LOGICAL CONNECTORS

Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a particular
relationship. These relationships can be: sequential (time), reason and purpose,
adversative (opposition and/or unexpected result), condition.
Within each category, the words used to join the ideas or clauses are used differently,
with different grammar and punctuation.
Subordinating

Introduce adverb clauses

conjunctions

Either the dependent clause or the

independent clause may come first in
the sentence, with no change in
meaning
ex: Before he came, we didn't have a
physical education teacher.
We didn't have a physical education
teacher before he came.

Prepositions

Is followed by a noun or noun phrase

Either clause may appear first
ex: He didn't come to class due to his
illness.

Transitions and

Joins two sentences separated by a

Conjunctive adverbs

period or two clauses separated by a

semi-colon.
Only one possible order of the sentences
The transition may appear clause initial,
clause final, or between the subject and
verb of thesecond sentence.
ex: He was sick. Nevertheless, he came
to class.

Conjunctions

One possible order

A comma is used before the conjunction
In academic writing, do not begin a
sentence with a conjunction
ex: He didn't do his homework, so he
didn't pass the class.

Sequential (Time)

Subordinating

until

conjunctions

after
before
when
while
since
once
whenever
as soon as
as long as
by the time

Prepositions

during
after
before
since
until
upon

Conjunctive adverbs and

then

transitions

next
after that
following that
before that
afterwards
meanwhile
beforehand

Conjunctions

and then

Causal (Reason and Purpose, Cause and Effect)

Subordinating

because

conjunctions

as
since
inasmuch as

now that
as long as
such...that
[such a/an + adjective
+ noun + that]
so...that
[so +adjective or adverb
+ that]
[so
much/many/little/few +
noun + that]
expressing purpose
so that
in order that

Prepositions

because of
due to
in order to

Conjunctive adverbs and

therefore

transitions

consequently

Conjunctions

so

Adversative (unexpected result, contrast, opposition)

Subordinating

even though

conjunctions

although
though
(in spite of the fact that)
while
whereas
where

Prepositions

despite
in spite of

Conjunctive adverbs and

however

transitions

nonetheless
nevertheless
on the other hand
in contrast
on the contrary

Conjunctions

but...anyway
but...still
yet...still
but

Condition

Subordinating

if

conjunctions

unless
even if
providing (that)
provided (that)
in case
whether or not
only if*
*verb inversion, no
comma if only
if appears first in the
sentence

Prepositions
Conjunctive adverbs and

otherwise

transitions
Conjunctions

or (else)

Reduced Adverb Clauses

Rule: If the subject of the adverb clause and the main clause are the
same, the adverb clause may be reduced.

To reduce, drop the subject and

the verb be in the adverb clause.

1. I had an accident while I

was driving past the REI
climbing rock.
1 I had an accident while
driving past the REI
climbing rock.
1 Even though she was
hungry, she didnt eat the
pie.
1 Even though hungry, she
didnt eat the pie.

If there is not be verb, change the

Before she owned a pet, she

adverb clause verb to the present

was afraid of dogs.

participle.

Before owning a pet, she

was afraid of dogs.

You may omit the subordinating

While camping at Mt.

conjunction (while)

Rainier, I saw several mountain

with simultaneous actions.

goats.
Camping at Mt. Rainier, I saw
several mountain goats.

Because is always omitted in

Because she didnt get

reduced clauses.

accepted to the university, she

is going to attend community
college.

 Not being accepted to the

university, she is going to attend
community college.

You may also omit being in the

Being dyslexic, he doesnt

reduced clause.

like to read in public.

Dyslexic, he doesnt like to
read in public.

Remember: Only sentences in

While I was eating corn on

which the subjects of both clauses

the cob,my tooth fell out. This

are the same maybe be reduced.

adverb clause cannot be reduced

because the subject of the adverb
clause is not the same as the
subject of the main clause.

Sentence connectors
Sentence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give
paragraphs coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and are placed at
the beginning of a sentence. They are used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence ideas,
theory, data etc. The following table lists useful connectors.

Useful sentence connectors

Logical / sequential order
Firstly, secondly, thirdly

etc

Order of importance

Most / more importantly

Most significantly

Next, last, finally

Above all

In addition

Primarily

Furthermore

It is essential / essentially

Also

At present / presently
Contrast

Result

However

As a result

On the other hand

As a consequence

On the contrary

Therefore

By (in) comparison

Thus

In contrast

Consequently

Hence

Comparison

Reason

Similarily

The cause of

Likewise

The reason for

Also

Linking words and phrases

Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they
can also be used to develop coherence within a paragraph, that is linking one idea / argument
to another. Print off this page to keep as a reference of useful linking words and phrases.

Sequence

Emphasis

So

Undoubtedly

second / secondly, third

As a result

Indeed

/ thirdly etc

As a

Obviously

consequence (of)

Generally

Therefore

Admittedly

Thus

In fact

Consequently

Particularly / in

furthermore

Hence

Another

Due to

First / firstly,

Result

Next, last, finally

In addition,
moreover

Further /

particular

Especially

Also

Clearly

In conclusion

Importantly

To summarise
Addition

Reason

Example

And

For

For example

In addition /

Because

For instance

additionally / an

Since

That is (ie)

additional

As

Such as

Because of

Including

Namely

Furthermore

Also

Too

As well as

Contrast

Comparison

However

Similarly

Nevertheless

Likewise

Nonetheless

Also

Still

Like

Although / even

Just as

Just like

though

Though

Similar to

But

Same as

Yet

Compare

Despite / in spite of

In contrast (to) / in
comparison

While

Whereas

On the other hand

On the contrary

compare(d) to /
with
Not only...but

also

Subordinators
Subordinators are linking words that are used to join clauses together. They are used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. A clause is a group of words that must contain
a subject and predicate. There are two types of clauses:

independent clauses - these can stand alone as a sentence by themselves

dependent clauses - these make no sense by themselves.

Example

Common subordinators

Below are some examples of commonly used subordinators.

Comparison &

Cause / effect

Contrast

Time

Although

Since

After

Though

So that

When

Even though

Because

While

Whereas

Until
Whenev

er

Before

Place &

Possibility

manner

if

Wherever

as if

Where

whether

How

unless

122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists

List parts given in different sentences must follow

a proper introductory sentence and be
highlighted with special words
.

THE VARIETY AND CHALLENGES OF LISTING

Lists are an important part of academic and professional writing,

detailing key ideas like aims, reasons, problems, solutions,
conclusions and recommendations. Some lists can be given in just
one sentence, but many need more because they are long and/or
detailed.
Multi-sentence listing, like the single-sentence kind, has its own
special grammar and vocabulary, which can prove troublesome
for writers whose mother tongue is not English. This post is about
that grammar and vocabulary, especially the variety of so-called
signpost words that can help to show when each different part
of a list is being given. Information about the language of singlesentence listing is in the Guinlist posts 54. Listing 1: Incidental,
55. Listing 2: Full Sentences, 74. Listing 3: Bullet Points and 93.
Good and Bad Lists.

.
FIRST STEPS IN MULTI-SENTENCE LISTING

Signpost words clarify the organization of a text by showing how

particular points are related to others. Some signposting gives
warning of information to follow, some shows whether or not a
point is new, and some signals endings. The first of these is

illustrated elsewhere in this blog by the topic-introducing use of

both indirect questions (57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing)
and verbs with let(128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing). The
other purposes are often accomplished with connectors (see 40.
Conjunctions versus Connectors).

Before the start of a multi-sentence list, there is usually a

sentence with the signposting function of warning what is to
come.. Its central feature is the name of a general class to which
all of the list parts belong. A general class name, for example, for
the list walking, cycling, driving, taking a taxi, going by
bus andtravelling by train might be modes of transport and one

for the list Mathematics, English, History, Science,

Geography and Art might be school subjects. List generalizations

like this are similar to the general class names that usually
accompany example-giving (see 1. Simple Example-Giving).
The signpost sentence containing the list generalization tends to
take one of two common forms:
(a) There are six major modes of transport.
(b) Six major modes of transport can be identified.

Sentence (a) has the typical beginning There are. These words are
very common and not at all informal. Sentence (b), on the other
hand, begins with the list generalization. Both sentences reflect
the possible wording before a colon in single-sentence listing
(see 55. Listing 2: Full-Sentences). Note, though, that a colon is
not possible before a multi-sentence list a full stop must be used
instead.

Both of the above sentences, it will be noticed, also contain the

number word six. There must always be such a word, either exact
like six or vague like various, several, numerous, a number of etc.
(see 55. Listing 2 and 96. Hedging 2: Lists and Predictions). If you
wish to use an exact number word but are unsure about its truth
(because you are unsure whether your list is all of the possibilities
indicated by the list generalization), you can add a word
like main, major orimportant.
Once the introductory sentence has been composed, there is a
need in the next sentence to start the list with the help of a
suitable signpost expression. There is a choice between adverblike and adjective-like signpost expressions.
.
1. Adverb-Like Expressions for Starting a List

This kind of signpost expression includes firstly, in the first

place and to begin with or, when the first list part is somehow

more special than the others, above alland superlative adverbs

like most commonly, most importantly and most obviously. Note
that firstly is not the same as the adverb first, which shows that
something is earliest in time rather than in a list (e.g. First, the
gas is lit).

A common error with adverbs before any part of a list is to follow

them directly with the list part without any accompanying verb,
like this:
(c) *There are six major modes of transport. Firstly, walking.

The underlined words here are an error because they are a

sentence without a verb, something not normally allowed in
written English. The easiest verb to use after expressions
like firstly is there is. However, a problem with this in (c) is that
the previous sentence already has there are, creating bad
repetition (see 24. Good & Bad Repetition). To overcome this, one
could either make the first sentence like (b), or use an adjectivelike list starter in the second sentence instead of firstly.
.
2. Adjective-Like Expressions for Starting a list

The use of adjective-like list starters, of which the simplest is the

first, may be illustrated as follows:
(d) There are six major modes of transport. The first (major mode
of transport) is walking.

The use here is adjective-like because the first gives more

information about a noun (mode in the sentence above). The
reason for the brackets is that often the noun after adjectives
like first is left out because it is obvious from the previous
sentence (see 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2). Happily, first and
other adjective-like signpost expressions rarely seem to cause the
error of verbless sentences.
Unlike firstly, the first tends to imply that all of the possibilities
indicated by the list generalization are about to be listed. If this
implication needs to be avoided, a useful substitute for the first is
the single word one. Alternatively, if the first list part is somehow
special, there is a choice of either the main one or a superlative

adjective (without one). Many superlative adjectives are possible,

including the best known, the commonest, the easiest, the most
important, the most obvious, the most typical and the most usual.

.
SIGNPOST EXPRESSIONS WITH LATER LIST ITEMS

After the first part of a multi-sentence list, each new part needs to
have its own signpost expression. Once again there is a choice
between adverb-like and adjective-like expressions. The former
fall into the category of connectors (for more about the link
between adverbs and connectors, see 121. Sentence-Spanning
Adverbs). The latter can be thought of as connector synonyms

(see 112. Synonyms of Connectors).

Very often connectors will be number words like secondly, thirdly,
fourthly etc. or, for the last part of the list, finally or lastly. One

could also end with a longer expression like last of all or last but
not least, but these ought only to be used in special

circumstances. One expression that is not possible is at last,

which means after a long wait (see 20. Problem Connectors). In
using any of the expressions listed here, care is again needed to
avoid verbless sentences.
Number connectors like those just mentioned are especially useful
when you have used an exact number word like six in the opening
sentence. Otherwise, when you are uncertain whether the list
parts are all of the possibilities indicated by the list generalization,
various other connectors are useful. The main ones seem to
bemoreover, furthermore, additionally and in addition. Before the

last part of the list, one could use finally or lastly combined
with it is necessary to mention.
Turning to adjective-like expressions with the later parts of a list,
those normally used after an exact number word at the start
are the second, the third, etc. At the end of such lists, there is a
choice between the last, the final and the other. On the other
hand, when there is vagueness about the full extent of the list,
useful adjectives are (an)other, (an) additional and (a) final.
Posted in Academic and Professional Writing, Adjectives, Adverbs, English grammar, English
Vocabulary, Language Functions | Tagged enumeration, list introducers, list parts, listing, logical
connectors, number words, numbering,paragraphs, Signpost Language, signposting | Leave a comment
28 DECEMBER, 2015

121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs

Adverbs that link with a whole sentence are of

different kinds and are usually able to link with
part of a sentence too
.

THE NATURE OF SENTENCE ADVERBS

One of the adverb characteristics highlighted in the post before

this (120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs) is that some can
give information about a complete sentence rather than any
particular part of one, their position in such cases usually being at
the start. The difference between these so-called sentence
adverbs and other adverb types is clearly illustrated in sentences
like the following:
(a) Children will happily eat some healthy foods.
(b) Happily, children will eat some healthy foods.

The sentence adverb here is the underlined word in (b). It shows

happiness felt by the speaker about the entire sentence message.
In (a), on the other hand, happilyis an ordinary manner adverb,
giving information about the verb will eat, and expressing the
feeling of the subject of the verb, children.
Sentence position is a major differentiator of these two adverb
uses, but not a complete one. This is because sentence adverbs
can occupy other positions than the start, including even that
shown in (a). The punctuation can then be the main clue, since
many sentence adverbs need to be inside bracket-like commas

(see 50. Right & Wrong Comma Places). However, even special
punctuation is not always present.
In this post I wish to further explore the characteristics of
sentence adverbs, to indicate their importance in academic
writing, and to illustrate a wide range of them.
.

TYPES OF SENTENCE ADVERB

Sentence adverbs can be classified into various types according
to the kind of meaning they express.
1. Connectors

Connectors are words or phrases that show how two neighbouring

sentences are related to each other. They are a major topic
elsewhere within this blog (see especially 18. Relations between
Sentences and 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors), and are

mentioned here only because it has been traditional to see them

as a type of adverb. They may be illustrated with consequently in
the following example:
(c) People are living longer. Consequently, more doctors are
needed.

The connector here shows the information in the second sentence

to be a result of that in the first.
.

2. Communication-Describing Adverbs

Sentence adverbs in this quite small group mostly say something

about the way in which the speaker is communicating. They
include bluntly, briefly, frankly, generally, honestly, personally,
practically, seriously and technically. They usually allow the

word speaking to be added just before or after them. This word is

indeed almost compulsory with some adverbs in this use, such
as impartially, roughly, scientifically and strictly.
Another type of communication-describing adverb indicates a new
topic that the communication is about. It is usually made by
adding the suffix -wise to a noun (see 106. Word-Like Suffixes).
Examples are costwise, workwise andweatherwise. They cannot
be used with speaking.
.
3. Judgement Adverbs

Sentence (b) above illustrates this very large category of

sentence adverbs. They allow the speaker to express an opinion
about the message of the sentence. Thus, in (b) childrens
willingness to eat some healthy foods is something the speaker
agrees with.
Various subdivisions of judgement adverbs seem to
exist. Happily is of a kind that indicates an emotion aroused in the
speaker by the accompanying information, such as happiness,
surprise or interest. They might, as a result, be labelled
emotive. Other examples are alas, amazingly, annoyingly,
confusingly, curiously, disappointingly, (un)fortunately, hopefully,

intriguingly, mercifully, regrettably, sadly, shockingly,

(un)surprisingly and understandably.

A second group of judgement adverbs indicate the speakers

belief in the truth or importance of the accompanying message
without making any other comment on it a common need in
professional writing, e.g.:
(d) Obviously, everything possible must be done to combat crime.

Similar adverbs include actually, admittedly,

basically, certainly, clearly, crucially, definitely, effectively (when

paraphrasable by in effect), evidently, importantly,indeed,

naturally, of course, plainly, rightly, undeniably and undoubtedly.

For the use of some of these to show emphasis, see 125. Stress
and Emphasis. Care has to be taken with the underlined words

because they can be combined with a following but (or synonym)

to undermine the importance of the truth being
expressed (see 51. Making Concessions with May).
Sometimes the speakers acceptance of the truth of a statement
is hedged catering for possible error or exceptions (see 95.
Hedging 1). Sentence adverbs that suggest a message could be

false include apparently, nominally, possibly, presumably,

reportedly, reputedly, seemingly, supposedly and superficially.

Adverbs suggesting that exceptions may exist include generally,

normally, mostly, often, ordinarily, typically and usually. An

example is:
(e) Typically, younger children are looked after by their siblings.

Interestingly, there do not seem to be many truth-commenting

adverbs that deny the truth of a message. Consider how a writer
might want to do this with the statement that smoking is
beneficial for health. Rather than use a special sentence adverb,
the more likely strategy is probably to make the whole statement
negative with a truth-affirming adverb, like this:
(f) Of course, smoking is not beneficial for health.

A third kind of judgement adverb comments on the subject of a

statement rather than the statement itself, like this:
(g) Foolishly, the coach relied on talent without tactics.

This means the coach was foolish to do what s/he did. Other
adverbs that can be used like this include blindly, famously,
(un)luckily, notoriously, rightly, stupidly, typically,
wrongly and wisely. Some of these, it will be observed, are also

found in earlier lists. This is because the adverbs can be used in

different ways. Compare the following use of typically with that in
(e):
(h) Typically, the villagers refused to provide any help.

This use does not mean normally, but rather indicates that the
behaviour of the villagers was in character they acted as
expected.
More about how speakers express judgements about messages
can be read in the posts 22. Multiple Speakers in a Text, 96.
Hedging 2 and 107. The Language of Opinions.

4. Adverbs of Time and Place

Not all grammarians consider adverbs like already, here, now,

occasionally, regularly, there, today and tomorrow to be usable as

sentence adverbs. However, when used at the start of a sentence

they are very similar to sentence adverbs. Some, like afterwards,
next and then, can be classified as connectors because they show

a link with earlier information.

.

THE PROBLEM OF WHICH ADVERBS MUST OR CAN OR CANNOT BE SENTENCE

ADVERBS

A major question posed by the existence of sentence adverbs is

how one can learn and remember them. In particular, can any
adverb be used as a sentence adverb, or only some, and how
many sentence adverbs cannot be used in other adverb ways?
Unfortunately, I am not able to give a definite answer to these
questions but perhaps I can make some useful observations.
Most sentence adverbs can, it seems, also be ordinary adverbs.
This is even true of connectors, though not all of them. Pure
connectors perhaps include therefore, consequently,
alternatively and moreover. Those with an alternative use

includeanyway (non-connector meaning = regardless), equally,

hence (= from here),however (= in whatever

way), otherwise (= differently), similarly and thus (= in this

way). Here is otherwise used in the two different ways:
(i) (ORDINARY ADVERB) Scoring at least 60% is required. Those
who perform otherwise will be rejected.

(j) (SENTENCE ADVERB) Scoring at least 60% is

required. Otherwise, candidates will be rejected.

Communication-describing adverbs seem generally usable as

ordinary adverbs, unless they have the -wise ending. Emotive
sentence adverbs like happily also seem very flexible.
Ordinary adverbs, on the other hand, are not as likely to be usable
as sentence adverbs. They generally need to be able to express
one of the four meanings listed above. Moreover, although many
emotion-expressing adjectives like happy can be made into
emotive sentence adverbs by the addition of -ly, some cannot. For
example, angrily, jealously, joyfully and speechlessly are only
adverbs of manner, not sentence adverbs.
In addition, most adverbs with the same spelling as an adjective
cannot be sentence adverbs, e.g. enough, far, fast, hard, just,
late, much, right andwell (interestingly, though, early can be a

sentence adverb, but only in phrases likeearly on). Adverbs

showing the strength of an accompanying adjective or other
adverb such as enough, fairly, quite, rather, so, too and very
similarly tend not to be used as sentence adverbs (rather, it is
true, can be a sentence adverb a connector but only with the
radically different meaning of instead).
Posted in Academic and Professional Reading, Academic and Professional Writing, Adverbs, English
Vocabulary | Taggedadverb + "speaking", adverb types, comment adverbs, logical connectors, sentence
adverbs, sentence-initial adverbs |Leave a comment
24 AUGUST, 2015

112. Synonyms of Connectors

.

Most English connectors can be paraphrased with

words that are not connectors
THE CONCEPT OF CONNECTOR SYNONYMS

Connectors are defined and examined within this blog in the

posts 18. Relations between Sentences, 40. Conjunctions versus
Connectors and 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). Their central

feature is the help they give in showing the meaning created by

placing two sentences together. Often this help falls into the
category of signposting (see 122. Signpost Words in MultiSentence Lists). The meanings resemble conjunction meanings,

but they need two sentences for their creation rather than one.
This grammatical need for two sentences means that connector
synonyms are not here considered to include conjunctions. I am
also ruling out connectors that mean roughly the same as other
connectors for example therefore mirroringconsequently.
Although such possibilities are what are normally called
synonyms, they are not the focus here because many are already

listed elsewhere in this blog (see 40. Conjunctions versus

Connectors).

Most of the connector synonyms considered here are nouns, verbs

and adjectives. It may seem surprising to give words of different
classes (different parts of speech) the name of synonyms, but
that seems a useful thing to do because it arguably gives a better
understanding of how people write. This is a point that has been
made more than once before in this blog for example in the
posts 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs and 80. How to
Paraphrase and is also in the technical article How Syntax can
Highlight Useful EAP Vocabulary. It is my hope that the highlighting of

connector synonyms defined in this way will help to clarify the

range and meanings of both connectors and these synonyms,
thus enabling readers to widen their vocabulary knowledge.
.

THE RANGE OF CONNECTOR SYNONYMS

Below is an example of how a connector can be paraphrased with

a grammatically different kind of word, in this case a verb. The
connector meaning is that of contrast. The connector and its
synonym are underlined in the example:
(a) Carbohydrates in the Italian diet frequently take the form of
pasta. In many Asian countries, on the other hand, they are most
likely to be eaten as rice.
(b) Carbohydrates in the Italian diet frequently take the form of
pasta. Many Asian countries differ in preferring rice.

The verb differ in (b) is by no means the only alternative to the

connector on the other hand. The following are differenceshowing words listed in the post 56. Comparing with Like and
Unlike: unlike, contrast(s), differ(s), varies, different(ly),
contrasting, dissimilar, more and less.

Here is a list of other common connectors, along with words and

phrases of different grammatical categories that mean roughly
the same:
.
AS A RESULT/CONSEQUENTLY/THUS: consequence, result,
outcome, result(s) in, cause(s), make(s), consequent,
resultant (see 32. Expressing Consequences).
THEREFORE: mean(s), implies, suggest(s), be concluded, be
inferred, conclusion, inference, logical(ly) (see 20. Problem
Connectors).
FOR EXAMPLE/FOR INSTANCE/THUS: an example, an instance,
one, a case (in point), exemplifies, illustrate(s), etc (and its

synonyms), consider, take, imagine (see 33. Complex ExampleGiving).

IN ADDITION/MOREOVER/FURTHERMORE/ALSO: additional, further,
another, the next, the first/second/third etc (see 122. Signpost
Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).
HOWEVER/NEVERTHELESS/EVEN SO: does not mean, contradict(s),
surprising(ly), unexpected(ly), unusual.

SIMILARLY/LIKEWISE/IN THE SAME WAY: resemble(s), mirror(s),

similar, no different(ly) comparable, (a)like, analogous(ly),
corresponding(ly), comparably, equally, similarly (adverb for

examples of the same word acting as either a connector or an

ordinary adverb, see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs).
IN FACT/IN REALITY: real, true, actual(ly), reality, truth, the fact of
the matter.
ALTERNATIVELY/OTHERWISE: the/an alternative, opposite,
alternative, another choice/option/possibility.
MEANWHILE/IN THE MEANTIME/AT THE SAME TIME/
SIMULTANEOUSLY: this time, simultaneous, parallel, as/while this
is happening, during this process.
IN OTHER WORDS/THAT IS TO SAY: mean(s), translated, equate(s)
to saying, is tantamount to saying, is another way of saying, more
simply, more/less technically, paraphrase(d), rephrase(d),
reworded.
.
CONNECTOR SYNONYMS IN USE

This section is essentially an exercise in the use of connectors and

their synonyms. Below are some pairs of sentences. The second
sentence in each contains a connector synonym. Readers are
invited to rephrase the whole sentence so that it contains a
connector instead. Suggested answers are given at the end.
1. Space travel is expensive. This does not mean that people
want it to stop.

2. Some male penguins look after incubating eggs. The females

spend this time fishing at sea.
3. Some food crops have a non-food use. Take sugar cane. This
can be converted into fuel for motor vehicles.
4. Savings can be invested in an interest-bearing bond. Another
possibility is to purchase shares with them.
5. Written reports need to be formal and concise. The opposite is
true of oral presentations, which usually involve informality and
repetition.
6. High population growth rates are sometimes blamed on
cultural attitudes. The truth is that poverty is a more likely cause.
7. Success at sport will not come without constant physical
exercise. Academic achievement is not so different, requiring
regular intellectual challenges.
8. Excessive intake of alcoholic beverages produces deleterious
physical effects. What this means is that too much drinking is
unhealthy.
9. Ostriches are birds. They are unusual in that they run instead
of flying.
10. Some bacteria produce poisonous substances in a number of
human foods. These make the foods dangerous to eat.
.

Suggested Answers

1. Space travel is expensive. However, people do not want it to

stop.
2. Some male penguins look after incubating eggs. Meanwhile,
the females fish/are fishing at sea.
3. Some food crops have a non-food use. For example, sugar cane
can be converted into fuel for motor vehicles.
4. Savings can be invested in an interest-bearing
bond. Alternatively, shares can be purchased with them.
5. Written reports need to be formal and concise. On the other
hand, oral presentations usually involve informality and repetition.
6. High population growth rates are sometimes blamed on cultural
attitudes. In fact, poverty is a more likely cause.
7. Success at sport will not come without constant physical
exercise. Similarly, academic achievement requires regular
intellectual challenges.
8. Excessive intake of alcoholic beverages produces deleterious
physical effects. In other words, too much drinking is unhealthy.
9. Ostriches are birds. Nevertheless, they run instead of flying.
10. Some bacteria produce poisonous substances in a number of
human foods. As a result, the foods become dangerous to eat.
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Vocabulary, Language Functions | Tagged Discourse, logical connectors, paraphrase, sentence
functions, Sentence Links, Synonyms, text coherence | 2 Comments

26 NOVEMBER, 2012

40. Conjunctions versus Connectors

.

Conjunctions and connectors express similar

meanings but follow different rules of grammar
and punctuation
.

MAIN DEFINING FEATURES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND

CONNECTORS
Conjunctions and connectors both feature in other parts of this blog, but
their importance in professional writing and the confusions that they
cause make it useful to compare them more directly.

The main characteristic of both of these word kinds is, of course,

that they join orlink. However, this a rather vague idea that needs

to be considerably clarified. Prepositions too can be thought of as

linking words (see 84. Seven Things to Know About Prepositions).
What makes conjunctions and connectors different is the fact that
they introduce statements containing subjects and verbs prepositions
can only introduce nouns by themselves or verbs with -ing.
The difference between conjunctions and connectors is in the kind
of link that they make. Consider these examples:
(a) CONJUNCTION: Mount Kilimanjaro is on the
Equator, but it has a covering of snow.
(b) CONNECTOR : Mount Kilimanjaro is on the
Equator. Nevertheless, it has a covering of snow
In (a), the conjunction but is joining in two different ways.
Firstly, it physically joins the two verbs is and has into the same
sentence a new verb with no physical link must be in a new
sentence (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). Conjunctions are
not the only kinds of words that allow extra verbs into a sentence
(others includerelative pronouns, participles and question words),
but they are an especially frequent type of physical joining
device. The second way in which conjunctions join verbs
is mentally. In sentence (a) but suggests what follows is surprising
after the statement before. Linguists would call physical joining
syntactic and the mental kind semantic.
In sentence (b), on the other hand, the connector does only one
kind of joining: the mental/semantic kind (the same mental link as
the one shown by but). There is no physical joining in (b): the
connector nevertheless is in a new sentence. This is hardly

surprising: connectors are very similar to or even a subtype of

adverbs, most of which are not linking in any way at all (see 121.
Sentence-Spanning Adverbs).

Thus, the main similarity between conjunctions and connectors is

that they both show a mental link between two statements
containing a verb. The main difference is that only conjunctions
also create a physical, grammatical link. It is probably this
difference that makes some people call connectors logical
connectors.
A slightly confusing complication is that sometimes we see a
conjunction and a connector used together. For example, in (b)
above it would be possible to say but nevertheless, with a comma
instead of a full stop before. However, the essential difference
between conjunctions and connectors remains the same: the
conjunction (but) is doing the physical linking (making the comma
possible), while the connector is adding its mental meaning to
that of the conjunction making it stronger. In other words,
combinations like but nevertheless are emphatic conjunctions.
They can only be made with a few conjunction-connector pairs:
other examples are in the post 125. Stress and Emphasis.
Knowing these points is, of course, not enough to ensure that
connectors and conjunctions are used correctly; one must also
know which words make conjunctions and which make
connectors. Unfortunately, there is no rule on this: you just have
to remember which expressions are which. The meaning is no
guide because, as shown above, both types of expression can
have the same meaning.

OTHER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONJUNCTIONS AND

CONNECTORS
The main other differences concern punctuation and sentence
positions. They are:
(i) A conjunction does not usually have a following comma but a

connector does (see 50. Right & Wrong Comma Places).

(ii) A conjunction usually comes before the subject of its verb, but a
connector quite often comes later. In example (b), nevertheless can be
placed after any of the other words in its sentence.
(iii) Most conjunctions may go either before or between the two verbs
that they join (see 25. Conjunction Positioning and 64. Double
Conjunctions), but connectors must go between them. In example (a)
above, but is actually exceptional in that it cannot go before the two
verbs, just like a connector. The conjunction although is more typical in
its possibilities:
(c) Although chickens have wings, they cannot fly.
(d) Chickens cannot fly although they have wings.
Lists of conjunctions like but (called coordinating) and conjunctions
like although(called subordinating) can be found under 36. Words
Left out to Avoid Repetition. See also 37. Subordination: Grammar
for Good Repetition.
.

MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY CONJUNCTIONS AND

CONNECTORS

In the above examples, the mental link, or meaning, of the conjunctions

and the connector was the same: surprise about the statement made with
the second verb. This meaning is one of very many that different
conjunctions and connectors express. Some can be read about elsewhere
in this blog in the posts 18. Relations between Sentences and 112.
Synonyms of Connectors, and a comprehensive list can be found in the
book Cambridge Grammar of English. Further examples are as follows:
(e) CONJUNCTION: After evening falls, mosquitoes become active.
(f) CONNECTOR

: Evening falls. Then/Afterwards mosquitoes

become active.
The mental link here is that the event expressed by the second verb has a
later time than the event expressed by the first verb.
(g) CONJUNCTION: If it rains, the visit will be cancelled.

If it rains

(h) CONNECTOR

: It might rain. In that case the visit will be

cancelled.
In each of these, the first verb helps to show a hypothetical future event
and the second one indicates a consequence of that (see 118. Problems
with Conditional if).
Two points can be made about the variety of meanings that are possible
with conjunctions and connectors. Firstly, most conjunctions seem to have
many connectors of similar meaning. Here are some more examples:
.

Lists of Connectors Corresponding to Individual Conjunctions

AND
additionally, also, as well, besides this, furthermore, in addition,
moreover, too(see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence
Listing); afterwards, next, subsequently, then, thereafter; as a
result (note that as well and too usually end their sentence).
BUT
all the same, even so, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still,
yet (for a special use of these, see 51. Making Concessions with
May); by contrast, in contrast, on the other hand; on the
contrary (see 20. Problem Connectors).
SO, SO THAT (also BECAUSE/SINCE at the start)
as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, that is
why, therefore, thus (see32. Expressing Consequences and 20.
Problem Connectors).
SO (following JUST AS )
similarly, likewise, in a similar way, in the same way (see 82.
Pitfalls in Making Comparisons)
OR
alternatively, if not, otherwise.
BECAUSE/SINCE (between the linked verbs)
this is because, the reason is that.
BEFORE (before the linked verbs)
beforehand, before this, first.

BEFORE (between the linked verbs)

afterwards, next, subsequently, then, thereafter.
WHILE
meanwhile, at this time, at that moment.
The reason why there are many connectors for each conjunction is
probably that conjunctions have many different meanings (like most small
words see 3. Multi-Use Words), while connectors tend to have just
one. For example, but can express either contrast (see 56. Comparing
with Like and Unlike) or concession (see (a) above and 51.
Making Concessiions with May); and and can express not only
addition but also result (see 32. Expressing Consequences).
The second point to be made about the meaning variety of conjunctions
and connectors is that overall connectors express more meanings than
conjunctions. This is indicated by the existence of connectors with no
corresponding conjunction at all, such as for example, for instance, in
particular, in fact, indeed, instead, in short, at least and at last.
More about the first two of these is in the post 33. Complex ExampleGiving. There is, however, one meaning that seems to be expressible
with no connector at all: see 117. Saying More Precisely What You
Mean.
.

CHOOSING WHETHER TO USE A CONJUNCTION OR A

CONNECTOR
There seem to be a number of considerations in choosing between a
conjunction and a connector. The first is to do with whether or not the
next words say something already known to the reader. In sentence (e)
above, the conjunctionafter suggests that evening falls is already

known to the reader, and the main message is about mosquitoes

becoming active; while in (f) the connectorafterwards indicates that
evening falling is something the reader is being told here because it has
not already been mentioned. The ability of conjunctions to introduce
already-known ideas seems to belong particularly to the subordinating
kind (see 37. Subordination), but only when they are used at the start of
the sentence before both of the joined verbs.
The second main consideration in choosing between a conjunction and a
connector could be the degree of separateness that we might wish to give
to the two joined verbs. Putting them into the same sentence with a
conjunction suggests that they are somehow part of the same idea, while
putting them into two different sentences suggests that they are two
different points (this kind of choice is widespread in writing see 59.
Paragraph Length for an illustration of how the same applies in
paragraph design). Compare these examples:
(i) Cars are dangerous and they pollute.
(j) Cars are dangerous. Moreover, they pollute.
Sentence (i) seems to be saying one thing by means of two points, that
cars are bad; while (j) appears to be emphasising that there are two
separate disadvantages.
A third possible reason for choosing to say something in a new sentence
by means of a connector could be the fact that connectors tend to have a
more precise meaning than conjunctions. Being precise is especially
important in academic and professional writing, and that might explain
why connectors are especially common in those fields. An alternative way
of making a conjunction meaning more precise is by paraphrasing it with a
verb (see 131. Uses of Action Nouns).
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23 JANUARY, 2012

18. Reading Obstacles 9: Relations

Between Sentences
.

Meanings are created just by placing

sentences together. Understanding
them is a vital part of reading.
.

WHAT IS A SENTENCE RELATION?

A sentence relation is a meaning created just by placing two sentences
next to each other in a text. Consider this sentence:

(a) Italians frequently eat pasta.

By itself this just states a fact about Italians and/or pasta. However, the
same sentence says more when it is placed after another sentence, like
this:
(b) Food is an important part of a culture. Italians frequently eat
pasta.

Now, there is the extra meaning of exemplification. There are no special

words that communicate the meaning of example but nevertheless we
understand it because we know that Italians belong to the class of
countries and pasta belongs to the class of food (see 33. Complex
Example-Giving).
Exemplification is only one of many possible sentence relations in
English. Consider what happens if we change the first of the two
sentences above:
(c) Chinese food is typified by rice. Italians frequently eat pasta.
Here we have a different sentence relation: contrast. No specific word
expresses this meaning; it just comes from the two sentences being
together, combined with our recognition of two pairs of opposites
(Chinese/Italians and rice/pasta). Other major types of sentence
relation
are similarity, reason, consequence, addition,specification, surprise and alt
ernative.
.

DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS OF SENTENCE

RELATIONS
Sentence relations have two main characteristics that have to be borne in
mind if you are trying to discover and understand one in a text.
.

1.

There must be two sentences

It is possible for the meaning created by placing two sentences

together to be found in one sentence instead of two (see 1. Simple
Example-Giving, 32. Expressing Consequences and 117. Saying
More Precisely What You Mean). However, when there is only one
sentence, we cannot say there is a sentence relation. As a result, simply
identifying a particular meaning like exemplification is not enough for
recognising a sentence relation. The presence of two sentences will, of
course, be shown by a full stop between them, though an acceptable
alternative might be a semi-colon (see 17. Colons versus SemiColons).
.

2.

The second sentence indicates the specific meaning

To understand the importance of this characteristic, consider the sentence

relation in the following:
(d) Oil output was restricted in the 1970s. The price of petrol
increased considerably.
The first sentence here gives the cause of what the second says, and the
second gives the result of the first. So is the sentence relation cause or

result? Following the guideline given above, the relation is the result
expressed by the second sentence.
One other point to note is that not all pairs of sentences are as clearly
related as the examples given above. I hesitate to say that some pairs of
sentences arenot related, but I would suggest that trying to find a link is
sometimes very difficult.
.

THE LINK BETWEEN CONNECTORS AND SENTENCE

RELATIONS
Although sentence relations do not need any special words to be
understood, there are such words available to writers if they want to make
sure the relation is clear. Usually these words are connectors (see 40.
Conjunctions versus Connectors and 121. Sentence-Spanning
Adverbs), but occasionally they are other kinds of words (see 112.
Synonyms of Connectors). Connectors go in thesecond of two related
sentences. In (b) above, it would be possible to add the connector for
example to the second sentence; in (d) an appropriate connector would
be consequently. Other examples of connectors are on the other
hand,similarly, moreover, however, alternatively and this is
because.
.

HOW SENTENCE RELATIONS CAUSE DIFFICULTY IN

READING
Three different errors seem possible with sentence relations. The most
basic one is to read the sentences in isolation from each other, without
looking for any connection between them at all. If this is done, the full

meaning of a text cannot be understood, since it depends quite heavily on

sentence relations.
The other two possible errors both involve misunderstanding a particular
sentence relation. In one case, the problem is failing to notice clues to the
relation in the two sentences, such as the mentions of a class name and a
class member signalling exemplification and the mentions of opposites
showing a contrast. In the other case, the problem is misunderstanding
the meaning of a connector in the second sentence. This problem is quite
a major one because connectors rarely translate exactly from one
language to another; they are often similar in two languages but with a
subtle difference. Some of the most problematic connectors in English can
be read about within this blog in the post 20. Problem Connectors.
Reading as much as possible is probably the best way to improve ones
recognition of sentence relations, but doing exercises might help a little as
well. The next section offers two that can be tried.
.

PRACTICE IN RECOGNIZING SENTENCE RELATIONS

EXERCISE 1: Each of the sentences below is a possible continuation of a
text that begins One benefit of prosperity is that people have more
free time. However, the sentence relation created by each continuation
is different each time. Can you match the right meaning with the right
continuation (answers are given below)?
Sentence Relations
REASON, UNEXPECTED RESULT, EXPECTED RESULT, ADDITION,
CLARIFICATION
Continuations:
1. Hunger is rare.

2. They do not have to work as much.

3. To avoid being bored, they participate in more leisure activities.
4. Some become unhappy if they are not busy enough.
5. Employers are more willing to cut the length of the working week.
.

Answers (Sometimes more than one answer is possible).

1. Addition; 2. Clarification; 3. Expected Result; 4. Unexpected Result; 5.
Reason.
.

EXERCISE 2: Match each sentence in List A below with the sentence in

List B that helps to make the sentence relation shown in brackets.
List A
1. Key points in a talk need to be emphasised. (REASON)
2. Success at sport requires frequent physical exercise. (SIMILARITY)
3. Global warming may be taking place because of human activity.
(ALTERNATIVE)
4. Water evaporates from the sea and forms clouds. (NEXT STEP)
5. Some theorists link child learning with maturation. (CONTRAST)
.
List B
A. Increased sunspot activity could be a factor.

B. Others say that it depends on past learning.

C. People do not always notice the obvious.
D. Academic Achievement will not come without regular assignments.
E. Rain falls onto the land or the sea.
.

Answers
1 C; 2 D; 3 A; 4 E; 5 B