishragj elements?
This work is dedicated to Prince Immad
who ruled in 581/1181,' and considering that Suhrawardi was

killed
in
578/1178
he
must
have
written
this
book
at
roughly the same time as the Philosophy of Illumination.

On
the
basis
of
the
above
and
on
the
fact
that
Suhrawardi claims he first had a vision of truth and then

in
light
of
that
he began
to
investigate philosophical
principles and their validity, I conclude that Massignon's

and any other classification of Suhrawardi's works based on
the period in which he wrote them is unverifiable.
Such a
classification may well be justified with regard to some

philosophers
whose
ideas
changed
and developed,
but
the
continuity and uniformity of Suhrawardi*s thoughts do not

allow for such a classification to be made.
S.H. Nasr and H. Corbin have by and large agreed to a
structural classification of Suhrawardi's works,
which is
as follows:.6
1-
Suhrawardi wrote four large treatise that were of

doctrinal
nature
al-Talwihat
(the
Book
of
Intimation') . a 1-Mugawamat fthe Book of Opposites') . alMutarahat (
the
Book
of
Conversations')
and
finally
Hikmat al-ishraafthe Philosophy of Illumination}.
The
first
in
the
there
are
three
tradition
of
of
the
these
works
were
Peripatetics
written
although
criticisms of certain Peripatetics in them.

2-
There are shorter works,
some of which are also
of a doctrinal nature, but should be viewed as further

explanations of the larger doctrinal treatises.
These
books are: Havakil al-nur (Luminous Bodies). Alwah al^madivah
(the Tablets of Imad al-Din) , Partaw namah
(Treatise
on
Illumination) . Fi
i cticrad a 1-hukama^(on
the Faith of the hakims) . al-Lamahat

light), Yazdan Shinakht
and Bustan al-oulub
(the Flashes of
(Knowledge of the Divine),
(the Garden of the Heart) .
Some
of these works are in Arabic and some in Persian.

works
in
Persian
are
among
the
writings in the Persian language.
finest
His
literary
Suhrawardi himself
may have translated some of these treatise from Arabic

into
Persian.
However,
the
authenticity
of
some
of
these works remains disputable. For example, his work

Yazdan shinakht is said to have been written b y cAin
al-Quddat Hamadani.
Also,
Bustan al-Oulub which has
appeared as Raudat al-Oulub. may have been written by

Sayyed Sharif al-Jurjani-Z
3-
Suhrawardi
wrote
purely esoteric nature,

narratives
number
of
in Persian.
contain highly
symbolic
treatises
of
These initiatory
language most
of
which incorporate Zoroastrian and Hermetic symbols as

well as Islamic ones.
<Agl-i
Surkh
(Red
These
treatises
include:
Intellect). Awaz-i Par-i Jibrail
(the Chant of the Wing of Gabriel) .
Oissat
al-
Ghurbat al-gharbiwah (Story of the Occidental Exile).
luqhati muran fLancmaqe of the Termites') . Risalah
fi
halat '.al-tufulivvah
of
(Treatise
on
the
State
Childhood) . Ruzi ba Jama'at-i Sufivan (A Day Among the

Sufis). Safir-i
Simurg
(the
Sound
of the Griffin).
Risalah
f i l-mi^rai
Ascent). Partaw namah

treatise
the
(Treatise
on
(the Glorious
the
Nocturnal
Letter)
These
are intended to demonstrate the journey of
soul toward unity and the
inherent yearning of
man toward gnosis (macrifah).

4-
There are
also
number oftreatises
of
philosophic and initiatic nature.
These include his
translation
(treatise
of
Risalat
alTair
of
the
birds) , of Ibn Sina and the commentary in Persian upon

Ibn Sina
Xsharat
wa
Tanbihat. There
is
also
his
treatise Risalah fi haqjgat al'

c ishq (treatise on the
reality of love), which is based on Ibn Sina's Risalah
fi*l g ishq (treatise on love) and his commentaries on
verses of the Quran and the Hadith.
Also, it is said that Suhrawardi may have written
a commentary upon the Fusus of al-Farabi, which has
been lost. 8.
5-
Finally, there is the category

writings
namely
Shahrazuri
prayers,
calls
of his liturgical
invocations
them
and
al-Waridat
litanies.
wal-Tagdisat
(Invocations and Prayers) -9.

These
important writings
of
Suhrawardi,
despite the
extracts
which
appears
in
1~Archanq empourpree. have

attention.
translation
received
the
of
H.
least
Corbin
amount
of
They are of a liturgical nature and represent
S u h r a w a r d i 's
angelology
and
its
relationship
to
the
spiritual entities of the planets. Suhrawardi here makes an

explicit
correspondence between
Zoroastrian
important
archangels.
For
spiritual
example,
forces and the
in
the
two
most
prayers,10 the heavenly sun, Hurakhsh,is being
addressed. Also, Suhrawardi expounds upon the qualities of

the Great Luminous Being
incorporeal
equivalent
fa l - N a w i r al-cazm) , who is the
of
an
earthly
king,
and
whose
general
more
qualities are such that they demand submission.

The
above
classification
justifiable than Massignon's.
is
in
This is because it tends to
categorize Suhrawardi's works on the basis of the content,

as
well
as
example,
all
on
the
of
the
literary
works
style
in
of
section
his
1
works.
, are
For
of
the
peripatetic nature with the exception of Hikmat al-ishracr.

The
subject
matter
of
works
in
the
section
2,
are
of
tetralogical nature and are simpler and shorter than his

other works.
not
only
because
tales.
The works in the third section are classified
because
they
are
written
they are metaphorically

Finally,
commentaries
and
there
is
the
translations
in
in the
Persian
but
also
form of mystical
category of
transcripts,
as
writings
well
of
devotional nature which constitutes the basis for sections
While
adhere
to
H.
Corbin
and
S.H.
Nasr's
classification of Suhrawardi's works as the only reasonable

and practical
logically
way
superior
of
classifying
way
of
such works there
dividing
Suhrawardi's
is a
works.
Suhrawardi tells us that he first had a vision and then

tried to
verify
philosophical
principles
on that basis.
Therefore, his "vision" precedes any written work of his,

and the
rest are nothing but an attempt on his part to
manifest this vision in written form.
If this is the case
and his works are only further proofs that what he "saw"
was correct,
then the only logical classification is one
that is based on a chronological order since his various

works are a gradual unfolding of his vision.
As
indicated
classification
practical.
offers
above,
a
while
logical
solution,
believe
it
is
my
not
This is because there exists a great deal of
disagreement
among
chronological
order
Suhrawardi
scholars
of his works.
However,
as
to
the
considering
certain dates that he mentions in various treatises,
one
can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy the

chronological order of at least some of his works.
For
example, in the introduction to his book al-Masharic . 11 he

tells us that this book should be read before Hikmat alishraq and after al-Talwihat.
Also, he tells us that al-
Lamahat
is
summary
of
'
al-Talwihat
and
finally
al-
Mugawamat is an appendix to al-Talwihat.12
It is noteworthy that a 1-Mugawamat, which is the most

philosophically
oriented
work
commentary upon
al-Talwihat
of
Suhrawardi,
13
indicates
where
this
Suhrawardi in Hikmat
work
purpose for which it was written. Also,

mentions
and is entirely devoted to
the study of the Peripatetic school.

al-ishrag
is
fits
and
the
in al-Lamahat. he
al-Talwihat . and in section 52 of the same book
he has referred to Hikmat al-ishraq.
In alMttsharic . 14 as
well as Kalamat al-tasawwof 15 and al-Alwah al-imadivah

16,
that
Suhrawardi
they
ishrag.
refers to Hikmat al-ishrag. an
must
This
have
is
been
rather
written
ironic
after
since
his
the
indication
Hikmat
view that
alis
generally held is that Hikmat al-ishrag was written towards

the end of his short but prolific life. 17
Najafqoli Habibi,
Ishrag
18,
has
Suhrawardi's
in his book Se Risalah az Shavkh-i
thoroughly
works
along
documented
the
above
the
succession
lines-
Despite
of
his
agreement with the above, he indicates:

From a survey of his works it appears that he
has written them simultaneously and therefore, a
historical chronology can not be conceived for
them. 19
My
attempt
to
offer
rather
brief
analysis
of
Suhrawardis works is to clarify those ideas and concepts

that
pertain
demonstrate,
to
his views
on
epistemology.
As
I will
Suhrawardi in his philosophical works offers
what
call
theosophical
"Philosophical
writings
Epistemology", and
"Theosophical
in
his
Epistemology"
as
examplified in his Persian writings and the Philosophy of

Illumination.
My analysis of Suhrawardi's works will begin with- his
most important philosophical work,
it
contains
so
many
of
the
the al-Talwihat. since
elements
that
clarify
his
philosophical epistemology.
PART 1:
1.
AL-TALWIHAT (THE BOOK OF INTIMATIONS ) z
Suhrawardi wrote this book in the

Peripatetics
cornerstone
as
of
his
first
step
philosophy
of
in
tradition of the
establishing
illumination.
As
the
he
states:
... and I , before writing this book (Hikmat alishrag 1 and while doing this, when * obstacles
prevented me from proceeding with this,wrote
books for you in the tradition of Peripatetics,
and their philosophical principles have been
summarized in those books. Among them there is a
short_work known as al-Talwihat al-lawhivah wa*lcarshivah. which consists of many principles,
and,
despite
its
small
volume,all
the
philosophical principles of the Peripatetics
have been summarized, and in the order of ranks
it comes after the book alLamahat. 20
In
the
al-Talwihat.
Suhrawardi
addresses
certain
philosophical issues in the tradition of the Peripatetics.

These issues range from the Aristotelian categories to the
principle which maintains that "unity only produces unity"

or to put
unity.
it differently,
21
He
begins
multiplicity cannot
with
an
come
interpretation
from
of
the
categories of Aristotelian logic by reducing them from ten

to
four
while
arguing
that
it
was
not
Aristotle
who
discovered them but a Pythagorean named Akhutas (Archytas).

22
Suhrawardi maintains that all these
categories have
the ability of becoming stronger or weaker in intensity.

For example, to show that even "quantity" follows the same
principle, he maintains that a short line is "weaker" than
a long one, and thereby changes a quantitative difference
into a qualitative one. 23.
he
introduces
"motion"
in
which
place
later
on
One of the new categories that

of
Aristotlean
came to
be
the
categories
basis
Sadra's theory of " Trans-Substantial Motion",
is
of Mulla
fHarakat al-
ia w h a r i w a h ) .
Another topic of discussion in the al-Talwihat is the
concept of universals and particulars and the real and the

conceptual.
"being"
and
While
holding
"essence"
philosophy to which he
different position.
the view
remains
the thrust
adheres,
Ibn
he nevertheless
Sina's
takes
if being is added to an essence,
then a "thing" comes in to existence.

principiality
of
of
Suhrawardi postulates that it is not
correct to assume that
the
that the notion
of
"essence"
Instead he supports
(mahiyyah),
rather
than
"being"
fwuiucH .
We shall explore this topic in greater
detail when the central- themes of Suhrawardi's philosophy

are discussed.
24.
Such discussions as the existence of
necessary beings and Ibn Sina's proofs for the existence of

the Necessary Being
fwaiib al-wuiud^ are among the other
important issues discussed in the book. 25

In the al-Talwihat. he offers an account of his vision
of whom he perceived to be the first teacher, Aristotle,
and
his
conversations
with
him.
Suhrawardi, which took place

and
being
conscious,
26
This
encounter
of
in a state between dreaming
had
great
influence
on
the
development of his theory of the history of philosophy and

the distinction that he makes between hikmat and philosophy
in its discursive form.
The
Aristotle
that
Suhrawardi
alludes
to
is
the
Aristotle of the Theologia. who is actually Plotinus.
He
asked him if the Peripatetics like Farabi and Ibn Sina were
the true philosophers.
Aristotle replied:
Not a degree in a thousand.

Rather, the Sufis
Bastami and Tustari are the real philosophers. 27
Suhrawardi then discusses how hikmat and the "Science
of
Light"
passed
on
Kilm
to
al-ishrag),
such
figures
originated
in
the
with
West
as
Hermes
and
Pythagoras,
Empedocles, Plato, Agathadaimons, Asclepius and so on until

it reached him.
through
two
main
In the East this science was transmitted

channels,
namely
the
ancient
Persian-
Priest kings such as Kayumarth,

the Sufis
such
Kharraqani
Faridun, Kay Khusraw, and
as fAbu Yazid al-Bastami,
and
finally
Mansur
Abu Hassan
al-Hallaj,
who
al-
deeply
influenced Suhrawardi. 28
Intimations
fal-Talwihat)
, however
m
is
not
only
an
expose of what Aristotelian philosophy is but how it ought

to be. 29 Suhrawardi himself alludes to the fact that he is
not only a commentator of
Aristotle as Farabi,
Ibn Rushd
and others are, but that he also offers an Ishragi reading

of Aristotle.
A person who needs it may find it necessary to
know prior to the philosophy of illumination in
the intimations. where I have stated the points
on which I differ from the Master of discursive
philosophy, Aristotle. 30
a 1-Talwihat
is
particularly
important
Suhrawardi's epistemology for two reasons.

that the philosophical
provide
us
with
The first is
issues that are discussed therein
conceptual
framework
within
Suhrawardi's theory of knowledge is formulated.

and
more
important
Aristotle
of
considers
knowledge
issue
Theoloqia.
of
for
is
his
who,
as
the
self
The second
discussion
we
to
will
be
with
see
the
condition for the attainment of any knowledge.
which
the
later,
necessary
This last
point plays an extremely important role in the formulation

of Suhrawardi's theory of "theosophical epistemology''
cilm al-huduri) .
fal-
2.
AL-MUOAWAMAT (OPPOSITES )
al-Muaawamat is also a book of Suhrawardi written in

the tradition of the Peripatetics,
different from the al-Talwihat.
which is not all that
al-Muaawamat (Opposites),
though written in the style of the al-Talwihat.

provides a
much more specific explanation of ishraqi ideas.
In the
introduction to the al-Muaawamat fOpposites). he states:

This_ is the summary of a book known as alTalwihat and in this, necessary corrections have
been made in regard to what the ancients have
said.
The exposition of these materials,due to
the necessity to be brief, was not done in this
book and we have decided on the minimum amount
of discourse
and_ for this reason we have
called it, a 1-Mugawamat. and in God I rely and
seek help. 31
al-Muqawamat should be regarded as an addendum to the
al-Talwihat. although it is less expository in nature and
more argumentative.
Suhrawardi alludes to the fact that
a 1-Mugawamat is a guide to a better understanding of alTalwihat.32 , and
the
Peripatetic
doctrines
are
analyzed
more fully therein.
3.
A L MASHAR1C WA JL-
MUTARAHAT
m
9
(THE
PATHS
AND
THE
CONVERSATIONS )
This is one of the more important works of Suhrawardi
and
his
doctrinal
lengthiest
aspects
clear manner.
and
of
work,
his
in
which
philosophy
he
in
discusses
the
straight
and
The work contains a mixture of discursive
illuminationist
arguments
which
often
clarify
obscurities within the Philosophy of Illumination.
the
In the
introductory section, he recommends this book to all those

who have not attained
mastery of the discursive sciences
and therefore have their path towards
understanding of the
wisdom of illumination obstructed.

The introduction to this book is of great importance
since it explains the purpose and the place of this work
among other works of Suhrawardi.
Part of the introduction
which discloses the significance of the book is as follows:

This book consists of three sciences that I have
written in accordance with the request of you
brothers and I have placed in them arguments and
criteria.
These arguments and criteria cannot
be
found in other
texts
and are truly
beneficial and useful.
They are the result of
the
inferences
and
experiences
of my own
intellect. However, in these criteria I did not
deviate from the sources of the Peripatetics, and
if I had put fine points and litanies in them,
they are
from the honorable principles of
ishracri wisdom which undoubtedly is superior to
what the Peripatetics have brought.
Anyone who
would strive and be unbiased, after meditating
upon the works of the Peripatetics, will arrive
at the same conclusion that others have reached.
Anyone who has not attained the
mastery of
discursive
sciences,
his
path
to
the
understanding of Ishraqi wisdom is blocked and it
is necessary that this book be studied before the
Philosophy of Illumination and after a short work
called Intimations.
It should be known that I, in this book have not
compiled (the issues) chronologically, but the
intention in this work is argumentation although
desires discursive philosophy has properly

understood this section and his knowledge in
this regard becomes established, then it is
permissible for him to set foot in ascetic
practices and enter Ishraq so he can see certain
principles of illumination.
The three forms of illuminationist wisdom are as
follows:
.and knowledge of them
comes only after illumination. The beginning of
illumination is detachment from the world; the
middle
way is the observation of divine
light;and the end is limitless. I have called
this book the Path and the Conversations.33
)sr
From the above, it is apparent that this work of

Suhrawardi is not only written in the tradition of the
Peripatetics, but that it also contains some of his
illuminationist doctrines and experiences.
Those who seek
truth, therefore, should from his point of view first

attempt to master the discursive sciences and then pursue
the path of illumination.
In section seven of this work 34. he leaves the
discursive method to elaborate on such topics as life after
death, necessary beings, etc. The metaphysical and
epistemological issues which he deals with are elaborated
to a great extent in his Magnum
Opus
the Hikmat al-ishrag.
On the significance of the al-Muaawamat. he states:

I recommend to you my brothers to detach yourself from
everything and meditate upon God continuously and the key
to this idea is in the Philosophy of Illumination. These
issues which we have mentioned have not been discussed
elsewhere and to set foot on this path we have prescribed a
plan without revealing the secret. 35
al-Masharic
wa(1-Mutarahat. should be regarded as a
work whose study is a prerequisite to the understanding of

the Philosophy of Illumination.
of
the
number
of
This is not only because
references
to
the
Philosophy
of
illumination. but also for the thorough exposition of the

"language of Illumination"
contains.
36
fLisan al-Ishraq), which it
This exposition is one of the few places where
Suhrawardi
treats
illumination.
the
subject
of
the
language
of
In light of such analysis which is carried
out within the context of light and darkness, he goes so

far as to evaluate his mystical experiences.
Suhrawardi's discussion of language in this work, as
H-
Zia i
37. argues,
brings
out
hidden
but
important
element of Suhrawardi's philosophy which incidently happens

to be a key to the understanding of his thoughts.
Ziai
argues that:
There must have been a very important 'oral side'
to Suhrawardi's teachings, a teaching that would
have dealt more freely without the constraints of
the written word, with the symbolic language of
the philosophy of illumination. 38
From
this
Suhrawardi's
it
is
overall
reasonable
intention
of
to
conclude
composing
that
the
al-
Talwihat . a 1-Mugawamat. and the Path and the Conversations.

39
was
to
show
insufficient
to
philosophy.
This
that
resolve
the
the
Peripatetics
fundamental
method
problems
was
of
is especially true on an experiential
level
which
constitutes
the
heart
of
illuminationist
philosophy.
Having
demonstrated
the
Peripatetic method to answer the

philosophy, Suhrawardi
true
than
the
argues
problem
of
inadequacies
of
the
fundamental problems
that
nowhere
knowledge
is
by
of
this more
definition.
Knowledge by definition, which for Aristotle was a method

to
understand the truth,
for Suhrawardi only leads to a
partial disclosure of the truth.

above works
of Suhrawardi,
The significance of the
therefore,
should be
seen
in
this context and not as separate writings.
4.
HXKMAT
AL-ISHRAQ ( PHIILOSOPHY OF ILLUMINATION)
This is the fourth doctrinal work and the Magnum

work of Suhrawardi.
opus
It brings together different elements
of ishragi tradition and was composed in the period of a

few months in 582/1182.
He maintains that the content of
this book was revealed to him by the divine Spirit.

These truths and secrets were revealed to to me
at once by the spirit on a Strange day., in only
a few days. 40
The philosophical and theosophical doctrines that are
discussed
in
this
book
lay
the
foundation
for
future
developments in the field of "philosophical gnosis", not to

mention
their profound influence upon the formulation of
the esoteric aspect of Shi*ism. 41

of
Illumination he mentions the
Since in the Philosophy

al-Talwihat
and the
al"
Lamahat. 42 it is apparent that he must have composed them

prior to the Philosophy of Illumination.
Despite
numerous
Illumination. such
Ahmad
Ibn al-Harawi
commentaries
as
those
of
on
Qutb
43., Suhrawardi's
the
Philosophy
al-Din
Shirazi
of
and
own introduction to
his work is perhaps the most elucidating one.
There he
states:
And this book of ours belongs to those who seek
knowledge of both an initiatic and discursive
nature. Those who only seek discursive reasoning
and are neither divine nor do they desire to be,
have no place in this book. We shall not discuss
this book or its secrets except with those who
are theosophists or seek divine knowledge.44
The Philosophy of Illumination can roughly be divided
into
two
Peripatetic
parts,
the
first
philosophy,
logic
being
and
other
discussion
related
of
issues
which have been regarded by many as less significant than

the rest of the book.
This is not true, since Suhrawardi
himself views them as a prerequisite to the understanding

of the latter part.
philosophical
In this work Suhrawardi provides a
exposition
of
the
journey
of
the
soul
beginning with purification and ending with illumination.

The second part consists of his theosophical writings which
are unique
in the history of Islamic philosophy in that
they present a variety of mystical experiences through a
logical
structure
logical order.
and
allow the
reader
to
follow their
These writings which have come to be called
ishracri writings use a particular language which became the

customary language of all ishracri philosophers.
Having
achieved
illumination,
Suhrawardi
then
tells
us of his visions and mystical experiences in a logically

coherent
way.
language
of
To
the
do
so
Suhrawardi
not
only
uses
rational
discursive
philosophy
of
the
the
Peripatetics but also the symbolic analogies of the Sufis

and
even
developed
Persia
poetry.
by
to
The
language
Suhrawardi .was
express
an
used
of
ishracri
philosophy
by
all
hakims
experiential
the
truth
within
in
a
philosophical context.
Recognition that language is an insufficient mode of
expression
for
human
experience
has
been
accepted
throughout the centuries, for example by such Sufi masters

as Rumi and Bayazid.
45
However, Suhrawardi is different
in that he devised a language which is highly symbolic and

yet expressive of his inner experiences. 46
Suhrawardi begins his discussion in the Philosophy of
Illumination
with
knowledge
definition
by
.methodology
to
know
brief
survey
and
its
"things
as
of
the
inadequacy
they
really
problem
as
of
a proper
are".
He
criticized Aristotle's view of definition 47 and tried to

construct his own view on the basis of light.
His view, as
I will discuss in greater detail in the following chapter,
is
that
the
inadequacy
of
knowing
an
object
through
definition is because people tend to define a thing through

its appearance and not its reality.
argues
that
before
giving
any
Therefore, Suhrawardi
satisfactory
theory
of
knowledge one has to be able to know the thing as it really

is.
Only then can a theory be offered on that basis.
valid theory
of knowledge for him is therefore one that
presents the identity of a thing and not its appearance.

Suhrawardi then goes on to argue against Aristotle's
theory of vision which has a direct bearing on his theory
of knowledge.
He also criticizes the views held by Farabi
and Ibn Sina that are closely affiliated with Aristotle's

and offers his own theory of vision.
48
He rejects the
view of those who maintain a ray emanates
from one's eye
that hits the objects, or, similarly,

the object
and meets the eye.
a ray emanates from
His view
is that seeing
takes place when there is no veil between the subj ect and
the
object,
unity, or,
which
implicitly
alludes
to
the
concept
of
to put it differently, it is an application of
the concept of unity.

Since
The
Philosophy
of
illumination
is
the
most
important work of Suhrawardi and because it is a work with

which most of this thesis is concerned I will translate the
brief
introduction
upon this work.
that
Qutb
al-Din
Shirazi
has written
This translation, which appears for the
first time in English, is a classical exposition of ishragi
philosophy and will appear in the Appendix at the end of

the thesis. This, in addition to H. Corbins translation of
large parts of Shirazi and Mulla Sadras commentary on the
metaphysical sections of the Hikmat
al-ishraq. provides us
with valuable works on Suhrawardi in European languages.

It
is precisely the
impact of such works
the
emergence
instrumental
in
movement
by
the
profound
analyses of the current philosophical
"young
of
that has been
philosophers
new
philosophical
who
have
offered
issues in
the light of the "oriental logic of Suhrawardi.49

In addition to major doctrinal works, Suhrawardi also
wrote a number of works, both in Persian and Arabic.
of
his
Arabic
himself.
with
works
were
translated
the
same
issues
as
the
writings
in
Persian
philosophical and symbolic.

Peripatetic
sometimes
number
Persian
by
Most of the Arabic texts of a shorter nature deal
Suhrawardi's
is
into
Some
of
in
that
linguistic
references
doctrinal
are
of
two
works.
kinds,
However, although the method

he
offers
analysis
to
longer
highly
of
an
analytical
issues,
mystical
there
and
and
are
visionary
subj ects.
We shall now turn to a summary treatment of his works
in Persian that are not only crucial to the understanding
of his epistemology,
but also include some of the finest
examples of Persian narratives.
5.
PARTAW NAMAH fTREATISE ON ILLUMINATION')
This
work
encompasses
complete
philosophical issues beginning with

space,
and
motion.
It
is
in
survey
of
ma j or
such subjects as time,
the
third
section
that
Suhrawardi offered his argument to prove that Mself" is a

separate entity from the body.
similar
to
Descartes
His
argument is strikingly
"Cogito" or
Ibn
Sina's "suspended
man". 50
Suhrawardi*s philosophical views in Partaw namah
are
generally analogous to those of Ibn Sina. For example,

chapter five and six he argues
in
for the existence of the
Necessary Being, and in chapter seven for the hierarchical

structure
ontology
of
and
discussions,
all
of these
existence
the moral
and
worth
the relationship
of
beings.
between
Despite
such
Suhrawardi retains his own original ideas on

issues and goes beyond the Peripatetics by
reconciling their philosophical views and Ishraqi doctrine

into a single harmonious doctrine.
In
evil,
For
chapter
eight,
he
expounds
upon
the
problem
of
free will and determinism within an ishraqi context.

Suhrawardi,
philosophical
issues
independently of their ontology.
cannot
be
analyzed
We can see an example of
this in his treatment of the concept of good and bad. Of

this, he states:
Since the Necessary Being is Pure Goodness and
its nature
is the most complete and most
intelligent of all beings, therefore, from Him
emanates only pure benevolence.' If there occurs
evil, Its good exceeds its evil. J51
In
chapter
nine,
Suhrawardi
argues
for
the
immortality of the soul and its state after departing from

the body.
He also talks about pleasure and pain, and their
relationship with the state of the soul after it departs

the body.
While his argument for the immortality of the
soul is closer to Plato's, his definition of pleasure and

pain is more Aristotelian since he considers pleasure to be
the harmonious functioning of all the faculties.
The last chapter of Partaw Namah deals with prophets
and prophecy,
miracles
This
is
section
and
written
events of an unusual
in
the
style
of
nature.
his
ishraqi
writings and is different from the other chapters in that

he makes extensive use of Zoroastrian symbolism.
Suhrawardi's argument
work
in the
third
section
is the cornerstone of his epistemology.
independent
self
that
perception
and
is
not
empiricists
maintain,
is
can
a
an
exist
apart
collection
of
argument
for
of this
First,
from
an
sense
"ideas",
as
rationalism.
Suhrawardi must have been arguing that self is an innate

entity
which
achievement
can
exist
of this
in
argument
and
of
itself.
is that
it
The
second
establishes the
principiality of the self and thereby affirms its ability

to gain cognition of things.
We will see later how this
67
argument
helps
to
formulate
Suhrawardi* s
theory
of
presential knowledge.
6.
HAYAKIL AL-NUR fTHE LUMINOUS BODIES) :
This
is
one
of
his
treatises in Persian.
an
indication
Batinis52
Suhrawardi,
that
most
important
and
well
known
The very word "Havakil11 (bodies) , is

he
may
have
been
influenced
by
the
Seyyed J a far Sajadi, 53 a notable scholar of

argues that since this book consists of seven
sections and the Ismailis have emphasized the concept of

"seven bodies**, it is likely that Suhrawardi's choice of
this title was influenced by them.
This, however, could be
a misinterpretation since in other places where Suhrawardi

has used the same concept he is referring to other notions.
For example,
in the Philosophy of Illumination, he often
uses the term "seven paths", which his commentator Qutb alDin Shirazi believes are five senses plus the faculties of
imagination and
language.
Also,
given the importance of
number seven in all the Islamic traditions, it is unlikely

that Suhrawardi was influenced by the Ismaiclies.
In his
al-Talwihat wa ,1-Taqdisat. he demonstrates the significance

of
Havakil
and
their
relationship
to
his
cosmological
doctrine.
In the first section of Havakil al-nur. 54 he offers
a definition of what an object is.
In the second chapter
he discusses the mind-body problem,
their interaction and
once again he elaborates on the "I" which is distinct from

the
body-
"Personal
He
also
Identity"
pays
and
attention
argues
as
constitutes the identity of a person.
to
to
the
what
problem
it
is
of
that
In the third chapter
he discusses different concepts of Being such as necessary

and contingent.
It is the fourth chapter,
however,
which
constitutes the core of Suhrawardi's philosophical views.

In this chapter he continues with the same issues, with a
much greater depth and length.
He
then goes on to discuss the problem of eternity
(cridanO and the creation (huduth) of the world in time and

God's
relation
to
it.
Also,
he
investigates
the
relationship between the movement of the celestial objects,

the
quality
he
illumination.
attributes
to
them,
It is not clear
and
the
process
of
in my mind whether this
correlation is symbolic or not since he attributes various

qualities
to
stars
within man himself.
that
also
correspond
to
the
forces
In the later part of Havakil al-nur.
he investigates such issues as the immortality of the soul

and its unification with the angelic world after it departs
the human body.
7.
AL-ALWAH AL-IMADIYAH fTABLET O F CIMAP AL-DIN1:
In the introduction to this work Suhrawardi indicates
that
this
book
has
theosophists.55
been
written
He begins,
in
however,
the
by
style
of
the
a discussion on
semantics and then moves on to consider such issues as the

soul,
its powers,
Lights.
The first part of the book discusses a number of
philosophical
attributes,
motion.
and its relationship with the Light of
issues such as the Necessary Being and its
the problem of createdness
In
so
doing,
of the world and
he makes extensive references to
Quranic verses and the sayings of the prophet.

In the later part of the book Suhrawardi is engaged in
an
exegesis
of
interpretations
the
ancient Persian mythology
and makes
that are essential in the formulation of
his theosophical epistemology.
This is especially apparent
towards the end of this work where the fate of the human
soul
is discussed
Islamic
in such a way that
eschatalogy
and
the
similarity of
is
demonstrated.
Zoroastrianism
Suhrawardi here argues that purification through asceticism

is the necessary condition for illumination.
As he states:
Once the soul is purified, it will be illuminated

by divine light.56
Suhrawardi
purification are
then
like
illuminate the iron.
tells
us
that
fire which,
The iron,
once
in this
asceticism
applied to
case,
and
iron,
being the
soul or the "I", can become illuminated not only because of

the dominant
.because
of
character
the
inner
of the
yearning
Light
of
of
the
Lights but also

human
soul
for
perfection. The light that functions as the illuminator of

the body
and
the soul
for Suhrawardi
light which he calls Kharrah.
is the
incorporeal
It is the presence of this
light in the human soul that enables man to have the inner
yearning
which
is
spiritual path.
tree whose
divine
for
the
pursuit
of
the
Suhrawardi describes the human soul as a
fruit
fire,
necessary
is certainty,
becomes
or a niche,
illuminated.
57
that through
In
his
writings
Suhrawardi sees the encounter of Moses and the burning bush

in this
ishraqi
context
claim
and uses
that
the
story to substantiate his
it is only the divine
fire that
can
illuminate the human soul.

Suhrawardi tells us that the reason for writing this
book is to expose the "origin" and destination of man.
He
describes the book as :

The principles which are necessarily the case in
regards to the knowledge of the origin of man's
nature are of eschatalogical nature.
This is in
accordance with the creed of the theosophists and
the principles (laid down by) the learned men of
theosophy.58.
He
then
g oes
on
to
d i scuss
the
semantical
relationship
between universals
and the particulars,
nature
objects,
bodies
sciences.
and
its
of
heavenly
and
the
the
natural
In the second section he elaborates on the soul

characteristics,
faculties
and
powers
that
are
associated with it.

Suhrawardi continues with a treatment of such topics
as the Necessary Being and its existence, determinism and

predestination.
He also touches upon certain psychological
issues from an ishrag point of view.

an esoteric
reading of a story told by Ferdouwsi.59 the
Persian poet whose epic poems

come
to
symbolize
Suhrawardi's
and
Kay
At the end he offers
the
glory
reading of such
Khusruw
manifestations
is
in the Book of Kings have
such
of
the
Persian
empire.
figures as Faraydun,
that
of divine Light.
he
sees
them
Zahhak
as
the
On the significance
of
this work, S.H. Nasr states:

a l Alwah
al-imadivah
is
one
of the most
brilliant works of Suhrawardi in which the tales
of ancient Persia and the wisdom of gnosis of
antiquity in the context of the esoteric meaning
of Quran have been synthesizedSuhrawardi has
made an interpretation of the destiny of the soul
which
Islamic theosophy and gnosis are in
agreement with. 60
8.
RISALAT AL-TAIR fTREATISE ON THE BIRDS) :
This work was originally written by Ibn Sina and was

translated and restated by Suhrawardi into Persian.
discloses
language
a
of
number
the
of
birds
61 It
esoteric
which
doctrines through the

fir _
Suhrawardi, Star
and Ahmad
Ghazzali had also used before.
The story
is about the
fate of a group of birds, who having fallen into trap of

hunters,
describe how their attempt to free themselves is
faced with a number of setbacks and how the birds overcome

such obstacles.
This work depicts the spiritual journey of man

his
original
abode
into
the world
of
fora and
how
from
the
attachments of the material world can obstruct ones desire

to reunite with his spiritual origin.
In this work, what Suhrawardi wants to demonstrate is
that if human faculties are directed to the sensible world,
the mode of cognition which he is trying to argue for will
be obstructed since the worldly attachments of the ordinary
soul
prohibit
it
attainment
of
Suhrawardi
tries
from
its
illumination.
to
bring
spiritual
journey
and
the
It is this very point that

out
in
passage
of
sublime
beauty where he describes the path one ought to take in

pursuit
of
understood,
illumination.
contains
the
The
passage,
entire
if
properly
epistemology
or
illumination:
Oh, brothers in truth, shed your skin as a snake
does and walk as an ant walks so the sound of
your footsteps cannot be heard. Be as a scorpion
whose weapon is on his back since Satan comes
from behind.
Drink poison so you may be born.
Fly continuously and do not choose a nest in that
all birds are taken from their nests and if you
have no wings crawl on the ground
Be like an
ostrich who eats warm sand and vultures who eat
hard bones. Like a salamander, be in the middle
of fire so no harm can come upon you tomorrow. Be
as like a butterfly who remains hidden by day so
he may remain safe from the enemy.62
Suhrawardi uses the above symbols to offer a set of
practical instructions for those who are on the path. For
example,
the
shedding
of
one's
skin
refers
to
the
abandoning of one's ego, and walking like an ant alludes to

the way one ought to walk on the path of truth so that no
one will know it.
Drinking poison symbolically indicates
the endurance of the pains and frustrations which one is to

experience on the spiritual path.. To be on the path is to
experience
difficulty,
which
Suhrawardi
identifies
with
poison.
By using the prophetic hadith "love death so you may
live",
63. Suhrawardi refers to the spiritual death.
The
gnostic concept of annihilation is the death and rebirth

that Suhrawardi himself describes in a poem:
If you die before the natural death
Thou has placed thyself in eternal heaven
Thou who did not set foot on this path
Shame be upon thee that thou broughtest
suffering upon thyself 64
As we shall see, death in this case signifies
to a certain mode of cognition,
for the
emergence
while
of a new faculty,
an end
it opens the gate

namely that of
the
Intellect.
Suhrawardi illustrates various hardships of the path
by
alluding
ostrich
or
to
the
them
as
eating
the
of
eating
sharp
of hot
bones
by
sand by
the
the
vultures.
Enduring such pain is necessary if one is to progress and

achieve any station on the spiritual path.
use
of
salamander
interpretations.
has
different
Suhrawardis
levels
of
The Salamander is the symbol of gold in
alchemy and gold is the symbol of divine
intellect.
He
could be referring not only to Abraham who was thrown into

fire,
but also to the fire within man.
The popular myth
maintains that if a salamander goes through fire, and does

not burn,
those
it .becomes resistant to everything.
who
are
consumed
impurity into the fire.
by
divine
fire
have
Therefore,
cast
their
They have swallowed this fire and
become purified.
Finally, Suhrawardi tells us that we ought to be like
a
moth
that
flies
at night
and remains
Night represents the esoteric,

the exoteric.
traditional
hidden
by
the hidden aspect,
day.
and day
In this way Suhrawardi uses the symbols of
Sufi
literature
with
spiritual
milieu,
night
symbolizing
the
esoteric
and
the
providing
the
sacred
space which allows man to fly.

In
the Risalat
al-tair
65
Suhrawardi
describes
the
spiritual journey of man by recounting the tale of a number

of birds who were "flying freely" but fell in the trap of
the hunters.
"Flying freely" here symbolizes the condition
in which man lived in the eternal state
prior to creation,
and falling into the trap denotes coming into the domain of
material
existence.
To put
it differently,
this
change
signifies the transition from the formless to the world of

forms.
Having become the prisoner of the material world,
often identified in Persian literature as the
"prison of
the body", those who are conscious of this imprisonment can
begin their journey towards their origin.

The bird who finds himself a prisoner symbolizes the
worldly
human
man.
nature
However,
he
material world.
becomes
because
used to
of
the
forgetfulness
the attachments
of
of the
This adaptation and the acceptance of the
condition is the greatest danger in one's spiritual journey

according to
Suhrawardi.
In the language of the birds,
Suhrawardi states :
We focused our attention on how we can free
ourselves. We were in that condition for a while
until our first principle was forgotten (freedom)
and settled with these chains, giving into the
tightness of the cage. 66
Suhrawardi's description of the spiritual journey in
the "language of the birds"
the
birds
when
they
free
continues with the flight of

themselves
from
some
of
the
bondages and yet are not able to free themselves entirely.

To translate this into
theosophical language,
it can be
said that men who have fallen into the world of forms can
partly free themselves through their will power; however,
to remove all the chains of attachments they would need the
guidance of a master.
While the potentiality for man to
become illuminated exists, the process will not take place

without
journey.
the
inner
yearning
and
the
will
to
make
the
This point becomes clear when the main character
of the story begs
the other birds to show him how they
freed themselves.
Having
pursued
the path
of
asceticism
and enduring
hardships, the birds arrive at different states and stages

of
the
path
Suhrawardi
where
warns
they
us
think
against
the
it
is
desire
time
to
to
rest
rest.
in
one
place, although the beauties of the path which he describes

as the "attractions that remove the mind
(cAgl)
body" are extremely tempting.
their desire to
67 Finally,
from the
stay is overcome by divine grace, which is manifested by a

voice
calling
describes
upon
their
them
encounter
to
continue.
with
describes as a blinding Light.
God,
Suhrawardi
whose
then
presence
he
The Light of Lights tells
the birds that he who has placed the chains must remove
them
as
well
and
God
sends
a messenger
to
oversee
the
removal of these chains.

The
following principles can be
inferred from the
Risalat al-Tair. 68
1-
The earthly human state is a prison for the human

soul.
2-
There
is
necessity
for the
soul
to
journey
towards the Light of Lights.
3-
The
grace
experience
that
helps
the
is
attained
Salik
to
through
remove
such
the
attachments to this world.
an
final
77
4-
The
achieved
experience
of
if
able
one
is
the
Light of
to
free
Lights
himself
can be
from
the
prison of the material world.
It is
important to treat Suhrawardi's narratives and
their peculiar
ishraqi
literary style as part and parcel
doctrine.
Whereas
in
the
Philosophy
Illumination he offers the doctrinal analysis of

thought,
in
his
Persian
writings
he
of the
is
of
ishraqi
disclosing
the
practical aspect of his ishraqi doctrine without which his

theosophical
system would not be complete.
epistemological
wisdom
that
doctrine
is
and
demonstrate
system ultimately
attained
that
in
his
is
relies
through
precisely
mystical
Suhrawardi's
on
the
type of
practicing
the
ishraqi
what
he
narratives.
is
trying
In
fact,
to
his
instructions for the attainment of truth in his other works

are even more direct and specific.
They range from diet to
how one should stay up all night.

He begins by explaining the necessary conditions for
following
prevent
the path toward the truth and obstacles
the
seeker
from doing
so.
To put this
which
in the
language of modern epistemology, Suhrawardi discusses the a

priori and innate faculties that are potentially capable of
attaining the truth and demonstrates how "Noumena" may not
be
disclosed
if
sense
perception
is
to
be
mediator
between
subject and object.
Risalat al-Tair provides
crucial
link in the exposition of Suhrawardi's theory of
knowledge and spiritual discipline as a mode of cognition.
9.
AWAZ-I PAR-I JIBRA>IL (THESOUND OF GABRIEL*S WTNGf :
This most esoteric
work is about a seeker of truth
who
goes to a khaniaah
(Sufi house) which has two doors,
one
facing the
gone
to
the
city andthe other one the desert.
desert,
he meets
Having
ten spiritual masters
and
questions them in regards to the mystery of creation, the

stages of the path, and the dangers therein.
The conversation which follows
reveals the essential
elements of the ishraqi doctrine and the initiation rite

which
is necessary
if one is to understand the
knowledge of the Qurân.
esoteric
Awazi par-i Jibra* il has come to
be known as a classical work of Persian literature. 69

this
highly
symbolic
work
Suhrawardi
discusses
essential elements of his theosophical epistemology.
In
the
There
he states:
Most things that your sense perception observes
are all from the chant of Gabriel's wings. 70.
In this most esoterically oriented treatise, he makes
full
use
of
the
traditional
symbolism
of
gnosis
and
number cf other symbols which are uniquely employed by him

and
cannot
be
found
in
the
classical
Persian
Sufi
literature.
The
thrust
of
the
work
is
stated
in
the
beginning:
...AbuÂli Farmadi, peace be upon him, was asked,
s,how is it that those who are clothed in dark
call certain sounds the sound of Gabriel's wing?"
He replied, "know that most things that your
faculties observe are from the sound of Gabriel's
wing." 22=.
One
can
presence,
is
say that the entire theory of knowledge by
which is the core of Suhrawardi's epistemology,
stated
in
this
mystical
tale.
Suhrawardi
in
metaphorical language provides us with a map of developing

a faculty within us that is capable of gaining knowledge
directly and without mediation.
Relying on the traditional
symbolism of Sufi poetry and prose,
Suhrawardi elaborates
on
between
the
contention
that
exists
empiricism,
rationalism and the gnostic mode of cognition.
10.
CAOL-I SURKH ''THE RED INTELLECT) :
In the
Red
Intellect. 72
the story begins with
the
question of whether birds understand each other's language.

The eagle,
who
the hunters
initially says yes,
and her eyes were
was later captured by
closed only to be
opened
later gradually. The eagle meets a red-faced man who claims

to
be
the
signifies
first
the
man
divine
who
was
created.
intellect and
The
red
color
is the reason why
appears both young and old at the same time.
he
He is old in
that he represents the perfect man who existed in the state

of perfection before the creation 73 in the form of the
archetype of man,
and he is young since divine light has
illuminated his being and thereby he is
"born again"
by
becoming illuminated.
Suhrawardi then uses the Zoroastrian symbolism of the
Oaf
mountain,
the
story
of
Zal,
Rustam
and
heroes as exemplified in the Shahnameh. 74
other
epic
Oaf is the name
of the mountain on whose peak Griffin (Simurgh), the symbol

of divine essence,
resides.
Zal, who was born with white
hair representing wisdom and purity, was left at the bottom

of
the
Oaf mountain.
Simurgh took Zal to his nest and
raised him until he grew up and married Tahmineh from whom

Rustam was born. Rustam, the hero of Shahnameh who often is
perceived
as the soul
of epic Persia,
ultimately
overcome his
author
Shahnameh. emphasizes
of
own ego.
is a man who has
Whereas
the
epic
Ferduwsi,
the
and historical
aspects of the Persian methodology, Suhrawardi focuses on

the mystical and esoteric connotations of them.
In
this
work
Suhrawardi's
theory
of
knowledge
is
expressed in a symbolic language similar to that of Awaz-i

3
Par-i
brings
Jibrail.
forth
Using
some
of
new
the
philosophy and mysticism,
classical
issues
Suhrawardi
of
Islamic
such as the distinction between
the particular human rational

"minor intellect",
set of symbols,
faculty which he calls the
fcAal-i Jozî^ and the Intellect which
he calls "major intellect",
fÂcrl-i Kolli). In doing so he
relies heavily on Zoroastrian symbolism and sources

ancient Persia.
from
It is precisely the interaction between
the minor and major intellect that is the basis upon which
one can gain knowledge within different domains.
Like other works of a theosophical nature, Suhrawardi
hides his theory of knowledge behind a maze of myth and
symbols which can only be disclosed if one is familiar with
the traditional
symbols
in
sacred symbolism.
greater
detail
We
shall
(chapter
study these
5)
and
his
epistemological system which can be extracted from them.
11.
RUZI BA JAMA*ATI SUPIYAN (A DAY AMONG THE SUFIS ) ; 75
The story begins
in a khanaaah. where the disciples
speak of the status of their masters and their views with

regard to creation.
Suhrawardi,
who speaks as a master,
objects to such questions which merely seek to explain the

nature of the universe and the structure of the heavens.
Suhrawardi considers them to be shallow and maintains that
there
are
those
who
see
the
appearance
and
those
who
understand the science of the heavens.

Finally, there are those who attain the mastery of the
celestial
world
who
are
the
true
men
of
knowledge-
Suhrawardi then goes on to give specific instructions which

are essential in actualizing the power of the faculty which
82
enables men to understand things without mediation.
As he
states:
All that is dear to you, property, furniture and
worldly pleasures and such things... (throw them
away)... if this prescription is followed, then
the vision will be illuminated. 76
Amidst
a mixture of myth,
Islamic metaphysics,
on
the
relationship
esoteric
knowledge
symbolism and traditional
Suhrawardi continues to put emphasis

between
and
pursuing
the
the
practicing
attainment
of
of
asceticism.
Practicing asceticism will open the inner eye, which for

Suhrawardi is the mode of cognition that is essential if
one
is
Islam.
to
gain
knowledge
According
possible
when
to
of
the
esoteric
Suhrawardi,then,
empiricism
and
true
rationalism
dimension
of
knowledge
is
end.
As
he
states:
...once the inner eye opens, the exterior eye
ought to be closed.
Lips must be sealed and the
five
external
senses
should
be silenced.
Interior senses should begin to function so the
person, if he _attains anything, does so with the
inner being (Batin), and if he sees, he sees with
the inner eye, and if he hears, he hears with the
inner ear... Therefore, when asked what would one
see, (the answer of the inner self is) it sees
what it sees and what it ought to see. 77
Therefore,
closure
of
the
five
external
senses
for
Suhrawardi is a necessary condition for the opening of the

internal
senses that are essential for the attainment of
the truth.
This
spiritual
work
path
alludes
and how
to
the
different
spiritual
stages
elite
purity of heart and clarity of vision.
of
can
the
achieve
In this work, he
describes his conversations with a group of Sufis and what

their Masters have told them regarding the attainment of
truth and how Suhrawardi's vision compares with theirs.
This brief work contains some important references to
allegorical
and
metaphorical
concepts
and
how
different
stages of the spiritual path can be described through them.

In
this
highly
symbolic
work,
the
relationship
between
one's purity of heart and the degree to which one can gain
knowledge is discussed.
Also, it is in this work that the
relationship
asceticism
between
and
epistemology
is
discussed by employing Sufi symbolism.
12.
RISAIAH
FT
HALAT
AL-TUFULIYAH
CON
THE
STATE
OF
CHILDHOODS:
In this work, A Treatise on the State of Childhood.78

Suhrawardi describes having met a master who reveals the
divine secret to him and he in turn disclosed them to the
men
of
''casting
alludes
exoteric
pearl
to
the
nature.
before
the
difficulty
The
master
swine". 79
of
punishes
him
Suhrawardi
communicating
the
also
esoteric
message to those who stand outside of the tradition.

Sophia Perennis is attained through
for
.Since
other means than sense
perception,
it is difficult to communicate this mode
of
knowledge to others who may not be ready and equipped to

receive it.
The
Salik, then,
having
repented,
finds
the master
who tells him a number of secrets such as, the ethics of

the spiritual path and the rituals that are involved in the
sufi path such as Sama * (sufi dancing).
many
fine mystical
points
reveals
The exposition of
Suhrawardi*s
thorough
familiarity with the intricacies of the Sufi path.

Suhrawardi expresses this in a symbolic conversation
between a bat and a salamander whose passage through fire
is supposed to have protected him against all harms.
The
bat is describing the pleasure of drinking cold water in

the middle
from
of. winter,
cold.
interpretation
while the
Each
of
one
"cold
salamander is suffering
could
water"
in
provide
accordance
different
to
their
knowledge with experience.

So
esoteric
far,
Suhrawardi
instructions
has
needed
drawn
an
outline
of
the
for a seeker to pursue the
path of spirituality, which begins by an inner yearning and

continues with ascetic practices under the guidance of a
master.
This rather traditional path that Suhrawardi has
pointed out through the use of so many myths and symbols

has been the cornerstone
of Sufism since
its beginning.
The specific difference between what Suhrawardi advocates

and the views of other masters of the Sufi tradition is the
element
of
illuminationist
knowledge
which
is part
and
parcel of the ishraqi school.

This
book
intends
to
illustrate
the
spiritual
path
and the journey of seeker (Salik) from its beginning, which

Suhrawardi
symbolically
significance
of
having
identifies
a
as
childhood.
spiritual master
to
avoid
The
the
dangers on the path, as well as different stages of inner

developments, are among some of the issues that Suhrawardi
accounts for.
Once again, a practical guide as to how the
spiritual path has to be pursued
constitutes the core of
the teachings of this book.
13.
RISALAH FI HAOIOAT AL-ISHO fTREATISE ON THE REALITY OF

LOVE):
This work of Suhrawardi not only represents the most

sublime sample of Persian literature, but it also contains
some of the profoundest philosophical views of Suhrawardi.
He begins by quoting a verse from the Quran and then goes
on to talk about knowledge and its relationship with the
Intellect.
Know that the first thing God, praise be upon him
created was a luminous pearl called Intellect
(VAgl). God first created Intellect and gave it
three features:
knowledge of God, knowledge of
self and knowledge of that which was not and then
w a s . 80
This treatise reaches its climax when Suhrawardi,
in
the sixth chapter, offers a spiritual map of the universe.

It has been argued that this work was written on the basis
of Ibn Sina's Risalat al-cisha.8l
However,
it has to be
noted that this work is different both in form and content.

Since the rest of Suhrawardi's works in Persian contain the
same elements as the other works which we have considered,
I will
not
expound upon them,
although in our
study
of
Suhrawardi's epistemology frequent references will be made

to them.
Oulub
Such works include
(Garden
of
the
Bustan al-Oulub or Rawzat al-
Hearts) .
82
which
is
a . more
philosophically oriented work in which Suhrawardi addresses

such issues as metaphysics,
space, time and motion.
This
work, along with Yazdan Shinakht ( Knowing the Divined. are

both written in the style of the Peripatetics and not only
contain
philosophy,
discussion
of
the
classical
problems
of
but also occasional discussions in regards to
the theosophist's mode of knowing.

Finally,
in his
book
Language of
the
Termites. 83
Suhrawardi describes the nature of the knowledge needed to

come to know God, self and the creation as one that "they
[Peripatetics] all disagree upon as long as the veil is not
removed
and
knowledge
by
presence is
Once this knowledge is attained,

(Jam'i JaitO is attained.
not
attained". 84
then the "crystal ball"
Therefore, "whatever you want can
be studied and you become conscious of the universe and the

unseen world". 85
14.
AL-WARIDAT WA jL-TAODX SAT
Finally, one has to mention prayers and supplications

which
Shahrazuri
calls al-Wariaat wal-Taqdisat. that
written entirely in an esoteric form.

to
their
devotional
nature,
are
are
These writings, due

distinct
from
other
writings of Suhrawardi both in terms of form and content.

Despite
their
Suhrawardi* s
significance
angelology,
attention
they
deserve.
describes
the
relationship
FOR
they
In
the
have
these
OF
the
formulation
not
received
writings
planets
the
Suhrawardi
and
their
characteristics with that of the inner forces of man.

praise
whose
of
the great Luminous
power
and
glory
demand
Being
(al-Nawir
submission,
of
His
al-at zam^
addressing the
heavenly sun Hurakhsh, as well as the relationship between

the
Zoroastrian angels and spiritual entities,
are among
the issues that Suhrawardi discusses in these works.

It is important for the reader of Suhrawardi not to
view
his
rather
as
writings
an
as
isolated
and
separated books,
interrelated and elaborate set of ideas
but
in
which every part can only be properly understood in regard

to the whole while the whole derives its validity from its
parts.
15.
CONCLUSION:
In
the
foregoing
Suhrawardi's works,
has been presented.
d i s c ussion,
both the doctrinal
summary
of
and the esoteric,
I argued that since Suhrawardi wrote
the majority of his works in a period of a few years, the

distinction of "early" and "later" works cannot be made in
regards to these works.
paradigm,
are
not
His thoughts, all of which form a
systematic
if
viewed
individually.
However, if they are viewed in their totality, they form a

consistent and coherent philosophical system within which
various truth claims become valid and meaningful.
A
with
close
study
of
Suhrawardi's writings
emphasis upon their epistemological
in Persian,
aspect,
reveals
the existence of a theory of knowledge generally known as "

Knowledge
by
intertwined
Presence"
and
fal-cilm
elaborate
web
al-hu d u r i l .
of myth
and
The
symbolism
in
Suharawrdi's philosophy intends to articulate
this most
important
school
and
fundamental
subject
in
ishraqi
of
thought.
Suhrawardi,
therefore,
who
claims
to
have
first
discovered the truth and then embarked on a path to find

the rational basis of his experiential wisdom, represents a
thinker
whose
successful
rapprochement
between
rational
discourse and purification as a means of attaining truth

resulted in the emergence of the school of ishraq.
It is
clear that, as philosophy for Suhrawardi plays a different

role than theosophy,
so does the means by which one comes
traditions of wisdom for Suhrawardi are not only different

in their form and content but also originate from two
sources as well.
Before embarking on an attempt to offer an analysis of
Suhrawardi's philosophical views in the following chapter,
it is necessary to explain the distinction Suhrawardi makes
between philosophy and hikmat.
Without a clear
understanding of this distinction, it is difficult to

demonstrate how philosophy and hikmat are ultimately
synthesized into one united school of thought, namely
ishracr.
90
PART TWO:
HIKMAT VERSUS PHILOSOPHY
Suhrawardi makes a distinction between
philosophy and
hikmat which is crucial in the understanding of not only

Ishraqi doctrine but also the Post-Suhrawardian philosophy,
especially in Persia and the Indian sub-continent.
If it was Spinoza who said "God is not so mindless as
to create a two legged creature and leave it to Aristotle
to make him rational", Suhrawardi would add "and to make
Aristotle the only gate through which truth can be
attained".
This is because Suhrawardi neither considers
Aristotle to be
the founder of rationality nor can the
type of wisdom he advocates lead to truth. As S.H. Nasr

states:
He [Suhrawardi] believed that this wisdom is

universal and Perennial, the philosophia perennis
and universalis, which existed in various forms
among the ancient Hindus, Persians,Babylonians
and Egyptians and among the Greeks up to the time
of Aristotle, who for Suhrawardi was not the
beginning but rather the end of philosophy among
the Greeks who terminated this tradition of
wisdom by limiting it to its rationalistic
aspect. 86
This is not to say that Suhrawardi opposed a rational

approach to philosophical issues, nor was he "antiphilosophy", as Ghazzali and some other Sufi's were.
In
fact, reasoning and independent judgment are an essential
part of any inquiry upon which one should rely. On this he

states:
Do not follow me or anybody else and know that
the only criterion is reason. 87
Therefore, philosophical speculation for Suhrawardi is

important, but it originates from a faculty that is
distinct from the Intellect.
Suhrawardi goes so far as to
categorize different people to the extent to which they

have achieved mastery of philosophy and hikmat.
His
classifications go as follows:
1-
Those who have mastered theosophy but are not well

versed in discursive reasoning,
(i.e. Bayazid,
Kharraqani)
2-
Those who have mastered discursive reasoning but yet

lack theosophical inclination (i.e. Farabi)
3-
Those who have mastered both discursive reasoning and

theosophy are the perfect philosophers and are
entitled to be the "vice-regent of God" (khalifat alAllah)
While it is clear that Suhrawardi recommends the study
of the Peripatetic philosophy, especially in the alTalwihat.

and al-Mashartc Weilmutarahat.
88 he keeps the
. discursive philosophy in perspective.Having defended

discursive philosophy as a prerequisite to the
understanding of ishraq. Suhrawardi then tells us of the
unique characteristics of the type of wisdom that he is
propagating.
He considers himself to be the unifier of
what he calls " al-Hikmat al-ladunivahn . (Divine Wisdom).

As to the source of this wisdom he
argues :
And the light of the path which stretches into

the past is the substance of Pythagoras...and was
sent down upon Tustari_and his followers. The
substance of Khosrawanian (wisdom) has been sent
down to Bastami . ,
Sayyar and Kharraqani.89
Therefore, Suhrawardi is arguing that, while
philosophy hikmat issue forth from the same source, they
nevertheless are distinct in that philosophy is
necessary
condition and theosophy the sufficient condition for the

attainment of truth.
90.
The historical process by which
Suhrawardi considers hikmat to have been transmitted can be

demonstrated as the following:
HERMES
Agathedemon (Seth)
Asclepius
Persian Priest-
Pythagoras
King
Empedocles
Kayumarth
Plato (and neoPlatonists)
Faridun
D h u 11-nun al-Misri
Kai Khusraw
al-Bastami
Abu Yazid
Abu Sahl al-Tustari
Abu-Hassan
Kharraqani
SUHRAWARDI
Suhrawardi, therefore, as the unifier of different

traditions of wisdom who seek certainty, has considered
philosophy and theosophy to be two branches of wisdom, each
of which is suitable for a purpose.
Truth for Suhrawardi
ultimately should rely on knowledge that is attained

through illumination, while it has to correspond to and
survive the scrutiny of logic and rational reasoning.
On the relationship between philosophy and hikmat.
Suhrawardi in the introduction to the Philosophy of
Illumination states:
...but that this book is of a different
methodology, and a path (of truth) that is nearer
than the other one(discursive). ...Its truth and
other enigmas first did not come to me through
thinking or discourse but its attainment was of a
different nature. Finally, when I attained the

truth, I questioned its rationale in such a way
that if I had discarded the reasoning (behind
them) , no doubt would have come upon me. 91
Suhrawardi claims to have first discovered the truth
which he calls hikmat. and then he embarked on a path to
find the rational basis of his experiential wisdom. It is
certain that
philosophy in Suhrawardi's thought plays a
different role from theosophy, and so does the means by

which one comes to attain mastery of each type of wisdom.
These two traditions of wisdom for the master of ishrag are
not only different in their form and their content but also
originate from two different sources as well.
Finally, something should be said with regard to the
conditions which Suhrawardi sets if one is to have an
experience of illumination which lies at the heart of
hikmat.
Suhrawardi, throughout his Persian works and in
particular in the beginning and the end of hikmat alishrag, offers advice as to how one can understand the
science of illumination fîlm al-ishraal .

He argues that his views can be verified only by those
who have been initiated into the science of ishrag through
a spiritual master who has become the vicegerent of God on
earth (khalifat al-allah1
). 92
On this he states:
Of course, it is not feasible for one who has not

referred to a sage who is the vicegerent (of God)'
and possesses the knowledge of this book, to gain
access to the secrets of this science and wisdom
of illumination. 93
Often Suhrawardi is more explicit in his instructions

94 and considers Hikmat al-ishraq to be a blueprint for
those who wish to have an experience of illumination and
understand hikmat on an existential level.
What is
important here is to realize the importance of asceticism

to the ishraqi doctrine as a whole, even though this is
contrary to some of the later interpreters 95 of Suhrawardi
who put more emphasis on his intellectual and philosophical
aspects.
E N D NOTES:
CHAPTER 2
1-
For more information see: Corbin,H. 1' Archange

empourpree. Paris, Fayand 1976.
2-
For more information on this fine translation of

Corbin see: Corbin,H. le l i v r e d e la saqesse orientale
by Shihaboddin Yahya Sohrawardi, traduction et notes
par by H. Corbin,*pub.Verdier, Paris, 1986.
3-
Thackston, has also translated part of the 17th _

century Persian translation of the Nuzhat al-arwah by
Ali Tabrizi into English. See: Mystical and Visionary
Treatises of Suhrawardi. London: the Octagon Press,
1982, pp.1-4- This translation is based on the
partial translation of S.H. Nasr in the Opera 3,
pp.13-30.
4-
Thackston*s translation of Suhrawardi is generally

criticized by the scholars of Suhrawardi. It is based
on the text which is edited by Spies and this is a not
a good edition of Suhrawardi. Also, the literary
style of Thankston does not do justice to the
beautiful writings of Suhrawardi in Persian.
5-
For more information on L. Massignon's classification

see: Recueil de textes ineditsconcernant l'histoire de
la mystique en pavsd*Islam, (paris, 1929), p.113.
6-
For S.H. Nasr's classification see Three Muslim

Sages,pp.58. For H.Corbins classification see:
Prolgmena ,Opera 1, 16ff
7-
S.H. Nasr argues that on the basis of the unity of

<
style between the Bustan al-Ouluband
his other works
it can be concluded that this work does belong to
Suhrawardi himself. For more discussion on this see:
M.M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, p.375.
and the Introduction to Opera 3, p.40.
8-
S.H. Nasr, Three Muslim Sages, p.150., No.16
910-
Ibid, p.58.
The_invocations and_prayers have been published in M.
Mo'in, Maiala-vi Amuzish wa parvarish.Ministry of
Education Press. Tehran No.2, 1924, p.5ff
11-
Opera 1, Introduction, p.194.
12-
Opera
1, Introduction, p.124.
97
13-
O p e r a 2, p . 10.
14-
Operal, p.192. 194. 361.
15-
Suhrawardi, Kalimat al-tasawwuf. in Se Risalah az

Shikhe Ishrag. ed. Najaf quli Habibi,Imperial Iranian
Academy of Philosophy, 1977 p.117.
16-
Ibid, p.74.
17-
Suhrawardi in the introduction to the Philosophy of

Illumination. indicates that some of the treatises and
philosophical works which he has composed prior to
this work belong to his youth. This means that the
Philosophy of Illumination is a work that belongs to
the later period in his life.
18-
For more information on this see: Habibi, Najafqoli,

Se Risalah az Shaikh Ishrag. Imperial Academy of
Philosophy Press, Tehran.
1975
19-
Ibid, Introduction, p .10.
20 -
Opera 1, Introduction, p.17.
21
This is a philosophical principle that is generally

regarded by most of the Muslim philosophers to be
axiomatic.
22 -
Opera 1, p.12.
23-
For a discussion on this see; al-Talwihat. Opera 1,

pp.1-12.
24-
For more_ discussion on this see Syyed _Jalal _

Ashtiyani's__commentary on: Lahiji j_'Risalah Nuriyah dar
Alam-i mithal", Maiilla-vi illahivat wa m a carif-i
Islami, Mashhad University, Mashhad, Iran- 1972
25-
For more discussion on this see: Opera 1, p.34ff
26-
Opera 1, p.70.
27-
Ibid, Sec.55, p.70.
28-
Three Muslim Sages, p.62.
29-
For more information on this see: Ziai, H . ,

Suhrawardi*s Philosophy of Illumination. Diss. Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass 1976, pp.12-16.
98
30-
Opera 1, p.484.
31 -
Ibid, p.124.
32-
Ibid, p.192.
33-
Ibid, p.195.
34-
Ibid, 1, Sec.7
35-
Ibid, sec. 7
36-
Ibid, p.494.
37-
H. Ziai in his work Philosophy of Illumination, also

demonstrates the relationship between the semantical
structure of language in relation to Suhrawardi's
thought.
For more information on Suhrawardi's use of
language see: Bylebyl, Michael. The Wisdom of
Illumination: A Study of the Prose Stories of
Suhrawardi. Ph.D. Diss., University of Chicago, 1976
and also Tehrani, Kazem. Mystical Symbolism in Four
Treatises of Suhrawardi. Diss., Columbia University,
1974.
38-
Ibid
39-
Opera 1, p.334.
40-
Opera 2, p.403.
41 -
S.H. Nasr "The Relationship Between Sufism and

Philosophy in Persian Culture", Hamdard Islamicus.
vol.6, No.4, 1983. pp.33-47.
42-
Opera 2, p.11.
43-
Harawis commentary, Anwarivah.is particularly

interesting because there he has done an ishraai
reading of Hindu philosophy, that can be regarded as a
text on comparative philosophy.
44-
Opera 2, Introduction , p.21.
45-
For more_information on this see: W. Chittick, Jalal

al-Din Rumi. The Path of Love: the Spiritual Teachings
of Rumi. New York state University Press, 1983.
p.19.
<
46-
One can put such philosophers as M. Heidegger, and

Wittgenstein in a dialogue with Suhrawardi on the
concept of language and its failure to fully disclose
certain issues. Whereas Heidegger argues that Being
can only be "experienced", Wittgenstein maintains that
issues which are experiential in nature cannot be
fully disclosed through language, e.g. Aesthetic
appreciation, religious experience, etc. For more
information on Heidegger's and Wittgenstein's views
on this matter see: Heidegger, H. Poetry.Language,
Thought. Translation and introduction by A.
Hofstadter, 1971 and L. Wittgenstein's later works,
especially Lectures andConversations
on Aesthetic,
Psychology and Religious Belief. ,Ed. by C. Barrett,
University of California, Berkeley 1969.
47-
Opera 2, pp.18-21.
48-
Ibid
pp.97-187.
49-
For more information on the influence of Suhrawardi on

young philosophers see: The introduction by Christian
Jambet to the le livre de la saqesse orientale by
Shihaboddin Yahya SohrawardI, traduction et notes par
by H. Corbin, pub. Verdier, Paris, 1986.
50-
Ibn_Sina, al-Shifa': Kitab al-Nafs. ch.6 and alIsharat wal-Tanbihat. last chapter.
51-
Opera 3, p.60.
52-
By Batini. commentators of Suhrawardi are_ referring to

the Ismaicilis who have used the word Havakil
extensively to discuss various aspects of Ismai4li
gnosis. For more_information see: S.J. Sajadi, Shahab
al-Din Suhrawardi wa Savri dar Falsafah Ishrag. Tehran
1984
53-
For more information on Suhrawardi's emphasis on

"seven bodies" see: Sajjadi, S.J., Suhrawardi wa Savri dar falsafah-vi Ishrag. Falsafah Press, Tehran,
1985.
54-
Opera 3, p.84.
55-
Ibid, p. 110.
56-
Ibid, P.184.
57-
Suhrawardi often refers to the famous Quranic verse

that equates God with Light within a niche. See:
Quran,XXIV,35
100
58-
Opera 3, p.110.
59-
Ferdouwsi, Abolqasim, Book of the Kings. 1965
60-
Nasr,S.H. Intr. to Opera 3, p.45.
61-
Opera 3, P.198.
62-
Ibid, p.199.
63-
This is a hadith by the prophet of Islam. Suhrawardi

has used this hadith in various places to argue for
the doctrine that "spiritual death" is the necessary
condition for "spiritual birth".
64-
Opera 3, p.395.
65-
Ibid, p.198.
66-
Ibid, p.200.
67-
Ibid, p.202.
68-
Ibid, pp.198-205.
69-
Numerous commentaries
the most famous of which is by an unknown author who
lived in India around 15th_century. For more
information see: "Sharh-i awaz-i par-i Jibri?il", ed.
M. Qasemi in M a carif. 1(1984) March-May
70-
Opera 3, p.209.
71-
Opera 3, pp.208-209.
72-
Opera 3, pp.242.
73-
Ibid, p.228.
74-
Suhrawardi has_ employed the symbolism that Ferdouwsi

has used in Shahnameh to formulate his angelology.
There are those who argue Shahnameh is a profoundly
mystical work and make an esoteric reading of this
book.
75-
Opera 3, p.242.
76-
Ibid, p.248.
77-
Ibid, p.249.
101
78-
Opera3, p.252.
79-
This saying of Christ from an ishraai point of view

alludes to the esoteric knowledge that should not be
revealed to the initiates.
80-
Opera 3, p.208-209.
81-
Nasr, S.H. Three Muslim Sages, p.59.
82-
Nasr, S.H. in Opera 3, page 55, indicated that this

work has been attributed to a number of_people__such as
Seyyed-i Gorgani, Ibn Sina, Khwajeh Nasir al-din alTusI, Baba Afzal-i Kashani and finally cAyn al-Quzate
Hamedani. However, it is his opinion that on the
basis of the form and content of the book it belongs
to Suhrawardi.
83-
Opera 3, p.297-299.
84-
Ibid, p.297.
85-
Ibid, p.298.
36-
Nasr, S.H.. Three Muslim Saaes, o.61.
87-
Opera 1, p.140.
88-
Ibid, p.194.
89-
Ibid, p.195.
90-
Ibid, p.18.
91-
Opera 2, p.403.
92-
H. Zia i in his article "The Source a

Political Authority in Suhrawardi's Philosophy of
Illumination1' (proceedings of Conference on the
Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, ed. by
Butterworth 1988) considers it to be the basis for
Suhrawardi's political theory and the reason for his
death.
93-
Opera 2, p.403.
94-
For example in Opera 2, P.403. he states that a

particular diet_is necessary before one can understand
the hikmat ishrag and he goes on to spell out what
this*diet ought to be in various places towards the
end of this book.
102
95-
Some of the contemporary interpreters of Suhrawardi

such as Mehdi Ha'ri have argued that ishraai doctrine
emphasizes the attainment of truth only through having
an intellectual vision. This is contrary to the view
of those such as S.H. Nasr who have argued asceticism
is as much a part of ishraai doctrine as the
intellectual issues are.
CHAPTER
A SURVEY OF SUHRAWARDI *S PHII-OSOPHICAL VIEWS
The objective of this chapter is not to provide an indepth study of Suhrawardi's philosophical views,
since to
do so for even one aspect of his philosophy would require a

separate work.
a general
What is intended here instead is to provide
analysis
of
those
philosophical
elements
from
which his "Philosophical Epistemology" has been developed.

In
particular,
his
ontological
views,
as
expressed
in
philosophically coherent concepts, will be analyzed since

they
serve
as
the
foundation
upon
which
his
ideas
or
theories on metaphysics, logic, and, finally, epistemology

are
established.
discuss
those
Therefore,
issues
which
in
what
underly
follows,
the
will
epistemology
of
Suhrawardi.
Various
single
view are scattered throughout his works.
necessitates
then
of Suhrawardi's arguments that pertain to a
proceed
concentrate
that
I first
to
on
analyze
his
reconstruct his
them.
main
work,
In
so
the
3.
arguments
doing,
Philosophy
Illumination, since according to Suhrawardi himself,
This
and
will
of
this
work is a perfect representation of his philosophical and

theosophical views.
104
1.
ONTOLOGY
Suhrawardi's ontology marks a beginning in the history

of Islamic philosophy in that Ibn Sinian ontology which was
based
upon
the
gradations
of
"Being",
was
Suhrawardi to a radation based upon "light".
changed
by
Therefore,
the centrality and principiality of light must be accepted

if
one
is
to
understand
the
subsequent
issues
which
Suhrawadri discusses in light of that.

Suhrawardi
ways.
arrives at his ontology of light
First, he gives us philosophical arguments to prove
the axiomatic nature of light

most
in two
obvious
of
all things
by saying that light is the

and
that everything else
is
defined in terms of it.

Furthermore,
he
states
that
light
is the necessary
condition for things to be observed and therefore,
it is
light and not being that should constitute an ontology.

On a more profound level, however, Suhrawardi argues that
the principiality of light and its ontological significance
came to him first through ishraai means.
In the Hikmat alm
ishrag he says:
The issues and truths therein fHikmat al-ishraal
first came to me not through rational inquiry,
but their attainment was through a different
means.
Finally, after understanding them, I
sought their rational basis in a way that if I
ignore them, nothing can make me doubt their
validity. 2
105
It
is
concerning
therefore
imperative
Suhrawardi*s
that
in
ontology one has
any
discussion
to
realize the
underlying vision for the principiality of such an ontology

and
the
role that
philosophical
it plays
issues
in the
and
the
analysis
of
formulation
various
of
his
epistemological theory.
A.
EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE:
Suhrawardi*s view on essence and existence is directly

related to his epistemology,
be
known
through
the
since for him essence cannot
senses
but
faculty to gain cognition of it.

he
takes
different
It is on this point that
issue with the Peripatetics by arguing that an
existing
being
accident.
must
requires
is
not
just
an
essence,
existence
and
If this is the case, then one of the following
be
the
essence.
principal
The
element:
accident,
existence
or
first one cannot be true since accidental
qualities of things change and therefore cognition on that

basis is not possible.
other two options.
existence
senses,
and,
nor
Accordingly, we are left with the
The problem, however, is that neither
essence
therefore,
can
be
either
understood
there
through
exists
the
faculty
besides the sense perception that is able to understand, or

we can never know anything, which is absurd.
106
It must be acknowledged that Suhrawardi clearly stated

that to know something is to know its essence and not its
existence-
Let us now see how Suhrawardi argues for this
position and what are its ishraqi implications.

Contrary
that
to
existence
reality
or
the
is
Peripatetics,
mere
concept
manifestation.
principiality
of
distinguishes
him
essence
Suhrawardi
3.
and
His
fasalat
from most
has
maintains
no
external
argument
for
a 1- m a h i w a h ) ,
of the
Muslim
the
which
Philosophers,
undermines the role of existence as that which constitutes

the identity of things.
In the Philosophy of Illumination
4. he argues that all beings exist equally and it is not the

case that some existent beings exist more than others and
this indicates that existence has a universal nature.
From
this it follows that "existence" is only a mental concept

and has no actual existence.
"whiteness"
universal
or
If "existence" were not pure
"sweetness",
concept,
but
then
it
it would be
would
not
be
a particular.
That
means every existing being would have its own particular

existence.
Suhrawardi seems to argue that if this be the
case then this
"particular existence" would be equivalent
to the essence of the thing.

existence
are
existence
cannot exist.
that
existence
different,
is
Therefore, since essence and
such
thing
From this,
purely mental
particular essence has
as
particular
Suhrawardi concludes
concept,
whereas
the
an actual existence which makes a
107
white or black object to be white or black.
On this he
states:
Attribution of existence to blackness, essence,
man and horses are regarded to be the same, and
therefore, the concept of existence is a concept
that is more universal than each of them.
The
same is true of the concept of essence in its
absolute sense and the concept of truth and the
nature
of beings
in their absolute sense.
Therefore,
we
claim
that
such categories
(existence and universal essence) are pure mental
concepts since if we
(assume) that existence
consists only of pure blackness, necessarily the
same will not hold true with whiteness and
(together) cannot include whiteness and essence. 5.
Suhrawardi
goes
on
to
further
argue
for
the
principiality of essence by concluding the following:
1-
Existent objects and existence are two separate

things.
2-
Existence can be conceived only in respect to an

existing being.
3-
Existent beings precede existence in their order

of coming into existence-
Since
existence
as
universal
concept
requires
an
existent being in order for it to come into existence, and

since existent beings require an essence in order to exist,
then
essence
actualization.
must
precede
existence
in
the
order
of
In other words, since essence is needed for
an existent being to exist and existence is contingent upon
an existent being,
then existence is contingent upon the
essence.
To support the above conclusions,
two types
of arguments,
Suhrawardi follows
both of which are based on the
impossibility of the existence of an infinite succession of

contingent dependent beings.
exist if and only if
He argues that existence can
existent objects exist.
He states
this in a very complicated argument which is as follows:

If we say whenever something that is non
existent,
its existence is necessarily notactualized, then its existence is non-existent.
This is because with the assumption that its
existence is non-existent, whenever we conceive
of existence and say that it does exist, it
becomes necessary that the concept of existence
be different from the existent object. 6
In
this
complicated
and
short
argument
Suhrawardi
seeks to demonstrate that existence has no actual reality

and as a concept it is contingent upon the existence of the
existent objects and therefore its presence is derived from
the existence of the existent objects.
further
be
clarified
if
stated
His argument can

in
the
following
demonstrative and syllogistical form:

1-
If P does not exist, then necessarily it is non

existent.
2-
IfP.
is
necessarily
non-existent,
then
its
existence does not exist.

:.3-
If
exist.
does not exist, then its existence does not

(F,1&2)
109
:.4-
Existence and existing objects are two separate

things-
Although
(premise #1)
be
it
(F, 3 &4)
is not clear why in the above argument
Suhrawardi considers a non-existent being to
necessarily
remains valid.
non-existent
nevertheless
his
argument
Finally, he maintains that existence as a
pure mental concept is contingent upon the essence,

it
is
the
object.
essence
which
constitutes
the
identity
since
of an
This is an argument for the principiality of the
essence fasalat al-mahiwah)
which became the basis of the
ishraai doctrine.
Suhrawardi's second argument for the principiality of
the
essence
rests
on
the
impossibility that the chain

on ad infinitum.
law
of causality
and
the
of cause and effect could go
In regard to this he states:
Therefore,
if we
saythat what
we assumed not to
exist came into existence and the existence of
that which was not
and then was created,
we
realize that coming into being is different from
existence.
It becomes necessary that existence
should have existence and we have to define
existence by existence, and this continues ad
infinitum. [It wasstated that]
an infinite
succession of beings is impossible.7
In
the
above,
Suhrawardi
argues
that
if
existence
actually existed like a table or any other object and yet

was different from essence, then this existence must exist.
In
other
words,if we
take existence
from the domain
of
110
being
purely mental
concept to the
realm
of
actual
existence then "existence" becomes an existent object.

this be the case,
"existences",
If
then we have a succession of infinite
each of which is the existence for another
existence which in turn should be regarded as its essence,

since a thing is made up of an essence and an existence.
This,
according
to
Suhrawardi,
is
absurd
and
therefore
cannot be true.
From
infinite
the
above
succession
it
follows,
as
defined
Suhrawardi:s argument is valid.
if
we
above
grant
is
that
false,
an
then
However, one can raise the
objection that existence or any other mental concept has to

have an
existential
cause.
In other words,
even
if we
assume that "existence" as Suhrawardi indicated is a pure

mental concept,
then we still face the problem of how the
concept came into existence, assuming that its existence is

a potential one and not an actual one.
The following argument can be offered in support of
this. Since every event has at least one cause and because
existence is an event, therefore it is rational to conclude
that existence, even as a "non-actual existing entity", has
to
have
cause.
The
same argument will
hold true
in
regards to its cause and that could continue ad infinitum

the
possibility
of
which
Suhrawardi
has
already
argued
against. 8.
Suhrawardi
could
reply
to
the
above
objection
by
Ill
saying that non-material entities have no cause since they

are
archetypal
entities
that
exist
by
necessity.
The
problem that arises by accepting this answer is that it

goes against Suhrawardi's most fundamental assumption that
light is the axiomatic principle by which everything else
is defined.
Let us examine this crucial point which is
essential if Suhrawardi's view of the principiality of the

essence is not to be self contradictory.
Suhrawardi,
chapters,
as
has been
maintains
that
discussed
Light
building block" of the universe.
and
in
not
the preceding
being
is
"the
However, "being" as such
is a mental concept, and therefore, has no real existence.

Therefore,
distinction
it
can
does
be
not
category of entities.
argued
hold
that
true
the
with
essence-existence
regards
to
such
The problem arises when we replace
"being" with "Light", which has an actual existence.

The question that arises at this point is that, since
all
things
have
an
essence
and
existence,
Light
which
constitutes the matrix of his ontology either must have an

essence and an existence, or its essence and existence are
the same. If Light has an actual existence, then it should
be treated as an existent object which means it must have
an essence and an existence.
This again brings us to the
same problem which Suhrawardi tries to avoid,
namely the
infinite succession of beings.

The second explanation that can be offered is to allow
112
for a category of entities whose essence and existence are

the same and that Light must be one of them.
However, we
know that when Suhrawardi refers to Light, the actual light

in the world is only a grade of the Light and since this
actual light is not pure Light, then it ought to have an
essence and an existence.
The above is a serious problem which Suhrawardi faces
in replacing "being" with "Light".
What he can say is that
light is "a thing", but since the appearance of everything

else depends on it, this sense of primacy excludes it from
being a "thing".
In fact he maintains that all things are
made up of light, the only difference is the intensity of

light or darkness.
If we take this assertion in its actual
and not metaphorical sense, it follows that there ought to

be
pure
However,
Light
the
from
which
all
things
light which appears to us
are
created.
is not a mental
concept as Suhrawardi defines "pure existence" to be.

is a problematic issue
This
in Suhrawardi's philosophy and
subject for a separate work.

In the
foregoing discussion
I have sketched a brief
outline of Suhrawardi's view of essence and existence.
have demonstrated some of the arguments that he offers for

the
principiality
of
essence.
understanding
of
his
views
consideration
of
his
esoteric
ontology.
As
we
will
on
see,
However,
this
subject
interpretation
Suhrawardi's
thorough
requires
of
view
ishraai
on
the
principiality of the essence is absolutely crucial in his

formulation
of
his
philosophical
epistemology.
This
is
because to know something is to know its essence and that

cannot be done through the senses,
see
the
appearance.
anything,
which
explanation.
is
Therefore,
absurd,
or
since senses can only

either
there
we
is
cannot
an
know
alternative
Suhrawardi tells us what this alternative is,
but before explaining it we need to become acquainted with

various elements which make up this alternative.
B.
ON NECESSARY AND CONTINGENT BEINGS;
Having
argued for the principiality of essence over
existence,
Suhrawardi goes on to argue that essence is a
necessary
being
However,
and
existence
is
contingent
upon
it.
Suhrawardi equates essence with Light, which for
him is the only Necessary Being, since all other things are
defined in terms of it and it is the antecedent condition
for any epistemic relationship to take place.
Having
contingent
argued
against
an
infinite
dependent
beings,
which
is
regress
crucial
for
of
the
validity of Suhrawardi's ontological frame work, Suhrawardi

offers
a sophisticated argument that all existent beings
are of a contingent nature, except Light. 9

To argue
two parts.
for this,
Suhrawardi offers an argument in
In the first part he argues that while no being
exists
by
necessity
(except
God),
all
beings
necessarily. His argument goes as follows:

exist
by
necessity
or
they
are
exist
Things either
contingent.
Contingent
entities exist because of the presence of their cause and,

should
their
cause
be
absent,
the
effect
entity in question, would not exist either.
which
is
the
Therefore, the
existence of existent objects is due to the existence of

their
cause,
objects,
their
and
from
this
Suhrawardi
whether they exist or not,
existence
is
contingent
concludes
that
are contingent since
upon
the
existence
of
cause.
Such
ultimate
an
argument
cause
establishes
which
exists
by
the
necessity
necessity.
everything else is of a contingent nature.
of
an
Therefore,
Establishing
the principiality of God as the ultimate cause is crucial

for
Suhrawardi
since
he
argues
that
the
nature
of
all
things is light, which is emanated by God whom he considers

to be the Light of lights.
The
second part of Suhrawardi's argument
complex one.
is a more
He states:
If, as some have assumed,

it is true that
existence excludes the contingent from its
contingency and .make it necessary,then it is
necessary that non-existing should exclude the
non-existent from non-existence and make it notpossible which means there cannot be such a thing
as contingent being. 10
Suhrawardi's
argument
maintains
that
if
that
which
1 15
comes
into
becomes
existence
necessary,
loses
then
its
by
contingent
logical
nature
and
inference
its
opposite, which is non-existent by the virtue of its non

existence,
should make all non-existent entities actually
become not-possible.
logically
possible
From this it follows that it is not

for
anything
to
be
contingent.
The
logical demonstration of Suhrawardi's argument may further

clarify it.
P
as
If we identify P with existence (wujud) , and-
non-existence
(<adam) , then
the
argument
goes
as
follows:
1-
P 3 - (" P)
2-
P ^
On the basis of the above argument, Suhrawardi argues

that its negation would also have to be true.
1-
- P
2- ~ P
However,
-(- P)
Suhrawardi
has
already
maintained
in
the
first part of his argument that all existing objects are

contingent,
above
which
argument.
is
The
contrary
to
conclusion
the
one
conclusion
can
of
derive
the
from
Suhrawardi's argument would go against the possibility of

the existence of those attributes which can only belong to
116
God, i.e.
existence by necessity, infinity, etc...
Suhrawardi*s methodology here is primarily intended to

confront the Peripatetics' emphasis on sense perception as
a means of gaining knowledge.
Furthermore, he extends the
implications of the above argument not only to criticize

the
ontological
elaborates
in
the
views
of
the
Philosophy
of
Peripatetics
which
Illumination.
he
Yazdan
Shinakht. al-Talwihat. al-Mutarahat. and a1-Muqawamat , but

also to strengthen his own ishracri views. 11
C.
LIMIT AND INFINITY
Finally,
epistemology
infinity.
of
is
great,
the
importance
discussion
for
Suhrawardi's
concerning
limit
and
This is because his epistemology and angelology
are derived from his ontology. Therefore, a finite chain of

contingent
direct
beings
which
bearing upon his
Suhrawardi
is
epistemology.
arguing
In the
for
has
following
chapters we will see in what way gradations of light are

related to a particular epistemological view.
While
Suhrawardi argues against the existence of an
infinite
series
of
contingent
dependent
beings,
he
maintains
that an
infinite divisibility within a limited
set, with a beginning and an end, can exist, although the

process will never come to an end and thereby the existence
of such a set remains a logical possibility.
Suhrawardi
states:
Know that in each succession (of beings) within
which there
is order, however they may be
arranged,
if they are within the domain of
existence, they necessitate to have a limit or an
end.
Between each integer of this succession and
another integer there exists infinite integers.
Then it is necessary (for infinity) to be limited
to these two integers and this is impossible. If
in that succession two integers cannot be found
in such a way that the numbers between them are
not unlimited, then it is necessary that there be
no unit unless
(integers)
between that and
between every other integer that is conceived in
that
succession, be finite and therefore, it
will be necessary that all that succession be
finite. 12
This is a rather unusual approach to the problem of
infinity.
Suhrawardi's argument goes as follows:
Either
it is the case that the principle of infinite divisibility

between two beings (which in this case are two numbers) is
true or not.
If it is true, then there must be an infinite
set of numbers between two different numbers -
For example,
between the numbers 2 and 3 there exists an infinite number

of integers.
From this it can be concluded that infinity
exists, but its existence is contingent upon the existence

of a beginning and an end.
philosophical
and
This, which is a point at once
mystical,
argues
for
the
existence of
infinity within finitutde.

The above gives rise to the objection that infinity by
definition cannot have a beginning or an end.
Therefore,
either infinity does not exist or the principle of infinite

divisibility is not true.
Since numbers do exist and they
118
can be divided, the

correct.
On
the
frame
principle of infinite divisibility is
other hand,
of
reference,
infinity itself can exist
within
which means
it requires a
limit.
To summarize Suhrawardi*s view, it can be said that
finitude is the necessary condition for the existence of

infinity.
There are two readings of Suhrawardi*s argument, each
of which addresses a different problem . The first one is
that he defines infinity as that which has no beginning or
end.
If this be the case, his argument is not valid since
although infinite divisibility is conceivable between two

numbers,
it is limited to a beginning and an end. One can
also argue that the problem is a semantical one, and that

should
the
definition
of
infinity change,
validity of Suhrawardi's argument.
the
It is true that while
there may be
a beginning
and an end,
there can be
an
set of beings.
infinite
so would
within
would be a case of infinity within finitude,
this
limit
Although this
nevertheless
it argues for the possibility of the existence of infinity

as such.
The
second
argument
against
Suhrawardi's
view
on
infinity is that if infinity cannot exist, then how can it

be an attribute of God? From this it follows that either
Suhrawardi's argument is incorrect or God is not infinite
and even if He were, He would have to have a beginning and
an end which is absurd.
Suhrawardi would not grant this
119
and on this ground he would have to say that infinity does

exist unequivocally.
2.
A.
METAPHYSICS
GOD'S EXISTENCE
In the ishraqi school God is equated with the Light of

Lights from Whom emanates the lower levels of light,
angelic order and the archetypes.
of
God
is
fundamental
illumination
and
in
for
the
Therefore, the existence
the
particular
entire
the
philosophy
of
epistemology
of
illumination.
While attempts to prove the existence of God appear in
the earliest philosophical
literature,
the issue did not
become the focal point of philosophical thinking until the

Renaissance.
Whereas in the West after the Renaissance the
emphasis was placed on the very existence and non-existence

of
God,
in
Islamic
philosophy the
existence
of God was
taken to be so axiomatic that the emphasis was placed on

discussing
His
attributes
and
Essence
rather
than
His
Existence.
Despite
this
fact,
however,
most
of
the
Muslim
philosophers have devoted some attention to the issue, and

Suhrawardi has offered a number of arguments as well. Most
of these arguments are standard ones,
such as those which
the
Peripatetics
discussed.
such
as
Farabi
and
Ibn
Sina
have
Occasionally, however, Suhrawardi modifies the
argument in a rather interesting way.

Suhrawardi argues that every event has at least one
cause whose existence is necessitated if or when that cause
is present.
However, an effect is often a compound entity,
and, therefore, when A causes B, it should be regarded as

the cause of all its individual components.
Since B, by
virtue of its being an effect,
is a contingent being, all
its components are contingent.
The reverse is also true,
that is,
if individual members of a set are caused,
the set itself must be caused.
then
From the above argument
Suhrawardi concludes that:

The
cause of contingent beings cannot be
contingent, because that will then be one in this
set. Therefore, (the cause) must be something
that is not contingent or non-existing and thus,
the cause and the source of the existence of all
the contingent beings must be a Necessary Being.
13
Suhrawardi's
argument
again
rests
on
the
principle
that an infinite chain of cause and effect is not possible

and therefore the cause of an effect must be a Necessary
Being-
Otherwise, the cause itself has to have a cause, ad
infinitum.
His argument is valid if an infinite series of
causes
effects
and
cannot
exist.
As
we
have
discussed
previously, acceptance of such a premise is problematic.

Having
argued
that
the
cause
of
all
things
is
121
Necessary Being, Suhrawardi then tries to prove that there

cannot be
follows:
several
Necessary Beings.
His
argument is as
If there be more than one Necessary Being,
( i.e.
A & B) then, one of the following cases will occur:
1-
A and B have nothing in common.
2-
A and B have everything in common.
3-
A and B have something in common.

^
The first one can not be true since A & B at least

have
one
thing
in
common,
their
property
of
being
Necessary Being.
Therefore, it is not possible for several
Necessary
to
Beings
exist
without
sharing
at
least
one
common property.
The
second
alternative
can
not be
the case
either
because if A & B had everything in common, then they would

be the same.
is
that
them.
What makes A & B to be two different things
they must
have
at
least one difference between
Therefore A & B can not have everything in common
otherwise they would be the same, which they are not.

The third option implies that A & B have something in
122
common, and yet there are differences between them.

This possibility is not a viable one either.
As Suhrawardi
states:
If that which is their difference were not, then

none of them would have existed.
And if that
which they have in common were not, then each one
would not exist. 14
Suhrawardi's argument as it stands is incomplete.
needs to be elaborated on by adding the following:
It
If A+C
is a Necessary Being, then C cannot be a contingent part of

this
Necessary
cannot have a
Being.
of
Necessary
Being by
contingent element in it.
true with regards to B+C.

part
and
Bj_ then
definition
The same holds
If C is a Necessary being and a

we
will
arrive
at
the
second
alternative which we have already excluded.

Suhrawardi offers similar arguments in various places
throughout his works. 15
<imadivah. he
For example, in the al-Alwah al-
summarizes his views
on the existence of a
Necessary Being and its attributes as follows:

Since
there
is no other Necessary Being,
therefore, He has no match and because there is
no force
equal to Him in power and might,
therefore there is nothing to oppose Him.
Since
He has no location, He has no negation like the
negation of whiteness that is black.
All the
power is emanated from Him and therefore nothing
is His enemy. He is the truth, meaning He exists
because of His own essence and everything other
than His essence is not real (batil) since in
their
own essence they are not worthy of
existence by necessity. Therefore, their truth
comes from the ultimate truth and not of their

own essence. 16
Suhrawardi not only has argued for the existence of
God but also,
by demonstrating that the existence of all
beings is contingent, he has also prepared the path which

leads to his ishraai
views where he equates God with Light
and Light with Being.
B.
MINDBODY PROBLEM: 17
One of the central problems of philosophy has been to

prove the
existence
of a non-material entity,
generally
referred
to
as
'self",
"mind",
which is
or
"soul".
Furthermore, an attempt has been made to determine the type

of relationship that this entity could have with the body.
Plato 18 was the first to discuss the issue in a systematic
way,
followed by Aristotle
19 who attempted not only to
prove the existence of such an entity but also to define

and
construct
West,
the
his
issue
ethical
has
theory on that basis.
been
treated
extensively
In the
by
such
figures as John Locke, whose theory has come to be called

the
"Memory
Theory",
and
also by
such
figures as Hume,
Butler, etc... 20
In the tradition of Islamic philosophy, the issue has
also received considerable attention. Ibn Sina's "Suspended
Man", 21 which resembles in some ways Descartes " Coqito "
1 24
is an example of how important the issue has been for the

Muslim philosophers.
Suhrawardi in numerous places argues
for the existence of a "self" which is distinct from the

body.
In
Partaw namah. 22
arguments
for
independent
the
he begins
existence
from the
body.
of
Kis
by
a
offering
"self"
several
which
is
first argument goes as
follows: We often refer to ourselves and say "I" did this

or that.
If I would separate a part of myself
(i.e. my
hand) and put it on the table, I would neither refer to it

as
"I"
nor
would
be
personality is concerned.
"I"
or
"self"
any
different
as
far
as
my
On this basis he concludes that
is .different
from my
body
and
therefore
necessarily it has to be immaterial.

Before examining the above argument,
his
second
argument
Suhrawardi argues that
which
it
is
in
let me consider
the
same
is obvious that
context.
a bug and an
elephant are both alive, and it is not the case that one is
more or less alive than the other one.
Therefore, that
which makes a living being a living organism is neither its

shape nor its size.
From this argument it is reasonable to
conclude that "self," which constitutes the identity of a

being,
is not a material
entity;
otherwise
it could not
have been present in various shapes or forms.

There
arguments.
are
basically
First,
two
problems
with
he argues that "self",
Suhrawardi1s
which he calls
"nafs" is above and beyond the body. On the other hand, he

implies that there exists a correlation between them.
For
example, in the section 32 of Partaw namah. he states:

Know that Nafs (soul) was not present before the
body. If it were present prior to it, it would
not have been one and many since this
is
impossible. The reason why a variety of souls
(self) could not have existed before the body is
because all things when they share in the same
thing, i.e. soul, are one, and when they become
numerous they become different.23
Suhrawardi
then
offers
his
own
view
which
simultaneous creation of the body and the soul.
is
the
On this
point he states:
Therefore it becomes apparent that the soul
cannot exist before the body and that they come
into existence simultaneously.
Between them
there is attraction, love and anxiety but not
like
the attraction of beings and
their
accidents. 24
Suhrawardi1s
attraction,
existence
assertion
that
there
exists
an
*'
love, and anxiety" between different levels of

provides
reply
to
the
standard
objections
raised against the existence of an immaterial "self". 25

To understand this better we have to consider some of these
objections that can be raised against Suhrawardi's argument
for-the existence of a "self."
One of the classical arguments against the existence
of an immaterial self is that if it is the self that makes
a being alive,
then how do we account for the fact that
12 6
death
occurs
destroyed
when
body
and
This
clearly
in
particular
indicates
the
brain
is
that not only does
there exist a relationship between the body and the "self"

or "mind", but body seems to be the principal agent in this
relationship.
Let
regard
us
to
consider
some
of
Suhrawardi's mind-body
the
contemporary
theory
theories
of
with
the
relationship between the mind and the body which are as

follows:
1-
Dualism
2-
Epiphenomenalism
3-
Materialism
4-
Idealism
While
Suhrawardi
does
not
comment
directly
on
the
relationship between the mind and the body, he does offer

an
analysis
of
human
faculties
such
theory can be constructed on that basis.
that his
mind-body
Dualism maintains
that mind and body are two different and distinct entities,
and yet they interact with each other.
on
the
assumption
that
matter
exists
This theory rests

as
an
independent
entity. This is precisely what Suhrawardi is not willing to

grant.
In fact, Suhrawardi's mind-body theory opposes this
distinction and thereby overcomes the major obstacle with

which metaphysicians had to deal.
Suhrawardi
expresses
his
ideas
on
the
mind-body
problem in a number of his works such as Partaw namah 26

and Havakil al-nur. 27
where he argues that body is in a
continuous
change
state
quantitatively.
possible
for
of
Since this
humans
remain the same.
to
assume
changes
they
are
the
qualitatively
is the case, then
undergo
Therefore,
substance, mind or self,
both
so much
and
it is not
change
and
yet
there must be an immaterial
(for the sake of argument let us
same)
separate
that the body undergoes
from body,
do not effect
and
it.
the
The
nature of this substance or entity cannot be material since

all
material
remain
the
immaterial.
things undergo
same.
change
Consequently,
and therefore cannot
this
"self"
has
to
be
As Suhrawardi states:
All the parts of the body change and if your "self"

consisted of these parts of the body, they would also be in
a continuous state of change .
(Thus) your self yesterday
is not the same "self" as today, but each day your self is
other than itself and this obviously is not the case.
And
since your knowledge is continuous and permanent it is not
all body nor part of thebody, but it is beyond all this. 28
The body for Suhrawardi is not a "thing", but an ever
changing phenomena that can not interact with an immutable
substance, namely a mind or a self.
Therefore, a dualistic
theory is not one that Suhrawardi could adhere to.
If we
accept a dualistic view of the mind body relationship, then

the
body
as
such becomes
real
entity that
can
without the existence of the self.
exist
The second theory, epiphenomenalism, argues that it is

the self that interacts with the body and not the reverse.
This
view,
which
is
developed
on
the
basis
of
the
principiality of mind, considers the body to receive only

instructions
as
to
its
sensations,
feelings,
states
etc...
of
are
affairs.
All
accordingly
the
"mental
states" and not "brain states".

For
Suhrawardi
this
view
is not
an acceptable
one
either since the body and its faculties have the capability
of experiencing certain things at their own level.
would b u m
If one
his hand it is the body that would experience
the pain, but it is the mind that ultimately makes the body
capable of experiencing anything.
Without the mind,
the
body would be another inanimate object like a rock.
In
fact, it is Suhrawardi's view that since the nature of all

material things is pure darkness, they are the same.
my
body
thing.
and
rock
in the final
Thus,
analysis are the
same
What distinguishes them from one another is the
presence of a mind that makes me capable of experiencing,

while
rock
cannot
do
likewise.
The
problem
with
Epiphenomenalism is that by arguing for the principiality

of mind,
it essentially excludes the body
role in the mind-body scheme.
from playing a
Suhrawardi would say if body
is not needed how do we account for its presence?
Let us
examine Suhrawardi's theory in the light of his ontological

view since, in my opinion,
that is the key in developing a
129
Suhrawardian theory of "Personal Identity" which is also

his solution to the mind-body problem.
Suhrawardi
entities
with
maintains
the
that
same
self
and
ontological
body
are
texture.
The
two
only
difference between them is their "intensity" which can be

translated into a different ontological status with respect
to the Light of Lights.
Therefore, mind and body are different aspects of the
same phenomenon whose interactions
the
laws
of
Muhabbah
(love)
are in accordance with
and Oahr
(domination) .
29
While the body yearns for a higher ontological status, the

mind
instructs
acti o n .
the
This
body
to
theory
take
is
specific
neither
course
dualistic
of
nor
epiphenomenalistic, in that the mind and body are viewed in

a different matrix alltogether. It can be called "Spiritual
Monism" since it is based on the interaction of different
aspects of the same thing, namely light.
Suhrawardi's theory can be viewed from two ontological
perspectives.
Looking at the ontological hierarchy from
below, the. mind and body are two different entities, since
the lower order to which the body belongs does not include
the
higher
order,
to which
belongs.
However,
hierarchy
from the top,
since body
only
the
looking
category
at the
same
of
the mind
ontological
the mind-body problem fades away
is contained within the mind whose nature
a .more
intense
light
than
the
body.
is
Suhrawardi's
130
theory of personal
identity and the mind-body problem is
interesting since it tries to solve the matter by arguing

that the mind and body are essentially the same and that
what appear to be two distinct entities are ontologically
the same.
C.
30
LIFE AFTER DEATH
Suhrawardi
offers
two
types
of
arguments
for
the
existence of life after death and the status of the soul

after
it
departs the
body.
I will
first consider his
theosophical views on the subject and then will elaborate

on his philosophical arguments.
Suhrawardi
doctrine,
which
offers
is
"Neoplatonization"
the
profound
analysis
of
of
ishraai
Ibn
Sina's
view on eschatalogy with some original contributions by his

own. 31
In book 4 and 5 of Hikmat al-ishracr. 32 he begins
a discussion on eschatalogy, prophecy and transmigration of

the soul based on his ontological views.
Adhering to basic
Ibn Sinain doctrine of the gradations of being, Suhrawardi

goes on to argue for the transmigration of the human soul
on the basis of the inner qualities that he attributes to
various ontological status.
As he states:
And objects are in need of the lordly light which has a

relationship with the body. This interestedness [of lordly
light] is due to the inherent poverty of it (body) and its
yearning towards the higher is due to its illuminationist
relation.
It, meaning body, is the epitome of receptivity
and contains lights. 33.

In
the
above
argument
Suhrawardi
demonstrates
the
mechanism by which the lower beings ascend towards a higher

ontological
state,
the gate through this ascending being
ultimately man himself.

The gate of all gates is the human body since the
gate of all gates consists of that which other
gates precede it such that entering through it is
required first before others. 34
The question that arises now is what happens to the
soul when one dies.
The entire section 4 of Hikmat al-
ishraq provides an ishraqj analysis in light of which the

above question can be answered.
In a section titled "On
the Status of Human Soul After its Departure From the Body"
35,
Suhrawardi
is more
eschatalogical doctrine.
of the human
soul
explicit
on putting
forward
his
There he argues that the status
after death depends on the degree to
which one is able to ascend on the ontological ladder in

this world.
In this regard, Suhrawardi considers pursuing
a balanced life based on knowledge and action to be a key

in
determining
one's
status
after
death.
On
this
states:
The good fated ones who are balanced in knowledge
and action and the ascetics who are pure and
virtuous once they depart from their bodies, they
join with the archetypes which are the origin of
their bodies.36
he
With regard to the fate of those whom Suhrawardi does

not consider to be living a "balanced life" he says:
The masters of cruelty and misery who have
gathered around hell, .transmigration be true or
not,
once they depart from their corporeal
bodies, they will have deprivations and absences
from
the
archetypes
(suwari muafilaqah^
in
accordance with their character. 37
While
establishing
correspondence
between
one's
actions in this world and the status of ones's soul is not

a new concept, what is new in Suhrawardi is the concept of
suwar-i mucillaaah. literally meaning the "suspended forms",
which he reminds us not to confuse with Platonic ideas.
He
describes these concepts as follows:

The suspended forms are not the same as the
Platonic forms (muthul), because Platonic forms
are luminous and are in the world of intellectual
enlightenment which is immutable. However, these
are forms (suwar) that are suspended in the world
of transcendence, some of which are dark and some
luminous. 38
The
above
Suhrawardi,
there are
since
perhaps
the
original
his archetypal
world
contribution
is one
in
of
which
inherently bad things which he identifies with
"darkness".
is best
is
This is perhaps where the Zoroastrian dualism
exemplified
in Suhrawardi's thought since the
"
Good God" (Ahuramazda) and the "Bad God" (Ahriman) each one
have
their
own
good
and
bad
angels
who
are
Necessary
Beings.
It is precisely introduction of this type of dualism
133
into the archetypal world of traditional Platonic ideas and

relating
it
to
contribution
life
of
after death which
Suhrawardi
to
is a significant
Islamic
philosophy
and
certainly not one that is shared by many of his successors.

Plato's world of archetypes is a perfect one, whereas in
Suhrawardi's world of suspended forms, (suwar al-im/allacrahf
there are also perfect forms of evil which he identifies
with darkness.
Finally,
Suhrawardi
doctrine
by
ontology,
angelology
concludes his
establishing
and
his
eschatalogical
relationship
doctrine
of
between
the
his
suspended
forms. He argues that in fact the soul of those who have

lived a balanced life gives rise to an angelic order who in
turn
determine
different
gradations
ontology.
Furthermore, heconcludes that
status
individuals is
of
Suhrawardi
summarizes
his
determined
doctrine
of
the
the ontological
on this
of
ishracri
hierarchy.
eschatalogy
as
follows:
From the souls of the balanced people who possess
the suspended forms and its manifestation which
are the heavens, different levels of angels are
created whose numbers are unlimited.
They have
different status in accordance different levels
of the heavens until the state of the purified
ones and theosophers. That status is higher and
more noble than the world of angels. 39.
In the foregoing discussion I have briefly offered a
discussion
of
Suhrawardi's
theosophical
views
eschatalogy.
He also approaches the problem of life after
or
134
death, from a philosophical point of view which I will now

consider.
Suhrawardi offers a variety of philosophical arguments
for
the
follow
existence
those
of
that
life
are
after
typical
death.
of
the
His
arguments
Peripatetics,
in
particular Ibn Sina.

One of his arguments has to do with the immortality of
the cause of the self or soul.
About this he says:
Know that the self remains and death for it is

not
conceivable because its cause is the Active
Intellect, which is immutable.
Therefore, the
effect will remain immortal
because of the
immortal nature of the Cause. 40
What
Suhrawardi
fails
to
do
is
to demonstrate the
relationship between the immortality of the cause and the

effect,
a relationship which he seems to take for granted.
By analogy it can be said that if I make a statue, I have

not established any necessary connection between myself and
the statue.
It is true that there has to be an affinity
between a cause and its effect and not just anything can be
the cause of anything else, but to establish a necessary
relationship
instances
between
is
cause
incorrect.
and
its
Furthermore,
effect
to
in
all
ascribe
the
existential attributes o f .the cause to its effect is also

unfounded.
Suhrawardi
especially
in
offers
the
al-Alwah
number
of
other
al-imadivah.. 41
arguments,
and
Partaw
namah. for the existence of life after death by seeking to

demonstrate
the
existence
substance that exists
of
the
"self",
separately from the
an
immaterial
body.
Having
argued for the existence of a mind or self (for the sake of

argument we are assuming they are one and the same) which
is immaterial and therefore immutable and indestructible,
he proceeds to argue that the self survives the physical
death of the body.
LOGIC
Suhrawardi 42 classifies all knowledge on the basis of

whether it is acquired through the senses or whether it is
innate.
He
argues
that
the
knowledge
that
is attained
through innate ideas is beyond logical analysis. Therefore,

logic as such can be applied only to acquired knowledge.
So far, Suhrawardi has remained within the logical system
of the Peripatetics as exemplified by Ibn Sina's book of
Healing
(Shifeft .
43.
Generally speaking,
Suhrawardi
considers logic to be only a tool for analysis, and in that

capacity
it
is
subservient
to
philosophy.
H.
Zia i
summarizes Suhrawardi *s views on logic as presented in the

al-Mutarihat in the following 3 principles:
(1)
Logic deals with conception and assent in so far

as they may be t r u e (2)logic is a
speculative
art
(s i n a ca
nazarivva^which
deals with
conception and assent, the form of syllogism and
the secondary intelligibles;
(3) logic is an
axiomatic art of the rules (sinaca a a n u n i w a )

which guards the human mind 'against error in
thinking.44
As
far as
formal differences between Suhrawardi and
Peripatetics are concerned,
Suhrawardi does not adhere to
the nine books of Aristotle's Organon.
First of all, the
Categories are absent from Suhrawardi's analysis and there

are only brief references to them in the Topics. Rhetoric.
and
Poetics.
While
there
is
no
separate
treatment
Aristotle's
Categories as most of the Peripatetics
Ibn
have
Sina)
done,
Suhrawardi
does
of
(i.e.
consider
the
Aristotelian categories and in fact reduces them from ten

to four with motion being a new category.
H.
Zia i
argues
Illumination. 45
from
the
in
his
that while
Peripatetic
logic
work
the
Suhrawardi
in
Philosophy
does
major
way
of
not deviate
in the
al-
Talwihat and al-Mutarihat. he does offer a "new structure"

of logic in the
Hikmat al-ishrag.
This new structure
according to Zia i divides the field of logic into three

general areas:
1-
Semantics
2-
Principles of proof
3-
Errors of formal and material logic

On this
Zia i states:
This new structure may be an attempt on the part

of Suhrawardi
to recognize the traditional
Organon
according to his general bipartite
division of logic into expository propositions
137
and proofs.46
In
the
Suhrawardi
forthcoming
applies
knowledge
by
Suhrawardi's
chapter
will
to
comment
d e f i nition,
sen s e
use
logic
of
logic
can
demonstrate
on
such
topics
perception,
best
be
how
seen
as
etc.
in
his
semantical analysis and his criticism of logic as applied

by
the
Peripatetics,
which
only
leads
to
partial
discovery of truth.47
CONCLUSION:
In
the
foregoing
Suhrawardi's
pertaining
works
to
considered.
body
his
discussion
have
been
ontology
brief
offered.
as well
analysis
His
arguments
as metaphysics
Such topics as essence and existence,
problem,
personal
identity,
God's
of
were
mind-
existence
and
finally life after death were examined in order to be able

to
demonstrate
later
how
such
issues
serve
as
the
foundation of Suhrawardi's epistemology.

Needless
exposition of
exhaustive.
to
some
say,
this
was
meant
of his arguments
and
be
basic
is by no means
The issues that were considered serve as the
foundation upon which his philosophical

built.
to
epistemology was
His methodology of arguing as it appears in the
extensive
quotations
rationalistic one.
that
have
offered
is
purely
What I hoped to demonstrate, beside a
brief presentation of his arguments, was the means by which

Suhrawardi
conducts
philosophical
philosophical
chapter,
his
domain-
investigations
This
is
important
within
the
since
his
epistemology, as I will discuss in the next
is precisely developed on the basis of his own
special method of inquiry.
139
END NOTES:
1-
CHAPTER 3
While Suhrawardi's philosophy meets the criteria by

which the validity of a philosophical system is
examined (i.e. coherency, consistency), yet the style
of writing is not systematic.
For example, in the
same book or chapter he often goes from Peripatetic
writings
to
ishragi narratives.
This problem
necessitates reading of large sections of his writings
in order to find out various elements of an argument.
2-
Opera 2, p.18.
3-
Opera 3,
p.46.
4-
Opera 2, p.130-131.
5-
Ibid. p.130.
6-
Ibid, p.132.
7-
Ibid, p.132.
8-
For more information, see: Seyyed JaJLal Ashtiyani's

commentary on Lahiji, "Risalah_ Nuriyah dar Alame
Mithal",in the Maiill-vi illahivat wa ma^rif Islami.
Mashhad Univ.pr. Mashhad 1972
9-
Suhrawardi's arguments can also be found in the alTalwihat. pp.32-39-
10-
Opera 2. p.127.
11-
For more information on Suhrawardi's ontology see:

Philosophy of Illumination, pp.125-146., Partaw namah.
pp.3-8_. and pp.46-55. Yazdan Shiriakht. pp.444. and alTalwihat.p p .14-31.
12-
Opera 2. p.129.
13-
Opera 3, p.33.
14-
Ibid, p.34.
15-
Suhrawardi's views on theexistence

of a Necessary
Being, essence and existence as presented in his
Persiaji works can be found in the following
works:
a1-A1wah a1-imad ivah pp.134-153, his arguments are
basically the same as those presented in the Partaw
namah. The arguments he presents in his Arabic works,
especially in the al-Talwihat.pp.33-39.
are
also
similar to those of al-Alvah al-ima~divah. and Partaw
namah. Such arguments are based on the impossibility

that the chain of causality could go on for infinity.
16-
Opera 3, p.141.
17-
Suhrawardi's argument for the existence of the self

and its relationship with body can be found in the alTalwihat . P.68,. and pp. 80-82, and Bustan al-oulub.
pp. 342-387.
18-
Plato's view on the mind-body relationship can be

found in his dialogues Timaeus and Phaedo. For more
information see: Burnet, J., "The Socratic Doctrine of
the Soul",
Proceedings of the British Academic.
7(1915-1916), pp.235-259.
19-
Aristotle discusses the mind-body problem in his De

Anima where he elaborates on the mind and its
faculties and their relationship with the body.
For
more information on specific arguments see: Rohde, E.,
Psyche. trans. by W.B. Hillis, London 1925
20-
For more information see:

John Perry, Personal
Identity. University of Berkeley Pr., Berkeley, 1975
21-
Ibn jSina discusses this idea in the 6th chapter of

Shifa fand the last chapter of the Isharat.
22-
Opera 3, pp.23-24.
23-
Opera 3, sec. 32, p. 25.

Suhrawardi in this section
uses
the
words
"self",
"soul",
and
"I",
interchangably. However, in all these cases he is
alluding to what constitutes the identity of a person.
24-
Opera 3, P.26.
25-
Ibid, p.26-
26-
For more
information on Suhrawardi's theory of
Personal Identity, see Partaw namah. Chapter4, pp.2631.
27-
It_is argued that Suhrawardi's choice of the word

Hayakil is influenced by the Isma'ilis who use this
term extensively.
This also may have been one of the
likely causes of his death since Sal"ah al-Din Ayubi
was highly against Isma'ilis.
28-
Opera 1, p. 86.
29-
For more information see: H. Corbin, En Islam iranian.

2, pp.107-110.
30-
Suhrawardi's view on the existence of a self in his

Persian
works can be found in the following works:
Havakil al-nur. pp.4-92. al-Alwah al-imadivah.p p .116165.and Bustan al-aulub. pp. 342-387.
and vazdan
shiriakht. pp. 412-444.
In his _ Arabic works he
discusses the issue in the al-Talwihat. pp.68,81,82.
However, most of the arguments are derivations of the
argument that I have discussed.
31-
For more information on a "spiritualized" reading of

Ibn Sina, see: J. Michot's Dieu el la destinee de
1'hommejmacad chez Avicenne. Peetrs, Louvain Pub. 1987
32-
Opera 2, ch.4,5.
33-
Ibid, p.357.
34-
Ibid, p.358.
35-
Ibid, p.374.
36-
Ibid, p.347.
37-
Ibid, p.374.
38-
Ibid, P.375.
39-
Ibid, p.377.
40-
Opera 3, p.65.
41-
For more information on Suhrawardi's

existence of life after death, see:
cimadivah. p.56.
42-
Opera 1, logic pp.1-4.
43-
Shifa 1,
44-
Ziai, H.
pp.53-54.
45-
Ibid, p.57.
46-
Ibid, p.82.
47-
For more information on Suhrawardi's logic see: Zia i,

H.
Suhrawardi*s Phiosophv of Illumination. ch.2,
pp.46-83.
view on
al-Alvah
the
al-
pp.2-4.
Suhrawardi's
Philosophy
of
Illumination,
142
CHAPTER 4
PHILOSOPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY: A Rationalistic

Approach to the Problem of Knowledge
Suhrawardi's
ishraqi
theories of knowledge.
school
contains
two
distinct
For philosophical ideas, Suhrawardi
argues that there exists a philosophical epistemology which

is
able
domain.
to
attain
knowledge
within
the
philosophical
For his theosophical views however, there exists a
theosophical
epistemology which we
following chapter.
shall
It the rapprochement
discuss
in the
between these two
types of wisdom that constitutes the ishraqi doctrine.

This view is contrary to the interpretations that some
of the commentators of Suhrawardi
(i.e. Ha*ri, Nasr)
have
made on what ishraqi doctrine is. They maintain that such a

division
between
philosophical
and
theosophical
epistemology should not be made in regards to Suhrawardi's

thoughts since his school provides a single methodology for
the attainment of truth.
M. Ha^ri argues 1 that one begins
with an intense training in philosophy and then ultimately

will be
point
able to have a
"vision"
is unmediated and direct.
of truth which at that

S.H.
Nasr's reading of
Suhrawardi is more esoteric and puts the emphasis on the

existence
through
of
faculty
asceticism
and
within
man,
"intellect",
philosophical
training
which
become
143
illuminated.
While I accept both of these views, I believe they are
only partially correct and that a close textual reading of
Suhrawardi *s
writings
between
philosophical
his
reveals
and
definite
distinction
theosophical
views.
Suhrawardi himself tells us that he first had a "vision"

and
then
investigated
principles.
the
validity
of
philosophical
Thus, it is not the case as Ha^ri says that he
had the vision through studying philosophy.

The thesis
I am putting
forward
is that
Suhrawardi
practiced asceticism and studied philosophy but that his

attainment of truth was not through studying philosophy. It
was practicing asceticism that resulted in illumination .
Where I take issue with Nasr and some of the contemporary
commentators of Suhrawardi (i.e. M. H a ri, J. Ashtiyani) is
that they do not agree Suhrawardi has a philosophical side
which, although it is part of the whole ishraqi
nevertheless
stands on
its own merit though it does not
necessarily bring about truth.

providing
us
with
two
doctrine
options
philosophy and asceticism.
I argue that Suhrawardi is

to
understand the
truth,
They both will ultimately "see"
the same reality, and it is not the case that one does not
144
make sense without the other one.
The 3 models of
interpretation can be demonstrated as follows:
M. H a ri
Rationalistic Philosophy
>lllumination
S.H. Nasr
Rationalistic Philosophy----- >Illumination

and Asceticism
My proposed
model
Asceticism
OR Philosophy
>11lumination
It is in regards to the above that we can justify

Suhrawardi*s claim that he first had a vision of truth and
then turned to investigate its rational basis.
Therefore,
the two- fold nature of his epistemology and the function

of each type becomes more clear in light of the above
diagram.
In this chapter, I will first present Suhrawardi*s
critique of the various schools of epistemology as
presented in his writings and will then elaborate on his
theory of philosophical epistemology, which is a synthesis
of a number of different approaches to the problem of
attaining knowledge.
1.
KNOWLEDGE BY DEFINITION
Traditionally, definition has been a means through

which knowledge of the external world can be attained.
This method,
which was primarily developed by
Plato
and
known as the " Socratic Method" ,2. is based on a dialogue in

which a "thing" is defined and redefined until we can know
what that "thing" truly is.
theory
of
knowledge
by
Aristotle elaborates on this
definition
when
he
argues
that
definition should reveal the true identity of a thing bydisclosing its essential nature. As he states:
Definition is held to concern essential nature
and is in every case universal. 3.
Suhrawardi's
theory of knowledge by definition is a
rapprochement between Plato's and Aristotle's position.
It
is an attempt to reconcile the Peripatetic philosophy of

Aristotle and the intellectual
intuition of Plato into a
single and unified theory of knowledge.

examine
Let us now briefly
Plato's and Aristotle's theories of knowledge by
definition and Suhrawardi's criticism of them.

Plato's notion of definition is also his philosophical
methodology.
According to him, if a concept is defined and
redefined, the final definition will have to correspond to

the nature of the object in question.
The question that
arises is that since for every definition there can be a

counter definition, is it conceivable that there is a final
definition,
or,
does
the
process
of
defining
go
on
to
infinity?
The second problem which is even more crucial in any
theory of definition is the implicit assumption that he who
questions and pursues a definition must in a sense know the

truth prior to this process.
The philosopher who intends
to carry out the task of the Socratic method must in some

sense know the object of inquiry, or else he will not know
the truth,
even
if he should come across it.
The pre
knowledge of the true definition of a thing according to

Plato is the same as knowledge of the archetypes.
Since
the real object of definition is the archetype, the "Form"

or the "Idea", then a true definition is one that is able
to reveal and disclose this.
Aristotle's
approach
to
the
relationship
between
definition and knowledge falls within his metaphysical view

of
where
essences
are.
In
the
Posterior
Analytic.
Aristotle says:
Now
definition
reveals
essential
nature,
demonstration reveals that a given attribute
attaches or does not attach to a given subject. 4.
The question arises as to what this "essential nature"
is which definition is supposed to reveal.
"Things"
Aristotle are either definable or demonstrable.

can
be
demonstrated
cannot
be
defined,
and
for
That which
Aristotle
identifies scientific knowledge with the demonstrable.

he states:
Hence, if demonstration of such conclusions are
possible,
there
clearly
cannot
also
be
definitions of them. 5
As
1 47
Aristotle
"being"
of
argues
that
demonstration
everything whereas
nature of the
deals
definition deals
with
the
with the
"being". For example, the nature of man is
different from his existence.
Definition tries to indicate
what human nature is, whereas demonstration is concerned

with the very being of man.
One should remember, however,
that man's nature cannot be known unless man exists, which

means definition must precede demonstration.
Thus, it can be concluded that definition applies only
to
non-demonstrable
essential nature.
further
by
saying
entities
and
that
it
reveals
their
Aristotle takes the argument one step

that
there
are
different
types
of
definitions intended to reveal different types of things.

He tells us that one type of definition is "a statement of
the meaning of the name" 6. which he calls the nominal sense
of definition.
According to Aristotle, this is the least
important of all definitions, and its primary object is to

define
that which exists.
When we are aware that triangle

inquire the reason why it exists. 7
This
from
exists,
we
inquiry can be answered by a definition which,
Aristotle's
significant.
point
of
view,
is
not
all
that
The second type of definition is one which
reveals the essence of a thing as its sole intention and is

based on answering the question "how shall we by definition
prove the essential nature? "8.
Aristotle, after considering a number of issues, tells

us that "... essential nature is
cause of a thing's
length to tell us
existence"
the same as to know the

He then goes to great
of the different types
their relationship with essential nature.

Aristotle
only
argues
when
he
of causes
and
This is because
that one can have knowledge of a thing
can
explain
its
cause
and
this
entails
demonstration of its essence from the first principle.

What is problematic, however, is the knowledge of the
first
principle.
principles
Aristotle
are based
elaborates
at
on
great
maintains
some sort
length
on
of
the
that
these
first
intuition,
nature
and he
of
these
principles which are ultimately based on intuition.
What
remains vague, however, is the nature of intuition and the

context in which he uses it.
The foregoing discussion sketches a brief outline of
Aristotle's theory of definition, upon which Suhrawardi has
based his theory.
Suhrawardi tries to reconcile Plato's
and Aristotle's theories of definition and thereby attempts

a rapprochement between Plato's notion of definition,
that
which
intends
to
know the
forms,
as
and Aristotle's,
which is that which intends to know the essential nature of

things.
Suhrawardi's
despite
his
notion
disagreement
rather similar to theirs.
of
with
knowledge
the
by
definition,
Peripatetics,
remains
However, he attempts to offer a
149
view that not only tends to capture the essence of a thing

and its relation to its attributes, but also brings about a
harmony between Aristotelian views and those of Plato.
In the Philosophy of Illumination. Suhrawardi begins
by offering a number of expositions on different ways of
defining
things.
Peripatetics
in
He
begins
chapter
of
his
titled
criticism
of
the
of
the
"Destruction
Peripatetics'
Rules
Definition"
Peripatetics,
in distinguishing between " general essence"
(Jins) and "specific difference"
10
by
saying
that
(Fasl), have made a grave
mistake.
Peripatetics have argued that the general essence is
an indicator of the nature of the thing in question whereas
particular essence distinguishes different species within a
genus.
For example, when we say "man is a rational animal"
animal is the genus and rational is the particular essence

which is supposed to distinguish the specific differences
with the genus.
that
only
an
On the other hand, the Peripatetics say
inference
from a known principle can
shed
light on an unknown and, therefore, new things can only be

discovered
in
Suhrawardi
then
epistemology
reference
to
reference
raises
: since
some
to
what
this
if
already
fundamental
particular
thing,
is
essence
that
thing
problem
exists
is
known.
only
not
already, how can the particular essence ever be known?
in
in
known
The
problem is particularly important in this case because a
particular
essence
cannot
be
known by
reference to
any
other thing unless its point of reference is known.
As
Suhrawardi states:
Therefore,
it becomes
necessary
that the
particular essence of something for one who has
not come to know of it elsewhere should remain
unknown. 11
How then can something which is unknown,
Suhrawardi
asks, become an indicator or a point of reference to gain

knowledge
of
inference
from
an
an
unknown?
This
unknown
to
would
disclose
mean
making
an
another unknown,
which is absurd.
Suhrawardi then goes on to argue on the basis of the
above that the "rationality" of man or the "purring " of a
cat cannot be known by
the senses or through any other
sources because it is a particular. So how can this unknown

attribute be a part of the definition of a man or a cat?
The above,
argument
according to Suhrawardi,
against
the
Peripatetic
view
is a devastating
of
knowledge
by
definition since they cannot claim to have defined a thing

in its entirety because,
already known,
this,
if a particular essence is not
then there is no way of knowing it.
From
Suhrawardi concludes that there must be some other
way of knowing what a thing is besides definition.
The
only two remaining methods are sense perception and innate

ideas.
151
Therefore, knowledge and the knowing of affairs

will
be referred
only to those of sense
perception or to a set of issues that are known
through a different methodology. 12
It is important to realize that despite Suhrawardis
criticism of the Peripatetics on the subject of definition,
he does not discard definition as an entirely invalid means
of attaining knowledge.
allude
to
the
limits
What he is trying to do
and
arriving at certainty.
inadequacy
of
is to
definition
in
As we will see in his other works,
he elaborates on these problems and argues the conditions

under which definition could act as a means of arriving at
knowledge.
Let us now turn to examine Suhrawardi's view of
definition in order to be able to formulate his theory of

definition.
Suhrawardi
in the
Philosophy
of
Illumination
13 as
well as the al-Talwihat

14 and the al-Mutarahat.
15 devotes
a chapter to definition.
Talwihat .
he
argues
In the second chapter of the al-
that
it
is
not
sufficient
for
definition of a thing to disclose only the essential nature

of
that
thing,
since
other
attributes
of
thing
also
constitute the identity of that thing even though they may

be of an accidental nature.
Therefore, a definition should
include not only the essence but other elements as well.

A formula fqawl) indicates the essence of a thing
and combines (v a i m a c ) all of its constituent
elements.
In the
case of the principle
realities,
it [the formula]
is a synthesis
15 2
(tarkib) of their genera and differentia. 16

This
is
approach
radical
since
its
departure
underlying
from
the
assumption
Aristotelian
is
that
the
identity of a thing not only consists of its essence but

includes its other elements which are also important.
The
other
if
the
is
not
significance
differentia
known,
or
then
incomplete.
of
"the
the
this
approach
particular
definition
is
essence ,
of
that
that
(Fasl)
thing
remains
Implications of this theory are as follows:
Since
we
can
never
know
all
the
"constituent
elements of a thing, we can never define a thing and

therefore, it cannot be known by definition.
2-
If a definition should include not only genus but
also all the differentia and other constituents of a

thing, that necessitates an a priori knowledge of the
differentia
since
the differentia
are an
exclusive
property of an exiscent being.
Suhrawardi's
the
treatment of the topic of definition in
al-Talwihat. which
"Essential
Nature",
is
done
"Descriptive",
in
three sections
and the
the Construction and Use of Definition"18,
"Fallacies
17.
in
is followed by
an even more extensive treatment of the topic in the alMutarahat.

What follows is a brief review of Suhrawardi's
view as illustrated in twelve different sections of the al-
Mutarahat.
Having
defined
five
different
types
of
definition,
Suhrawardi continues to analyze the very complicated issue

of
the
relationship
corresponding
objects
between
in
the
mental
concepts
and
outside world.
their
He
argues
that, while it is conceivable to define a thing so that its

genus and differentia remain united, it is not possible to
do so in regards to the class of those things whose genus
and differentia are one and the same, such as colors.
19.
Colors, he says, are not like "Man is a rational animal" in

that there would be a concept of man and a rationality so
that the latter is a predicate of the former.
Color is a
genus without a differentia,therefore no definition of it

can be offered such that it would encompass its genus and
differentia.
From
the
above
argument
Suhrawardi
concludes
the
following:
1-
The
Peripatetics
are
wrong
in
assuming
that
the
definition can be used unequivocally and without any

qualification as a means to attain knowledge.
case
alone,
limits
(i.e..
of definition
Colors)
we
clearly
In this
realize
the
in that it is only capable of
defining certain things.

2-
Color can never be known by definition since color can

not be defined by something other than itself.
In
the
a 1-Mutarahat.
20
Suhrawardi,
once
again
stresses that a definition which is able to include the sum

of all
the
differentia and other characteristics
thing in question
stating this,
of
the
is an accepted mode of cognition.
In
he implicitly is arguing that,
not possible to define all the
since it is
attributes of a thing, any
attempt to define a thing will completely fail.

In
Peripatetics
sense,
resembles
Hegel's
argument
epistemology
against
in
which
the
he
argued that in order to know a thing one has to know all

its essential components.
up
of
different
knowing
of
impossible,
all
parts,
things,
then we
can
Since these components are made

to
know
one
and because
never
know
thing
this
requires
the
is practically
anything completely.
While Suhrawardi does not take the argument to an extreme,

he nevertheless maintains that unless there is a way to
come to know a thing in its entirety, any attempt to define
a thing,
such that all of its attributes and differentia
can be included in the definition, is in vain.

Suhrawardi, in some of his works in Persian such as
Partaw n a m a h .21 and Havakil aln u r . 22 makes reference to
the problem of definition but does not discuss them in as
much detail as he does in some of his Arabic works.
end
of .the
Philosophy
of
Illumination
At the
,for example,
he
summarizes his views regarding to the Peripatetic view of

definition by saying:
He who mentions a number of essentials cannot be

certain that there may not be another essential
which he has ignored. Commentator and critic
should inquire (of his certainty) , and if he says
that if there was another essential we would have
known
it,
(we should say)
there are many
attributes that are unknown to u s .... The truth
of things is known only when all of their
essentials are known, and if there be another
essential that we are unaware of,then knowledge
of that thing is not certain.
Thus, it becomes
clear that the limits and definitions (hadd), as
the Peripatetics have accepted will never become
possible for man. The master of the Peripatetics,
[Aristotle] 23 has confessed to this existing
difficulty.
Therefore, the limit and definition
cannot exist except in regards to those items
whose collective body 24 is an indication of
particularity. 25
Suhrawardi in the above argument has demonstrated that
the differentia
of a thing are an exclusive property of
that thing (i.e. the purring of a cat). Then, if we do not

know what that property is, we will never know the identity
of the thing through definition.
The purring of a cat in
this case has to be defined through another definition and

this definition in turn needs to be defined through another
definition.
Either
this
process
goes
on
ad
infinitum,
which from Suhrawardi's point of view is absurd, or there

ought to be an axiomatic principle so that everything else
is defined in terms of it.
In fact, Suhrawardi,
in his
Philosophy of Illumination. 26 maintains that knowledge by

definition is possible if, and only if, there be a first
principle so that everything else is measured against it
and yet itself is not subject to any definition because of
its axiomatic nature.
The
existence
of
an
axiomatic
principle,
that
ultimately all things are defined in terms of it, is at the

very basis of his philosophy.
It is for this reason that
he argues that if Peripatetic philosophy is to make sense,

then
its underlying philosophical foundation has to rest
upon a self-evident truth, which for him is Light.

One may question whether Light as such is as axiomatic
as Suhrawardi claims
it to be.
While this issue can be
called into question, what cannot be disputed is his claim

that in order for something to be known it either has to be
of
an
axiomatic
nature
or be
defined by
a self-evident
truth.
This approach of Suhrawardi is the "illuminization"
or
ishraqi
an
definition
in
interpretation
that
he
of
changes
Aristotle1s
Aristotle's
theory
of
concept
of
definition as that which discloses the essential nature of

a thing to one that includes the accidental qualities as
well.
fold.
Suhrawardis contribution in this
regard is two
On one hand he argues that it is logically possible
for a thing to be known through definition if it is able to

disclose
all
of
its
attributes
and properties.
On the
other hand, a complete definition of "man",from this point

of view,
is one that would also define such properties as
the ability to be rational,
happy,
sad, etc...
and this
for Suhrawardi is a practical impossibility.

However,
there
is
also
Platonic
aspect
to
Suhrawardi's concept of definition, which is the concept of
157
Light
as
the
self
evident
truth
in
everything ultimately has to be defined.
terms
of
which
The question can
be raised as to where this Light is and how one comes to

know of it.
becomes
It is at this point that Suhrawardi *s response
Platonic
since he maintains
that
"Lordly Light"
(nur isfahbodi), or the soul of man is the knowing agent

able to
know things directly,
without mediation.
It is
this mode of cognition which is needed to know a thing in

its entirety.
It can be concluded that while light as such serves as
the
foundation
Peripatetic
of
views
builds
Suhrawardi*s
serve
his
as
an
ishraqi
philosophy,
his
axiomatic
principle
upon
which
he
particular
light
for him has a different significance connoting an
esoteric means of cognition.
epistemology.
However,
This mode of cognition will
receive extensive discussion in the next chapter.
2.
KNOWLEDGE BY SENSE PERCEPTION:
Suhrawardi*s view of sense perception is difficult to

formulate
in that he makes no reference to the external
senses through which knowledge
is attained.
Qutb al-Din
#
Shiraz i, the famous Avicennean commentator of Suhrawardi in

his
work
Suhrawardi
Sharh-i
hikmat
believes
in
external ones.
five
al ishraa.
internal
27
argues
senses
and
that
five
It can be argued that Shirazis formulation
1 58
of
the
five
external
senses
writings of Suhrawardi.
is
based
For example,
on
the
esoteric
he must have taken
such references as "the necessity of going through the five

senses
in order
for one to reach the Beloved"
28 as an
indication that Suhrawardi is alluding to the five senses,

both
external
and
internal.
This would be an argument
which indicates one has to go beyond the knowledge attained

by the senses in order to reach the truth.
Qutb al-Din Shirazi, 29 maintains that Suhrawardi not
only believes that the five senses are for the attainment
of knowledge of the outside world but also that there is a
hierarchy of senses that begins with the sense of touch and
ends with sight. For Suhrawardi it is "sight" which is the
basis of his
epistemological system.
The internal senses for Suhrawardi are of five types,

their existence helps to synthesize the information that
the external
senses have attained.
In
fact,
it
is the
presence of these faculties that may have been the basis

upon which Qutb al-Din Shirazi's argued the external senses
cannot
function
without
senses
did
exist,
not
the
then
internal
senses.
all
knowledge
the
If
these
acquired
through the senses could not have been interpreted in our

mind.
The
synthesize
internal
and
senses,
interpret
whose
the
function
incoming
data,
it
is
to
are
as
follows:30
1-
The
Faculty
of
Common
Sense
fHiss
al-mushtarek),
159
(sensis communis):
This sense acts as one that stores
all the data within itself and makes a judgment as to

its components. In other words, it has the ability to
deconstruct certain events by reducing them to their
essential components.
2-
The Faculty
of Fantasy
(Khiyal):
After events have
passed through the common sense, they are stored in

the faculty of imagination.
3-
The
Faculty
of
Apprehension
(Wahm) :
It
is this
faculty that creates a particular perception of things

and makes a person act accordingly.
It is not clear
whether this perception corresponds to anything real,

or if it is a "will to see".
is able
What is clear is that it
to create a world of its own which is not
necessarily rational.
4-
Imagination
fMutakhawilah):
faculty is a two fold one.
The
function
of this
It can be used by the
faculty of Wahm. which could help the functioning of

that
faculty,
reasoning
or
it
process
thinking agent
could
which
be
would
(Mufakkirah).
used
then
to
be
help
the
called
the
Seyyed Ja'far Sajjadi,
in his book Suhrawardi wa Savri dar Falsafa-vi Ishracr.

31
argues
that
the
development
of
science
and
technology is due to the employment of this faculty by

our reasoning power.
Sajjadi also sees a relationship
between this faculty and that of dreaming.
5-
The Faculty of Memory (Hafizah) :
This faculty, as its
name suggests, stores all the information it receives

from the external senses.
According to Shirazi,
Suhrawardi believes that there
are sub-divisions to these faculties.
For the sake of the
present discussion the above is sufficient, and I will not

elaborate
assuming
on
these
the
Shirazi*s
sub-divisions.
faculties
account
of
Suhrawardi's opinion,
we
It
discussed
them
do
on
actually
is
clear
the
that,
basis
of
correspond
to
then their function depends on the
functioning of the external senses.
However, according to
Suhrawardi certain faculties are able to function if one is

placed
in the position of Ibn Sina's
"suspended man"
without any contact with the outside world.
32
The following
diagram represents how t e different faculties function:

Mutakhayyilah
(imagination)
Mufakirah
>W a h m --->Khiyal
(Common sense)
fantasy
Apprehension
Hafizah (memory)
Having
argued
that
the
above
general
essentially the underlying epistemological

Peripatetics,
Suhrawardi
makes
his
scheme
is
ground of the
criticism
of
Peripatetics' scheme and then offers his solution.
the
In
his
addresses
Philosophy
the issue
of
Illumination.
Suhrawardi
33. by arguing that not only gaining
knowledge of the world
is possible, but that once a person
comes to know of something, his state of affairs changes by

necessity.
As the Quranic
verse says" Are those who know
and those who do not know equal?"
34 One can construct the
opposite of this argument by saying that if knowledge of

the outside world
(A) has been the cause of a change (B)
within
then
person,
between A&B.
there
must
be a
correspondence
Concerning this point Suhrawardi states:
Therefore, of necessity that which is known by you

corresponds with that thing which is known. Thus,
the effect within you should resemble that thing,
[the cause].35
The above argument can be demonstrated as followings:
1-
Absence of the knowledge of a thing and its presence

are not the same.
2-
The status of a person who knows something and one who

does not know that thing is not the same. (F,l)
3-
When
the knower
comes
to
know
of x,
a qualitative
change occurs in him.

4-
This
change
within
the
knowledge of the known.

5-
knower
is
caused
by
the
(F,3)
Thre exists a causal relationship between the knower

and the known.
(F,3,4)
6-
Not everything can be the cause of everything else.
7-
Some degree of affinity or correspondence should exist
162
between a cause and its effect. (F, 6)

/. 8-
There
exists a degree of affinity or correspondence
between
the knowledge of a thing and the degree to
which the knower is changed.
The
exact
nature
of
(F,2,5,7).
this
affinity
between
one's
knowledge
of A
and the amount of change within us B is
something
that
Suhrawardi
part
of
the
elaborates
Peripatetic
Illumination.
section
upon
of
the
in the
latter
Philosophy
of
He begins his elucidations by attacking the
Peripatetics in a section he titles "On the Evidence that

Peripatetic Principles Necessitate that Nothing be Known or
Defined". 36
He offers a number
of arguments that
are
complementary to his earlier assertions in regard to his

theory
of
knowledge.
Peripatetics,
as
Suhrawardi's
presented
in
this
criticism
of
chapter,
can
the
be
summarized in the following points:

1-
"Substance has unknown differentia". 37
2-
"Essences are defined by negation". 38
3-
"The
4-
Soul
and
other
differentia"
39.
" Accident,
e.g.,
mental
blackness,
concepts
have
unknown
has been defined as
'color that is observable to the eye, and the totality

of sight is an accidental concept,
and now that you
know color, it becomes necessary that accidents cannot

even be conceived of". 40
163
"And, of course, the concept of being, that for them

is the axiomatic principle,is now known". 41
"If
it
is
perceived
that
knowledge
of
things
is
through their non-essential attributes and that those

attributes
have
attributes
and
the
same
continues,
then this becomes problematic since according to this

assumption
it
becomes
necessary
that
in
the
world
nothing can be known". 42
The first three principles have been discussed in the

previous sections and they only demonstrate the inadequacy
of the Peripatetics in so far as they rely on definition
for
the
attainment
of truth.
In the fourth principle,
Suhrawardi argues that there are things outside of the mind

which
can
colors.
be
perceived
but
not
defined,
for
example,
These types of phenomena he calls "simple truths"
(h a q a 1iq basitahl which cannot be known through knowledge
by definition.
Accordingly the essence of these types of
truth cannot be grasped by sense perception.43.
Definition
in this regard is not of any assistance either since these

phenomena do not render themselves definable.
As
to
the
"compound
truth"
fhaaa1ig
murakkabah),
Suhrawardi
argues
reduced to their
that
this
category
of
things
can
be
essential components which are the simple
truths and to know them, one has to see them. For instance,
a building or a tree can be reduced to a number of shapes
164
and
colors
that
can
only
be
an
object to
subject's
perception.
From the above, it appears that Suhrawardi is arguing
against the existence of compound truth by maintaining that
all things can be reduced to a simple truth which can only
be known by perception.
This view is part of a response
that Suhrawardi provides in his sixth principle against the

Peripatetics, who maintain a thing can be known through its
attributes
these
and accidents.
attributes
and
The problem is how to define
accidents.
One
thing
has
to
be
defined by another, which means the process can go on ad

infinitum,
and nothing can be known, which is absurd.
At this point one faces the difficulty of interpreting

Suhrawardi's view, since he considers the simple truths to
be of a universal character and,
concepts
since
they cannot
therefore,
exist
in
to be mental
actuality
e.g.
darkness, blueness, etc...

Know that all the categories that the_ Peripatetic
have thought of
are mental(iagli) concepts.
44
What is not clear, however, is how these concepts have
become mental
entities.
that they are innate and
One can explain this by saying

that one is born with them.
The
problem with this explanation is that Suhrawardi explicitly

states the way to know the truth is to "see" (mushahadah) .
For he who has not seen it, [it] cannot be defined
165
or be presented as it really is, and he who has

seen it for himself does not need definition. 45
The
word
"seeing"
however
is
rather loaded
term
which can be interpreted through the a priori concepts. It

can also be the case of a
synthetic a posteriori where
seeing a numerous cases of something
is regarded to be the
case at all times. For example, by seeing many events which

follow a particular cause,
one comes to hold the notion
that all events have a cause, versus analytical a priori

propositions, that are self-evident such as "all bachelors
are unmarried males".
H.
Zia'i,
in his
work
on
Suhrawardi,
different interpretation of this problem.
46
offers
He argues that
the best explanation for this apparent contradiction is to

say that
"seeing"
in this case does not refer to seeing
through sense perception but instead to "a special mode of

perception...
which
is
said
to
be
higher
and
more
fundamental then predicative knowledge" 47

While Zia/i's analysis seems to be correct in general,
in this case there is not sufficient evidence to support
Zia*is interpretation.
This interpretation fails primarily
because of Suhrawardi*s explicit statement that the idea of

what one comes to see remains in the mind.
In other words,
if one never came into contact with the color purple, he

would not have an idea of it.
Therefore, seeing something
through one's eyes is the necessary condition for a person
166
to have
concept of
it.
Let us examine this argument
further through a different approach.

Suhrawardi's general view
understood if we examine some
argument.
For example,
of the senses can be
better
of the consequences
of his
if having a concept of a color
depends on seeing it, then it is plausible to assume that

my concept of purple would be different from yours.
problem,
generally
referred
to in
philosophy
as
This
the
"Knowledge of Other Minds", is one that Suhrawardi himself

accepts.
Icnowledge
Therefore,
attained
private nature.
one
by
of
the
the
senses
characteristics of
is
its
exclusive
the
and
It neither can be shared with anyone nor
can it be verified.
It should be known that your ideas and others'
are not the same as long as your ideas and those
of others are not attained through the same means
of cognition. 48
So far,
from the first two arguments of Suhrawardi,
the following conclusions can be drawn:

1-
Only the simple truth can be known through sense

perception.
2-
Knowledge of the simple truth has the following

characteristics:
A.
Private
B.
Exclusive
C.
Non-verifiable
167
It has not become clear yet what the source of these

concepts
is.
In
the
Philosophy of Illumination. 49
we
encounter an argument which is the key to the understanding

of this problem.
There,
Suhrawardi argues that there are
those who maintain that in order to know something one has

to know it already; otherwise, how would one know it even
if you come across it?
Plato
himself
and
philosophers.
this
has
since
been
repeated
by
many
The implication of Suhrawardi's response to
objection
problem.
This problem was first raised by
also
provides
the
key
to
solving
our
Suhrawardi states that this problem is raised
in
a circumstance under which something is totally unknown.

If something is totally unknown in all its aspects, it can
not be known.
Also, if something is absolutely known, then
it is in a sense too obvious to know.
Something can be
known if part of it is known and part of it unknown.
It is
only then that the unknown part can be known through an

inference from known to unknown.
If the desired entity is completely unknown, then
it cannot be known, and it is the same if
something is completely known but that it has to
be known in some aspect and not known in others
so the unknown can become known through it. 50
Now,
since simple truths are only existing in their
pure form such as colors and are not made up of several

parts
as
forms
and
shapes
are,
completely unknown or entirely known.
they
can
be
either
If the former is the
case, then we can never come to know

not
the
case.
If
it
of colors. This is
is the latter,
the question then
arises as to how it is that we know them in their entirety

since neither definition nor sense perception can tell us
what a color, form or shape is.
While Suhrawardi alludes to this in various places, he
does not treat the subject in detail.
What he ought to say
is that we have to have a pre-knowledge of things, which is

axiomatic
in
nature.
resemble Kant's
These
a priori
axiomatic principles,
concepts,
which
are what Suhrawardi
calls F i t r i w a h . and they allow for a process of synthetic

a
posterior
to
take
place.
These
are
the
concepts
therefore that allow us to recognize something when we see

it.
For example, recognizing that one line is shorter than
another one without measuring it is due to the presence of

these innate ideas.
To
recapitulate
Suhr a w a r d i 's
view
of
attaining
knowledge by sense perception, the following can be said:

Things for Suhrawardi are either single or compound.
If
single, then they have no differentia and therefore we can

not
know
them
by
their
accidents
(Layasim) .
Sense
perception can be helpful to decipher the simple from the

compound and further to realize and reduce the compound to
its essential elements which are simple.
The knowledge of
the simple can neither be defined nor be grasped through

the senses,
and, therefore,
to explain one's knowledge of
it there has to be another mode of cognition.

Since,
according
to
Suhrawardi
innate
ideas
are
necessary condition for one to be able to gain knowledge,

let us
then examine this
philosophy.
It
is
only
important part of Suhrawardian
then
that
we
can
formulate
his
notion of philosophical epistemology, which, in my opinion,

is
synthesis
of
knowledge
by
definition,
sense
perception, and innate ideas.
3.
KNOWLEDGE THROUGH INNATE IDEAS:
Suhrawardi,
view
of
both in his critique of the Peripatetic
definition
sense perception,
and
in
argued
the
problems
associated with
for the necessity of an
innate
knowledge that can serve as the foundation of various modes

of cognition.
it
cannot
This knowledge must be certain, which means
have
relationship
been
between
attained
this
through
axiomatic
mediation.
knowledge
The
and
the
knower has to be direct and can only be achieved on the

basis of innate ideas.
Suhrawardi,
in
the
Philosophy
discusses the notion of

modes
them.
of
cognition
His
and
argument
innate
the
is
one has
to
Illumination.
ideas by mentioning
place
of
basically
knowledge is either innate or not.

know a thing,
of
innate
as
ideas
follows:
51
four
among
Human
In order for one to
rely on that which is already
170
known to
him,
and this process can go on ad
something
which
Suhrawardi
Therefore,
attainment
of
maintains
knowledge,
at
is
infinitum,
impossible.
least
partially,
requires having pre-knowledge of that which one wants to

know, and this knowledge can only be innate by nature.
As
Suhrawardi states:
Human knowledge is either innate (Fitriyyah) or
it is not. Whenever in recognizing an' unknown, if
focusing one's attention [i.e. sense perception]
and
referring
to
one's
heart
is
not
sufficient,and if it is not an affair that can be
known through the vision fmusHahidah) that is a
characteristic
of the
great Hakims,
then
necessarily
in knowing we
need pre-given
knowledge...and the process, if carried out in
certain order will lead to the innate ideas. 52
Though
Suhrawardi argues for the existence of these
innate ideas, he does not elaborate on the nature of them.

Ultimately,
he
would
have
to
say
that,
since
the
only
axiomatic entity in the world is light, the nature of these

innate ideas ought to be light or else they themselves will
have to be defined or known through something else which
again
requires
an
infinite
succession
of
contingent
dependent beings, that is impossible.

Suhrawardi
are
necessary
possible.
seems to be suggesting that innate ideas

condition
if
sense perception
is to be
In other words, if knowledge by sense perception
is not going to lead to an infinite succession of beings,

each of which makes the other object known,
ideas
have
to
exist.
It
is,
therefore,
then
innate
reasonable
to
conclude that knowledge through innate ideas for Suhrawardi

is an extension of knowledge by sense perception, and for
this
to
be
possible,
it
has
to
rely
on
an
axiomatic
principle.
SUHRAWARDI*S PHILOSOPHICAL EPXSTEMOLOGY:
As I have demonstrated,
Suhrawardi's
system
with
it is difficult to identify
any
particular
epistemological
paradigm (i.e. empiricism, rationalism, etc...).

argues
that
ultimately
one
can
attain
While he
certainty
only
through the knowledge which is attained by illumination, he

does
not
discard the possibility
of attaining knowledge
through other modes of cognition.

Suhrawardi*s philosophical
epistemology
is primarily
made up of the following three elements.
1-
Definition
2-
Sense Perception
3-
Innate Ideas
He maintains that definition
is problematic because
it has to define not only the essentials of a thing in

question,
as Aristotle
and accidents as well.
indicates,
but all its attributes
This is necessary because they are
as much a part of a thing as the so-called essentials, and
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
definition
through
Suhrawardi
says
this
this
ispractically
problem
exists on
impossible.
the
following
ground:
All definitions inevitably lead to those a priori
concepts which themselves are in no need of being
defined; if this were not the case there would
result an infinite succession. 53
Even if the above were possible, Suhrawardi tells us
that there are those
elementsthat are beyond
such as sound, smell, etc
definition
And he says,
Sound cannot be defined by something else and

generally simple sensations cannot be defined. 54
To
should
put
be
it
simply,
taken
Suhrawardi
for what
it
would
say
definition
is worth and its value
in
leading to truth should not be over emphasized.

Therefore,
it became clear that limits and
definitions in the manner that the Peripatetics
have presented will never be attained. 55
Contrary to the less significant place that definition
has
in
Suhrawardi's
perception
is
because most
much
more
epistemology,
significant.
This
is
sense
partly
things that cannot be defined can be known
through the senses.

Thus,
philosophical
It is for this reason that he says: "
knowing and recognizing of some affairs becomes
task of the senses" 56

The
senses,
Suhrawardi
tells
us,
will
be
able
to
distinguish between the simple and compound entities.
The
compound ones are defined in terms of the single entities

and not vice versa.
the
same
faced
Despite this, our senses cannot escape
problem that
with
thing,
definition
the
faced.
compound
can
simple, but how do we know the simple?
That
be
is,
known
when
by
the
It is at this point
that either there has to be an axiomatic principle in terms

of which everything can be defined or we again have the
problem of knowing one thing through another ad infinitum.
On this Suhrawardi states:
There is nothing more apparent than what can be
sensed,.. .since all our knowledge comes from the
senses, therefore, all that is sensed is innate
and can not be defined. 57
Therefore sense perception ultimately faces the same
shortcoming as definition.
However,
Suhrawardi does not
refute this mode of cognition altogether and considers it

useful in so far as it allows us to know those things that
cannot be defined.
Finally,
there are the innate ideas that Suhrawardi
considers to be necessary in order to connect the other two

elements of his philosophical epistemology.
The existence
of
link
innate
ideas
Suhrawardi's
perception
view
which
provides
of
the
knowledge
enables
him
consistent theory of knowledge.

and
their structure,
be
necessary
by
to
definition
offer
between
and
sense
coherent
and
The nature of these ideas
it Kantian or Platonic,
remains
somewhat unclear in his philosophical writings,
and it is
not until we consider his theosophical writings that this

matter is clarified.
The nature of these ideas has to be axiomatic but the
only
thing
axiomatic,
whose
is
nature
Light.
according
Therefore,
to
it
is
Suhrawardi
is
reasonable
to
conclude that the innate idea that is a key to the validity

of Suhrawardi's philosophical epistemology is Light.
in
this
sense
that
Light
becomes
common
It is
thread
that
connects his philosophical and theosophical writings.

Suhrawardi's
therefore,
concept
of
philosophical
epistemology,
is based on the idea that while different modes
of cognition and schools of epistemology are useful in some

domains,
ultimately
certainty
comes
which is knowledge without mediation.

the Hikmat al-ishrag he
through
illumination
In the beginning of
summarizes his view towards his
theory of "presential knowledge".
He states:
As we observe the sensible world through which we

gain certainty of their states of affairs, we
then base a thorough and precise science on this
basis (math, astronomy). By analogy, we observe
certain things in the spiritual domain and then
use them as a foundation upon which other things
can be based.
He whose path and method is other
than this will not benefit from this and soon
will be plunged into doubt. 58
What Suhrawardi has clearly been trying to demonstrate
is
that
philosophy
in
general
and
epistemology
in
particular have to have an ishraoi foundation if they are
going to be used as a mode of cognition.

becomes
the
substance
of
knowledge
Light, therefore,
and
knowledge
the
substance of Light.
If there be anything that needs no definition or
explanation, it has to be obvious by nature, and
there is nothing more obvious and clear than
light.
Thus, there is nothing that needs no
definition except light. 59
The role of Light in Suhrawardi's epistemology is a
central issue which I shall consider
chapter.
in the forthcoming
However, before I embark on this task, a general
survey of Suhrawardi's theosophical ideas is necessary if

the
role
of
Light
in his
theory of knowledge
is to be
properly understood.
176
END NOTES:
CHAPTER 4
1-
This interpretation belongs to a certain strand of

post-Mulla Sadrian philosophers in Iran whose ^reading
of Suhrawardi is a Peripatetic one.
H a >ri is a
leading figure in this school and his rationalistic
. reading of Suhrawardi as examplified in his Knowledge
by Presence alludes to this approach.
2-
Plato's Socratic method as examplified in the Meno and

the Symposium intends to define and redefine a "thing"
until one reaches to an axiomatic definition which is
also a means of understanding the forms. The Socratic
method is related to the Platonic epistemology and the
theory of "recollection" which lies at the heart of
it.
3-
Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, p.160.
4-
Ibid, BK 2, 91a
5-
Ibid, 90b
6-
Ibid, BK. CH.8
7-
Ibid, pp.31-32.
8-
Ibid, Bk 2, ch.7 92b
9-
Ibid, 93a, p. 5.
10-
Opera 2, Ch. 1, sec. 9-12
11-
Ibid, p.34.
12-
Ibid, p.35.
13-
Ibid, pp.29-36.
14-
Opera l, p.17.
15-
Ibid, p. 199.
the end of
Peripatetics
categories.
16-
al-Talwihat. pp. 14. This quotation is taken from H.

Zia i's Suhrawardi's Philosophy of Illumination, and
the translation is his. p.117.
17-
Ibid, p.14.
pp.11-12.
pp.29-30.
pp.
Throughout this work, especially towards

this book, Suhrawardi criticizes the
on their concept of definition and
177
18-
For more information see: H. Zia i, Suhrawardis

Philosophy of Illumination. pp.H6ff.
Zia i offers an
extensive treatment of each section and the problems
associated with it.
19-
Opera 3, p.5.
20-
Opera 1, Sec.l., p.199.
21-
Opera 3, p.4.
22-
Ibid, p.86.
23-
Aristotle, Posterior Analytics. BK 3., 90 b,
24-
What Suhrawardi has in mind are the cases of those

things whose genus and differentia are the same, such
as colors.
25-
Opera 2, p.36.
26-
Ibid, Sec. 9-14
27-
Qutb al-Din Shirazi, Sharh-i hikmat al-ishraq, pp.454457.
28-
Suhrawardi alludes to this point in his work called

Treatise On the Truth of Love fRisalah fi haqjqat alHshq') .
29-
Qutb al-Din Shirazi, Sharh-i hikmat al-ishraq. p.455.
30-
S.H. Nasr, "Shihiab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul", in M.M.

Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, p.393.
31-
Seyyed Ja* far Sajadi, Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi

Savri Par Falsafah Ishrag. Tehran 1984.
p. 15.
wa
32 - Ibn Sina, alIsharat wal-tanbihat. sec.6

33-
Opera 2, Ch.2
Sec. 50, 54, 70, 74.
34-
This verse alludes to the existential significance

ofknowledge in so far as it is able to change and
transform the inner nature of man. This changes the
ontological status of those who know and those who
do not "know".
Suhrawardi makes extensive use of the
uranic verses.
However, because the emphasis of this
work
is on his
rational approach
( ca q l i )
to
philosophical problems, I have not emphasized his use
of the Quranic verses (naqli).
178
35-
Opera 2, p.24
36-
Ibid, p.146.
37-
Ibid, p. 146.
38-
Ibid, p.146.
39-
Ibid, p.146.
40-
Ibid, p.146.
41-
Ibid, p.146.
42-
Ibid, p.146.
43-
Ibid, p.147.
44-
Ibid, p.147.
45-
Ibid, p.147.
46-
H. Ziai,
p.202ff
47-
Ibid, P- 209.
48-
Opera 2
49-
Ibid, Part 2, sec
50-
Ibid, P- 110.
51-
Ibid, sec. 6 p.28
52-
Ibid, Part 1, sec
53-
Ibid, P. 194.
54-
Ibid, P- 194.
55-
Ibid, P- 36.
56-
Ibid, P- 35.
57-
Ibid, P- 195.
58-
Opera 2, p. 22 .
59-
Ibid, P- 197.
Suhrawardi*s
Philosophy
of
Illumination.
p.80.
179
CHAPTER 5
AN ANALYSIS OF SUHRAWARDI *S THEOSOPHICAL VIEWS
Suhrawardi s illuminationist metaphysics
is based on
the emanation of light from the Light of lights, which he

identifies
with
God.
Accordingly,
the
Light
of
Lights
emanates a lower order of light which is less intense than

the one above it.
darkness.
This process continues until it reaches
Each level of
light corresponds to a reality
which for Suhrawardi ranges from the angelic world to the

inanimate objects.
Having argued for a hierarchy of light
as the basis of his fundamental ontology, he then goes on

to analyze different philosophical issues in light of this
ontology.
Suhrawardi
different
expresses his
styles
narratives,
he
of
wrote
theosophical
writings.
a
number of
First,
views
in
short,
his
but
in
two
Persian
completely
symbolic, stories, most of which are symbolic descriptions

of different stages of the spiritual path and the dangers
encountered therein.
because
They become important for our inquiry
traditional ' symbolism
unveils
those
ishraai
principles that serve as the axioms upon which Suhrawardi's

theosophical epistemology is built.
The
second
type
are
theosophical
writings,
as
180
exemplified in the second part of Suhrawardi's Philosophy

of Illumination, are less symbolic and are amongst the most
dense and complicated -doctrines'of a theosophical nature.
This part of the above book is composed of five parts and
begins with the title " On Divine Light and the Light of
Lights,the Origin of.Light and its Order". 1 It can be said
that these writings of Suhrawardi are complementary to his
Persian narratives or, to put it differently,
they are a
theosophical analysis of his symbolic writings.
Let us now
consider some of these writings and doctrines.

In reading Suhrawardis theosophical writings, one has
to
remember
writings
is
that
the
basic
Suhrawardi*s
illumination.
It
is
presupposition
vision
precisely
and
this
behind
these
experience
"Experience"
of
that
Suhrawardi tries to reflect throughout his writings, be it

in his Persian mystical tales or other writings.
It is
also noteworthy that, while his philosophical writings in

his tetralogy can clearly be distinguished from the rest of
his works both in terms of form and content, they should be
regarded
as a philosophical analysis of his theosophical
doctrines.
In the following chapter I intend to offer an analysis
of those themes within his theosophical writings from which
his
theosophical
epistemology,
theory of knowledge by presence
often
referred
to
as the
îlm al-huduril, has been
developed.
1 81
1.
O N THE CLASSIFICATION O F A L L BEINGS
Suhrawardi argues that all existing entities

world are made up of Light,
in the
which are emanated form the
Light of Lights. Where there is no light there is darkness,

which he identifies with non-existence (adam).
He reminds
us that the light we see is different from the Light which

forms the basis of his ontology,
although ultimately they
are of the same origin.

In
the
second
section
of
the
Philosophy
of
Illumination. titled "On Light and Darkness" 2, Suhrawardi,

through the above distinction which constitutes the core of
his school,
discloses a doctrine that revolutionized the
entire history of Islamic philosophy.

Instead
of
using
the
classical
Aristotelian
classification, he divides existing entities on the basis

of their intensity of light or darkness.
Light of lights,
being the most intense light, emanates a less intense light

from itself and this process
darkness.
Furthermore,
"metaphorical"
light
continues until
it reaches
he distinguishes real Light from

(majaz),
although
in
the
final
analysis i is of the same nature as the real Light.

In a sense, while Suhrawardi has changed the content
of
the
traditional
ontology
of
Islamic
philosophy
from
"being" to "light", he has nevertheless kept the form, and,
182
more importantly the hierarchical nature of this ontology,

unders t a n d i n g
impossible
Suhrawardi's
without
illumination
theosophical
familiarity -with
the
views
is
language,
of
and the peculiar vocabulary which
This unique philosophical
language,
he uses.
primarily created by
Suhrawardi himself,. encompasses an entirely different set

of
issues
through a
expresses.
Let
special
us
mode
briefly
of cognition which he
examine
some
of
these
terminologies.
INCORPOREAL
LIGHT
(nur
al-mui arrad)=
The
Light
that
subsists by itself.
ACCIDENTAL LIGHT
(nur <aradi)= The light that depends on
something other than itself.

CORPOREAL DARKNESS (ghasaat=
"It is that whose true nature
is darkness". 3.
ACCIDENTAL DARKNESS
(h a y 1ah or hav'at-i Zolmanit=
It is
the type of darkness that depends on something other than

itself
and
requires
space
and
has
the
accident
of
darkness. 4.
PURGATORY or isthmus ( barzakh)=
" the real definition of
barzakh is that it is an object". 5

it,
"
It
acts
as a veil
that
As S.H. Nasr describes
simultaneously hides
reveals the light of the higher order.
and
Hiding it allows a
certain degree of effusion or irradiation to pass through

it to permit the next lower member of the hierarchy to come
into being". 6
183
PLATONIC
IDEAS
farbab
a l - a n w a or
arbab
al-t.il ismatl=
Literally meaning the "masters of species", they are the

same as the Platonic forms or archetypes.-
Suhrawardi here
relies heavily on the Zoroastrian angelology to demgristrate

how these angels function as the archetypes, each of whom
dominates a particular domain.
2.
LIGHT AS THE EXISTENTIAL CAUSE OF AT.T. THINGS;
Suhrawardi divides all the existing entities into two

categories,
those
that
are
necessary
and
thereby
nature is one of Light, which are then necessary.

are
also
those
that
are
contingent.
He
then
their
There
offers
complex and brilliant argument to prove that things by the

necessity
of
their very
existence
yearn
to
attain
the
darkness
has
incorporeal Light.
Suhrawardi
certain
argues
accidents
that
an
of
such as shape and quantity that are a
part of the nature of the object.

objects
object
One has to remember that
for Suhrawardi represent darkness,
since they are
the lowest existing entities on the ontological hierarchy.

Therefore,
its
the essence of an object is darkness,
accidents
are
various
attributes
of
the
whereas
object
question.
Therefore,
these differences
through which
objects are distinguished, are not the essential
qualities of objects; otherwise all objects would
share in them. 7
in
184
These attributes do not originate from the nature of

the
object
which
is
darkness.
Their
existential
originates from a place other than the object.
cause
Therefore,
darkness as such cannot be manifested except through such

accidental features as shapes, quantity, etc.
Accordingly,
it can be concluded, that the existence of various objects

necessitates
that darkness manifest
itself through these
accidental characteristics.
Suhrawardi says that one can argue against his view by
saying that these accidental features make up the essential
nature of the objects and there
these
accidents.
This
view
is no nature apart from

is
something
that
the
Peripatetics may argue for and to which Suhrawardi replies

b y saying that if this were the case, then there should not
have been any difference between objects since neither an
essence
(i.e.
sweetness)
can be divided-
nor a universal
(i.e. whiteness)
Thus, the very presence of various objects
is a counter-argument to this objection since differences

among existent beings are due to their essence (mahiyyah),
and that
is determined by its closeness to the Light of
Lights.
Suhrawardi
continues
by
saying
that
it
is
inconceivable that one object could cause the existence of

another one, since they are what he calls "dead bodies". 8.
Soon you will find out that no object can be the
cause of another one. 9
185
From
the
above,
he
concludes
that,
since darkness
cannot be the cause of its accidental features and because

objects cannot be the cause of one another., there has to be
something other than these items that can be' the cause of
their existence.
This cause for Suhrawardi is the uncaused
Cause, which he .identifies with pure Light or incorporeal

Light that for him is axiomatic.
that
represent
the
lowest
Therefore, even objects
entities
on
the
ontological
hierarchy of light ultimately need Light as their source of

existence.
This
interesting
argument
of
Suhrawardi's
and
the
distinction he makes between the categories are based on an

assumption
entire
that
ishraoi
with Light.
plays
doctrine.
crucial
That
role
is the
in validating
the
identifying of
God
If this is the case, then the above argument
is valid; otherwise the value of "Light" as the ultimate

cause of the existence of an object is no more valid than
darkness
is.
It
is not possible to
argue against this
truth-claim of Suhrawardi, in that the crucial principle of

"God-Light" is the result of a particular mode of cognition
that is only verifiable by the initiates.
S u h r a w a r d i 8s
substantiated
experience
nature
of
of
the
on
claim
two
the
that
grounds.
Divine,
light
itself.
and
God
First,
is
Light
can
Suhrawardi's
secondly,
Suhrawardi
the
tells
be
inner
revealing
us
that
mystical experience for him is in the form of Light (barigi
illah it with different intensities.
As I have indicated,
verification of Suhrawardi's claim on an analytical basis

is not possible.
It is,
however,
the revealing nature of Light which
forms the objective basis of his argument since it is Light

which
brings . the
existent
beings
from
potentiality
actuality by enabling them to reveal themselves.

precisely
this
revealing
power
of
light
to
It is
which
allows
Suhrawardi to express God as Light.

Granting
the
equation
of
God=Light,
then
proceed to further elaborate on his theosophical

Suhrawardi
himself
from
association
this
defines
Light
as
realizes
and,
that
we
system.
the problem that may

in
which
numerous
resembles
result
references,
a
can
he
traditional
definition of God.
If you want to find a criterion for the
incorporeal Light it is this : Light is a thing
that in its nature is obvious and reveals all
other things. It is inherently more obvious_than
anything else whose appearance is added [idafah]
to its truth. 10
3.
LIGHT AS CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE SELF:
Suhrawardi
then
moves
on
to
put
forward
what
consider to be his most important doctrine, that is:

He who can understand
incorporeal light. 11
his
own
nature will
be
This
single
important
assertion,
principle
of
in
my
opinion,
ishraai
is the
philosophy,
most
since
it
equates consciousness of oneself- with pure Light and pure

Light with God. Therefore,
one
gains
consciousness
illuminated.
it follows that, to the extent

of
one's
own
nature,
he
is
According to Suhrawardi, this principle lies
at the heart of ishraai wisdom.
Let us see how Suhrawardi
proceeds to arrive at this conclusion.

He begins by arguing that all beings have an essence
(dhat) of which they are either aware or not.
aware,
then
revealed
they cannot
for him". 12
be
dark,
If they are
since "his essence
is
To support this claim Suhrawardi
offers the following argument:
Any being whose essence and
essential
to him and who
necessity,
nature
are revealed
exists
by
then his knowledge of his own essential nature
is not attained through mediation, but is the result of a

direct witnessing of one's inner self.
knowledge of one's own headache.
that
from
Now if one would claim
" I know of my headache", then either I am different

my headache or we are the same.
from my
know
It is almost like
If I am different
headache then it is necessary for me to come to

of my headache
there isnone.
through a mediator, and in this case
If my headache and I are one and
the same,
then is this headache an extension of my "self" that once

was not there and now exists?
It is from this argument
that Suhrawardi arrives at the central issue of how I come
188
to know myself: through attributes of "I" or through some

other mode of cognition.
The above is a rather complex- problem since knowledge
by mediation
whereas
requires
direct
separation
knowledge
of
subject
necessitates
the
and ..object,
union
of
the
subject and the. object. But in this case, if "I" and the
headache constitute one entity, then either I am a changing
substance which means there is no "I", or, if it is the
same,
" X"
and its characteristics,
not be the same.
namely headache,
can
This exposition, which is an elaboration
on Suhrawardi's argument,
is only an introduction to the
real problem which he is trying to argue for, which is that

the
consciousness
of
one's
self
is
equivalent
to
the
incorporeal light.
Suhrawardi continues by arguing that one cannot come
to know of one's "self" through something other than the
self.
His argument is totally similar to Descartes' , since
Suhrawardi says that in the statement "I have a headache",

I
am
implicitly
saying
property of "headache".
there
is
an
that
has
the
However, before I can say this, I
have to know myself and the headache.

know myself before my headache?
simple and yet complex.
"I"
How did I come to
Suhrawardi's answer
is
It is simple because he says one
is aware of oneself, and it is complex because this pre

existing type of cognition or consciousness has to do with
the type of epistemology Suhrawardi is advocating.
As he
189
states:
You cannot be ignorant of your essence (dhat) and
of the understanding of your essence.. Since it is
not possible for your understanding (of yourself)
to be in the form of essence or something added
to
the
essence.
Therefore,
you
in
your
understanding of your essence, do not need a self
evident truth or that which is not absent from
its essence. 1-3
So far Suhrawardi has succeeded in demonstrating that
gaining consciousness of one's "self" is necessary in order
to attain any other type of knowledge.
Towards the end of
this section Suhrawardi offers, a complicated argument in

regard
to
this
which
is
as
follows:
The
nature
of
consciousness is such that it wants to reveal and disclose.

In
other
essence
words
of
"revealedness"
consciousness.
and
disclosure
However,
if
are
the
consciousness
reveals what the "self" is, then there has to be something

that
discloses
continues
ad
what
consciousness
inf in itum.
which
is,
and
Suhrawardi
this
process
believes
is
impossible.
To avoid this problem, consciousness and the self must
be one and the same .
in
terms
Suhrawardi,
of
that
The self, therefore, must be defined
whose
essence
is
most
obvious.
this is none other than Light.
For
Suhrawardi1s
argument in support of this view is as follows:

You should not say that the "I" of mine is that
which needs to be revealed because then it
becomes necessary that the "I" be hidden.
Your
"I" is the nature of disclosure and light....
Thus, he who becomes conscious of his own essence

is the incorporeal Light, and every incorporeal
Light is apparent and understood by its nature.14
Ahmad
ibn
Philosophy
al-Harawi,
of
in
his
Illumination.
titled
elaborates o n .this very issue.

one
may
be
conscious
of
commentary
upon
Anwa r i v v a h .
He maintains that,
one's
own
the
"self",
he
15
while
is
not
conscious of his own organs, which means that the self or

"I" is different from these organs, while the "I" has the
ability to know them.
From this, Hirawi.concludes that "I"
must be a pure substance and not affiliated with any of

these organs.
are
Hirawi also indicates that since all things
attributes
of
the
"I",
then
we
know
knowing the self and not vice versa.
them
through
That is, we always
say "I am knowledgeable" or "I am just", etc.
For one to
assert this, there has to be an "I" which has the property

X, and therefore one comes to know X through "I" and not
"I" through XIf
we
say
"I"
is
known
through
X and
is
known
through Y and Y through Z, then we will never know "I", and

that is obviously false, since everyone knows his own self.
The
conclusion
Suhrawardi's
that Harawi
argument,
arrives
is that
*' I
at,
on the basis
" must
be
so
of
self-
evident that everything else is known through it and, it is

not
the
case
Naturally,
that
since
it
is
known
Suhrawardi
through
equates
something
Light with
else.
the most
self-evident truth in the universe, self cannot be anything

other than Light.
...Since the essence of a-being is disclosed by
nature to him, disclosedness is not hxi added
attribute of the essence 16,and Light is the same
as disclosedness.
Therefore, it was proven that
human essence fnafs natiqahj is an incorporeal
: Light. 17 .
Having
himself
concluded
that
he
who
becomes
conscious
of
becomes incorporeal Light, he then argues that the
reverse is also true.
He states:
Therefore, it was proven that every being who

becomes
conscious
of his
essence
is
an
incorporeal Light, and its opposite, meaning
everything that is Light is also conscious of its
own nature, is also true.
18
4.
LIGHT AND ITS VARIETY
Having offered a number of reasons for the validity of

both of the above views in the Philosophy of Illumination
and the
al-Talwihat. 19 Suhrawardi goes on to discuss a
variety of issues related to his ontology.
For example, he
argues that since all things are made up of light,
then
what would be the distinguishing factor between two lights?

Since all
difference
existent entities are made up of light,

cannot
be
in
their
essence
and
the
their
common
element among all existing beings (macbih al-ishtiralO must

be the Light itself.
Since it cannot be a different type
of Light from what it can constitute, their difference lies
in their intensity. If their differentia (mabih al-imtivaz)

were due to
some other element,
would either be an object
then this other element
(hayat)
or a. another element.
It is not an object since all objects are made up of light,

and it can not be another element since that would require
the existence .of. a thing other than light which is contrary
to the fundamental principle of the school of ishrag.
In
section titled
" Light
and
its
Types"
20
he
argues that all lights are the same as far as their essence
goes,
and their differentia lies in the degree of their
intensity.
Therefore, all the existing beings according to
Suhrawardi
can
intensity and
be
categorized
on
the
basis
of
their
closeness to the Light of Lights.
The conclusion Suhrawardi draws from this is that the

difference between lights can only be themselves and the
only thing that distinguishes one light from another is its
intensity,
since
the presence
of
third distinguishing
element is inconceivable.
Thus far, Suhrawardi has demonstrated the validity of
the following principles:
1-
" Your 'I' is incorporeal light and is conscious

of its essence" 21
2-
"There is no difference in the essential nature

of incorporeal lights" 22
From this Suhrawardi infers the following conclusion:
193
It
is,
therefore,
necessary
for
incorporeal lights to be conscious
essential natures. 23.
This
is
an
extremely
important
all
the
of their
discovery
which
demonstrates how "self and incorporeal Light are the same.

This, doctrine, if treated on a semantic level, leads to the
conclusion
that
incorporeal
there
Light,
consciousness.
an
exist
three
essential
These
separate
nature
items
and,
stand
entities:
finally,
in
certain
relationship to one another, which can be demonstrated as

the following:
consciousness
Incorporeal
of
Light------------------------>
Essential
. nature
1
Clearly,
Suhrawardi
is
against
the
above
formula,
since incorporeal Light by its very nature is axiomatic and

therefore can not have an essential nature.
Furthermore,
consciousness again cannot be in an epistemic relationship

between the subject and the object.
knower and the known
one and the same. 24
For Suhrawardi,
the
and the relationship between them are

To put it differently, Light is its
own essential nature and by the virtue of its being light,

it is disclosed (zahir).
194
The consequence of this view,

greater
detail
in
the
next
as I will discuss
chapter,
is that
to
in
become
illuminated,one has to .become conscious of one's true se'if,

or "I",
and the extent to which one comes tor know himself
is the same as the extent to which one is illuminated.
It
is within an ishraqi context that Light, consciousness, and

essential nature become one and the same.
In fact, they
provide us with the means to construct an epistemological

system
for
human
spiritual growth on the basis
of the
above discovery, which is the cornerstone of Suhrawardi's

philosophy of illumination.
The more one is (or becomes)
conscious of oneself, the more one is illuminated.

important
What is
is to realize that light and consciousness are
concepts whose organic relationship depend on the stage of

the person who is on the path (salik) .
It is, therefore,
possible for man to arrive at the
highest and most intense light,

al-anwar)
that
is
none
other
the Light of Lights

than
the
stage
of
(nur
unity
between man and God.
Through this intricate interplay of
incorporeal
consciousness
light,
and
man's
essential
nature, Suhrawardi not only provides the theoretical basis

of his ishraqi doctrine but also offers a practical guide
as to how one can go from one degree of consciousness to a
higher one.
5.
ON UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY
1 95
Leaving the possibility of claiming the ontological

ladder
open,
Suhrawardi
goes - on
to
describe
the
peculiarities
of his ontological system and
rin particular
the necessity
of the existence of the Light
of lights.
number
of
issues
that
play an
important
role
in
A
the
formation of his theosophical view with regard to the Light

of Lights are:
1-
There
exists
Light
of
Lights
fnur
al-anwarl
that exists by necessity.
2-
The Light of Lights is that from which all other

lights are emanated.
3-
The
higher Light is characterized
fgahr)
by domination
and the lower one by loveand yearning
(Mahabbah).
There
are
two
ontology
which
inherent
problem
being,
and
must
in
therefore
tells us that
be
with
regard
discussed.
to
First,
stating
that
Light
is
cannot
lack
anything.
Suhrawardi's
there
a
is
an
necessary
Suhrawardi
there are different degrees of Light, which
implies imperfection.
problem which
issues
is
the
This issue gives rise to a second

mechanism
by
which a higher
light
196
emanates a lower one.
He addresses the first problem by
saying:
And the other obj ection ^ they have raised and
said: Something that exists by the necessity of
its
nature,
neither can be perfected nor
imperfected. 25
Suhrawardi maintains that it is true that there are
differences
between
lights
but
that
these
differences
should not be viewed as makeing a light a contingent being.

Eis argument is based on the intensity and weakness of the
light
and
other
words,
whereas
not a difference
its
the
in the nature of light.
''lightness"
intensity
of
light
varies.
To
remains
In
the
Suhrawardi
same
this
is
obvious and he states:

The difference between them lies not in their
perfection or imperfection but in respect to
their light.26
xixjl^
=
>
jlo
McuauDC
uiic
v;iiuwj.v^JLuaj.
d ua uus
. r
ui
--------
xwwcl
light is not intrinsic, and its ability to unite with the

Light
of
imperfect.
potential
Lights
its
character
not to
be
Therefore, for Suhrawardi, a light that has the

to
imperfection
deficient
is what makes
become
can
perfect
only
being.
be
is
never
attributed
Imperfection
for
imperfect
to
an
since
inherently
Suhrawardi
is
not
necessarily the absence or lacking of something but is not

having fulfilled the highest possible state (nags).
This
situation
creates
several
questions
which
197
Suhrawardi
himself
potentially
attempts to
perfect
and
address.
actually
If a
imperfect,
light
then
is
this
imperfection has been .caused b y something other than the

light
itself.
If
we
say
inherent,
the' cause
then
it
o f r this
imperfection
was
would
imperfection,
which Suhrawardi. does not grant.
be
actual
a
real
If we say
the reason or, cause of this imperfection lies elsewhere,

then an investigation of this source becomes necessary and
leads us to
our next question, which is the mechanism of
how a higher light causes a lower one.

Suhrawardi's theory of emanation, as recounted in the
Philosophy of illumination, maintains that when the Light
of Lights emanates a lower light, it is not the case that
the Light of Lights gives up something of itself in order
to create a lower order.
from
being
in
order
This is because taking something

to
create
something
else
is
characteristic of material entities and does not apply to

light.
It is not even possible for the Light of Lights to
transfer some of Its qualities
to the lower order since It
is not made up of different things.

essential
qualities
nor
the
Therefore, neither the
accidental
qualities
of the
Light of Lights are transferred to produce a new order.

Suhrawardi says:
Attainment of light from the Light of Lights
not that something is separated from it,since,
you know, separation and union are qualities
objects, and Light of Lights is beyond it and
more sacred than that. 27
is
as
of
is
As
198
Suhrawardi does not directly address the difficulties

that are associated with the problem of causality between
the Light of Lights and the light that is emanated from it.
M. Ha*ri,
in his- book Presential Knowledge. 28 develops a
theory of emanation 29. that seeks to explain how different

lights
are
emanated
from
the
Light
of Lights.
Ha*ri's
model is based on an uninterrupted series of lights without

any void
between
them.
30
His model
is based on
pyramid in which existent beings whose ontological distance

to the ultimate light is the farthest are the base, and the
Light of Lights lies at the top while the angelic world and
other
levels
of
reality
are
located
below them.
Ha* ri
offers the following diagram to illustrate his theory:

X
According
to
Ha*ri,
whose
model
is
an
attempt
to
199
ultimately solve the inherent contradiction between unity

and multiplicity, although A,B,C,... are different members
of a set,they originate from the same source (i.e. X) and
thereby the A,B,C,... are in a sense the same.
argued that,
of
It can be
although this sameness is not a strict sense
identity,
nevertheless
the
organic
relationship
that
exists between, them allows for a certain type of identity

to be established between them.
As HaJri states it:

0
While these modes and degrees of emanation

following one upon the other appear in their own
particular stages to be different from another in
terms of such hierarchical levels and proportions
of closeness and remoteness to the ultimate
principle, they all constitute only one single
and indivisible vertical line from the base, up
to the zenith of the pyramid of emanation. 3JL
Ha*ri describes the relationship between one light and
the
next
to
be
ishragiwaht . 32.
1
4>U a
c u e
an
This
_
4. c x a u
v ~
" illuminative
relation"
(idafah
illuminative relationship
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
y c u w c c n
lw u
j
s*
^
e
*
u x iie ittilL
J
UV - y a -^
u iiX ilQ ^ ,
is not
v
&UU
the relationship between two things of the same nature.
.
*.
IS
It
is on this basis that the problem of sameness and change,

or unity and multiplicity, can be explained.
While Har'i argues that "the illuminative causation of
emanation
meditation"
without
.33
is
any
the
disruption
case,
S.H.
or
Nasr
any
extraneous
34. seems
to
be
arguing that there is mediation between different levels of

light. Nasr emphasizes that these intermediary levels are
necessary in order for the intensity of the light to be
reduced.
This
exist
order
in
intermediary "purgatory"
to
degrees of light.
connect
two
(barzakh)
ontologically
has to
different
What is interesting here is that Nasr
maintains that this intermediary itself is a light that has

a double role.
It acts both as a light and as a veil and,
therefore, while, it discloses,.it reveals as well.

And each light is an isthmus. or "purgatory"
(barzakh^ ,between the two luminosities, above and
below it. It acts as a veil which simultaneously
hides and reveals the light of the higher order
hiding it in that it is not transmitted in its
intensity and revealing it in that it allows a
certain degree of effusion or irradiation to pass
through it to permit the lower member of the
hierarchy to come into being- 35.
While
the
intermediary
is
necessity
one
that
for
Ha^ri
the
existence
ignores,
he
of
an
does
not
elaborate as to how and why light loses its intensity as it

goes from X to A.
amount of light
There must be something that reduces the

that passes through it.
This "thing" is
absent in Ha*r i 's pyramid model and to say that between A

and
there
sufficient.
exists
an
illuminative
relation
is
not
What Ha^ri needs to explain is the mechanism
through which the intensity of the light becomes weaker.

Nasr maintains that each light retains some degree of
light
and
plausible
reveals
the
explanation
rest.
which,
This
while
view
it
is
adheres
the
to
only
the
pyramidal model of illumination, provides a mechanism for

lights to go from X >A.
The only other alternative would
201
be to say that there exists an intermediary between A and B

whose nature is other than light, and that is contradictory
to Suhrawardi's ontological system-.
Ha* ri *s
argument
interpretation
that
Suhrawardi
may
puts
have
been tased on
forward.
In the
the
section
called " On How Multiplicity is Emanated from Unity and Its

Order"
36,
receives
Suhrawardi
argues
that
each
level
light from two different sources,
immediate light
from which
of
light
one from the
it has been emanated and the
second from the nur al-anwar.
It is on this basis that one
can conclude that no mediation can exist between one light

and the next simply because the light of lights is directly
the
existential
cause
of
all
other
lights.
problem of why lights become dimmer,
As to
the
it can be said that
the Light of Lights wishes to coordinate the intensity of

the light that it shines upon and the ontological status of
this light.
As Suhrawardi states:
Each of these incorporeal lights witnesses the

Light of Lights without any mediation,and from
the Light of Lights a ray of light shines upon
it. 37
Suhrawardi
then
embarks
multiplicity
could
come
principle
" the
Necessity
Lower"
of
(Qa'idah
al-imkan
from
on
unity
of
the
ishrift. 38
demonstrating
by
analyzing
Higher
how
the
before
the
Accordingly,
for
every being a higher one can be conceived of, and for all
beings a highest one exists.
The existence of every being
2 02
in a sense necessitates the existence of a higher one and

ultimately
the
highest
one.
For example,
when
we
say
"hot , immediately the, concept "hotter" cpmes to mind, and

since this process can not go on ad infinitum, then there
must be
a "hottest".
Suhrawardi applies this principle
within the context of light in .order to explain the problem

of how multiplicity can come from unity. He argues that if
the
nature
explain
of
the
God
is
simple
existence
of
so
(basit) , then
many
how
different
can
we
beings?
Suhrawardi maintains that it is only through equating each

level of light with a level of reality
that this problem
can be solved.
Having explained this principle, he goes on to argue
that if the Light of Lights would create the lower world
directly without mediation, then he could not have created
the archetypes, since multiplicity can not come from unity.
Therefore, due to the uniformity of the divine essence, two
realities,
one of the
higher order
(ashraf)
lower order
(akhas)
and one
of
cannot be created by the Light of
Lights.
If the Light of Lights did not create the archetypes
directly through its emanation,
then they must have been
created through mediation or some other element.

two explanations at this point.
material
entities
have
caused
There are
One is to say that the

the
archetypes
to
exist,
which is absurd, not only because ontologically the lower
203
cannot be
things
the cause of the higher,
cannot
produce
immaterial
but because material

entities.
The
other
explanation would be to. say that the archetypes are created

by a source
other than the Light of Lights/
imply
there
that
something
that
archetypes.
exists
the
This
supreme light.
Light
is
source
of Lights
contrary
to
can
cannot,
our
produce
namely
definition
of
the
the
If a source other than the Light of Lights
has produced an ontologically

ontological
which
This would
status
is
superior entity,
superior to
that
then its
of the Light of
Lights, which is impossible.

From
the
above,
Suhrawardi
concludes
that
the only
plausible explanation is that the Light of Lights must have

first created the archetypes; then they were externalized.
Through thi s , Suhrawardi is able to explain logically the
presence of multiplicity in relation to one single source
of emanation.
archetypes
discusses
is
The process of the

a
rather complicated
in some length.
externalization of the
one which Suhrawardi
He is careful to maintain the
existence of the archetypes by the direct emanation of the

Light of Lights and yet find a solution to the presence of
multiplicity from a single source of emanation.
Suhrawardi argues that the Light of Lights performs a
double function.
also
It gives existence to a lower order and
illuminates it.
if this be the case,
The objection that arises is that,

the Light of Lights is not one single
204
unitary reality but is made up of many different elements

each of which performs a different function.
Suhrawardi responds to this- by saying that if it were
the case that from the essence of the Light of Lights two
distinct
things
were
created,
then
the
above
objection
would have been valid, but this is not the case. The Light
of Lights only emanates the existence of the lower light
(al-nur
al-acrrab)
and
the
light
that
the
lower
light
receives is not from the essence of the Light of Lights but

from the inherent receptivity of the lower light, which by
virtue of its ontological status attracts the higher light.
By offering this argument, Suhrawardi is shifting the very
act
of
illumination
by
the
Light
of
Lights
from
an
attribute of its essence to the desire of a lower light to

be illuminated.
In fact,
Suhrawardi tells us that there
are three elements that explain how the illumination of a

lower light takes place:
1-
Receptivity of the agent,
in this case a lower
light.
2-
Love for the Light of Lights.
3-
Absence of any veil.
From the Light of Lights only the existence of a lower

light is caused,
and the process of shining light upon it
is not a voluntary act on the part of the Light of Lights.
205
It is, therefore, the existence of the above three elements

that explains the presence of various beings in the world .
The Light of Lights does not have to be. a compound being
(murakkab) in
order
to
be
able
to
produce 'multiplicity;
degrees and intensities of beings are what give rise to the

existence of existent beings.
.As Suhrawardi states:
And from a single unitary being, it is plausible

that, due to the diversity and variety of the
state (ahwal) of things, numerous and different
things come into being. 39
Suhrawardi touches upon this theme in several places
within the same section and elaborates on the argument.
6.
ANGELOLOGY
Having
discussed
the
inner
mechanism
of
how
unity
could give rise to plurality from an ishraqi point of view,

he then tells us how from the hierarchy of lights arise two
angelic orders, the latitudinal and the longitudinal.
The
latitudinal
the
order,
which
Suhrawardi
equates
with
Platonic ideas,
he calls "masters of the species"
al-anwav) .
realizes
He
that
to
(arbab
say the archetypes and
angelic orders are different from the Light of Lights would

be
contrary
Lights
to his
thesis which maintains the Light of
is what everything is made up of.
Since one can
neither introduce change into the nature of the Light of

Lights
nor can this nature be a compound entity, then the
206
only logical solution is to say that although the "masters

of species"
do
exist,
their nature has to be
Suhrawardi states:
light.
As
The form of material species has to be in the

illuminative world and be necessary, permanent,
and unchangeable. 40
Therefore., while the essential nature of these forms
is the same as the Light itself, the potential ability to
give rise to different beings in the visible world, which
Suhrawardi calls "theurgy" .(tilismat)
or an icon
(sanam),
exists within them.

Suhrawardi maintains that from the supreme hierarchy
several orders arise that are as follows:
1-
Longitudinal
ftuli.)
identified,
archangel.
book
in
whom
particular
the
that
wa
Hurmozd
Savri
is
archangels
Bahman,
Regarding this point S.J.
Suhrawardi
argues
with
dar
the
the
highest
Sajjadi
Falsafa-vi
originator
are
in his
Ishracr. 41
of
all
the
existing beings and is the supreme archetype.

2-
Latitudinal
of
the
ideas.
faradii arises from the masculine aspect
supreme
hierarchy
and
represents
Platonic
In Zoroastrianism they are: khurdad, which is
the archetype of water, Urdibihisht is the archetype

of
fire,
Murdad
is
Shahriwar
the
is
the
archetype
of
archetype
plants,
of
minerals,
and,
finally
207
Aspandarma z
which
is
the
archetype
of
love
and
humility.
3-
The Latitudinal angelic order emanates from a

angelic
order
that
acts as
the
oversees the species directly.

that
"the .directors of
the
lower
"vice-regent
and
Suhrawardi indicates
heavens
are incorporeal
lights that we consider 'the lordly lights'
(anwar al
isfahbodi)". 42
4-
From the
feminine aspect of
come the heavenly bodies.

as
the
absence
of
the
longitudinal
order
These objects are defined
light and not
as
an
independent
object as the Peripatetics have maintained.
Suhrawardi's concept of angelology
is
important not
only because it is directly related to his ontology and in

particular the
interplay of various levels of light,
but
also because it enables Suhrawardi to synthesize Islam and

Zoroastrian
religion on an esoteric level.
that he makes
It is there
full use of the Zoroastrian archetypes to
express the Islamic metaphysical doctrine of the forms.
To
demonstrate the harmony between the Zoroastrian and Islamic

world view,
Suhrawardi begins by considering the sacred
fire
Zoroastrians
Islam.
of
the
to represent
divine
light
in
He then tells us all men have an archetype which he
identifies with Gabriel, but that each man has had a soul
that existed within the angelic domain.
In the Avesta
2 08
these souls are called "Farwahar", which are primordial in

nature
and
descend
c o n s t i t u t e d .43
upon
the
human
body
after
it
Suhrawardi's angelology
gains
is
new
dimension when viewed not only as a map of different orders

and derivation of his ontological
inseparable
part
of
his
epistemology which
Platonic theory of forms or

ideas
upon
it.
Let
me
system but also as an

accepts
ideas and bases its
elaborate
on
the
the
ishraai
relationship
between Suhrawardi1s angelology and epistemology.

Suhrawardi's angelology and its relationship with his
epistemology are a very interesting and complex subject in
his
ishraai
doctrine.
Angelology
for
Suhrawardi
is
vehicle to express the fundamental similarities between the

Islamic
world
view
and
that
of
pre-Islamic
Zoroastrian
Persia.
Angels
functions.
in
the
First
outside world.
ishraai
system
perform
numerous
is their presence as realities
in the
However, Suhrawardi goes beyond this view,
which is essentially Ibn Sinian, and argues that angels are

the archetypes of man's inner forces and
externalization of man's inner forces..
thereby are the
This, however, does
not mean that angels have a passive presence but that by

the virtue of their presence they serve as a role model and
are inner spiritual guides.
where
are
The question that arises is
these angels guiding us?
The answer
lies
in
Suhrawardi*s most fundamental principle which runs through
2 09
his entire
ishraai doctrine which is "to know anything one
has to first know himself". 44

Angels, therefore, represent what man is not and what
he ought to become.
The epistemological implications of
this thesis are that it is the knowledge of the self that

serves
as
the necessary condition for the attainment of
knowledge.
In
other words,
self-knowledge
is necessary
"for all those who are called to a direct and unmediated

relationship with the divine world".45
It is imperative to realize that angels for Suhrawardi
are actively
engaged in the guidance of man through the
power of the inner yearning.
As R. Avens states:
...Zoroastrian angels, however, are not simply

"aspects" of the supreme divinity, but Seven
Powers fAmahraspands ) , the Seven Avestan Amerta
Spenta. "the Holy Immortals".
Their holiness is
an active and activating energy that communicates
and grants being to all things.46
Man
nature
is
considered
from which he
important
task
Suhrawardi's
achieve this.
by
Suhrawardi
is alienated.
before
us
is
angelology provides
to
to
The
know
us with
have
a perfect
first and most

ourselves,
a
and
framework to
As I will demonstrate in great detail in the
next chapter, Suhrawardi gives specific arguments as to how

the
"self"
practically.
can
be
recognized
both
philosophically
and
He then tells us that after self-knowledge is
attained, we can gain knowledge of the divine.

One
of the means through which Suhrawardi describes
how the knowledge of the self can lead to the knowledge of

divine is his angelology.
To do so, Suhrawardi makes a
bridge between the Platonic
forms and Mazdean angels' as
seen from an Islamic perspective and he expresses them in

an ishraai language.
They are as follows:
Minu=
Incorporeal world
Giti=
Corporeal world
Hur Oalva=
Surush=
Archetypal world
Gabriel
Farvadin=
The lower world
Guhar=
Pure essence
Bahram=
Victory which often appears in the form of a mad

ox, white horse or sometimes a hen.
Kivan kharreh=
"the incorporeal light descended upon
those who attained divine wisdom".
The priest-
king tradition in Persia considered having Kivan

kharreh to be a necessary element to be king.
Suhrawardi describes the above as follows:

Once the soul became illuminated and strong
through the rays_ of divine light, it reaches the
throne of Kivani and becomes fully grounded in
power and prosperity. 47.
The above are only a
beings
that
Suhrawardi
"Persian Theosophers"
are
an
few examples of the archetypal
attributes
to
fHukamav-i Fars).
important part of
the
tradition
of
These archetypes
Zoroastrian religion that also
211
provide
that
and
sustain
simply
the
exist
universe,
without
unlike
being
Platonic
active
themselves.
in
ideas
and
of
G. H. Ibrahimi Dinani, in his book Shoafi Andisheh wa

Shuhud
dar
Falsafeh
Suhrawardi.
48
argues
that
the
similarity between Plato's ideas and Zoroastrian archetype

are more than mere coincident and that there must have been
some
interaction
tradition
of
wisdom.
historians, and
possibility.
between
Plato
This
therefore
and
a matter
I will
not
the
that
pre-Islamic
concerns
elaborate
on
the
its
What can be concluded, however, is that there
existed a inner correspondence between Plato's philosophy

and
the
theosophical
views
of
pre-Islamic
and
Islamic
traditions in Persia.
While the
existence
of the angelic domain has been
denied by some philosophers such as Âbd al-Razzaq Lahiji,

who in his book,
Guhar Murad 49 refutes the existence of
such a world, the overwhelming majority of the traditional

masters have upheld the validity of the angelic world.
One
of these masters is Hidaji who in his commentary upon the

Sharh-i
manzumah
Sharh-i
of Hajj
Hidai i . has
Mulla Hadi Sabziwari known,
discussed
the
sacred
geography
as
and
symbolism of the Zoroastrian gnostics which Suhrawardi uses

extens ively.
7.
GOD'S OMNISCIENCE:
212
Suhrawardi discusses his theory of God's omniscience

from
an
ishraai
point
Illumination. 50.
of
view . in
the
Philosophy
of
Using his theory of sight and vision, he
maintains that the very act of "seeing" that is equal to

"knowing" can only take place when there is no veil between
he who sees and that which is seen.
In other words, there
has to be a unity between the knower and the known.

Suhrawardi argues that in the knowing process through
illumination the object of knowledge reveals itself once it
is in the presence of an illuminative object.
God, whose
knowledge and nature are one and the same by the virtue of
being
pure
Light,
knowledge which
from
the
very
knows
is a
of
the
existing
beings.
"knowledge by presence"
presence
of
God
himself
and
This
is derived
not
objects
outside of Him.
Suhrawardi considers an objection to the above issue
raised
by
the
Peripatetics
who
maintain
that
God's
knowledge of things is the cause of their existence.
When
God comes to know of them, that is when beings are created.

Therefore,
existence.
that,
God's
knowledge
Suhrawardi
of
refutes
things
this
to
objection by
their
saying
if the above were the case, the Divine Essence would
no longer be a unity but a plurality.

God's
is prior
knowledge
existence,
is
the
cause
of
On the one hand, if

things
to
come
into
then His knowledge of them is prior to their
213
existence.
On the other hand,
it is assumed that God is
omniscient and knows of all the objects of existence at all

times, prior to and after their existence-
Therefore, if
the latter view be the case, then God cannot He omniscient,

which is impossible. Even the Peripatetics will not grant
this:.
The
second
view
of
the
Peripatetics
is
that
the
archetypes exist in the Divine Essence and that the source

of
all
knowledge
consciousness
reflects
or
externalized
existence.
and
of
his
sees
and
his
coming
own
into
Essence.
own Essence,
existence
is
Therefore,
when
an
God's
God
archetype becomes
objects come in to the realm of actual
This, Suhrawardi says, is absurd because, when
something
becomes
different
from
the
present,
person
that
thing
for whom
is
the
necessarily
thing has
been
presented.
That which becomes present is different from the
person for whom the presence occurs.
Thus,
presence cannot be spoken of unless in two
separate entities. 51
If God's reflection upon his essence is the cause of
his knowledge of things, then God and His knowledge are two
separate things which again introduces plurality in to His
Essence.
it is not reasonable to assume that one can be
present to himself.
Therefore,
knowledge of God can be
neither through the objects themselves,
nor by reflecting
on His Essence, since in both cases it implies pluralism in
214
the Divine Essence.

Suhrawardi *s
knowledge
of
solution to
entities, must
illuminationist principle.
for
Suhrawardi
illuminated,
light,
and
the
problem
be- in
is
that G o d 's
accQrdance
with
the
The knowledge byr illumination
occurs
when
the
intellect
in the case of God,
it shines upon a phenomenon.
becomes
because He is pure
It is only then that
the object of knowledge becomes revealed due to the absence

of
any
veil
objects
of
between
knowledge
already present,
them.
The
is of two
such as the
revealed nature
types,
one
archetypes
of
of which
the
is
and incorporeal
lights, and some of which are the attributes of events in

the past, present and future.
8.
CONCLUSION
In these
issues
and
discussions I have
how
they
play
theosophical epistemology.
considered a number of
role
in
Suhrawardi's
Suhrawardi's classification of
beings according with the intensity of their light, which

is derived from their ontological distance from the Light
of
Lights,
provides
theosophical
us with
epistemology
can
scheme
be
within
defined.
which
his
Since
all
existent beings according to Suhrawardi gain their identity

on the basis of their intensity of Light emanated from the
Light
of
Lights,
then
the Light
of
Lights
is
also
the
215
existential cause of all beings. This I argued for in the

second part of this chapter.
Suhrawardi also equates Light with consciousness and
the
self,
which
is
one
of
his
major
contributions to Islamic philosophy.
"and
original
It is in fact this
very point which allows him to develop his theosophical

epistemology by
arguing that
the
self
comes to know of
certain things by virtue of the reality of its presence.

Presence in this regard is like light which illuminates its
environment.
Finally, there was the discussion of Suhrawardi's view
of
how
multiplicity
comes
from
unity
and
his
view
on
angelology, both of which are instrumental in the formation

of
his
saying
theosophical
everything
maintains
that
epistemology.
is emanated
there
is
an
He
argues
from light,
organic
he
unity
that,
by
implicitly
behind
the
identifies
the
apparent multiplicity of existent beings.

As
Platonic
to
his
views
archetypes
on
with
angelology,
the
he
latitudinal
angelic
order.
Angels for him are not only a reality in the outside world
but
also
are
the
extemalization
of
man's- inner
self.
Knowledge therefore can only be attained with the help of

the angels who provide the gate through which knowledge is
possible.
Having
discussed the central
themes of Suhrawardi's
theosophical views, we now can proceed to the inner core of
the
ishraai
doctrine
which
is
his
theosophical
epistemology, often referred to as the theory of "knowledge

by presence".
217
EN D NOTES:
CHAPTER 5
1-
Opera 2, p.47.
2-
Ibid, p.198.
3-
Ibid, p.198.
4-
Suhrawardi defines ahasaa as that which does not exist

in space, and the accidental darknesstherefore should
be the opposite of'that.
r :
5-
Nasr, S.H. Three Muslim Saaes. n.77.
6-
Ibid, p.198.
7-
Opera 2, p.201.
8-
Ibid, p.202.
9-
Ibid, p.202.
10-
Ibid, p.208.
11-
Ibid, p.204.
12-
Ibid, p.204.
13-
Ibid, p.206.
14-
Ibid, p.209.
15-
Harawi, Ahmad. A n w a r i w e n . pp.28-29.
16-
If
"disclosedness"
f d u h u r ) were
attribute of essence that* is separated
is supposed to be self-evident, then
not be self-evident if it had another
is supposed to make it more evident.
17-
Harawi, Ahmad. Anwarivveh. p.29.
18-
Opera 2, p.212.
19-
In the al-Talwihat he writes in the form of a dialogue

and investigates the methodology with which one can
discover the "I". Opera 1, pp.116-117.
20-
Opera 2, p.212.
21-
Ibid, p.219.
an additional
from it and yet
essence
would
attribute that
218
22-
Ibid, p.219.
23-
Ibid, p.219.
24-
The doctrine of the unity of the knower and _the

known, generally referred to' as the Itfxhade al-Aail
wa l M a 1crul. reached its climax _in the works of Mulla
Sadra and Hajj Mulla Hadi Sabziwari-
25-
Opera 2, p.228.
26-
Ibid, p.228.
27-
Ibid, p.230.
28-
Ha*ri's work,
Presential
Knowledge. provides a
complete discussion of various theories of emanation
and how they are
related to the epistemology of
ishraqi school.
It also compares the illuminationist
epistemology
with
modern
Western
schools
of
epistemology.
29-
Presential Knowledge. pp. 205-251._ Also^ __for more

information on this, see: Qutb al-Din Shirazi's Sharhi hikmat al-ishraq and also C. Jambet's excellent
summary in the introduction to the French translation
of the Hikmat alishraq and parts of Shirazi's
commentary by H. Corbin.
30-
Ibid, pp.226-228.
31-
Ibid, p.227.
32-
Ibid, p.228.
33-
Ibid, p.228.
34-
Nasr, S.H. Three Muslim Sages.
35-
Ibid, p.72.
36-
Opera 2, p.250.
37-
Ibid, p.250.
38-
Ibid, p.271.
39-
Ibid, p.243.
40-
Ibid, p.256.
.72.
41-
While S.H. Nasr considers Bahman or Vohuman to be the

supreme
archetype,
S. J.
Sajjadi in his book,
Suhrawardi wa Savri dar Falsafah Ishraq. pp. 85.
considers Hurmozd to be the supreme archangel. .
42-
Opera 2, pp.261.
43-
- :
For more information on the relationship between

angelology as discussed in the Avesta and Islam, see:
Corbin, H. "Rawabate hikmat ishraq wa falsafay Iran
. bastan", Maj.ilavah-vi * arnuman-i Iran shiriasi. No.3,
1946, p.34ff
44-
Opera 1, P.70.
45-
Corbin, Creative
Arabi, P.55.
46-
Robert
Evans,
"Henry Corbin
and
Suhrawardi* s
Angelology", Hamdard Islamicus. Vol.11, No.l, p.12.
47-
Opera 1, p.474.
48-
Qulam Hossein Dinani, Shoa* i Andisha wa Shuhud dar

Falsafa-vi Suhrawardi.
Hikmat
Pub. Tehran, 1985
*
*
49-
Lahiji is one of the few Muslim hakims who refuted the

existence of the angelic world.
While he may grant
this as a symbolic representation of the forces within
man, he does not accept the Ibn Sinian view of angels
as the sustainers of the universe.
50-
Opera 2, p.266.
51-
Opera 2, p.186.
Imagination
in
the
Sufism
of
Ibn
220
CHAPTER 6
KNOWLEDGE BY PRESENCE
The
cornerstone
of
S u h r a wardi's
theosophical
epistemology is that any epistemic relationship can take

place
if,
and
only
if,
we
know
ourselves
first.
For
Suhrawardi it is the "I" that can know other things in the

world. However, before we can say "I know P" or "I do P",
which are
essentially epistemological
implicitly
questions,
stated that we know ourselves.
we have
According to
Suhrawardi this is the most fundamental and serious issue

which the Peripatetics ignored,
and it is not possible to
provide a satisfactory answer to epistemological problems

unless
the
self,
which
does
the
act
of
knowing,
knows
itself first.
The
question Suhrawardi poses
knows itself?
which
is how does the self
It is precisely the answer to this question
constitutes
the
core
of
his
theosophical
epistemology, and it can be formulated as follows: There is

a
special
mode
of
cognition
which
attains
knowledge
directly and without mediation and thereby it goes beyond

the
subject/object
distinction.
This mode
of cognition
which has come to be called "knowledge by presence" (al-ilm

al-huduri) , is as I will demonstrate,
*
the only plausible
explanation as to how the "I" can know itself.
221
The arguments that Suhrawardi offers in support of his

claim that the self can only know itself through
knowledge
by presence are expressed in two different styles.

Persian
writings
whereas
in his
this
view
other works
is
expressed
in Arabic,
In his
symbolically,
especially in his
tetralogy, he is more philosophical.

I
will
first
offer
an
exposition
and
exegesis
of
Suhrawardi's writings in Persian since there he offers a

set of instructions which he considers to be essential if
one is to gain "knowledge by presence" .
I will then offer
the central arguments of Suhrawardi where he discusses the

nature
of
knowledge by presence.
I will
conclude
this
chapter by a demonstration of how Suhrawardi, in his main

work the Philosophy of Illumination, unifies the discursive
reasoning,
theosophical
instructions
to
formulate
a r guments,
his
theory
and
of
practical
knowledge
by
presence.
Suhrawardi's writings in Persian are highly stylized
and are considered to be among the best examples of Persian
literature.
They are written almost entirely in a symbolic
and metaphorical
language.
thorough
analysis
of
these
works will reveal the type of the theory of knowledge which

Suhrawardi is arguing for in his philosophical writings as
well.
have
consideration
alluded
to
of these works
this
point
in
my
brief
in chapter 2 and therefore
will concentrate only on his philosophical arguments in so
222
far
as
they
are
related to
his
theory
of
knowledge by
which
Suhrawardi's
presence.
KNOWLEDGE BY PRESENCE:
The
fundamental
principle
upon
theosophical epistemology is based is that the "self" is

capable
virtue
of
of
knowing
certain
its nature,
things
which
is
without
light.
mediation
Man,
by
Suhrawardi
says, can know himself only through himself, and that which
is
other
knowledge
than himself
of
the
cannot be
self.
He
used to
arrive
offers several
at the
arguments to
prove that the self has the ability to know directly and
without any mediation, beginning with the knowledge of the
self.
Suhrawardi
self
can
presence.
presence.
1.
only
This
offers three arguments to prove that the

know
has
itself
come
through
to
be
the
known
reality
as
of
knowledge
its
by
Let me now proceed to consider these arguments.
ARGUMENT FROM "I/IT" DICHOTOMY:
Suhrawardi demonstrates his argument of knowledge by

presence by asking "when I know P, do I also know myself?"
If I do, then how did I come to know myself?
myself
directly
or through
some
Either I knew
other means.
If
I know
myself through something else, then the following problem
223
arises:
A thing that exists in itself fal-oa>iro bi 34 .dhat) and is conscious of itself does not know
itself through a representation > (al-mithalf of
itself appearing in itself. This is because if,
in knowing one's self, one were to make a
representation of oneself, since this representa
tion of his "I-ness" (aria1ivah) could never be
the reality of that "I-ness", it would be then
such that that representation is "it" in relation
to the "I-ness", and not "I". Therefore,the thing
apprehended is
the representation.
It thus
follows that the representation apprehension of
"I-ness"
would
be
exactly
what
is
the
apprehension of "it-ness" (huwa),and that the
apprehension of the reality of "I-ness" would be
exactly the apprehension of what is not "Iness".
This is an absurdity. On the other hand,
this absurdity does not follow in the case of
apprehension
of
external objects,
for the
representation
and
that
to
which
tha t
representation belongs are both "if's.l.
According to this argument, one either knows himself
through himself or something else.
case,
then
"self"
(mithal) . B.
is
known
If the latter be the
through
representation
Suhrawardi then argues that knowledge of A,
which is attained through B, is really not knowledge of A,

but is seeing A, through B.
for
the
knowledge
of
the
Suhrawardi's argument allows

outside
world
to
be
attained
through a representation (mithal^ . which is rather similar

to Hume's notion of
knowledge
of
the
"ideas" and "impressions".
self
which
is to
be
However,
attained
through
anything other than itself is not knowledge of the self,

but
knowledge
of
that
which
is
other
than
the
self.
Suhrawardi goes on to argue that if I am to know A through
224
B, then in a sense I am equating my understanding of B with

A, which is an absurdity-
How can my self be the same as
my understanding of B, through which A is supposed to be

known?
In
other words,
through
something
other
if I am to understand the
than
itself,
then
the
self
problem
arises that the understanding of something is the same as

the thing itself.
Let us
examine Suhrawardi's argument further.
When
one says "I know P", he is saying that there exists an "I",
such
that
Therefore,
know
"it"
and
also
this
"I"
knows
"P".
when one claims to have any type of knowledge,
one is implicitly saying that I know myself before knowing

anything
else.
Therefore,
in
claiming
that
one
knows
something not only is knowledge of the self assumed,

that "I" seems to be the object of its own knowledge.
means
that
in the
statement
"I
know myself"
the
but
This
knower
which is the "I" and the known which is the "self" and the
relationship between them are one and the same.
If the above were not the case, then there would be an
"I" versus
is
made
"it" which is the self.

up
unchangeable,
of
the
same
Now, either this "it"
substance
as
the
immutable, etc.) , or it is not.
"I"
(i.e
If "it"
is
the same, then it must be identical to the "I". Otherwise,

"it"
is something totally different.
M.
Ha*ri 2. argues
that "if we accept this argument of Suhrawardi,

"I"
and
its
representation
"it"
would
be
then the
then
both
225
identical
which
and
is
different
logical
in
one
and
the same respect"
contradiction
and
therefore
3.
an
absurdity.
An
analysis
of
how
Suhrawardi
arrives
at
this
conclusion is as follows: If "I" did not know "it" directly

and without mediation, then it has to know itself through
objectifying itself which would be called "it".
hand
"I"
and
"it"
are
the
same,
since
On the one
"it"
is
representation of the "I"; on the other hand, they are not

the same since if they were the same, there would not have
been
an
"I"
and
an
"it".
Therefore,
"I"
and
"it"
are
different since they stand in a subject/object relation,

but they are the same since "it" is a substitute for the
"self" in the statement "I know myself".
According
to
Suhrawardi, the
following propositions
would then have to be the same if the "I" were not the same
as the "self".
1-
I know myself.
2-
I know it.
3-
It knows myself.
4-
"It" knows it.
Therefore,
know
itself
if it is the case that the
through
its
representation,
"I" comes to
then
the
above
contradiction arises which maintains the "I" and the "it"
226
are the same and different at the same time.
That is the
absurdity which Suhrawardi is alluding to.

.To summarize the views of Suhrawardi on the basis of
his
first
argument
for
presential
knowledge,
we
can
classify his arguments into the following three categories:
1-
Epistemological
2-
Logical
3-
Semantical
Epistemological
If "I" can only know myself through a representation

of myself,
then I know myself through what is not myself
which
an
is
absurdity.
This
is
to
say
that
my
understanding and apprehension of something are the same as

the thing in itself.
Therefore, either the self cannot be
known
be
or
it
has
to
known
by
itself.
We
all
know
ourselves; therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that we

can know our "self" only through our "self".
Logical
If "I" is to know itself through its representation,

then either the "I" and its representation, the "it", are
the same or not.
If they are the same, then there cannot
227
be two of them and therefore, "X" and "it" have to be one

and the same.
On the other hand,
then how can
if they are different,
"it" represent the "I"?
This is a logical
contradiction which arises if we are to accept the "I/it"

distinction.
Semantical
When
say
"I
know
myself",
if by
"myself"
am
referring to the representation of I, then I am actually

saying that "I know it".
However, since "it" is "not-I",
then I am also saying that "I know not-I", which is another

way of
saying
"I do not know I" which is an absurdity.
According to Suhrawardi, then, if "I" is known through its

representation, then the statement "I know myself" means "I
do not know myself" which is contradictory and therefore
absurd.
Several
arguments,
original
that
he
conclusions
which
can
contributions
seems
to
be
to
have
can
be
drawn
considered
to
from
be
the
Suhrawardi1s
Islamic philosophy.
succeeded
in
above
First
establishing
is
the
existence of a being that can only be understood by itself,

but also that this understanding takes place by virtue of
the reality of its presence.
The second conclusion is that
since "self" can only know itself by the reality of itself,

any other thing is foreign to
it and thereby will never
228
know it as it really is.
M. Hari states this as follows:
In this prime example of presence-knowledge, the

meaning
of
knowledge
becomes
absolutely
equivalent with the meaning of the very being of
the self, such that within the territory of "Iness" to know is to exist and to exist is to
know. 4
The third reason for considering Suhrawardi's argument
to be an original contribution is because he has offered a
theory
of
essence,
knowledge
without
existence,
relying on
such notions
appearance and reality.
Instead,
as
he
argues that if the "I" understands itself by virtue of its

presence,
then
its
existence is its primary mode or its
essential character-
The very fact that the self can know
itself by its presence leads to the conclusion that self is

pure existence or pure presence.
As we will see later,
Suhrawardi uses this conclusion to further argue that this

self
is
pure
Light,
which
is the basis
of his
ishragi
doctrine.
2.
ARGUMENT FROM PRE-COGNITION MODE OF KNOWING:
Suhrawardi offers two arguments in support of the view

that our knowledge of ourselves requires the existence of a
pre-cognition
mode
of
knowing
and
that
possible through knowledge by presence.

Suhrawardi
attempts
to
demonstrate
the
it
can
only
be
In this argument
absurdity
of not
accepting the first argument. Through the use of reductio
229
ad absurdum in a very difficult passage he states:

Whenever there is known, how do you know that
this is what you searched for? Thus, either you
remain ignorant (of the object of your search) or
before this awareness, there must be a knowledge
which one knows because of which the desired end
is the same as the unknown end. 5
In this argument Suhrawardi is saying that if I am to
know A, through B, then I must have come to know that B, in
some sense, represents A.
However, if we say this, then it
is necessary for a person to first know A,

fact that B represents A.
How can I begin to know myself
through something other than myself,

know myself?
himself
who
and then the
if I do not already
This argument originally goes back to Plato

argued
that
in
searching
for
truth,
we
in
essence should know the truth or else, even if we do find

it,
how
do
we
recognize
it?
Suhrawardi
is
basically
applying the same concept with a great deal of emphasis on

the
pre-cognitive
mode
of
knowing.
Therefore,
prior
knowledge of A is necessary if A is to know itself through

B;
otherwise
any
object
of
one's
reflection
may
be
representation of A.
Suhrawardi's other argument for having pre-cognitive
knowledge
is
as
representation B,
follows:
If A
knows
itself through
its
then the question arises as to how he
knows that B represents A ?
If A does not know
itself
directly, then it must have come to know B through C, and

this process goes on ad infinitum.
In other words, either
230
A knows itself directly or else there will be an infinite

chain of representations, each of which are known through
the
other
one.
This,
according
to
Suhrawardi,
is
impossible.
From this he concludes that A knows itself directly
i
and without
mediation
careful to point
or
representation.
out that this process
Suhrawardi
is
is true only
in
regards to the knowledge of the self of itself and not of

the objects in the world.
C.
ARGUMENT FROM ATTRIBUTE:
Finally,
Suhrawardi offers an argument that is based
on the primacy of the subject over the predicate.
To know
something is to know the essence of one thing first and

then its predicate.
If one is to know himself through the
idea of himself, then this idea is in a sense the predicate

whose subject is the self.
necessary
Being
whose
Suhrawardi then argues that a
existence
precedes
any
predicate
naturally cannot know itself through its predicate, whereas

the reverse is true.
accident
is
the
The primacy of the essence over the
underlying philosophical
principle
upon
which the argument is based, although Suhrawardi does not

use the concepts of essence and existence to argue for his
position.
This view,
"principiality
which has come to be known as the
of Essence" (asalat al-mahivahl, as opposed
231
to the "principiality of Existence"

by the
Peripatetics,
school.
is an
(asalat al-wuiucn held
integral part of the
ishraqi
To know something is to know its essence, and if
one is to know the essence of a necessary being through its

accident or in this case its predicate, then it is as if
one were to know a major premise through a minor one.
To
method
argue
of
for his position Suhrawardi relies
on the
reductio ad absurdum by assuming that we know
ourselves through the representation of the "I".
On this
he says:
....Again,
assuming
that
it
[i.e.,
selfknowledge] is by representation, then if one does
not know that the representation is one's own,
one thus never knows that one has ever known
oneself.
But if one supposedly knows that the
representation belongs to one's self, one must
then
already
have known
oneself with
no
representation.
However, it is inconceivable
that one apprehends oneself by means of some
superaddition which would serve as an attribute
to oneself.
If this is so,then one decides that
every attribute associated with one's reality,no
m atter whether it is knowledge or another
attribute, belongs to one's own reality. It then
implies that one has known oneself before these
attributes and even without them. The conclusion
is that one does not know oneself through one's
superadded attributes,among which is one's
representation of oneself. 6
The above argument seeks to establish the reality of
the knowledge of the self by itself through an examination
of the attributes of the self.
The argument is based on a
key concept, which is, if one is to know himself, then he

must have had prior knowledge of himself.
If this were not
232
the case, then how could one realize that the thing which
is
supposed
to
be
the
representation
actually represent the self?
of
the
self
does
The representation of one's
self, which in this case is the attributes of the self, is

useful
in
recognizing
the
self
if
attributes truly represent the self.
and
only
if
those
This however requires
having a pre-knowledge of the self.

Thus,
it can be said that if one is to know himself
through his
attributes
attributes,
then he has
to know that these
are actually the attributes of the
self.
To
know this, one has to have pre-knowledge of his own "self",

and that mean the "self" knows itself through itself which
has been argued in the first two arguments.
It is, however, all too obvious that if certainty can
only be attained with regard to the knowledge of the self,
then our knowledge of the outside world that can take place
through its representation in the mind cannot be certain.
The problem is, however, that Suhrawardi, as we shall see,
argues that this unique mode of cognition also works with
regards
world.
to
In
the
fact,
knowing
of
the
above
Suhrawardi*s claim that,

can
only
attain
the
external
argument
objects
is
the
in the
basis
of
since empiricism and rationalism
knowledge
through
representation,
they
cannot bring about certainty.

In
maintains
the
second
that
part
either
one
of
the
knows
argument
himself
Suhrawardi
directly
or
233
indirectly-
In the
first case,
the problem
is
solved.
However, if A is to know itself through its representation

B, then it is
reasonable to conclude that it cannot know B
except through its representation C, and this process can

go on ad infinitum.
Therefore, from the above argument it
can be concluded that A can never know itself through its

representation.
Suhrawardi
absurdity on two grounds.
considers
this
to
be
an
First,it leads to an infinite
series of contingent dependent beings, which, he argues, is

absurd.
Secondly,
on the
other hand
on the one hand we know ourselves, and

the above
argument
indicates
that we
cannot know ourselves, and this is an absurdity.

Suhrawardi has made an assumption here which is that
the self knows itself.
What if this is not the case and
that the self is ignorant of itself?
Suhrawardi does not
reply to this point since our knowledge of ourself is so

certain
and
appears
to be
so
"clear
and
distinct", as
Descartes would say, that one may not mistake his notion of
self with the actual self as it really is.
The above objection in my opinion is a shortcoming in
Suhrawardi's philosophy.
There
is no question that the
self knows itself. However, there is every reason to doubt

that this knowledge of the self is the self as it really
is.
For example,
it is true that my relationship to my
headache is marked by certainty and directness.
However,
my concept of my headache and its characteristics,
though
234
certain to me, should not be mistaken for the true nature

of that headache which may never be known to me. I have an
idea of my "self", but how do I know this is my actual self
or that my knowledge of it corresponds to the actual self?
Suhrawardi replies to the above by saying
that the
mode of cognition with which the self knows itself is such

that
it
analysis.
does
not
lend
itself
to
any
logico-semantical
Therefore, it is not a proper analogy to compare
one's relationship to one's headache and the knowledge of

the
self
to
itself.
If
Suhrawardi
would
offer
this
argument, then we could not take the analysis any further

since it would leave no room for any verification by an
outsider.
The above problem is one that Hari also notices, but
he does not elaborate on it and in fact considers it to be
an issue open for further study.
However, having offered a
discussion of the concept of "awareness" and "presence", he

concludes that our knowledge of ourselves is one that goes
beyond the "noumena" and "phenomena" distinction.
As he
states:
The most outstanding feature of knowledge by
presence,
however,
is
that the
immediate
objective reality of the thing as it is, is its
being knower. 7
On the basis of the knowledge by presence, Suhrawardi
formulates a theory of vision which is in accordance with
his illuminationist ideas.
According to him knowledge by
235
presence, which is the epistemological basis of the ishraai

school,
can
be
provides a framework within which vision as such

explained.
(mushahadah)
principles
Suhrawardi
argues
can only take place
of
illumination.
He
that
"vision"
in accordance with
first
refutes the
the
other
existing theories of how vision occurs and then offers his

own view. 8
According to the first theory, a ray of light
comes from the object and in meeting the eye,

impression which we call the act of seeing.
leaves an
The second
view takes the opposite angle by saying that a ray of light

emanates
from
constitutes
the
eye
and
the very act of
meets
the
seeing.
object
and
that
Suhrawardi rejects
both views and offers his own view which is as follows:

Once you see that sight is not the correspondence
of the observed in the eyes and is not the
exiting of a ray from the eye, then except for
the encounter of the lit object with the healthy
eye, it is not in anything else....And the result
of this encounter in regards to sight is due to
the absence of the veil between that which sees
and the seen. 9.
Suhrawardis argument can be
summarized as
follows:
The existence (wujud) of an existent object has a presence

that the "rational self" fnafs al-natiqahl comes to realize
once it is within the domain of its presence- Therefore, in

seeing something, it is not the case that the subject sees
the object but that it is the presence of the object to be
seen that allows for the very act of seeing to take place.
In order for this interaction to take place, there has to
be the absence of a veil fhiiab') between the knower and the

known.
Since the subject which is the self
Suhrawardi
that
is
is
light)
also
comes
( which for
into contact with the
illuminated,
then
provided
object
there
is
consciousness that realizes on an ontological level,

are
manifestations
of
the
same
"witness (shah id) each other.

with
several
people
in it;
thing
is
turned on
they
begin
to
It is almost like a room
however,
dark they cannot see each other.

light
which
because the room
is
It is only after the
that they begin to
see each
other,
provided they have consciousness.

This
most
extraordinary
argument
of
Suhrawardi
was
criticized by Mulla Sadra, who argued that there has to be

a
causal
seen.
10
relationship
between
the
observer
and what
is
His argument is that if to see a thing is not
dependent upon any causal relationship then an observer has

to be able to see everything since all that is required is
an
"illuminationist
relationship"
(Idafah
is h r a q i w a h } .
The difference between Suhrawardi's and Mulla Sadra's view

is
that
Suhrawardi
ontological
other
view
lights.
illuminationist
considers
in that
Mulla
the
Sadra's
the
self
problem
from
an
being light sees all
argument
is
based
on
the
angle with respect to the visible aspect
(Surat i idraki) of beings. 11

Therefore,
as has been demonstrated,
for Suhrawardi
the act of seeing depends on the existence of light without
237
mediation.
and
Just as one knows oneself through illumination
without
follows
mediation,
the
same
knowledge
principle.
of
In
the
other
outside
words,
world
it
is
illumination on the basis of which one can come to know of

things,
be
it
oneself
or
others.
Furthermore,
this
knowledge is marked by directness and certitude and rests

on the basis
of the presence of an object in the sight of
the subject.
The
other
theory
of
Suhrawardi,
that
in
derived from his view of how vision occurs,

self
comes to know of things
presence.
is
is that the
simply by virtue of their
Suhrawardi tells us that he himself was puzzled
as to how knowledge is gained.

encounters
fact
Aristotle
while
In his pursuit of truth he

in
state
of
dreaming.
Aristotle tells him of how the essence of things can be

known
but
that
he
first
must
know
himself
through
different mode of cognition than conceptual representation.

Suhrawardi's dialogue with Aristotle leads him to formulate
his
theory of
"Presential Knowledge"
fal-ilm al-huduril .
Parts of the dialogue that are pertinent to the doctrine of

knowledge by presence, as advocated by Suhrawardi, are as
follows:
Aristotle: If you turn to your own self fdhat)
and inquire,you will certainly find your answer.
Suhrawardi:
How is that?
Aristotle:
Is it not the case that you
understand yourself? Is this understanding of the
self by the self, or is it the understanding of

the self through something other than the self?
If it is the case that the understanding of the
self is through something other than the self,
for your self there
is another self who
understands you and it is no longer you that
understands yourself. Now that this is the case,
necessarily one questions this new self that is
the true element for the understanding of the
self.
Does this self understand itself, or does
it need something else?
If this be the case,
then it goes on ad infinitum which is impossible.
The other assumption is that you come to know of
your self through the effect or an idea that you
attain the truth of your self and that the truth
of your self can never be understood without any
mediation.
Suhrawardi: I agree that I can never know myself
directly and it is only through the picture or
the idea of a self that I can know myself.
Aristotle:
If what you say were the case, then
if this idea or picture does not correspond with
your self, it then does not represent your, self,
and because this idea is not an indication of
your self then you have not understood yourself.
Suhrawardi:
Suppose this idea corresponds to my
self.
If this idea comes to my mind through my
"self",then it is precisely representative of my
self and no other thing.
Do you still believe
that one's self cannot be understood through such
a thing?
Aristotle:
This idea certainly corresponds to
your self but does it correspond to the universal
self or to your particular self that has specific
characteristics and attributes?
Suhrawardi: I assume the latter by saying that
the pictorial idea corresponds with my "self"
that has certain characteristics and therefore
represents my self.
Aristotle:
Every picture that forms in the mind
is of a universal character, and as much as you
limit these concepts to having attributes, etc...
yet, since they are of multiple nature, then it
is still a universal.
If in case due to an
obstacle in the outside world, the validity of a
universal concept is violated because of the
239
particular characteristics of an individual, it

nevertheless remains universal at a conceptual
level. The inevitable fact is that you understand
your unique self, a self that is truly free from
any sharing or commonness.
The result is that
this particular understanding that you have of
y our
unique and uncommon self can not be
understood through a picture or idea. Therefore,
understanding of the self is never through the
"idea1* (or picture) .12
Aristotle's
based
on
the
universal
argument,
classical
whereas
the
as presented by Suhrawardi
notion
self
is
that mental
concepts
particular.
The
is
are
above
argument presented in syllogistic form is as follows:
1-
Mental concepts are universal.
2-
The Self is a particular entity.
3-
The idea (mithal) of the self is in the mind.
.*.4-
One's concept of self is universal. (F,l,2,3)
56-
Universals and particulars are two separate entities.

One's
idea
of
self
cannot
correspond
to
the
self.
(F,4,5)
7-
If knowing oneself could done through its idea,
one
could never come to know one's self.

8** 9-
Humans do know their "self .

There must be another means of knowing oneself besided
knowing the idea or picture of the self. (F,6,7,8)
10-
One
can
come
to
know
something
either
directly
or
indirectly.
11-
It
is
reasonable to
conclude that
the way we
know
240
ourselves
is
directly
and
without
any
mediation.
(F,9,10)
The central significance of this dream for Suhrawardi

is that the necessary condition for any epistemic relation
is one's ability to first know himself.
that the
self can know
mediation.
It is now clear
itself only directly and without
It is precisely this point that,
demonstrated,
becomes
the
as
foundation
I have
for
the
illuminationist epistemology.
The above is an argument that M. Ha* ri also presents
in his work Knowledge by Presence 13 .
There he maintains
that there is a realm of "Iness" and
"Itness".
naturally
can
represented
by
only
be
known
something
by
other
itself
than
and
Iness
if
itself,
then
it
is
"it"
becomes "not I", whereas it should be nothing but "I" 14.

According to Ha^-.ri, the "I" and the "it" are not the same,
but "it" exists because of the "I".
If the self comes to
know of itself through the idea or representation of the

self
(al-mithal)_. then it clearly can never know
since according to Suhrawardi and Ha 1ri mithal

represent the "I" but demonstrates the "it".
itself
does not
In fact, if
two things are identically the same, then they can not be
separated.
Therefore, by virtue of the distinctness of the
"I" and its representation, the "it", we can conclude that

knowledge of "it" is not the same as the "I".
If this were
241
not the case,
then the "I" and the "it" should have been
the same and yet different at the same time, which is an

absurdity.
One can summarize by saying that since sameness
and change are inconsistent, then two things can not be the
same in the strict sense of sameness and yet be different.
Such is the case when it is conceived that the "I" and its
representative, the "It", could be the same.
Suhrawardi himself uses the above argument to confront
the more empirical approach of the Peripatetics by saying
that it is the presence of the essence of that which is to
be understood before the essence of the understanding agent
which he calls "Presential Knowledge. 15
It is imperative
to realize that the idea that all knoivledge is attained by

the self has existed since Plato himself.
However, what
Suhrawardi should be credited with is his argument that he

proves
the
existence
of
direct
and
unmediated
relationship between the self and its object of knowledge.

The knowledge by presence, as advocated by Suhrawardi,
is
established on several principles which are derived through

extensive arguments both _in the Philosophy of Illumination
and the
Path
and
the
Conversations. as well
as various
remarks made in his other worksSuhrawardi argues in several steps that knowledge in
general and knowledge of the self in particular can only
come
through knowledge
by presence.
To argue
for this
position he first demonstrates that "I" is nothing but pure
light
in
its
ontological
sense.
He
then
uses
this
conclusion in order to formulate his theory of knowledge by

presence.
On this point he says:
An indicative treatise concerning the fact that

anyone who apprehends his own reality (dhatahu)
is a pure simple light. Anyone who has a reality
of which he has never been oblivious is not
obscure fghasiq. lit. crepuscular). This is so
because of the clarity and apparentness of his
reality to his reality to himself. He is not a
mode of darkness inherent in another thing, for
even a mode of light can not be light in itself
let alone that of darkness.
Therefore, he is an
immaculate purity of light that cannot be located
by physical indication. 16
As I have discussed in previous chapters, by "light"
Suhrawardi
means
that
phenomenon
apparent can be conceived.
of which
nothing
more
Defining the self in terms of
light and light in terms of apparentness allows Suhrawardi

to draw the following conclusions:
1-
The self is a simple,
single and indivisible entity,
since if it were not the case, then it would have had to be

defined in terms of its components.
That means that the
components
the
are
more
axiomatic
than
self,
which
is
contrary to our definition of the self.

2-
Self
presence
is light and observation as such requires

of
light.
The
function
of
light,
physical sense, is to make cognition possible.
even
in
the
its
Therefore,
in a statement such as "I know P" ,"I" as the knower and

"P" as the objectof knowledge both depend on light as the
243
necessary
condition
for
"I"
to
know
"P".
Suhrawardi
believes that in the ultimate analysis "I" ,"P" and light

are one and the same.
argument
can
be
demonstrated
as
follows:
1-
Knowledge of the self is the same as the very reality

of the self.
2-
The reality of the self is light.
3-
Knowledge of the self is light.
4-
Light can be understood only by being in its presence.
5-
Knowledge of the self can only be understood by its

very presence.
Since
Suhrawardi
takes
the
concepts
of
the
self,
light, being and knowledge to be equivalent, then when the

self is more illuminated,
be
otherwise.
As
it also "is-more" than it would
such,
when
thing
becomes
more
intensified, the power of presence increases and the amount

of
knowledge
that
is
being is heightened.
Lights,
is
known within
the presence of this
This is why God, being the Light of
omniscient
since
He
is
omnipresent.
The
following formula demonstrates Suhrawardi's view:
Existence (wujud) = Presence (hudtfr )="revealedness11 f duhur)

m
M. Ha*ri's offers a thorough analysis of Suhrawardi's

theory
of
knowledge by
presence
difficulties in his theoryon his
and
sheds
However,
light on the
I disagree with him
definition of Suhrawardi*s concept of Light.
On
this he states:
Nothing more
capparent*
can be defined or
explained (than light) and it must truly and even
literally be called 'light'. 17
While his definition of light adheres to the axiomatic
nature of light, defining light in terms of "apparentness"
creates a problem-
It is not the case that there is such a
"thing*'
such
as
light
apparentness
like
and
making
the
that it
has
that is why it
statement,
"God
the
attribute
is axiomatic.
is
just",
of
This is
meaning
that
there is a God and there is the concept of justice which is

an attribute of God.
duality
into
the
Therefore, how can

of light?
which
If this were true, it would introduce

nature
of
God
which
is
impossible.
Ha*ri define apparentness as the essence
If such is the case, then it is no longer light
is the most obvious
and
axiomatic phenomenon,
but
"pure appearance" is the most axiomatic of all since light

is
defined
in
semantical one.
of it.
when
terms
of
it.
This
objection
is
not
Light is apparentness and not an attribute
This is a point that Ha*ri seems to have overlooked

he
defined
the
self
and
light
in
terms
apparentness.
of
For Suhrawardi, the concept of knowledge by presence

is therefore defined as an awareness or presence of the
object
before
essence,
light,
its
essence.
He
reminds
us
that
this
which he considers to be the same as the self,

and
knowledge,
is
such
that
by
virtue
of
its
presence one can see how different parts of Suhrawardi*s

philosophy come together in this doctrine.
Since all things are ultimately made up of light, and
because it would be absurd to say that one needs light to
find another light, in order for an epistemic relation to
occur
the
veil
that
is
separating
object has
to be removed.
which
equivalent
are
virtue
of
their
in
the
subject
and
In this case self or

Suhrawardi *s
existence,
are
philosophy
knowledge
as
the
light,
by
well.
the
To
borrow M. Ha^ri's
words " To know is to exist and to exist
#
is to know . 18
This most important and unique discovery
is one of the contributions of Suhrawardi to the tradition

of Islamic philosophy.
changes
Descartes
Coqito to
c-
myself".
Suhrawardi,
Equating knowledge with existence
having
"I
am,
criticized
therefore
the
attainment
know
of
knowledge through representation, then goes on to elaborate

on the mode of cognition which is capable of attaining the
truth.
He
first told us
of this path through numerous
short stories in which he employed traditional symbolism as

well
as
his
own
metaphors.
This
methodology,
he
2 46
indicated, is not an exclusive discovery of any particular

tradition but
divinely
is what constitutes the inner core of all
revealed religions.
Suhrawardi
first devoted a
major part of his works to a symbolic exposition of this

methodology, called "Knowledge by Presence", and then tried
to capture and demonstrate the essence of his epistemology
in
well
defined
and
coherent
philosophical
concepts
as
presented in the Philosophy of illumination.

There
are two essential
presence.
components
to
knowledge by
First, the mastery of rationalistic philosophy,
and, second, asceticism.
Mastery of discursive philosophy
is required not because of what it achieves, but because of

what
it
does not achieve.
will
in
This mastery,
sense put the power
of the
once attained,
"minor intellect"
fÂql juz*i) into perspective and bring the seeker of truth

to
face
there
an existential dilemma.
is
In other words,
no truth at all or this truth cannot be
through rationalistic philosophy,

alternate
school
through
understanding of truth is
this
alternative
theosophically.
short
either
in
which
theosophical exposition
the
gate
Suhrawardi
parts,
Symbolically,
narratives.
but there has to be an
open.
two
he
Parallel
found
to
to
then
the
offers
symbolically
tells
us
these
and
a number
he
offers
of
a
of the same concept, especially in
the Philosophy of Illumination.

As
for
asceticism,
which
constitutes
the
most
247
important part of the school of illumination, he is open

and
clear
with
regard
to
the
set
esoteric teachings, which, he says,
of
instructions
and
if followed properly,
will lead to illumination. These ascetic practices are none

other
than
the
traditional
Sufi
practices
which
are
instrumental in allowing the self to climb the ontological

ladder of Light, thereby reducing the ontological distance
to the Light of Lights.
Suhrawardi's philosophy,
been
interpreted
reading
of
in many
Suhrawardi
like that of Ibn Sina,
different ways.
which
puts
more
intellectual aspect of his thoughts,

"intellectual
gnosis"
interpretation,
as
fIrfan-i
by
emphasis
is one
on
the
often referred to as
nazari) .
represented
There
has
M.
This
school
H a >ri,
of
considers
ascetic practices not to be essential in order to have an

experience of illumination.
The
philosophers
interpretation
exposition
especially
of
his
of
who
adhere
Suhrawardi's
Suhrawardi's
thoughts
to
the
above
make
a masterly
philosophical
arguments,
theory of presential
knowledge,
but they
tend to ignore the emphasis that Suhrawardi puts on ascetic

practices.
Suhrawardi throughout his works, especially in
the beginning and the end of Hikroat al-ishraq. 19. goes so
far as to say one has to fast for forty days and become a
vegetarian before he can understand the book.
many
other
references,
such
as
considering
This and
Bastami
and
248
Haliaj, who are the giants of ascetic practices, to be the

greatest
Muslim
philosophers,
leave
no
doubt
that
the
interpretation of Ha. *ri and certain other philosophers of

*
the
post-Mulla
Sadra
period
are
not
entirely
correct-
Perhaps they are reacting to the possibility of spiritual

anarchy and fraud which could result if asceticism becomes
the principle element in the school of illumination.
The
interpretations of the later. Iranian philosophers of the

school
of
ishrag
and
the
emphasis
on
aspect of Suhrawardi rather than his

interesting
phenomenon
which
can
the
intellectual
practical side is an
be
the
subject
of
lengthy study.
It is on the basis of these two wings, knowledge and
ascetic practices, that Suhrawardi's gnosis flies, and for
him
they
knowledge
are
dependent
requires
upon
rigorous
each
practices
other.
by
Practical
person
who
desires to gain this mode of cognition. The more the self

is illuminated, the more it "is" and therefore the larger
is
its
domain
of presence.
The
ontological
status
of
being, according to Suhrawardi, depends on its awareness of

itself.
This
awareness
illumination can take place.
is
the
basis
upon
which
From this it follows that the
more a person knows himself, the higher is his ontological

status and the larger is the domain of his presence.
D.
FINAL CONCLUSION:
249
Having demonstrated in the last three arguments that

the self cannot be known by anything else except itself and
that it is only through the sheer presence of the reality
of
the
self
that
the
knowledge
of
the
self
becomes
possible, Suhrawardi goes on to conclude the following:

Since you are not absent from your own reality
(dhatika)
and
from your awareness of that
reality,
and it is not possible that this
awareness
be by
a
representation
or
any
superaddition,
it thus follows that in this
awareness of your reality you need not have
anything besides the very reality of yourself,
which is apparent to yourself, or, if you wish,
not absent from yourself.
Consequently, it is
necessary that the apprehension of the reality of
the self itself is only by itself according to
what that self "is in its being, just as it is
necessary that you are never absent from your
reality and from whatever your reality may
consist of.
On the other hand, whatever your
reality is absent from like those organs, viz.
heart, lungs, brain and all intermediate forms
and modes, no matter whether they are modes of
darkness or of light, is not implied in that
constant awareness of your reality.
Your
constant conscious reality is therefore not a
material organ, neither is it an intermediary
one.
Had your reality consisted of any of these
things,
you,
as the constant and unfading
consciousness of yourself, would never become
absent from it. 20
Two conclusions can be drawn from Suhrawardi's theory
of presential
knowledge.
First and
foremost
is
self can only be known by itself and, therefore,
that
the
to know
something becomes equal to gaining knowledge of an object

so that the relationship between the object and the self is
the same as the relationship between the self and itself.
250
The second conclusion is that whatever is not known

through the presence of the self is therefore beyond the .
epistemic domain of the self.
the
type
that
knowledge
by
Consequently, certainty of
presence
can
attain
is
not
feasible with regard to those objects that are beyond the

self and its mode of cognition.
With
said
regard to the
that
the
first
foregoing discussion,
step
in
Suhrawardi's
it can be
theosophical
epistemology is to argue that there exists a self which is

an immaterial and immutable substance.
21
The proof for
the existence of the "I" is a task that philosophy ought to

deal with.
In other words, to establish the very existence
of the "self" requires concrete philosophical discussions.

This
is
task that
Suhrawardi
carries out
in masterly
fashion.
However, this self has many attributes that are
attached
to
it.
These
attachments
constituents of the human ego (nafs).

whose
existence
requires
are
the
basic
Contrary to the self
philosophical
arguments,
the
attributes of the self are all too obvious to argue for.

They include worldly desires that, from Suhrawardi's point
of view, obstruct the vision.
Suhrawardi holds the view that at first glance it may
seem the self is nothing but the sum of these attributes.
That
is,
while
philosophical
recognition
inquiry,
of
the
self
requires
the attributes of the self do not
lend themselves to philosophical analysis.
It is for this
251
reason
that
cognition
Suhrawardi
to
considers
be necessary
in order
different
mode
of
not only to realize
these attributes but also to separate them from the "I".

The
second
step
in
Suhrawardi*s
theosophical
epistemology is to be able to separate the attributes of

the self from the self.
This can be done in two ways, the
first being a philosophical one.

separated from
Just as sweetness can be
sugar only through conceptual means, such
is the case with the self and its attributes.
The second
one is a practical one which he discusses in great detail

in his Persian works.
Suhrawardi *s third
step
would
be
to
go beyond
separation of the self from its attributes.

he would
say that
in order for the
the
At this stage
self to be able to
reveal itself, the **veil ling" attributes of the self should

be destroyed.
asceticism,
the type
To do so Suhrawardi prescribes practicing
and he goes on to illustrate in great detail
and nature of these practices.
Such practices
destroy the individual ego and therefore the attributes of

the self begin to vanish one by one.
As this process goes
on, the self, whose relation to its attributes was like the
relationship
between
the
accidental
qualities
of
sugar
(i.e. whiteness, etc...) to sweetness, begins to reveal its

"I-ness".
complete
This process will have to continue until the

annihilation
completed,
of
the
attributes
of
and once this process has been
the
self
finished,
is
the
self will
remain
in
its
entirety without any veil
from
itself.
When you have made a careful inquiry into
yourself, you will find out that you are made of
"yourself" that is nothing but that which knows
its _ own reality.
This is your own "I-ness"
ânaJ ivvatukat .
This the manner in which
everyone
is to know himself and in which
everyone1s "I-ness" is common with you. 22
The three-fold methodology of bringing the self to its
fullness can be summarized as the following:
1-
Realization of the distinctness of the self from

its attributes.
2-
Separation of the "I" from its attributes, both

philosophically and practically.
3-
Employment
of
asceticism
as
means
for
destroying the attributes and leaving the self in

its pure form.
4-
The self
in its pure
apparent
phenomenon
form
than
is a single
which
and
nothing
an
more
apparent can exist.

5-
That than which nothing more apparent can exist

is light.
6-
Self is light. (F 4,5)
7-
Things are known by coming into the mere presence

of light.
8-
Things
are
known
by
the
presence
of
the
253
self.(F6,7)
It is in regards to the above epistemological scheme

that philosophy and asceticism have their own place and in
fact are able to become part and parcel of a tradition of
wisdom
that
brings
about
wedding
between
discursive
philosophy, intellectual intuition and practical wisdom.
D.
AN ARGUMENT AGAINST PRESENTIAL KNOWLEDGE:
Despite
Suhrawardi* s
genius,
there
are
number
of
objections that can be raised against some of his specific

arguments.
be
Here I wish to consider an objection that can
addressed
towards
the
implications
of the
theory
of
knowledge by presence and that has been a matter of concern

to many rationalistic Muslim philosophers.
Suhrawardi
Peripatetic
argues
philosophy
that
and
he
first
mastered
the
inadequacies
realized
such a philosophical methodology.
He then
Peripatetic
and
arguments.
would
do.
initiation
philosophy
by
adding
improved
omitting
the
of
the
certain
Thus far he did what any brilliant philosopher

He
he
then
tells
arrived at
that
the
through
truth.
He
asceticism
reminds
us
and
on
numerous occasions that the path of spiritual realization

requires ascetic practices.
This also is something that
Sufis have traditionally argued for, and as a separate mode
of cognition it has its own merits.

What becomes problematic in Suhrawardi*s case is this
claim:
"
validity
Through
of
advocates".
f<Irfan)
spiritual
the
This
from
both
vision
he
philosophical
is
exactly
Sufism
realized
principles
what
and
has
which
distinguishes
philosophy.
accept the authenticity of Suhrawardi's
the
he
gnosis
Even
if
we
spiritual vision
and grant that he knows the truth, one cannot do the same
within the philosophical domain.
After all, whereas the
mystical experience does not lend itself to verification by

an
outsider,
philosophical
issues
are
philosophical
by
virtue of the fact that they are verifiable.

The problem is therefore as
follows:
What
if there
exists an argument or a set of arguments in the works of

Suhrawardi that are clearly false?
All one needs in order
to falsify Suhrawardi*s claim is to find one instance in

which an argument of his is false,
such
instances
as
have
and there indeed are
demonstrated
in
the
previous
philosophical
argument
chapters.
To
make
the
validity
of
contingent upon spiritual realization creates the following

problems:
1-
All the philosophical arguments must be sound, or

else the spiritual vision was not authentic.
255
2-
All
the
philosophical
regardless
of
their
arguments
apparent
are
sound
mistakes,
and
therefore the vision is authentic.
In the first case,
as I indicated above,
it is not
very difficult to find an argument of Suhrawardi that is

weak with apparent flaws in it.
this
position, is
philosophical
How Suhrawardi can defend
one that puzzles me.
argument
of
Suhrawardi's
If I present a
which
is by
any
account fallacious to him, then he either has to admit that

his spiritual vision was not real or that the validity of
philosophical arguments is not necessarily related to one's
experience of God.
Since Suhrawardi has based his system
on the premise that the truth of philosophical arguments

can be realized through one's illumination, then separating
the validity of the arguments and spiritual vision would be
a violation of the
fundamental principle upon which the
ishraqi school is established.
Suhrawardi obviously will
not grant that his experience of divinity has been a false

one either.
This places Suhrawardi in a dilemma.
He has no choice but to say that all the arguments

which he has presented have been checked by his spiritual
realization and are correct, regardless of what we say.
In
other
no
words,
the
falsifying
of
his
arguments
is
of
consequence since he knows that ultimately these principles

are sound.
This argument does not go very far and,
in
256
fact, brings about even a more fundamental problem.

have
been
many
eminent
philosophers
of
the
There
ishraqi
tradition who have refuted each other's arguments.
Let us
take only two of the greatest masters of this tradition,

Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra.
Mulla
Sadra
intellect
and
is
by
all
profound
accounts
vision
a man
whose
of
superior
spiritual
philosophical acumen is comparable to Suhrawardi's .
and
Mulla*
Sadra takes issue not only with Suhrawardi's ontology, but

in his commentary upon the Philosophy of Illumination he
criticized specific arguments of Suhrawardi.
One can say that the apparent inconsistency between
Mulla
Sadra
and
Suhrawardi
exists
only
within
the
philosophical domain and that on an esoteric level they are

in
agreement.
Suhrawardi
validity
and
of
This
other
their
would
ishraqi
have
been
sages had
philosophical
acceptable
if
not derived
the
propositions
authenticity of their spiritual vision.
from
the
Mulla Sadra and
Suhrawardi both claim to know the truth and both claim that
the validity of their philosophical views are derived from
their "Knowledge by Presence".
Since they disagree with
one another, then either they both are wrong or one of them
is wrong in claiming to know the truth and the problem is
which one is right.
correct
is
to
One way of determining whose claim is
apply the
standard means
of analysis
and
evaluation that philosophers have relied upon to determine
the validity of an argument-
Those who do engage in such
an activity will soon find out that there are fallacies in

the works of Mulla Sadra and Suhrawardi as well as their
predecessors. 23.
one since,
subj ect
The problem I am alluding to is a serious
if the validity of philosophical arguments is
to
the
truth
of
one's
vision,
then
philosophy
becomes subjective and relative and one has to accept that

Suhrawardi
and
correct which
Mulla
Sadra
and
is not possible
their
opponents
are
all
since they contradict one
another.
One may reply to my objection by arguing that truth is
relative
while
to
only
the
the
spiritual
ultimate
state
truth
of
an
can
individual,
be known
knowledge of all other things is relative-
and,
absolutely,
Therefore the
existing difference between Mulla Sadra and Suhrawardi is a

superficial one and ultimately they are in agreement.
The
above
philosophical
r eply
is
pr in ci pl es ,
not
convincing
e s p e ci al ly
in
those
that
of
rationalistic nature, do not lend themselves to exegesis

and interpretation.
Suhrawardi
Let us consider an example.
argues that the following argument is correct
and Mulla Sadra argues it is false.
(A)
Suppose
1-
All men are mortal.
2-
Socrates is a man.
?58
3-
Socrates is mortal.
Assuming Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra both had a genuine

experience of truth, then they must necessarily agree with
A,
since
their
philosophical
view
is
derived
authenticity of their spiritual vision.
from
the
Then, how are we
to account for their disagreement in this regard?
If their
description
mystical
of
truth
or
God
or
even
what
experience is was inconsistent, then we could explain that

by the
fact that truth and one's understanding of it is
relative to the spiritual state of a person.

such as
But in cases
(A) . we have a clear and simple argument that is
either true or false.
A thorough reading of Suhrawardi and
Mulla Sadra indicates that there are many such instances

which are puzzling.
cAbdul
commentators
murad.
24.,
Razag-i
of
Lahiji,
Suhrawardi
argues
that
one
in
the
of
Iran
the
in
most
his
conclusion
celebrated
book
one
Gawhar
arrives
at
through discursive reasoning is the same as that which is

attained through illumination and the only difference
is
the
is
degree
of
clarity.
attained through
Naturally
illumination
the
is most
knowledge that
clear
and certain
since it is attained through " Vision and Presence".

Lahiji raises an important issue which Suhrawardi has
left
unanswered,
and
that
is,
what
if
the
knowledge
2 59
attained through illumination would be contradictory to the

principles
of
Suhrawardi
seem
illumination
knowledge?
to
take
for
and philosophical
"properly , 25 will
realizes
This
that
lead to
neglecting
is
granted
question
that
by
assuming
that
analysis,
the
the
if
carried
same conclusion.
validity
of
out
Lahiji
logical
principle at the expense of an esoteric judgment may lead

to anarchy,
since the authority of the judgment itself is
not verifiable.
Lahiji's response is a clever one.
He maintains that
if the result of one's discovery through illumination were

contrary to the logical principles, then the person should
not make
a claim to be
illuminated.
This,
although
it
saves the rational principles against subjective judgments,

gives priority to the discursive domain.
As he states:
Therefore,
a Sufi
2 6 should either be a
theosopher or a theologian. Without a firm grasp
in theosophy theology, and without benefiting
from the men of vision, be it in accordance to
the word of theculama' or its contrary, any claim
to Sufism is pure forgery. 27
To
clarify
the
distinction
between
Philosophy
and
Hikmat, Lahiji makes a distinction between knowledge of the

scientific
Whereas
the
principles
scientific
versus
metaphysical
principles
lend
entities. 28
themselves
to
philosophical inquiries, ishraqi wisdom does not.

To
support
his
claim
that
such
wisdom
has
been
advocated by others as well as Suhrawardi, Lahiji cites Ibn
Sina who.
after reaching the zenith of his
maturity, demonstrated ishraqi tendencies.
philosophical
In his book al-
Mashart* . wal-Mutara.hat.29
Suhrawardi tells us
that while
most of Ibn Sina's writings are devoid of any theosophical

writings, there are references to the existence of another
type of wisdom than the Greek and discursive method..
In
the introduction to Mantig al-Mashraaiwin. 30 he tells us

that "there are branches of wisdom that do not originate
from the Greeks".31
Suhrawardi
under which
believes
that,
Ibn Sina lived,
regards to his ishraai ideas.
due
to
the
circumstance
he had to remain silent
in
Therefore Suhrawardi feels
that he not only has to disclose the ishraqi tendencies of

Ibn Sina but also to continue them.
work
"the
Occidental
Exile"
For example,
(al-Ghurbat
in his
al-qharbivahl,
Suhrawardi picks up the story where Ibn Sina had ended his
short work,
Risalat h a w
ibn Yaqzan. 32
Both
of these
stories are highly symbolic and demonstrate the development

of one's inner being with regards to the active intellect,
which they exemplify as the " glorious old master"
fPire
Borna).
Ibn Sina was well aware of the dangers of popularizing
the wisdom of illumination, and his silence in this regard
may well
be
attributed to this very point.
In the al-
Isharat wa*l-Tanbihat. he says:

If
you
corrupt
this
wisdom,
God
be
the
judge
261
between you and me. 33.

To summarize the foregoing discussion,
fundamental
problem
illumination,
and
at
that
the
is
heart
that
of
the
there exists a
the
school
validity
of
of
the
philosophical principles are subject to the authenticity of

Suhrawardi*s spiritual vision.
The solution that I offer is to say that instead of
arguing for a correlation between the spiritual realization
and philosophical truth,
Suhrawardi has to separate them.
It is perfectly justifiable for a mystic to remain ignorant

of the science of biology and chemistry while claiming to
know
the
truth.
Accordingly,
Suhrawardi
differentiate between philosophical truth

within
the
domain
of
science)
and
has
to
(and place that

mystical
truth.
Knowledge of one should not have any bearing upon the other
one if he is to resolve the objection that I raised.
Suhrawardi
can
continue
to
consider
philosophical
training and especially mastery of Peripatetic philosophy

to
be
a pre-requisite
tradition.
for the pursuance of
the
ishraqi
This is justifiable if Suhrawardi considers it
to be a period of training and nothing else.
However, it
would be a fatal mistake for him to say that the validity

of
all
contained
the
in
philosophical
the
principles,
Philosophy
of
especially
Tl lumination. have
those
been
derived from his mystical experience since some of those

principles and arguments are clearly fallacious, not only
262
by
my
inquiry
but
also
in
the
opinion
of
many
of his
sucsessors including such giants as Mulla Sadra, Lahiji and

Sabziwari.
Regardless
arguments
their
of
this
objection,
his
philosophical
and mystical narratives are important and have
own merit.
Within the philosophical
domain,
his
works should be regarded as a brilliant commentary on Ibn

Sina's philosophy,
with major differences,
the fields of logic and epistemology.

about
Suhrawardi
is
that
his
especially
in
Also, what is unique
argument
for knowledge by
presence is also based on philosophical arguments and not

only on mystical narratives.
In the mystical
commentaries
upon
domain,
the
theory
his works
of
are metaphorical
presential
knowledge.
Suhrawardi, throughout his Persian writings, discusses the

relationship between asceticism and knowledge of the self.
One can gain knowledge of himself, Suhrawardi says, either
through pure ascetic practices, as Hallaj and Eayazid did,
or through philosophical discourse.
In
the
foregoing
disc u s s i o n
have
offered
Suhrawardis philosophical arguments in this regard, and in

Chapter
two
have
extensively
discussed
his
purely
mystical narratives which allude to the theory of knowledge

by presence.
I
have
also
demonstrated
how
his
philosophical
analysis and his mystical narratives together constitute a
263
single theory of knowledge, which lies at the heart of the

school of ishraa.
END NOTES:
CHAPTER 6
1-
Opera 2, p. 111. (trans.

Knowledge by Presence)
by
M.
Ha-ri
as
stated
in
2-
M. Ha?ri in the Knwoledge by Presence arguesthatthis

is *a case of logical contradiction when the law
of
subject-object relation is violated, see p.141.
3-
Ibid, p.141.
4-
Opera 2, p.142. (trans. by M. Hari)
5-
Ibid, p.110.
6-
Ibid, p.33. (trans. by M. Ha*ri)

4
7-
Ha 3ri, M.
8-
Opera 2. pp.244-245.
9-
Opera 2, p.244.
10-
Mulla Sadra, Sharh-i

Kikmat
al-ishraq. p.270.
11-
Ibid, p.270.
12-
Opera l, p.70.
13-
While the logical structure of Ha

r i :s argument in the
Knowledge by Presence is sound, he does not discuss
the nature of the "I which is supposed to be
different from the "it".
This continues to be a
problem in
Ha>ri's analysis because on one hand he
supports Suhrawardis argument for whom "I" is Light.
On the other hand Ha* ri is not clear as to his own
position regarding the nature of this "I".
14-
Ibid, p.133.
15-
Opera 1, p.485.
16-
Opera 2, p.106. (trans. by M. Hari)
17-
Ibid, p . 127.
18-
Hari, M. Knowledge by Presence, p.142.
19-
Opera 2, introduction 6,17 and the section titled "On

the State of the Seekers", p.397.
ft
Knowledge by Presence, p.155.
20-
Opera 2, p.112. (trans. by Hari)

0
21-
Ibid, p.145.
22-
Ibid, p.112. (trans. by
23-
A proof for this would be the existing commentaries

and critiques on Mulla Sadra_and_ Suhrawardi^by so many
eminent philosophers, e.g. Lahiji, Sabziwari, et al.
24-
What
distinguishes
Lahiji
from other
ishraqi
philosophers is the fact that he argues that if one's
vision does not corresponds with the conclusions of
logical analysis, then one should not preach any of
them.__ The best course of action then, according to
Lahiji, is pursuing truth until the spiritual vision
and the result of philosophical analysis correspond.
25-
This argument of Suhrawardi gives rise to a tautology

since
if one's vision
does not correspond to
philosophical principles, then he has not carried out
his analysis properly.
This argument makes the
verification of an argument
impossible
by
an
independent observer.
26-
By "Sufi", here Lahiji is referring to those who

opposed any
intellectual
activity
towards
the
attainment of truth. Sufis emphasize pure piety and
asceticism at the expense of intellectual knowledge.
27-
Lahiji, Gawhar ISurad. pp. 16-17.
28-
Ibid, p.16.
29-
Opera 1, p.195.
30-
Ibn Sina, al-Mantiq almashraaiveen. pp.63ff
31-
Ibid, p. 63.
32-
Ibn Sina, in Risalat H a w ibn Yaazan. ed.

Amin, Dar al-Marif Publ, Egypt 1966*
33-
Opera 1, p. 419.
M. Ha5
ri)
m
by Ahmad
CHAPTER 7
INFLUENCE OF SPHRAWARDI ON ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
Suhrawardi's ishraqi school marked a turning point in

the
history
direction
purely
of
and
Islamic
nature
of
rationalistic
ascetic
practices
paradigm.
Most
philosophy
philosophical
approach
to
be
of the
since
to
part
schools
thinking
one
of
it changed
that
its
the
from
considered
epistemological
of philosophy that
came
after Suhrawardi in one way or another were influenced by

him.
Some of them, such as Shavkhiwah movement, despite
their
ishraqi
ideas,
illumination.
instrumental
The
opposed
school
of
Suhrawardi's
school
ishrag
not
was
of
only
in reconciling the two traditions of wisdom
that thus far were in contrast with one another, that is

Sufism
and
about
the
Peripatetic
harmony
between
philosophy,
but
them.
result
purification and asceticism became
The
also brought
was
that
a necessary condition
for philosophical speculation and ultimately the attainment

of
truth.
In what
follows,
I wish to demonstrate
how
Suhrawardi*s ideas spread in different parts of the Islamic

world. - The purpose is not to
exist
between
Suhrawardi
and
show specific links
his
successors,
since
that
that
requires a close textual reading which is beyond the scope

of this work.
As I demonstrated in the previous chapter on
267
the
comparison
between
Suhrawardi
and Mulla
Sadra, any
discussion of how Suhrawardi's ishraqi tradition influenced

other
philosophers
requires
extensive
discussion.
Therefore, my study of Suhrawardi's influence is merely a

historical
review
and
not
textual
comparison
Suhrawardi and some of the other ishraqi
between
philosophers.
While it was greater Persia and the sub-continent of

India
that
by
virtue
of their
historical,
cultural
and
intellectual backgrounds became the cradle for the school

of illumination, the influence of Suhrawardi's ideas spread
in five geographical areas.
1-
Greater Persia
2-
Sub-Continent of India
3-
Syria
4-
Spain and North Africa
5-
The West
1.
THE GREATER PERSIA:
A.
Safavid Period
Suhrawardi's
and
These areas are:
permanent
Persia.
school
of
illumination left a profound
influence
on
the
The
philosophical
influence
movement
whose
tradition
erupted
zenith
of
into
was
the
wisdom
in
powerful
"school
of
2 68
Isfahan".
by
The masterly expositions and commentaries done
different
figures
transcendental
theosophy
in
of
this
movement
Suhrawardi
are
upon
still
the
being
avidly studied today.

Suhrawardi and Persian culture are organically related
in that his illuminationist school provided the basis upon
which an esoteric
formulated. 1
of
interpretation of Shicite Islam could be
On one hand, Shi' ite Islam puts a great deal
emphasis
on
intellect
attainment of truth.
presence
only
of
an
through
faql)
as
means
for
the
On the other hand, adherence to the
esoteric knowledge
practicing
tradition in Persia.
that can be attained
asceticism
is
long-lasting
Suhrawardi's school of illumination
considers both intellectual discourse and the practice of

asceticism to be necessary for the attainment of truth.
It
is,
therefore
no
accident
that
Suhrawardi's
philosophy, which emphasizes the elements of knowledge and

practice,
when
came to
Shi'ite
religion.
Imams as
show itself during the Safavid period
Islam
was
adopted
as
the
official
state
Shi'ite Islam, with its emphasis on the twelve

a
chain of initiators and the Muhammadan light
fnur Muhammad it as the legitimizing factor in this chain of

initiation, was naturally receptive to ishraqi doctrine.
Besides
Suhrawardi* s
the
ideas
religious
to
take
elements
root
in
that
enabled
Persia,
various
commentaries and expositions that helped to consolidate his
269
ideas have to be mentioned.
The most important work was
the commentary of Shahrazuri on Hikmat alishrag and alTalwihat.
(680/1281)
classic.
that
is considered by many to be a
Also the commentaries
of
Kammunah (667/1269), Allamah Hilli
such masters
as
Ibn
(693/1293) , Qutb al-din
Shirazi,Athir al-DinAbhari
2 and
Nasir al-din Tusi and,
m
.
finally,
Mulla Sadra
were
influential
in
spreading the
ideas of Suhrawardi.
Abhari
writings
and
but
Tusi
were
are
For example,
haqaîq
Tahrir
representation
number of
view.
of
for
nevertheless
Suhrawardi.
fi
known
highly
Abhari,
philosophical
issues
Peripatetic
influenced
by
in his work Kashf al-
al- d a q a ' i q .
Suhrawardi s
their
which
is
teachings,
perfect
discusses
from an ishraqi point of
Before the Safavid period,
such figures as Seyyed
Haydar Amuli and Ibn abi Jumhur and his major work Kitab
al-muili played a major role in allowing the ishraqi school
to reach its climax during the Safavid period.
The religious ambience of Persia,
cultural
characteristics,
and
the
its historical and

existence
of
an
essentially gnostic element in the Persian Weltanschauung.

helped
to
establish
Suhrawardi
as
figure
with
Persians felt at home, As S.H. Nasr states:

By the beginning of the eighth/ fourteenth century
the
ishraqi
school
had
become definitely
established in Persia and henceforth it remained
as an important element of the intellectual life
of not only Persians but also the eastern lands
whom
270
of Islam where the Persian Islamic culture has

been dominant - 3.
The powerful political movement of the Safavids and
the keen interest of the Safavid kings in nourishing the
intellectual life of Persia brought about the culmination
of the tradition of ishraqi theosophy.
will present
works
and
In what follows I
an account of a number of theosophists whose

commentaries
have
constituted
the
bulk
of
literature known as the school of Isfahan.
1.
ISHRAQI PHILOSOPHERS BEFORE THE SCHOOL OF ISFAHAN:
Among the significant figures who emerged just prior

to the Safavid period, and for all practical purposes are
considered to belong to the school of Isfahan,
al-din
Dashtaki
Dashtaki.
and
his
son,
Ghiyath
are: Sadr
al-din
Mansur
Mansur wrote extensively on the Peripatetics,
such as his commentary on the Isharat and a treatise on

ethics.
Havakil
However,
al-nur
influenced
by
representation
it
that
is his commentary
shows
Suhrawardi.
of
Ishraqi
influenced Mulla m
Sadra,
the
His
extent
works
theosophy
on
to
Suhrawardi*s
which
offer
and
he
was
perfect
particularly
with whom he was often mistaken.
Mansur in a sense represents a successful attempt to bring

about a rapprochement between the Peripatetic philosophy as
represented by
Ibn
Sina
and the
Ishraqi tradition.
To
271
bring about a union between the rationalistic philosophy of

Aristotle and the spiritual message of Plato's philosophy
has
indeed
been
the
long-standing
goal
of
Muslim
philosophers.
A
number of other
intellectuals of this period not
only carried out an Ishraqi reading of Ibn Sina, but also

paid
attention
introduced
student,9
to
Sadr
(8th/14th)
is
to
the
the
gnosis
Persians
a l din
of
Ibn
through
Qunawi.
another
figure
the
Ibn
whose
Arabi
who
was
of
his
works
Turkah
attempt
Isfahani
to
bring
together philosophy and gnosis, as represented in his major

work, Tamhid alqawa^d. influenced many of his successors,
in
particular
Seyyed
Haydar
Amuli.
Amuli
interpreted
Shi*ite Islam in the light of the writings of Suhrawardi,

I b n 1Arabi, Ibn Sinay and created a philosophical synthesis.
"Amuli's
important
work,
Jami<
al-asrar. exemplifies
the
type of spiritual hermeneutics (Ta^wil) that is carried out

by the Ishraqi school even today.
Among other figures of
this tradition, besides Ibn a'bi Jumhur, who was mentioned

earlier, one can name Rajab Bursi, who wrote Mashariq al
anwar.
Ibn
He also was engaged in the integration of ishrag,
^ A r a b i 's
g n o stic
doctrine,
the
works
of
the
Peripatetics, and Shi'ite doctrines.

Concerning
the
attempt
for
unified
and
well-
integrated philosophical paradigm by the important figures

of this period, S.H. Nasr states:
272
The integration of ishraqi teaching into Shi*ism

was...rapid and profound, with the result that
during later centuries most of the ishraqi's have
been Shi'ite. During the period pre-dating the
Safavids_, such Shi'ite theologians as Seyyed
Haydar Amuli and especially Ibn Abi Jumhur
prepared the ground
for the integration of
ishraqi wisdom into the perspective of Shi*ism. 4
Among the figures who were instrumental in the revival
of the school of Isfahan, 3 well known theosophers can be
named.
First,
there is Mir Damad, who is the founder of
the school of Isfahan. Then his most famous student, Mulla

Sadra,
and his school of
"transcendental theosophy"
hikmat
al-illahivahl
be
can
named.
Finally,
there
falis
Mulla Hadi Sabziwari, who once again revived the teachings

of Suhrawardi in 19th century Persia.
Since the teachings
of the above figures constituted a historical chain, I will

consider their ideas at some length.
2.
SCHOOL OF ISFAHAN:
The
founder of the
school of Isfahan,
Mir Muhammad
Baqir Damad Husaini Asterabadi, known as "Mir Damad", and

often
referred to as the
"third teacher",
fmuacllim al-
thalith) . was one of the most outstanding figures of this

period.
He was in a unique position to revive the hikmat
since he was highly esteemed by the jurists as well as the

court.
In
that
capacity
he
attempted
to
revive
reconcile Ibn Sina and Suhrawardi.
and
273
He may_be considered as an ishraqi interpreter of

Ibn Sina's metaphysics in the spiritual universe
of Shi' ism. 5
While Mir Damad defended the rationalistic philosophy
of
the
Peripatetics,
distinction
between
he
too,
like
Suhrawardi,
rationalization
and
made
illumination.
Whereas Suhrawardi placed emphasis upon the Orient versus

the Occident,
Mir Damad distinguished between Yamani and
Yunani (Greek)
philosophy.
Yamani
is
the
same
as
the
Orient and represents the illuminative, while Yunani stands

for discursive philosophy.
While
Mir
Damad
philosophically
principiality
commented
significant
of
the
on
topics,
essence
number
especially
fasalat
on
al-mahiyyah),
of
the
the
thrust of his philosophy remained the problem of the huduth

(eternity) or gidam (creation) of the world. He
attempted
to synthesize Suhrawardi's philosophy of illumination and

Ibn
Sina's
philosophy.
principiality
contrary to
world
and
Mir Damad
of essence over existence but argued that,

the
the
ishraqi *s who
archetypes
consider
"divine essence"
considers
to
them
have
the incorporeal
(al-mui arradat)
created in the
dahri).
accepted Suhrawardi's
to
have
been
fal-huduth al-dhati), he
"corporeal
creation"
(huduth al-
He argues that while the cause of the creation of
these archetypes may be in the divine essence, the event or

effect occurs in the created domain (dahr).
274
In
the
Oabasat.
7.
Mir
Damad
quotes
Ibn
Sina
extensively and interprets him in a way that supports his

own view of the corporeal createdness
(huduth aldhati) .
There are those contemporary interpreters 8. of Mir Damad

who argue that some of his interpretations of Ibn Sina were
purely from an Ishraqi point of view and
,therefore,
are
not entirely accurate.

Mir Damad devotes a major portion of his Oabasat to a
discussion of the principiality of essence.
His argument,
a very complex one, roughly goes as follows: It is apparent

that an existent being does not only exist by virtue of its
own
existence
but
because
"essence" (mahiyyah).
existence
in
the
it
has
such
thing
called
Now, either the essence precedes the
order of
creation
or vice versa.
In
either case, the order can not be only a conceptual one in

our
mind
or
random arrangement made
for the
sake
of
convenience, but this order must be intrinsic or innate to

the ontological structure of the universe.
From this Mir Damad concludes that the essence of an
existent being must be the principal element, since it is
inconceivable to have an existent being which is made up of
pure existence fwuiud) .
unique
relates
What makes Mir Damad *s discussion
in the tradition of Islamic philosophy is how he

the
above to his analysis of different types of
time, which is perhaps the most important and complex part

of Mir Damad's philosophy. 9.
2 75
Among the fifty works of Mir Damad which are committed

to the revival
of Ibn Sina's philosophy from an
ishraqi
point of view, the following can be named:
Oabasat. Taqwim
aliman. alUfuq al-mubin. and Taadisat.
Mir Damad has
also written a number of works in Persian, among which are

Jazawat,
al-Sirat al-mustaqim and the collection of his
works in Persian and Arabic titled Masharia al-anwar.

As
mentioned
before,
despite
Mir
Damad's
contribution to Islamic philosophy and Shi*ite gnosis as

the founder of the school of Isfahan, perhaps his greatest
achievement was training a number of students, some of whom
like Mulla Sadra came to dominate the intellectual scene
and overshadow the teacher.
I will only mention the name
of a few figures who played an important role in continuing

the ishraqi wisdom of Suhrawardi.
Among such figures one can name Mir Damad's son-inlaw, Sayyed Ahmad cAlawi, the author of a commentary on Ibn
Sina,
Qutb
history
of
al-din
Ashkiwari,
who
wrote
philosophy called Mahbub
book
on
the
al-gulub. and Mulla
Khalil Qazwini, who wrote a commentary on Usui alkafi of

Kulaini
and
is
jurisprudence.
regarded
as
an
authority
on
Shi'ite
There were many other figures who are less
known, 'among whom Mulla Shams Gillani can be mentioned,

known.
He
wrote
extensively
on
Mir
Damad's
view
of
creation and eternity and commented on Mulla Sadra.

The second outstanding figure is Shaikh BahaJ al-din
Amuli, whose influence goes beyond the sphere of philosophy

and
extends
into
grammar and poetry.
architecture,
jurisprudence,
cArabic
Amuli, known as Shaikh Baha'i, is not
only respected for the ninety works he wrote in all areas

of the Islamic sciences, but also revered because he became
the teacher of many scholars who went to Isfahan.
is
not
particularly
known
for his works
on
While he
hikmat,
he
nevertheless tried to reflect the spirit of hikmat in his

architectural designs.
His Sufi poetry, which is written
in the style of Rumi and reflected in his book Tuti

namah.
is perhaps the best representative of his mystical views.

The greatest achievement of Shaikh Baha'i is the fact
that he trained such scholars as Mulla Muhsin Faiz Kashani,
Sayyed Ahmad *Alavi, and Mulla Muhammad Taqi Majlisi. It is
*
for this reason, as well as his unique achievements in
architecture,
that
he
has
gained
almost
mythical
personality, so much so that performing miracles has been

attributed to him.
The
third
figure
of
the
school
of
Isfahan,
despite his eminence and far-reaching influence,

known,
is Mir Abul-Qasim Findiriski.
who,
is less
He traveled to India
and had extensive contacts with Hindu Masters to whom he

alludes- in a major work called Usui al-fusul. along with
his
commentaries
on
other
intellectual activities.
harakah
and Risalah
traditional
fields
of
Islamic
Among his works are Risalat al-
Sana'i w a h .
A major
theme
in his
works, besides theosophical ideas,

which appears
is a summary of hikmat
in his book on poetry called Oasida.
Mir
Findiriski, like other members of the school of Isfahan who

tried to express their experiential knowledge through Ibn
Sina's philosophy, not only succeeded in doing so but also
trained a number of fine scholars, among whom Mulla Rafica
Gilani
and Aqa Husain Khunsari can be named.
famous student is Mulla Rajab cAli Tabrizi,
His most
the author of
Kilid-i Bihisht. 10
Another figure of great importance in the school of
Isfahan is Mulla Muhsin Faid Kashani (1598-1680), the best
student of Mulla Sadra, who wrote over 120 works.
writing
on
different
extensively on
makkiva
religious
such works as Ibn rArabi's
and Rumi's Mathnavi.
Shi'ite gnosis at its best.

al-bada*
sciences,
fi ihya al-ihva.
9
he
Beside
wrote
al-Futuhat
al-
Kashani*s work represents

His major work,
al-Mahaiiat
was based upon Ghazzali's ihva1
al-<ulum al-din.
In fact what Mulla Muhsin did was to revive the
work of Ghazzali in the Shi* ite circle by
"Shi *ifying" it.11
Kashani
brought
the
integration
illumination to its completion.
of
the
school
of
He used the rationalism of
Ibn Sina and the theosophical ideas of Suhrawardi to offer

an analysis of the twelve Imam Shi'ite Islam.
Other prominent figures of this school, MullaCAbd al-
Razzag
Lahiji
mentioned.
and
his
student
Qadi
Said Qummi,
can
Lahiji is best known for his contribution
be
to
the field of Kalam, which he carried out within the matrix

of hikmat.
Having been influenced by Mulla Sadra, he wrote
a number of works of a purely ishraqi nature such as Huduth

al-âlam. a commentary on Havakil al-nur.
Qazi
Saîd Qummi,
who came to be
known as the
Ibn
cArabi of the Shi'ite tradition, devoted his writing to the

type of spiritual hermeneutics
fTa*wil)
that was intended
to elaborate on the esoteric meaning of the Quran and other

Islamic doctrine and rites.
period two
events
Towards the end of the Safavid
occurred.
First,
the Sufis, who had
enjoyed relative freedom, began to be viewed as those who

had deviated from the Islamic rites (sharilah) by the more
exoteric elements
The
second
fulama 1) and therefore were persecuted.
element
was
the
weakening
of
the
central
government and its consequence, which was the dominance of

the more
austere and orthodox atmosphere.
Despite this
change, however, there were a number of hakims who emerged

at the end of the Safavid period and provided a transition
between the Safavid and the Qajar periods.
The first important figure who belongs to this period
is Hasan Lunbani,
(13th/19th) century, whose philosophical
Sufism did not sit well with the exoteric 1Ulama1 and who
was accused of being a Sufi.
of
this
period
was
Mirza
The second significant hakim

Muhamad
#
Sadiq Ardistani,
who
taught Hikmat and carried on the tradition of Mulla Sadra.

During
this
period,
such
figures
as
Ardastahi
and
Seyyed Hasan Taliqani began to use ishraqi texts

Madrasseh.
al-hikam
Mir
in the
Taliqani, for example, taught IbnfArabi's Fusus
and
Suhrawardi's
Hikmat
al-ishraq. while
being
influenced by Mulla Sadra.

Despite an environment which was hostile to Sufism and
hikmat,
they both flourished until the Qajar period when
another
upsurge
of
intellectual
activities
occurred,
although it never produced as many outstanding figures as

the Safavid period did.
Before commenting on the status of
the school of illumination during the Qajar period, it is

necessary
to
Suhrawardi.
influenced
say
This
by
few
is
words
about
Mulla
Sadra
and
because,
while
Mulla
Sadra
was
Suhrawardi,
his
monumental
philosophical
synthesis nevertheless shaped and in a sense determined the

course of philosophical activities in Persia even up until
today.
Therefore,
an
understanding
tradition in general and Shi'ite
gnosis
of
the
in
requires an understanding of these two giants,
ishraqi
particular
Suhrawardi
and Mulla Sadra.
A. 3. SUHRAWARDI AND MULLA SADRA
Suhrawardi
and
Mulla
approaches to hikmat.
Sadra
represent
two
distinct
Mulla Sadra's philosophical system
includes that of Suhrawardi but makes major changes so that

it incorporates Ibn Sina's peripatetic interpretations as
well as Suhrawardi's ishraqi ideas.
It is for this reason
that Mulla Sadra has dominated the Islamic philosophy in

Iran until today.
It is generally believed that Suhrawardi's dominance
of Islamic philosophy was substantially curtailed by Mulla
Sadra
whose
doctrine
criticisms
established
and
him
expositions
as the
of
foremost
Suhrawardian
authority
on
transcendental theosophy (hikmat al-muta'aliwah).

The
however,
most
was
important
to
have
achievement
reversed the
of
Mulla
Sadra,
Suhrawardian ontology
that was based on light to Ibn Sina's gradations of Being.

This important change took place in a way that the overall
philosophical structure of Suhrawardi remained intact with
one
exception,
principiality
that
of
is
the
existence
pre-dominance
(asalat
of
al-wuiud)
the
over
Suhrawardi's principality of essence (asalat a l - m ahiwah).

Sadr al-din Shirazi
(980/1571), born in Shiraz,
left
us with over fifty books which range from commentaries on

the
Islamic
hadith,
Peripatetic writings
hidaya.
There
principles
of
are
such
as
also
in
as
the
Usui
the case
those
illumination
of Kitab
works
such
alkafi. to
which
as
his
sharh aldefend
the
al-Shawahid
al-
r u b u b i w a . Kitab al-hidava. Hikmat a l - a r s h i w a . his famous
coxnmentry
called
upon
Sharh-i
Suhrawardi *s
hikmat
Philosophy
al-ishracr. and
macmum. the alHikmat almuta6a l i w a
of
Illumination
finally
his
opus
fxlasfar al-arba'at
al-aaliwah.
Mulla
Sadra*s
intellectual
philosophy
currents
in
is
Islam.
synthesis
They are,
of
as
major
S.H.
Nasr
states:
Kalam, Peripatetic philosophy, ishraqi theosophy,
and Irfah.
In Mulla Sadra we find elements of
Ghazzali, Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi and particularly
Ibn'Arabi.
Moreover, there is Sufism especially
in its gnostic aspect which serves as the
background for this whole synthesis. 12
The
central
difference
between
Mulla
Suhrawardi lies in their ontological views.

Mulla
Sadra",
who
advocated
fisalat al-wuiud) . and the
the
Sadra
and
According to
principality
of
being
gradations of Being (Tashkik) ,
each of the existent beings has a different
ontological
status.
there is a
unity
While Being itself is the absolute,

amongst
emanated
from
all
the
Being.
gradations
So
far,
of
Mulla
beings
Sadra's
that
system
are
is
similar to that of Suhrawardi, with the difference being

that Mulla Sadra has substituted Being for Light.
What constitutes the major difference between them is
their
account
Mulla
Sadra
of
this
argues
hierarchy
that
in which
gradation
is
they
believe.
applicable to
the
realm of existence (wujud) and cannot include anything else
282
such
as
essence
(m a h i w a h ) .
13
Suhrawardi
takes
the
opposite position by maintaining that gradation makes sense

only
if
applied
difference
within
stems
the
realm
from their
of
essences.
attempt to
account
This
for
the
existing differences between things.

Mulla Sadra, in the Mashac ir. argues that the reality
of every being lies in its actual and external existence.
In other words, existing objects are the extemalization of
the
concept
argues
or
that
the
the
idea
of
that
existence of
particular thing.
Mr.
Row
actualization of existence as such.
He
indicates the
In order for a man to
exist, his existence must be real; otherwise, his essence

cannot be
actualized without
the presence
of existence.
Without existence, essence cannot manifest itself and will

remain in its archetypal form.
into
existence,
existence
Therefore, in order to come
precede
essence
and
not
vice
versa, as Suhrawardi maintained.

Seyyed Jalal Ashtiyani,
Falsafah
Gnostic
wa
cIrfan
View),14
contention between
in his book Hasti as Nazar-i
(Existence
offers
Suhrawardi
Being and Existence.
from
lengthy
Philosophical
discussion
and Mulla
of
Sadra's view
and
the
of
He summarizes Mulla Sadra's view as
the following:
The existent being that has an essence must then
be
caused
and
existence
that
is
pure
existence... is therefore, a Necessary Being. 15
Therefore,
for
Mulla
principiality of existence
essence
(isalat
essence.
His
Sadra,
who
advocates
(isalat al-wuiud)
a 1- m a h i w a h ^ ,existence
general
argument
to
the
rather than
precedes
this
effect
is
the
that
something has to exist first and then have an essence.
It
is primarily this argument which lies at the heart of Mulla

Sadra*s view.
According to Ashtiyani,
Mulla Sadra*s argument and,
there is another reading of

in my opinion, a correct one,
that goes beyond the classical distinction

and existence.
between essence
Ashtiyani maintains that both in the Asfar
and the Mashaîr Mulla Sadra" offers a middle road theory

that
is
rapprochement between those who argue
principiality
of
essence
and those
principiality
of
existence.
It
who
can
be
for the
advocate
argued
the
that
according to Mulla Sadra existence as such is a category of

different degrees.
Each degree corresponds to one level of
reality and this reality on one hand is pure existence and

on the other hand, since the extent to which a thing exists
constitutes what a thing is, then it also corresponds to an
existent being.
Therefore, at one level an existent being
is pure existence fwuiud) and at another it is essence or

Mah i w a h .
To put this differently, since all existent beings are
essentially
different
in
existence
on the
hierarchy
of
existence, essence and existence become one and the same.
284
The
argument is fundamentally Suhrawardian since he also
makes
a correspondence between existent beings and their
intensity of light on the basis of the ontological status.

While
the
Suhrawardi
views
is
ontological
remains
the
basic
the
structure
same,
what
of
Mulla
Sadra
differentiates
constituent element
of all
and
their
existent
beings, which for Suhrawardi is light and for Mulla Sadra

is existence.
It is, in fact, the above argument that demonstrates
the extent of Suhrawardi's influence on Mulla Sadra on the
most
fundamental
level,
which
is
their
ontology.
The
argument can be called a "middle road position" which goes

beyond
arguing
the
traditional
that these are
essence/existence
essentially the
distinction
same.
by
Therefore,
Mulla Sadra's answer to the classical problem of whether

essence precedes existence or vice versa is that they are
one reality in different aspects.
Suhrawardi
argues
that
the
essence
of
thing
constitutes its identity, and, therefore, gradation of the

essence determines the nature and identity of that object.
Existence for Suhrawardi is a universal concept that cannot
have gradations, whereas "sweetness" can be sweeter or less
sweet. - Therefore, whereas something can be more or less
sweet, something cannot "exist more" or "exist less".
All
things
the
either
"are"
or
"are
not",
and,
therefore,
concept of gradation in this regard does not make sense.
285
While there is a common element between all sweet things

regardless of their intensity or weakness, such cannot be
said to be true for all existing beings.
Mulla Sadra's argument against Suhrawardi's position
goes as follows:
When we say A is more black than B, we
are not only talking in terms of their essence but we are

making an ontological statement.
If we consider absolute
blackness to be X then A and B are different statuses of

blackness
in
respect
to
X.
In
other words
already
contains A and B within itself, and if A and B are to come

into
existence,
they
have
to
be
regarded
as
different
existential states of X. 16
One
can
argue
that
Mulla
Sadra
has
not
refuted
Suhrawardi's view but has expressed Suhrawardi's ontology,

which is based on intensity and weakness of light,
existential context.
example,
Therefore,
in an
something which is,
for
sweeter than something else belongs to a higher
ontological status, since from Mulla Sadra's point of view

it "exists more", while for Suhrawardi it is the intensity
of the sweetness that accounts for the existing difference
between them.
It is noteworthy to mention that on the basis of the
above, Mulla Sadra develops the doctrine of the "Unity of
Being" and its natural conclusion, the unity of the knower
and
the
Suhrawardi
known
also
(ittihad
adheres.
al-aail
The
wal-matcnil) ,
way
this
to
unity
which
can
be
286
achieved constitutes the main subject of the Asfar.

fact,
Mulla
maintains
Sadra's
that
there
cognition: revelation
al-bahthi), and
Illumination,
"presential
epistemology,
are
like
basically
In
Suhrawardi's ,
three
modes
of
(wahy),
discursive reasoning fhikmat
finally
which
illumination
results
knowledge"
(c ilm
in
(ishracr or
the
dhawa) .
attainment
al-huduril . is a means
of
of
attaining knowledge available to man, and in this context,

like
Suhrawardi,
his
entire
philosophical
system
is
designed to demonstrate and argue for this type of wisdom.

A thorough discussion of the differences between the
two giants of hikmat is beyond the scope of this work. It
is known that both figures left a permanent effect on the
intellectual
India
and
in
fabric
of
Persia
particular
on
and
the
Shi* ism.
sub-continent
In
the
of
foregoing
discussion I have only alluded to their main difference,

namely the context within which they have described their
ontologies.
Mulla Sadra*s teachings, due to the hostility of the
orthodox
and
esoteric
jurists,
were
not
taught
in
the
intellectual centers for almost a century. Once they were

revived,
however,
during
the
early
part
of
the
Qajar
period,, their study came to the forefront of scholarship.
B.
QAJAR PERIOD
The Qajar period in Iran also witnessed an active and

prolific
period
activities
can
be
of
philosophical
divided
into two
activity.
These
major trends,
those
which carried out the tradition of Suhrawardi and Sadrian

teaching and those which opposed them, i.e. Shavkhiwah.
The
teachings
of Mulla Sadra and the Shia'
gnostic
views did not receive the attention they deserved, perhaps

for political
himself
reasons,
until Mulla 6Ali Nuri, who devoted
to
the teaching and advocating of Mulla Sadra*s
philosophy.
Nuri's commentary on the Asfar and Masha?ir
and his training of so many scholars made him one of the

most prominent figures of the Qajar period.
Mulla Sadra's
teachings during this era became a perfect representation

of the tradition of transcendental theosophy.
1.
SABZIWARI
Amongst the foremost authorities of ishraqi doctrine
and Mulla Sadra is Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari

whose works,
(1288/1888)
in particular Sharh-i al-manzuma. have become
a standard texts for the students of Islamic philosophy in

Iran.
This work of Sabziwari is a complete discussion of
philosophy and logic which raises objections against Mulla

Sadra's -Asfar. in particular his doctrine of the unity of
the knower and the known (itihad alcaail wal-ma* oul^ and
a
the
composition
ascetic
life
of
form
and
matter.
style and intellectual
Sabziwari,
whose
acumen made him the
best
known
Mulla
philosopher
Sadra's
of the
principiality
Suhrawardi. 17
While
he
Qajar
of
period,
existence
concentrated
sided with
and
criticized
on Mulla
Sadras
philosophy, his works are regarded also as expositions of

ishraqi
doctrine,
especially
his
Sadras al-Shawahid a 1-rububiwah
commentary
upon
Mulla
and his work in Persian,
Asrar al-hikam.
Sabziwari
doctrine
is
during
Suhrawardis
the
the
main
Qajar
teachings
is
expositor
period,
of
and
mainly
due
the
the
to
ishraqi
revival
his
of
efforts.
Sabziwari, who adhered to Mulla Sadras teachings, studied

with Mulla
One
of
the
Ismail Kushki and Mulla Ali Nuri

characteristics
which
has
made
figure of Sabziwari is his ascetic practices.

on
asceticism
as
necessary
element
in
in Isfahan.
a
legendary
His emphasis
philosophical
training is most evident in his poems 18 and also important

in the revival of the practical aspect of ishrag which was
belittled by some of the post-Mulla Sadrian philosophers.
Sabziwaris commentary upon .the Asfar of Mulla Sadra,
which is one of the most comprehensive commentaries written
on this work 19, along with his commentary upon the Mafatih
al-qhavb of Mulla Sadra, provides a valuable set of works
for the student of Mulla Sadra.
Sabziwaris interest in
Sufism is most apparent in his commentary on the Mathnawi

of Rumi, which is the best known work of Persian poetry on
Sufi and gnostic doctrine of Islam.
It is also said 20
289
that Sabziwari wrote a commentary on the I l a h i w a t of Ibn

Sina which was lost.
During his lifetime a number of learned scholars asked
Sabziwari
for his
philosophical
answers.
views
questions
on
some
of
to
which
the
he
more
difficult
provided
In one of the lesser known replies
written
Sabziwari
provided a brief answer to seven questions that were posed

to
him
by
Mirza
philosopher.
Abulhassan
Razavi,2j_a
contemporary
Since the seventh question deals with the
subject of presential knowledge and
clearly demonstrates
the extent to which Sabziwari was influenced by Suhrawardi

I
will
which
translate
appears
the
for
entire
the
section.
first
time
This
in
translation
English,
also
demonstrates that the ishraai theory of knowledge was of

great
interest
among
the
intellectual
community
of
the
time.
QUESTION NUMBER
7:
"Is the method of presential knowledge, 22. which the

sages of the Sufi tradition have promulgated, true or not?
Is
it
accessible despite the differences among the
followers of this method of discovery,
and how can
certainty of the truth of this theory be attained.
As it
(Quran) says:
" If you do not know it ask the learned"^
and also "Remember that God gave birth to you through your
mothers and you did not know anything".
The prophetic
hadith says "God did not make it necessary for people to
answer -but He made it incumbent upon the learned to
answer".
I have dared to ask this while I am depressed, and my
inner being is in a tumultuous state.
I am thereby
requesting that the answer be sent to me soon. May the
prosperity of the two worlds be yours, your soul be
enlightened, your intellect be well and your heart be free
of every bondage".
290
ANSWER:
"Having
a vision
(mushahidahi
is an authentic
principle
and it is spiritual in nature.
Spiritual
discovery is a science through which knowledge of the self,
knowledge of God and eschatological issues are known, and
one becomes intellectually certain in a manner that is only
attainable with regards to the domain of true knowledge.
The mind proceeds from the knowledge of truth f*ilm alyac[in) , to the beholding of the truth fvavn al-va* ginl and
finally becomes the truth fhaqq al-vaain).
God most high has expressed the levels of certainty
within the context of "fire" and has said: "You will know
soon, throughcilm al-vaqin. you will see hell, and you will
see it with the eyes of certainty". Elsewhere He says,
"Hell
can
only be understood through knowledge by
certitude".
Therefore, degrees of knowing the divine light are
similar to the degrees of knowing fire.
For example, if
someone has never seen fire but has heard that whatever
becomes united with it gains its attributes, he thereby
makes it lose its identity.
Every candle and light are
luminous from it and if it loses some of itself, it is not
reduced.
Whatever departs from it becomes its opposite in
nature, such as smoke which is dark. In darkness it is the
master of all incorporeal lights.
It [fire] is like a luminous light that, if placed in
a gathering, will illuminate everyone in colors, and forms
manifest themselves in lieu of this light.
Not every
precious pearl that is placed in a gathering can do the
same thing.
Just as in illumination and warming, the sun
is superior to fire in that "there is not motion or power
except through God", and they call that being fire.
There are those who believe in it on the basis of the
following (those who know) and some who seek to believe
because of its signs (smoke from fire), such as those who
believe in God on the basis of clear signs.
There are those who reach divine light and see
existent beings through this light and see the essence of
fire when the veil is removed for them. In their knowledge
of God, these people are seeing the truth. People like
burning iron to whom the effects of fire appear when they
understand it are those who have become the truth in their
knowledge of God. Both of these types
are men of true
discovery and faith in what is obvious to them and are
transcendental theosophers. There are different degrees
amongst them and they know God but do not see God.
Discovery of forms isthe disclosure
of
forms as a
particular to the senses and is divided with accordance to
the five senses.
Therefore, discovery through vision, like seeing of
291
incorporeal entities by the ascetics [who see] a variety of

lights, is an extensive discussion for another occasion.
There are forms, phenomena and chants which are most
sublime, and words that are pleasant and sounds that are
fearsome
and hopeful that are issued forth to the
disciples.
" God said: The days of their life is like the
divine breath" and the prophet has said" He shelters us,
feeds us and takes our thirst away" and also he said " God
established balance between shoulders like the drink one
has between meals".
A formal discovery of the principles [of philosophy]
is the manifestation of the divine name who hears all, sees
all, and understands all things. A spiritual discovery of
the principles, however, is the disclosure of the divine
name.
Hardship and ease are therefore apparent and
following the Muhammadan tradition is difficult and can
only become easy through love and inner yearning.
The difference of opinion among the men of discovery
and vision should not be regarded as obstacles on the path
of those who seek knowledge and practical wisdom, since
differences exist everywhere. Are there not inconsistencies
in the appearance of G o d 1s words who in the truth and in
the appearance of the prophetic sayings as well as the
sayings of the Imams?
May he who wants the attainment of knowledge and
sciences be successful." 23
Another figure of great significance is Aga Muhammad
Rida QumshaJi .
He, in the tradition of Sabziwari and other
great masters of this period,

Ârabi.
taught Mulla Sadra and Ibn
In fact it was his attempt to integrate Ishraqi
tradition,
Ibn
CArabi's
gnosis,
and
Mulla
Sadra*s
metaphysics that made him one of the foremost authorities

of Islamic philosophy in this period.
Towards the end of the Qajar period, Mulla CAbdallah
Zunuzi, - and his son Mulla (Ali Zunuzi, both of whom wrote
commentaries on Sabziwari and Mirza Mehdi Ashtiyani, came
to be known as two of the most
important proponents of
ishraq
Zunuzi
and
Mulla
Sadra.
*Ali
is
particularly
292
important,
not
only because
of his
important commentary
upon Mulla Sadra.'s works, in particular the Asfar. but also

because he represents the first encounter of traditional
Islamic philosophy with European philosophy in Persia. Ali
Zunuzi was asked by a Qajar prince to provide a reply to
Kantian philosophy, which he did in his book Badavi
i
iikam.
m
al
in this respect he has a special place in the Qajar
period.
Mulla
cAbdallah
Zunuzi
wrote
an
important
book
on
ishraqi philosophy titled Lama* at-i i l a h i w a h . which is a

good example of
Mulla
Sadra
how Suhrawardi's teachings and that of
influenced
the
philosophers
of
the
Qajar
period.
Among
other
illuminationist
followers
foundation
of
during
Mulla
the
Sadra
Qajar
and
his
period
who
transmitted the wisdom of transcendental theosophy to the

m o d e m and contemporary hakims, the following can be named:
Muhammad Ismacil Isfahani, Mulla Muhammad Ja4far Langarucli,
Mulla Ismacil Khajui, Mirza Mehdi Ashtiyani and Mirza Tahir
Tunkabuni.
They constitute
one intellectual
trend that
supported the ideas and doctrines of Suhrawardi and Mulla
Sadra.
There were, however, individuals and movements who
reacted- to the teachings of the Sadrian school as well as

to the thoughts of Suhrawardi, among whom the Shavkhiwah
movement can be mentioned.
B. 2 .
SHAIKHIYYAH SCHOOL
The Shaikhi movement, initiated by Shaikh Ahmad Ahsai

1153/1753,
is
another
continuation
of
the
ideas
of
Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra during the Qajar period in Iran.

24 The Shaikhis, who are more influenced by Mulla Sadra's
doctrine than they admit, reject many of Suhrawardi's ideas
as expressed by Mulla SadraT
While they adhere to the hierarchical structure of the
universe, they reject an ontology based on light.
this,
Despite
they accept the existence of an intermediary realm
between the angels and human souls, which they describe as

the domain of pure light.
The Shaikhis* attempt to reconcile their theosophical
views
with
perhaps
the
the
more
roots
ishraqi school.
traditional
of
their
theological
conflict
with
themes
is
Suhrawardi's
Whereas Suhrawardi envisages the existent
entities as different intensities of light, Shaikhis argue

that both corporeal and incorporeal world, which they call
huraalva. are real. 25
Despite the disagreements of the Shaikhis, almost all
the
prominent
figures
in this movement,
such as
Shaikh
Kazam Rashti and Kirmani, were influenced by the teachings

of Suhrawardi and their reformulation by Mulla Sadra.
C.
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
294
The golden age
of philosophical activity during the
Safavid period and its continuation during the Qajar period

did not come to a halt in contemporary Persia.
fact that most
Islamic
active
Western scholarship neglects contemporary
philosophical
and
expositor
Despite the
alive.
Mulla
thought,
In
fact,
Sadra" became
this
tradition
Suhrawardi
fully
and
is
still
his
chief
integrated
into
the
fabric of Persian intellectual thought and have remained to

this
day
the
cornerstone
of
traditional
philosophical
teachings in Persia.
In
contemporary
Persia
continued and flourished.

traditional
the
teachings and ishraqi doctrine,
wal-hikmat
al-ilahiwah
Sadra
and
hikmat
has
one can name
the author of al-Mizan.

, Naha vat
badavat al-hikmat.
Mulla
of
Among the greatest masters of
All amah Seyyed Husayn Tabatabai,

and gAli
teaching
a 1-hikmat
wa
He has written numerous commentaries on

the
ishraqi
edition of the Asfar.
doctrine,
including
Among other disciples of
new
ishraqi
tradition we can name also Seyyed Muhammad Kazim Assar, who

has written a major work on transcendental theosophy titled
Thalath risail
Rafi* i Qazwini,
fil-hikmat al-islamiwah
who
. and Abul-Hasan
has been the main defender of Mulla
Sadra's school during the past half century.
Qazwini has
trained a number of fine scholars, such as Seyyed Jalal alDin Ashtiyani, who is perhaps the most prolific writer in
the field of traditional philosophy in Iran today.
He has
written extensively on a number of the

authors
of
the
contemporary
ishraqi
scholars
indicate
the
tradition. 2 6
who
alive is a long one.
commentators and
have
The
kept the
fire
list
of
of
hikmat
However, the above is sufficient to
presence
and
continuation
of
the
ishraqi
tradition in Iran.
In
more
recent
years,
universities in Iran,
with
the
establishment
of
Islamic philosophy and hikmat began
to be taught outside of the traditional Madrasah for the

first time.
This was further facilitated by the appearance
of
who
scholars
have
not only mastered
the
traditional
teachings but also have become well acquainted with Western

modes
of thought.
Among these scholars
are Mirza Mehdi
Ha*ri and Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

Ha*ri
is a traditional master of Islamic philosophy
whose extensive experience with the West marks one of the

few
examples
Islamic
of a
philosophy
serious
and
encounter between traditional
Western
philosophical
paradigms.
Such an encounter is best represented in his work titled

Presential Knowledge 27,
which is a comparative work on
epistemology.
Seyyed
Hossein
figure in that,
Nasr,
in
this
regard,
is
unique
contrary to Ha>ri and some of the other
figures, he first came in contact with Western ideas and

philosophies and it was not until his return to Iran that
he began to study with the traditional masters of gnosis.
2 96
His thorough familiarity with Western modes of thought and

traditional
ishraqi
teachings
doctrine
to
has
the
enabled
Western
him
to
audience.
present
the
Through
his
numerous writings and lectures, he has established himself

as the chief proponent of the ishraqi doctrine in the West.
Among his major works in the English language the following
can
be
Essays.
works,
named:
and,
Islamic
finally,
Cosmological
his
most
Doctrine.
important
the
Sufi
philosophical
Knowledge and the Sacred. Three Muslim Sages, and
Sadr al-din Shirazi and His
Transcendental Theosophy. 28
Besides Nasr's major contributions
in spreading the
traditional teachings of Suhrawardi, Mulla Sadra and other

Shi'ite gnostics, he has trained a number of fine scholars,
among
whom
W.
Chittick
and
James
Morris
can
be
named.
These figures have become expositors of hikmat in the West

by writing and translating the traditional ishraqi texts.
Also,
due
central
to the efforts
themes
of
of S.H.
traditional
Nasr to
Islamic
introduce the
philosophy
in
an
accessible language to the younger Western audience and his

collaboration with such eminent scholars as H. Corbin, he
has stimulated interest among some individuals to translate
the traditional texts of hikmat.
The fine translation of
al-Hikmat al-garshivyah by James Morris is a case in point.
1.
INDIA
2 97
In India, Suhrawardi's
translated
into
Philosophy of Illumination was
Sanskrit and welcomed
Zoroastrian community there.

school
of
illumination,
the
What aided the spread of the
besides
individuals who traveled to
especially by
the
India,
hakims
and
learned
was perhaps the
keen
interest of Sultan Muhammed bin Tughlug (725-752/1325-1351)

in philosophical and intellectual discussions.
The Sultan,
who had allocated large sums of money for the building of a

library,
Sina.
was particularly interested in the works of Ibn

Seyyed Athar Abbas
Rizvi,
in his
book A
Socio-
Intellectual History of the Isna *Ashari Shi'ism in India.

29 maintains that probably the works of Khwajah Nasir alDin Tusi and Qutb al-Din Shirazi were amongst them.
If
Durrat al-Tai. the central work of Shirazi, was. available

in India as Rizvi indicates 30, then
it is reasonable to
believe that other ishraqi works may have been available as

well.
Therefore,
it
is
conceivable
that
the
ideas
of
Suhrawardi may have been discussed amongst the intellectual

circles of India through the existing commentaries on the
ishraqi doctrine.
Another
example of the spread of Suhrawardi*s
ideas
can be seen in the fact that several theological centers

were
established
fifteenth century.
by
Sind
His
Nizam
al-Din
in
the
early
interest in these matters made
Jalal al-din Dawani, a prominent ishraqi scholar, consider
moving to the area.
However,
Dawani died while he was
waiting for two of his students who had gone to the area
for further investigation.
of
Suhrawardi
Dawani was a famous commentator
and was the author of Lawamiûl Xshrag fi
Makarimu11 Ikhlaq. and Shawakil al-nur fi Sharh-i Havakil

al-nur. which is a commentary upon Suhrawardi's Havakil alnur.
Although Dawani did not go to India,
students did.
many of his
Such figures as Mir Mu*in, Mir Shamsu'din,
and in particular Abu1 fazl Kazeruni continued on the path

of their teacher by teaching the transcendental theosophy
of Suhrawardi.
Suhrawardi's
school
continued to
flourish
in India,
and with the rise of Akbar to power, the spread of ishraqi

ideas reached its climax.
for
new
ideas
environment
and religions
thatthe
ishraqi doctrine
Akbar's enthusiasm and tolerance
hakims
needed
provided
to
the
kind
freely teach
of
the
which had found a new home inthe rich
landscape of Indian culture.
It was for this reason that a
large number of hakims moved from Iran to India where they

settled in numerous intellectual centers.
Bada'uni in his
book, Muntakhab al-Tawarikh. o ffers an account of some of

these masters.
There he says:
Some of the physicians in this region were so

learned in the theory and skilled in the practice
of medicine
that they performed miracles like
those of Moses and brought to mind the wonder
breath of the lord Jesus.31
299
Among the most notable masters of the ishraqi school

in this period were: Khatib abu5l fazl Kaziruni who settled
in Ahmad abad,
Shaykh Mubarak Nagori
(905-993/1505-1593) ,
his son Shaykh Fazl, and finally Baaa5uni himself.

The tradition of Hikmat has continued to flourish in
India
up
to
the
orthodox centers.
contemporary
32
period,
even
in
the
most
In fact it was the result of the
influx of so many hakims that many works were written on

Suhrawardi, the best example of which is the commentary of
Ahmad
ibn
alHarawi,
Anwariwah
33.
This
commentary,
which is a classical work on Suhrawardi written in Persian,

provides an overall account of Suhrawardi's Philosophy of
11lumination.
India,
Harawi,
who lived
in the 17th century
in
34 made use of other commentaries such as those of
Qutb al-din al-Shirazi and Shahrazuri, which indicates that

these commentaries must have been available in India at the
time through the followers of Suhrawardi.
Suhrawardi*s influence in India went beyond the circle
of theosophists and had a profound influence on the Sufi
tradition of the Chisti order.
There are a number of other
mystical schools that were influenced by Suhrawardi such as

the
"Khairabadi"
philosophical
wali-allah
school,
tendency.
and
which
has
strong
logico-
Also such grand masters as Shah
Shaykh Ahmad
Sirhindi
and their mystical
schools came to be influenced by the illuminationist ideas

of Suhrawardi, although the link between Suhrawardi and the
300
above figures needs to be further explored.

The intellectual scene of Indian culture came to know
of Suhrawardi on two separate occasions.
The first was in
the first two centuries after Suhrawardi*s death,

been discussed.
as has
The second encounter of India with the
illuminationist ideas of Suhrawardi was through the sages

of the Safavid period, generally known as the
Isfahan".
India's
theosophy
of
the
encounter
Safavid
with
period
the
was
"school of
transcendental
instrumental
in
constituting the educational curriculum of the traditional

schools which have survived to this day.
During this period many of the great masters of the
ishraqi
tradition traveled to
important
works
on
the
India,
doctrine
of
some of whom wrote

illumination.
Such
figures include Qazi Nur-allah Shustari, who authored two

major books on the philosophy of illumination, Maialis almu^minin
and Ihaaa al-haqg. and Muhammad Dihdar Shirazi,
the author of Ishraq al-nawirain.
To these figures one
can add such notable scholars as Mir Findiriski and Baha'

al-din Isfahani, also known as Fazil-i Hindi, who not only
taught the
but
also
Peripatetic philosophy,
knew
the
ishraqi.tradition
works
of
especially the Shifa.
other
commentators
on
the
Gradually, the teachings of Mulla Sadra"
and his teacher,Mir Damad, became extremely popular, even

overshadowing the works of Suhrawardi.
Sadra*s book,
For instance, Mulla
the Sharh-i al-hidavah. became an official
301
text in the traditional school (madrassah^.35

The school of ishrag and the texts that deal with the
illuminaticnist doctrine are being taught even today in the
traditional centers of learning in the Indo-Pakistan sub
continent .
In fact, outside of Persia the sub-continent is
the
region
only
that
is to this day receptive to the
teachings of Suhrawardi.
3.
SUHRAWARDI IN SYRIA AND ANATOLIA
Suhrawardi's ideas have also become a permanent part

of the intellectual landscape of Syria and Anatolia.
it
is difficult
to
exactly trace
the path that
While
ishraqi
doctrine traveled in these regions, nevertheless we saw an

upsurge of interest during the 7th century in that area.
In
examining
Syria,
the
influence
one has to
plausible
to
in Turkey
and
consider the relatively short distance
between Aleppo and Anatolia.

is
of Suhrawardi
conclude
Therefore, geographically it
that
Suhrawardi's
ideas
were
propagated in that part of the world also.

Intellectually speaking, the city of Konyah was at the
time a center for gnostic teachings,
and it was through
this city that the
intellectual milieu of Turkey became
receptive
ideas
to
the
and
doctrines
of
Suhrawardi.
Numerous commentaries on Ibn cArabi by such figures as Sadr

al-Din Qunawi were certainly instrumental in providing an
3 02
intellectual
doctrines.
ambience
which
was
receptive
to
gnostic
This receptivity might have helped to pave the
road for Suhrawardi's ideas to be studied.

While it is difficult to identify specific figures in
the Turkish speaking world who identified themselves with
Suhrawardi's works
Persian world,
manuscripts
as Shahrazuri and Shirazi did
the existence of large numbers of ishraqi
in
Turkish
libraries
is
an
indication
Suhrawardi was studied by Turkish scholars.

Turkish
in the
libraries
contain
such
an
that
In fact, the
abundance
of
ishraqi
texts of Ibn rArabi and others that such notable scholars as

A.M.
Schimmel and
H. Corbin
Turkey to complete their
spent
number
of
years
in
research on Muslim gnostics and
other ishraqi figures.

As far as the spread of Suhrawardi's ideas in Syria is
concerned,
it is apparent that the presence of Suhrawardi
and his numerous students and companions in Syria must have

been
instrumental
Suhrawardi
of
his
in
the
spreading
of
his
ideas.
does not mention the name of these associates
but
alludes
to
them
as
those
who
repeatedly
requested the Philosophy of Illumination be written 36.
In
fact, towards the end of this book he leaves a will asking

the circle of his friends to safeguard its content.37
All
this
ishraqi's who
Suhrawardi,
points
to the
existence
benefitted from the
of a
circle
of
esoteric teachings
of
and it is reasonable to assume that they must
303
have continued his work after his death.

may
have
been
Shahrazuri.
among
these
Although
the
associates
date
of
One figure who
of Suhrawardi
his
life
was
makes
it
reasonable to assume that he might have known Suhrawardi

himself personally, it is likely that he was a disciple of
one of Suhrawardi's students.
on
the
Philosophy
(680/1281)
were
of
3j3
Shahrazuri's commentary
illumination
certainly
among
and
the
the
alTalwihat
texts
that
were
circulating in the group of ishraqi1s in Syria.

Suhrawardi*s
influence
in
Syria
predates
that
of
anywhere else since it was there that he wrote most of his

works
and
was
unjustly
killed
for
his
ideas.
The
discussions and debates of Suhrawardi with the learned men

of his time
circle
of
conclude
in Syria, the bulk of his writings,

his
that
intellectual
friends
his
provide
ideas
community
may
in
reasonable
have
Syria
been
even
and the
grounds
studied
though
by
they
to
the
were
suppressed for political reasons.
4.
SUHRAWARDI IN THE WEST
Suhrawardi,for
reasons
unknown,
was
not
translated
into Latin and therefore his philosophy remained unknown to

the West.
One could postulate three reasons as to why his
works were not translated.
The first had to do with the
existing philosophical paradigm of the period,
which was
30 4
more Ibn Sinian in nature.

philosophy,
world,
which was the dominant school in the Western
created an environment that was not receptive to
Suhrawardi's ideas.
the
Therefore, the rationalistic
great
age
of
The second reason could have been that

translation
in
Spain and the
creative
momentum that existed in southern Spain had come to an end.

The translation houses falPar al-tariumah) were no longer
productive, and, therefore, Suhrawardi did not receive the
attention that he deserved.
The third reason, in my opinion, could have been
Suhrawardi's
Although
affiliation with Saladin's son Malik
Suhrawardi
was
not
favored by
the
Zahir.
Saladin,
he
nevertheless may have been viewed by the Christian West to

have been a court philosopher at a time when Muslims and
Christians were involved in the Crusades. For this reason
his works may have been set aside and gradually forgotten,
except by a group of close friends or initiates.
S.H. Nasr attributes the lack of interest by the West
to become acquainted with Suhrawardi to a more fundamental
problem, namely that the East and the West were departing
from each other both philosophically and geographically.
As he states:
The West which had been in many ways an *orient'
in the ishraq sense of the term and had passed a
traditional civilization which
resembled the
great oriental civilizations, was now becoming an
Occident, not only geographically but also in the
ishraqi sense of concerning itself with the
domain of rationalization. 39
305
Despite these intellectual currents which continued on

their
analytical
and
rationalistic
path,
Suhrawardi
may
have influenced certain intellectual currents in the west.

S.H.
Nasr
further
argues
that
one
of
the
intellectual
circles that might have been influenced by Suhrawardi was

the thirteenth century Oxford school of Roger Bacon and
Robert
Grossteste.
proponents
of
experiment
While
an empirical
was
such
both
of
method
that
it
these
of
figures
were
observation,
was
not
their
necessarily
inconsistent with a gnostic interpretation of nature.

fact,
the
In
Nasr draws a parallel between the Oxford school of

thirteenth
century
and
Qutb
al-Din
Shirazi,
the
celebrated Muslim scientist who also continued an empirical

method.
Bacon and Grossteste used the kind of experimental
method that considers the observation of nature to be a

necessary part of illumination.
Bacon wore the dress of
the ishraqi's and lectured upon them".40

It
is,
however,
more
influenced certain
likely
that
Suhrawardi
had
intellectual circles in Spain where
the intellectual milieu might have been more receptive to

his
ideas.
Kabbalists
For
who
example,
came
to
it
know
is
likely
of
the
that
Jewish
Philosophy
of
Illumination may have taken this text to southern Spain. It

was this very text,
some have argued,
important
the
role
in
further
41 that played an
development
of
Jewish
30 6
illuminationists
and
drew attention
to
people who wrote
extensively on illumination.
The
other
indication
that
Suhrawardi's
ideas
did
indeed travel into Spain is that Ibn Sab* in (7th/13th) ,who

was from Spain and who lived in Morocco (Maghrib) . in his
book al-Risalat al-faairiwah. alludes to the Talwihat of
Suhrawardi.
Although it is difficult to establish whether
he Cwiu3 to know of Suhrawardi while he was in Spain or in

Morocco, what it does demonstrate is the large geographical
span that Suhrawardis ideas reached.
While illuminationist movements have emerged from time
to
time,
it
relationship
is
difficult
between
to
them.
establish
Such
definite
movements
as
the
"Illuminated of Bavaria", founded by Adam Weishaput, which

was essentially opposed to a religious hierarchy,
or the
ideas of Schelling and Franz Van Baader, were not able to

revive the illuminationist movement in its authentic and
traditional
sense,
and
their
treatment
of
the
subj ect
matter remains on a superficial level.

In the contemporary western world, while there is not
an illuminationist movement, the interest that the works of
Henry Corbin have created in the West must be mentioned.
Corbin,. who
was
illuminationist
Western
the
foremost
tradition,
philosophy
with
had
western
his
focus
on
authority
early
on
training
medieval
the
in
ontology.
Although Corbin's interest in Islamic philosophy began with
307
Ibn Sina,
the focal point of his scholarship remained on
the ishraqi tradition and the wisdom of ancient Persia-
In
the words of S.K. Nasr:

Corbin has without doubt done more than anyone
else, outside and even inside Persia, to revive
the teachings of Suhrawardi.42
Corbin, like many other masters of traditional wisdom,
has contributed to the body of Islamic sciences not only by
writing but by training a number of fine scholars.
Among
figures who have either been trained by him directly or

were
influenced
named:
by
his
writings,
the
following
can
be
G. Berger and J. Danielou, G. Durand and A. Faivre,
who belong to the younger generation of the scholars

France.
in
Also, the well known Jewish scholar G. Scholem and
biologist A. Portmann are among other important figures who

-came under his influence.
The success of Corbin in influencing so many scholars
in France is due partially to the development of the school
of phenomenology
advocated by Husserl
and Heidegger.
In
particular, Hiedegger and his phenomenological movement,

which is based on "disengagement" and "letting beings-be",
helped in preparing the intellectual milieu to be receptive
to the .ideas of Corbin.
Corbin's exposition of "oriental
ontology",
that
much
in
interest
particular
among
of
Suhrawardi,
philosophical
known as the "young philosophers".
movement
stimulated
in
France
The main figure in this
308
movement is Christian Jambet, who has taken interest in the

oriental
philosophy
of
Suhrawardi
with
emphasis
on
"oriental logic". 43
Finally,
Corbin's
Arab
directly
has
to
in
A number of Arab scholars such as M. Arkhoun,

were
colonies,
world,
mentioned.
Islamicist,
French
the
on
Algerian
former
in
particular
the
the
influence
influenced
be
by
Corbin's writings.
Suhrawardi's influence on Islamic philosophy cannot be
overemphasized.
He introduced a fresh outlook and approach
to analyzing philosophical issues.
The ishraqi school of
Suhrawardi, which contained both mysticism and rationalism,

was well received by both the Eastern and Western regions
of
the
Islamic world.
The
Indo-Pakistani
subcontinent,
which had a well established mystical tradition,

home
North
with
Suhrawardi
Africa,
which
on
that basis,
were
centers
whereas
of
felt at
Persia
and
rationalistic
philosophy, became equally receptive to Suhrawardi and his

philosophy of illumination.
309
E N D NOTES:
CHAPTER 7
1-
For more information on the influence of Sufism and

the esoteric doctrine of illumination on Shi'ite Islam
see: S.H. Nasr"The relationship between Suhrawardi and
Philosophy in Persian Culture, Hamdard Islamicus.
Vol.6, No.4, pp.33-47.
2-
For a more complete discussion on Abhari, see

Corbin, Prolegomena to Opera 1, p.21., note 29
3-
Nasr, S.H. "The Spread of the Illuminationist School

of Suhrawardi, Islamic Quarterly. 1970, p.113.
4-
Ibid, p. 114.
5-
Nasr,
S.H.
"Spiritual Movements,
Philosophy and
Theology in the Safavid Period", in the Cambridge
History of Iran, ed. by P. Jackson, vol.6,p.672.
6-
For more information on this see: Muntakhabat-i az

asar-i hukama-vi illahi-vi Iran, ed. by S.J. Ashtiyani
pp.3si.
7-
Mir Damad, Oabas~at. pp. 2-4.
8-
Muntakhabat-i az asar-i hukama-vi illahi-vi Iran, ed.

by S.J. Ashtiyani, p.9. footnote No.l
9-
For more information on Mir Damad s view of the

relationship between time and existence see: Ibid,
p.40.ff
10-
For^mpre information on Tabrizi and his students see,

Lahijani, Sharh-i risalat. introduction by J. Humai
and S.J. Ashtiyani.
11-
Nasr,S.H. "Spiritual Movements", p.689.
12-
Ibid, p.681.
13-
For more information on Mulla Sadra's concept of wuiud

and m a h i w a h see: MuntakhaSati az asar-i... p.99.ff
and Ashtiyani,
S.J. Hasti az nazar-i falsafah wa
Irfan, pp.63-95.
14-
Ashtiyani's work Hasti az nazar-i falsafeh wa Irfan

provides an excellent exposition of the two rival
schools of Mulla Sadra and Suhrawardi by a traditional
master. This work is particularly interesting because
there Ashtiyani provides different interpretations
H.
310
which can be made of the advocates

m a h i w a h and asalat al-wuiud.
of
asalat
al-
15-
Ibid, p.67.
16-
For more information on Mulla Sadra's criticism of

Suhrawardi see his Sharh-i
hikmat* alishraq. p.210.
17-
Sabziwari, Sharh-i al-manzuma. Naseri Edition, Tehran,

p.7.
18-
Sabziwari in his poems has stated some of the

profoundest philosophical issues in the traditional
symbolic language of Persian poetry.
Most of his
poems are ahazal and the style is often _ that _of
mathnawi. For more information see: Sabziwari, Diwani ash* a r . Isfahan, Saqafi pr. 1959
19-
Sabziwari's
commentary upon the Asfar does not
include the sections on the "essence and accident".
20-
Muntakhabat-i hukama-vi illahi-vi Iran, p.14.
21-
Mirza Razavi was a learned schol_ar and a contemporary

of Sabziwari who asked_ Sabziwari seven question known
as the " 'Ajwibah masa1il_Mirza abul_ Hasan Razavi".
For more__information see: Yadbud-i sadumin sal-i'hakim
Sabziwari. Mashhad University, 1969J p.35ff
22-
The word here is "kashf wa shuhud" . literally meaning

"discovery and witnessing". Tliis is another term that
is often used to allude to the concept of "knowledge
by presence".
23-
Sabziwari, Yadbud i sadumin sali...pp.45-49.
24-
For a more complete discussion on Shaikhi doctrine and

their differences with Suhrawardi see: H. Corbin L
Ecole shaikhie en Theologie Shi' ite. Tehran, 1957
25-
Mangol Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent, p.44-45
26-
Ashtiyani has written numerous commentaries on Mulla

Sadra and Suhrawardi including an anthology on the
great hakims
of
the
last four centuries.
His
collaboration with H.
Corbin and S.H. Nasr has
produced a number of texts on the traditional masters
of Islamic philosophy.
27-
Presential
knowledge. is a__ comparative work on
epistemology in which M. Hari demonstrates the
inadequacies of the existing e*pistemological theories.
311
He also discusses the

knowledge by presence.
history
of
the
theory
of
28-
For more information on S.H. Nasr's bibliography see:

W.C. Chittick, The Works of S e w e d Hossein Nasr
Through his Fortieth Birthday. Research Monograph No.6
Middle East Center, University of Utah, 1977
29-
see: Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, A Socio-Intellectual

History of the Isna Ashari Shi*is in India. Ma*rifat
Pub. House, Australia, 1986
30-
Ibid, p.180.
31-
Translated into English by H. Lowe as cited by Rizvi

in, A Socio-Intellectual History of the Isna Ashari
Shi* ism in India. p.320
32-
For a more complete discussion on the history of

Hikmat in India see: Rizvi, A Socio-Intellectual
History of the Isna*Ashari Shi*ism in India. Vol.2 and
Badauni, Muntakhab ut- Tawarikh. Vol.1. p.323-25.
33-
H. Ziai who has edited this_ book has also written a

valuable introduction to Anwarivah. There he__ argues
that this_ work is less significant than Shirazi and
Shahrazuri *s commentary.
However, Zia i maintains
that the significance of Anwar ivah is because Harawi
has compared the Indian traditions of wisdom with the
ishraai doctrine.
34-
Ibid, p.15.
35-
The influence of Mulla Sadra is still present in India

and his works especially the Asfar is being taught in
many traditional madrassahs. Suhrawardi's influence
however is strong among
theZoroastrian
community.
This is because the ishraai ideas were spread in India
by the 12th century mysterious Zoroastrian priest Azar
Kaywan who had gone to India from Iran.
36-
Opera 2,
p.16.
37-
Opera 2,
p.402.
38-
For more information_ on Shahrazuri

see: M.
Mo1 in,
Tavliaat-i chahar maaalah. Lyton press, p.211. and M.
Movin "gikmat al-ishraq wa farhang-i Iran", in Maimo*vi madalat. vol.l, p.436. and in Kashf al-zunun.
vol.l, p.913.
39-
S.H. Nasr, " The Spread of the Illuminationist School
3 12
of Suhrawardi", Islamic Quarterly. 1970
p.118.
40-
Ibid, p.119.
41-
For more information on the presence of ishraai ideas

in Aleppo and its influence on the development of
Jewish illuminationist thought see the work by
Maimonidis great-great grandson which is translated
and commented by Paul Fenton, in Deux Trait* es de
mystique iuive. Paris 1987
42-
Nasr, Jashn Namahi Henrv Corbin, p.100.
43-
For more information on the influence of Corbin on the

young philosophers see the introduction that Christian
Jambet has written to Corbin's introduction of the
Hikmat al-ishraa
313
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It
is
difficult
to
write
a conclusion to the vast
synthesis of philosophical concepts, theological arguments,

mystical
assertions,
and the profoundly esoteric and yet
rationally verifiable philosophical system of Suhrawardi .

Rarely
has
such
vast
domain
of
ideas
and
concepts
manifested itself in the very being of one person.

Suh r a w a r d i 's
exegesis
and
spiritual
hermeneutics
(taiwil) of traditional symbols and his brilliant analysis

of
them
provide
us
with
traditional gnostic doctrines.
wealth
of
knowledge
He has demonstrated how the
world views of two traditional civilizations,

and Islam,
can be wedded,
on
Zoroastrian
provided they both adhere to a
divinely revealed wisdom.

Before I bring this work to a close, I would like to
conclude by discussing an objection or accusation that is
often raised against Suhrawardi's philosophical school.
It has been argued that Suhrawardi's school of ishraq
represents Persian nationalism and provides a philosophical
framework for it.
It is also argued that, as the result of
the oppression of Persians and their sophisticated cultural

sensitivities by the Arabs, an intellectual movement, lead
314
by a group of poets and philosophers, was created during

the Abbas id dynasty.
This movement, that was later called
Shucubiv yah intended to confront the Arab supremacy with

the revival of pre-Islamie culture and religious values of
Persia.
The debate is an old one.
those
such
as Jahez,
who
It is true that there are
in his
book,
al-Bavan wa
Tabiien. alludes to the inability of the Arabs to

appreciate speculative thinking .
book Tabaaat
has never been understood among the Arabs.

attack
Muqrizi,
who,
comes
from
in his book,
Taqi
fully
Also, Sated ibn Ahmad's
al->umam argues that philosophical
scathing
al-
al-din
thinking
Yet the most

Ahmad
ibn rAli
al-Khatat. argues that while
Arabs appreciate philosophical discourse, their genius lies

in other domains.
This view tends
philosophical
to attribute A
tradition
among the
relative absence
Arabs
compared
of
to the
Persians. This is rejected by Ibn Khaladun, who attributes

the interest or disinterest of a society to philosophical
issues to their socio-political and geographical location.
There are also those figures who are Persian
and yet
have defended the philosophical and cultural acumen of the

Arabs. -
For
instance,
Shahrastani,
the
celebrated
rationalist, in his book al-milal wa'l nihal. 1, says that,

in fact, Arabs have a type of wisdom in their possession
that is far superior to other nations.
This type of wisdom
315
manifests itself in numerous tales, expression, hyperbolic

and metaphorical statements.
The unfortunate fact remains that despite Suhrawardi's
praise
for
the
other
traditions
of wisdom,
he has
been
accused of being a nationalist by such figures as Muhhamad

cAli Aburyan,
the famous scholar who,
in his work,
Tarikh
al-fikr al-falsafi al-Islam. considers Suhrawardi to have

been one of the Shucubivv>.
To
accuse
Suhrawardi
of
nationalism
is
to
misunderstand him completely. 3. The school of illumination

which he advocated argues for the universality of truth, to
which everyone can have access, provided they are willing
to undergo the process of purification and illumination.
Suhrawardi
would
argue
that
truth
is
not
property of Persians,
nor of any one else,
such
the
is
contrary
Suhrawardi
to
spirit
an
exclusive
and to
of ishraq.
argue
In
fact,
argues that hikmat originated from Hermes
and
through Egypt came to Persia where it became united with

the
other
branch
of wisdom
that
had
Persian
origin.
Suhrawardi's use of Zoroastrian symbolism, as well as other

traditions,
was
intended
to
demonstrate
how
all
these
traditions advocated the same reality.

Suhrawardi
illumination
could have
within
the
argued
context
for his
of
philosophy
Islam alone,
but
of
he
chose to include other traditions precisely to demonstrate

the
ecumenical
and
transhistorical
nature
of
ishraqi
316
wisdom.
This, plus the fact that Suhrawardi wrote most of
his writings in Arabic, demonstrates that such objections

are
invalid
and
stem
from
misunderstanding
of
Suhrawardi's transcendental philosophy.
TTTR PERTINENCE OF STUDYING SUHRAWARDI TODAY:
The study of Suhrawardi has to be taken seriously by

Western intellectuals not only because of his contributions
in the
field of mythology,
symbolism and philosophy,
but
also because the possibilities that it opens within the

field of ecumenical studies.
master
in
attempted
Islam
to
who
He was the first traditional
realized
demonstrate
how
such
possibility
such study
on an
and
esoteric
level can be achieved.

The study of Suhrawardi in our time is more pertinent
than
ever
before
since
the
spirit
of
Suhrawardian
philosophy addresses the very questions which modern man

faces.
To begin with, the purposelessness and the sense of
nihilism that are predominant
in the contemporary world
cause the type of existential anxiety that lies a.t the root
of
man y
psychological,
problems of our time.
ecological
and
philosophical
We live in a time when progress and
change are measured in a horizontal direction of how much

change
actually
has
been
brought
about
in
the
outside
world.
Therefore, as Heidegger argues, in order for man to
317
forget his
anxiety,
he throws himself
into a
"project".
Once the project comes to an end,- the next one must begin
in order to avoid experiencing "nothingness".
The whole school of existentialism, especially that of
Kierkegaard and Heidegger,
can engage in a dialogue with
Suhrawardi, since his prescription to deal with the problem

of anxiety
and nihilism would be
directions".
moral
and
temporal
to regain the
"sacred
5 Suhrawardi's response to the contemporary

spiritual
and
problems
ever-changing
would
be
ontological
to
replace
foundation
the
upon
which the modern world is built with a more permanent and

stable one.
The truth and reality that Suhrawardi speaks of is the
knowledge that one gains by coming to know himself. This,
indeed,
is the most important message of the Suhrawardian
doctrine for the m o d e m world.
Suhrawardi not only would
prescribe the revival of traditional wisdom but would go so

far as to argue for the universality of the message that
lies at the heart of such traditions.
This,
too,
is a
message that should be taken seriously, since our world is

becoming one global community.
geographical
boundaries,
Technology has devoured the
and
members
of
different
traditions have no choice but to enter into a dialogue of

an ecumenical nature.
The only remaining question is the
nature and depth of such ecumenism.

Finally,
Suhrawardi's
emphasis on the ancient world
318
and its wisdom is something to consider in a world where

everything old
is considered bad and all that
is new is
considered good.
He has demonstrated that there is much to
learn
wisdom
from
the
of
the
ancient
sages,
whom
he
considers to have been blessed by their ability to know the

primordial truth.
Incidentally, the only other philosopher
who considers the real age of philosophy to have begun in

the
pre-Socratic
period
was
Heidegger.
For
him
real
philosophy has to do with the "experience of Being", rather

than the kind of knowledge that requires a subject-object
distinction.
I believe that a comparative study between Suhrawardi
and
Heidegger
can
be
ontological differences.
done
despite
their
apparent
While Suharwardi strives toward
illumination, Heidegger attempts to arrive at a concept of

Being.
Both philosophers argue that man has possibilities
which he can fulfill and that the experience of truth has

to
do
with
Heidegger's
the
case
fulfillment
one
"letting being be",
should
of
these possibilities.
let
Being
dwell
in
him
In
by
and for Suhrawardi man's inner being
should become the house of truth. While on the ontological

level there may be differences between the two thinkers,
their ideas can nonetheless be put in a dialogue with each
other.
The
second
reason
why
Suhrawardi's
message
is
important for our contemporary world is due to a synthesis
of various elements in a unified theory of knowledge.

Suhrawardis experience of the ultimate truth had convinced
him that,
since truth
means
which
by
formulated.
is one,
unified
then there ought to he a
theory
of
knowledge
can
be
In this regard his task was similar to that of
Aristotle and Farabi, who received the titles of the first

and second teacher, precisely for attempting to achieve the
above.
The term "teacher in this particular context
refers to a person who in fact determines the
limits and boundaries of the sciences and the
methods and means of attaining knowledge and he
who also classifies them in such a manner that
the unity of various branches is preserved. 4.
Perhaps
the
overarching
synthesis
of
Suhrawardi's
philosophy can be explained by his desire to bring about a

sense
of unity to the chaotic intellectual scene of his
period.
From Suhrawardis attempt to create a synthesis of
various schools of thought, one can draw an analogy to what

the leading intellectuals of our time ought to do.
As S.H.
Nasr states:
Today with the dominance of Western sciences
within the cultural and geographical borders of
Muslim nations, any Muslim who is concerned about
the future of his cultural heritage faces a duty
similar to that of al-FarabiThe thinkers of
this age,... have the responsibility of creating
harmony between the branches of the sciences, and
also between the sciences and their particular
traditions. 5
Suhrawardis vast synthesis of philosophy and science,
320
6. myth and ritual,
as well as esoteric teachings and his
full
of
integration
Zoroastrianism,
has
Hermeticism,
indeed brought
Pythagorianism
and
about a complete
and
unified theory of knowledge which has come to be known as

the "school of illumination" in Islam.
For
studied
these
by
religion.
ingenious
the
reasons,
students
Whereas
and
Suhrawardi's writings
of
comparative
Suhrawardi's
new
insight
for
philosophy
ontology
the
should
provides
analysis
of
be
and
an
the
traditional problems of philosophy, his mystical narratives

offer a symbolic and profound view of human nature.
Finally,
Suhrawardi
demonstrates
how
the
wisdom
of
illumination includes discursive reasoning and asceticism

but is not limited to them.
from
the
rest
of
Muslim
In fact what distinguishes him

thinkers
is
that
his
thought
incorporates philosophy and mysticism and considers
them
both to be the necessary condition for the attainment of

truth.
321
EN D NOTES:
CHAPTER 8
1-
Shahrastani, al-Milal wal-nihal. p.253.
2-
Muhammad fAli Aburyan,

lslam- p. 18.
3-
Ibid, p.433.
4-
Nasr, S.H. "WhyWas Farabi Called the Second Teacher",

Islamic Culture. 59(1985):4 p.361.
5-
Ibid, p.364.
6-
Although no study of Suhrawardi's writings on science

has been done, he
frequently discusses issues of
scientific nature.
For example in his The Sound of
the Wing of Gabriel his theories on astronomy can be
found, whereas his
ideas on mathematics and in
particular on
the problem of infinity have been
discussed in such works as Partw riamah.
Tarikh
al-fikr al-falsafi
al
INTRODUCTION TO THE HIKMAT AL-ISHRAO

BY
QOTB AL-DIN SKIRAZI 1
323
2 The most humble and obedient servant of God, Mahmoud ibn
Massoud ibn Mosleh.

* . (may God bless his fate) says that this is a
brief and short work called Hikmat al-Ishracr. authored by the
learned and perfect man of science, star of nations and faith,
king of theosophists and the master of those with vision,
AbolfathcUmar ibn Muhammad Suhrawardi (May his soul be pure from
profanities and his tomb be fragrant) .
He is the treasure of
wonders and, although the volume (Hikmat al-Ishraq) is small in

*
size, it contains a vast body of knowledge.

exalted and its status supreme.
The book is
Its soundness is
obvious
to the extent that among all the books we have inherited, a

superior, more honorable and precious book in the field of
theology and methodology for attaining truth does not
exist.
It is worthy for its lines to be written by the pen
of light on the cheeks of angels and its meaning (be

written) with the supreme pen on the tablet of the soul.
This book contains the wisdom of illumination and
includes the beliefs of the Master of illumination in whom
we trust.
It is a summary of the problems of theosophy in
which the Master has reached certainty and has become

convinced of those principles and issues that are free from
any doubt or skepticism.
It rHikmat al-Ishraal, is a summary of intuitional
issues that he, through the path of purification, has
attained, and it is through this that he has become united
with, the incorporeal light.
Divine joy and pleasure have
come to be fulfilled within him and in a number of books

and treatise he has been admired, since
difficult problems
have been resolved through him.

This book on one hand contains the most important and
useful issues of discursive philosophy, and on the other
hand includes the sublimest and the clearest issues of
theosopnical nature.
The Master of illumination in both
parts, discursive and theosophical, was in the forefront of

the learned men of his time and reached the depth of these
fields such that no one could surpass the profundity of his
thoughts.
How could it be otherwise since from the secret
and sacred mysteries much has been disclosed in this book,

and the works of previous philosophers and those of the
early sages are devoid of them?
Among the sacred mysteries that are contained in the
book, the exposition of the metaphysical world which
includes the awakening of man, promises of the Prophets and
related issues, miracles, interpretation of dreams (as well
as) the secrets of the other worlds and divine lights which
are all based on the existence of the metaphysical world,
can be named.
These affairs, except through the path of the Master
of illumination, are nothing but mere rhetoric.
It is not
the case that every science and all knowledge can be

attained through discussion.
Ibn Sina (may God, who has
325
chosen him among the good, place him in the highest place
among them) , has paid attention to this principle and has
referred to this in several places in the Isharat and the
ShifeT?
There he states : " Purify your soul, purify and
refine your spirit and your soul so you may know the hidden
secrets of these affairs".
He (Ibn Sina) , also says " Rely on your imagination in
this and other cases and seek help from the powers of your
imagination and divine strength".
All together this book
is a blueprint of the hidden and a list of wondrous things

whose mysteries and secrets can not be found except by
those who are on the high peak of wisdom and knowledge and
are immersed in the vast field of knowledge and intuition,
and know that everything black is not a date tree and not
everything red is wine.
This indicates that our master who
is well versed in theosophy and philosophy possesses an

open heart, divine power in discovering the secrets
of the
realities of the world, and a perfect and enlightened

intuition in the receiving of the divine lights.
It is now clear that intellectual intuition and
discursive reasoning are both the clear path of ishraa.
This was the same in the beginning of wisdom whose first
propagators were at the level of Prophets and spiritual
elites.
Such (figures) as Agathedimon, Hermes, Empedocles,
Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, etc...laid the foundation for

it.
These are the figures whom
learned men of the past
have praised for their scientific acumen and of whom many

nations have spoken [because of their leadership]
These
men familiarized themselves with the principles (of

philosophy) and yearned to unite themselves with God's
attributes (through) detachment from the chain of worldly
attachments and have been beautified by true knowledge and
real sciences.
These people can truly be called philosophers, since
philosophy resembles the pure nature of God, in so far as
man is able to receive and attain eternal happiness.
As
Imam -Sadeq said, "Seek to resemble God's character",

meaning "From the complete mastery of real knowledge and
sciences and detachment from the material world become God
like."
This type of intellectual intuition, meaning the
intellectual intuition (hikmat-i dhawgif of those who are "
called upon", is contained in this book just as God, from

the position of benevolence has
stated in the Quran : "And
Luqman was given Hikmat", and also stated " Anyone who has
been given Hikmat, great favor has been bestowed upon
them".
Besides this, there are verses which demonstrate
the dignity of Hikmat and its high standing and that Hikmat
is amongst the matters that are worthy for man to spend all
his life for.
As the Prophet (peace be upon him) stated:
"Anyone
who approaches God with purity for forty mornings, Hikmat
327
will float from his heart to his tongue".
In regards to
the dignity and high standing of Hikmat, it is sufficient

to say that God in the Quran,
which is revealed to the
learned hakim, has called himself " Hakim". This is the

same Hikmat which God almighty has offered (through) his
grace to the initiates and has prohibited from the non
initiates .
The above is different from the type of Hikmat by
which the people of our time are deceived and are paying
attention to.
determined,
While the principles of Hikmat are
[contemporary hikmat] is subject to
argumentation, dispute and differences of opinion.
The
minor issues are full of nonsense and sophistry which, due

to the variety of arguments, resemble a willow tree,
unproductive and useless.
It is for this reason that no seeker of knowledge
during his life time will benefit from it, and no ill fated
man will be happy from it.
Except creating hatred for
truth, it does not achieve anything but only drives people

from truth and the right path and diverts many and guides a
few.
It rhikmat al-ishraal is a summary that requires
discussion and resembles the Quran, which needs

interpretation. The ignorance is oppressive, and justice
has vanished among people.
Hikmat is not the wisdom that the followers of the
first teacher Aristotle have followed since its principles
are shaky and its articles false. As one can see from the
sayings of the Master (of illumination) and the
illustrations of this book, it is apparent that the outward
has been separated from the inward (by the advocates of
popular Hikmat) , and while they have the intellectual
intuition, they have gone from the major issues to the
minor ones.
They even consider discursive reasoning with
its numerous shortcomings and problems to be in fact a

failure and yet call themselves Hakim.
They have done all this because of their ambition for
mastery and as a result, have been deprived of having a
vision of the truth and understanding the incorporeal
light.
For them, observing the incorporeal beings and
arriving at the truth and the mysteries of the psyche and

the angelic world through contemplation, analogous,
arguments, and definition of limits is not possible.
It is only through the realization of the incorporeal
beings and arriving at truth by illumination which arrives
continuously that the human soul can separate from the body
and its characters.
Then the relationship with incorporeal
light becomes apparent and one is able to understand the

mental and conceptual beings and to be affected by the
incorporeal patterns and remain receptive to designs, just
as a visible object is reflected in a mirror.
No one can be called and considered a learned Hakim,
unless he becomes aware of the sacred directions and
angelic lights which are of the higher state.

Suhrawardi] said:
within .
On this he [
" All the directions are incorporated
No one can be considered to be one of the
theosophists unless his body 3. becomes like a shirt to him

that when he wishes, he can take it off and when he wills,
can wear it.
When he wants to detach himself from his
body, he can leave it and ascend to the heavens and the

world of light and, if he wills, he can come to appear in
any form or shape.
This power and strength become possible
through the shining light and divine presence.

Do you not see that it is through the association
with fire that iron glows and burns just as the fire does?
Therefore, it is no wonder that the soul of man should
become illuminated from divine light if it attains
illumination and all the creatures of the world would
follow him,
just as they follow the angels. Thus, God
wills and every object comes into being by his will and
everything that he has concurs. Therefore, in this manner
one should operate.
Oh, you ignorant, wake up and appreciate every moment.
Those who seek a clear heart and a vision , you may through
purification of the soul by divine grace and the emptying
(of the.soul) from indecencies of the body attain the
posterity of the intellect needed to elevate your soul to
the angelic world.
Your soul may then become among the
inhabitants of the angelic world .
Free yourself from the
330
bondage of nature and the attachments of the worldly

affairs.
Just as in lieu of the presence of the obvious, there
is no need for explanation, realize the true sciences of
the soul in this circular universe.
He (the illuminated
man) possesses the elements similar to the type of

possession that the owners of wealth make in regards to
their belongings. He who wants to attain such a status and
rank and arrive at this state has to read this book and
under stand its principles and meanings and accept the
conditions that it lays so he can arrive at its inner
meaning. He who experiences it will inevitably confirm it
and join it.
For those who practice asceticism, these
realities will become certain.

This book is for the giants of discursive reasoning
and intellectual intuition.
In fame it is like the sun of
midday, eyes are gazing at it and intellects are engaged in

rivalry and scrutiny (for its understanding), and human
nature, be it low or sublime, has liked it and praised it.
Despite this, none of the Hakims thus far have completely
understood its truth and have not composed treatise worthy
of its nature. Although learned men have said much in this
regard,.these progenies and realities have remained
hidden
like a treasure, just as a pearl that is not formed or

marble that is not shaped.
This is a book that is most unusual and is written
with astonishing technique to the point that its short

length is a
mystery but the beauty of its expression and
the coherency of its propositions are like a miracle.

Therefore, it was unpleasant for me to let these precious
words and original subjects, which are the heart and core
of knowledge and the result of traveling in the spiritual
path, to remain behind the veil of ambiguity and remain
inaccessible from human understanding. I have only tried to
solve the difficulties, clarify the unclear phrases, and
expose the fine and detailed points.
I have disclosed its content and commented on its
fundamental principles and problems. In writing on the
interpretation of its purpose and the variety of its
benefits, I have elaborated on what has been laid down by
Suhrawardi.
For those things which have been said without
mentioning their source, I have indicated their references

and have expanded upon them.
In the majority of the
explanations and the subj ects which have been stated for
the sake of clarity, I have benefited from his [Suhrawardi]
words and from other books and treatises.
In regards to
that which I have gathered from these books and

commentaries, I tried to quote them exactly according to
all words and phrases.
I did that so the passage of time
and events would not change or destroy them.

I was engaged in this until the events of life and
disruption of peace and security prevented me from
continuing.
The (events) of life inflicted loss upon me;
the same life that makes you prosper, also belittles you.
The life that brings down the high and elevates him who is
low, unites the separated ones and disperses the united
ones.
That which is now past has been written on the
tablet of fate, be it descending of ill fate or migration

from one's homeland.
In addition, malevolent gains,
unfulfilled wishes, an empty mind, and finally deception

and fraud prevented me from continuing.
I turned away,
from people and discontinued my relations with them and

went far away separating myself from them. This separation
from people was like the separation (of my soul) from my
body.
It was the shortcomings after the abundance and
hardships after peace and the absence of those who
appreciate true knowledge in our time and consoling the
hardships that the learned men had endured that motivated
me to hide in isolation and remain unknown in an area of
this land.
I chose solitude and loneliness, but there were
obligations and duties which I had to fulfill.
I also had
committed wrongdoings before God which had to be made up;

thus, I neither taught nor wrote any treatise.
Exposition of the problems and compilation of
sciences, consideration of the complexities of those proofs
which have become certain through discussions require
detachment of the mind, the purification of thoughts,
333
thoroughness of vision, and the separation of one's self

from the senses if worldly addictions are to be
discontinued.
Being concerned with the ordinary and other issues
requires safety and security and that in turn is contingent
upon the justice of the king, since it is the fairness and
justice of the king that is the foundation and fundamental
principle from which all good and evil occur. All elements
in the universe attain their harmony through justice and
fairness, which protect peace and resolve conflicts.
However, since the process of justice and the tradition of
fairness have vanished,false and corrupt ideas have become
popular, and faith and its signs have been destroyed and
truth and its reminiscence have disappeared, I followed the
saying of Azi':
" They said ' You have distanced yourself and do
not come close' To them I said:
I have distanced myself from people at this time
for a reason
Your departure will not relieve you from pain
They envy a person who remains inside and does not
leave
The learned men did not knock on my door
The ignorant entered without knocking
I waited at home for his grace
That after hardship, he offers comfort"
At last a shining star appeared from the tower of
benevolence and happiness, and joy filled the world. The
divinely owned earth became safe and turbulence settled
through the grace of God, the knowledgeable and just, from

whom the light of guidance continuously emanates and with
whose will virtue and piety comes to be. He is the
knowledgeable and just God who through His grace the signs
of piety have been sent down, the turbulent times have
become humble, and those who attack him are embarrassed by
his generosity.
He, the beauty of men and faith, benefactor of Islam
and Muslims, cAli ibn Muhammad ibn al-Sarjardani
(Suhrawardi),4 the man of scientific and practical wisdom,
is the master of religion and the world, the natural
master, a true sovereign and (not one whose mastery) is
attributed or bestowed upon him.
In addition to virtues
and moral qualities which have been indicated, his inherent

dignity and strength make him a giant full of sublime
virtues, and, from will power, he is the highest and most
noble of all creatures.
His highest will power is limitless
His will power of lesser degree is greater than the
whole world
The peace within him is one tenth of it
While it is on earth, Albarandi is in the ocean
Thanks and praise be upon God who decided to make him
superior to all nobilities of the world and beautified him
with all the excellence that comes from illumination and
turned him toward
an ancient tradition with roots that are
like a tree with noble branches and leaves-
All men have
praised him, and his generosity has cast shame on others.

Oh God, behold his angelic state and make thy place the
center of nobility, grace, providence, serenity and health.
In treating the learned, strengthening the scholars and
scientists and upholding the noble traditions and reviving
customs and religion, may God make him succeed.
Oh God, the benefits that he has generated for the
masters of knowledge are praiseworthy. In regards to his
(scientific) generosity for the learned man offer him good
rewards, in particular the. benefits which I have
received (from him) in the past and will receive in the
future.
After hardships passed away, the situation was
normalized and life became peaceful.
The king came back to
his throne, oppression vanished, and peace and tranquility

due to the grace of the king normalized the affairs of the
country through his competency.
Everyone I saw took an
offering to his court in accordance with their ability.

Happy is the hand which takes an offering to his court.
The poverty and hardships of life did not allow me to
offer worldly offering which would be worthy of the court
or be similar to the precious pearls (of the king) .
remembered the saying of Abu Tayeb Mutanabi who said:
You do not have money nor horses to look after them

Language prospers when one's situation does not
A fragrant smell like the gentle breath of a flower
Worships the rain drops as they come
336
It appreciates the generosity of the rain

Indeed the poor cannot give, therefore, they
admire
Since I understood that his Majesty is in love with
knowledge and Hikmat and because Kikmat is the greatest
gift,
I decided to compose a commentary to the Philosophy
of Illumination and dedicate it to him so his glorious name

would last for years to come.
I decided to offer this as a
gift to him since a more worthy person to receive the

precious gift of knowledge and the fine and detailed
secrets of Hikmat cannot be found in the world.
It is a gift that the passage of time has not decayed
or changed and it remains eternal with the passage of
months and years.
This is because (Hikmat) is not the type
of knowledge and science which resembles the branches and

off shoots of religion which the passage of time and change
of life and place it would also change.
Offering this precious and sublime gift to his Majesty
is like offering light to the sun and altitude to the sky.
His excellency, with the depth of his thoughts and bright
mind, has reached a state in Hikmat and knowledge that his
colleagues and people of his time are deprived of.
He has
reached- to that state of knowledge and vision that the

majority of the people of his time are lacking.
<
He who
wants to reveal the Quran to
Gabriel is necessarily
deprived of intelligence, and he who offers a sea to a drop
337
of water that does not even take one's thirst away or

offers a high mountain to a hill that has no shadow is not
wise.
Therefore, the final end of the wise man who knows
his own status and existential limit as it really is, is

not to go beyond it.
To him who goes beyond his limit,
losses and damage will come.

I am hoping that the good-natured men look upon this
work with favor so they may get the utmost benefit from it,
and I am hoping that they will correct the shortcomings and
fallacies out of pity for me, and not respect, since God
Almighty said: " If you see malice from others, pass by it
with dignity.
Whenever you encounter the details that I have used by
employing the words of other learned men or if you gain
access to what they have said, do not abuse the sayings of
this verse of the Quran which states:
"This is something
entrusted in us", and do not say that this is from us that

is now returning to us.
Do not criticize me if I return to you
The science and wisdom that I learned from
you.
Just as the gardener takes a gift for his
master
It is the tradition to return what is his
Oh master of truth and solitude and friends of the
path of separation, know that those who are proud of their
own knowledge and on the path of attaining it have suffered
338
so much and for this purpose have spent their life, they
become disturbed when they hear words which are not in
accordance and agreement with their views of what knowledge
is. Except for what they have found and learned, nothing is
pleasing to them. Unless one is a just man, master of
wisdom and right opinion who can decipher right from wrong,
seek the truth and refrain from dispute.
goal is to find truth'
Only he whose
does not think his imagination and
hallucination are truth and attempts to rely on the sayings

of the sages.
Who prefers to hear news rather than see it?
Such a
person with the qualities described is rather rare among

people.
However, although I am conscious of those affairs
and know that "every writing has a purpose" I am hoping

that when those with a good nature and a sound character
come to know of my mistakes, they will exonerate me.
I know that I am continuously in error and confess to
my own weakness and shortcomings since my wealth in
knowledge is insignificant.
In addition to this, the
obstacles which resulted from the events of life prevented

me from research in the science of Hikmat as well as
discussions and scientific studies.
These barriers
deprived me of contemplation and concentration on

knowledge, and such preoccupation impoverishes studying.
The exposure to Hikmat (that finally was made possible) is
more pleasant than the morning breath, nicer than listening
to tales under the moon, sweeter than the grievances of the

beloved to his lover and even more delightful than when the
beloved fulfills her promise and her lover is able to see
her.
In writing this treatise, I have no intention of
receiving money, nor do I claim to be free of criticism,
since wise is he who acknowledges his mistakes and
shortcomings and is suspicious of whoever loves his speech
just as he loves his child.
Now I arrive at the main intention (of writing this) ,
asking God to guide and protect me from errors.
(May God)
settle my affairs benevolently and benefit me by eternal

happiness and protect me from his painful retribution.
Praise be upon Muhammad and his good fated
companions.
340
END NOTES
1This translation is made from the introduction to

Hikmat al-ishrag by Shirazi which Sajadi has placed in
the beginning of his Persian translation of the Hikmat
al-ishraa.
2The first page of Shirazis introduction is entierly
praising of God which I have not translated.
3This is a famous saying of Hallaj who said "in my
dress there is nothing except God. My body to me is
li!
my shirt to my body".
4It is not clear why Shirazi calls Suhrawardi
"Sarjardani" but it is certain that he is refering to
Suhrawardi and not someone else.
341
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SUHRAWARDI'S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

TEMPLE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE BOARD

SUHRAWAKDI^S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Read and Approved by:

Date submitted to Graduate Board:

I dedicate_ this work to the memory of my

There is a Light whose Light can only be seen by Light

Shah Na'mat allah vali

1- The transliteration system I have used is one that S.H. Nasr

THE LIFE AND THOUGHT OF SUHRAWARDI:

SUHRAWARDI'S LIFE AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL

ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY AFTER SUHRAWARDI

AL-TALWIHAT (THE BOOK OF INTIMATIONS)

EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE

A Rationalistic Approach to the Problem of Knowledge

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF ALL BEINGS

SUHRAWARDI S THEOSOPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY: KNOWLEDGE BY PRESENCE

ARGUMENT FROM THE "I/IT" DICHOTOMY

THE GREATER PERSIA

SUHRAWARDI IN THE SUB-CONTINENTOF INDIA

SUHRAWARDI AND PERSIAN NATIONALISM: SHUCUBIYYAH

TranslatiQn_of the introduction by Qutb

excellent representation of how divine wisdom

manifests itself in various intellectual tendencies.

inquiries in Islam ranges

inner journey of the Sufis.

However, there have been very

few philosophers who have dared to synthesize these diverse

founder of the school of illumination

wisdom", (Hikmat al-atial.

He understood the necessity of

It is in this context that one should

see his celebrated attempt to create a bridge between Islam

Platonic philosophy and

between Islam and the wisdom of the ancient Persia.

account of the history of Islamic philosophy but they also

in particular the Peripatetics.

Farabi 2., lived at a time when there was a need to reunify

Suhrawardi's achievements can only be appreciated when his

paralleled with his critique of the Peripatetics.

necessary for the presentation of an argument or thesis.

significance of Suhrawardi becomes more clear when he is

Perhaps his emphasis on

rationalistic philosophy and illumination.

ultimately checked against one's vision,

WHAT IS TO BE ACHIEVED IN THIS WORK

What makes Suhrawardi's philosophy unique and distinct

and what lies at the

particular methodology and mode of cognition. The central

work is to undertake an in-depth study of

Suhrawardi's theory of knowledge and his claim that it is

illumination that one is able to understand

and disclose the truth directly and without mediation.

Suhrawardi means when he says that he knows the truth.

The means by which illumination is attained.

methodology for the knowing of truth.

The scope and limits of this type of knowledge.

The nature and the type of knowledge that is attained