ZOMEGA TERAHERTZ CORPORATION

The Terahertz Wave

eBook

TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
JUNE 2012 EDITION

C HAPTER 1

Fundamentals of
Time-Domain
Terahertz Wave
Zomega Terahertz Corporation

Technical Overview
Edition: June 2012
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S ECTION 1

The Terahertz Band

on classic electromagnetism and transport theory, which describes the

interactions between electron and holes and its radiation mechanisms. On
the other hand, the theoretical foundation of the photonics field is quantum
mechanical matter-light interaction. Figure 1.1 shows the relationship of the
THz band with respect the electronics and photonics fields. It also shows
some physical magnitudes that are worth remembering, for instance, a
photon with a frequency of 1 THz is equivalent to 33.3 cm-1 wavenumber, a
period of 1 ps, 300 um in wavelength, 4.13 meV in energy, and 47 K in
temperature.
F IGURE 1.1

Introduction
The Terahertz (THz) band is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
spanning from 0.1 THz to 10 THz. The THz band remained unexplored for
many years due to the lack of practical sources and detectors. Since the mid
70s, advances in the electronics and photonics fields have provided new
materials and devices that made the THz gap accessible and ignited an
accelerated progress of the THz field in both fundamental research and
applications. For instance, the characterization of molecules in the THz band
allows studying their vibrational and rotational modes and validate
theoretical molecular structures, the use of pulsed THz waves on
semiconductors allows measuring carriers lifetime and doping
concentrations, and the application of THz waves on plasmas provides
understanding about electron ionization and collision processes at the
picosecond time scale.
The THz band is an area of convergence between the electronics field (up
from lower frequencies) and the photonics field (down from higher
frequencies). Both fields differ significantly on the theoretical framework
and technical approaches for the generation and detection of radiation,
which makes the THz band a fertile area for interesting hybrid systems. For
example, the theoretical framework for the electronics field is mostly based

The Terahertz band in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Both the electronics and photonics fields represent multi-billion dollar

industries. The technical and scientific convergence between the two fields
also represent the convergence of their respective industries. Figure 1.2
shows the trend of the electronics industry that indicates the fabrication of
devices that operate at higher frequencies. The figure also shows the trend of
the photonics to go down in frequency to cover the infrared band with major
applications in thermal imaging and telecommunications. Both industries
2

meet at the THz band, in which no mature systems and applications exist
yet. This lack of maturity and defined applications represents a business
opportunity to design, fabricate, and commercialize systems operating in the
THz band that could cover specific market and application needs.
F IGURE 1.2

Electronics and photonics industrial convergence.

Technological families
There are two major technological families in the THz band: the continuouswave (or CW) and the pulsed (or time-domain). These two families are
defined based on the operating frequency and emission mode.
CW systems operate at a single frequency and emission is continuous or
modulated up to GHz frequencies. Therefore, CW systems are narrowband
in nature and, often, they have a limited tunability but have high spectral
resolution (~100 MHz). Furthermore, they typically provide higher THz
output powers than pulsed sources. Because of their high spectral
resolution, they are useful for gas phase spectroscopy but not for solid or
liquid phase. They can be used in telecommunications applications and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) applications. CW systems can be active or

passive. A passive system detects the radiation emitted by the sample or

body, whereas an active system illuminates the sample and detects the
reflected or transmitted radiation.
Most CW systems have evolved from the electronics side, in particular the
microwave field. The most common way to generate THz emission is by up
scaling the frequency by multiplying a fundamental frequency, although
down-conversion is also possible coming from the photonics side.
Frequency-multiplied CW systems operate in the lower frequency range of
the THz band with maximum frequencies around 0.8 THz (800 GHz).
However, systems capable to emit at frequencies as high as 5 THz are
possible (Quantum Cascade Lasers, and Backward-Wave Oscillators).
CW detectors can be narrowband or broadband. Narrowband detectors are
only sensitive to a specific frequency and, often, they pick up less noise and
do not require modulation to realize high sensitivities. Broadband detectors
are sensitive to a broader range of frequencies and modulation or filtering is
necessary to reduce the effects of the background noise in order to achieve
good sensitivities. In some cases, cryogenic conditions are required.
Broadband detectors include bolometers, pyroelectric, and Golay cell.
Narrowband detectors include Schottky diodes and superconducting
structures such as hot electron bolometers.
Pulsed or time-domain systems are based on the generation and detection of
an electromagnetic transient that has a duration of few picoseconds. The
short pulse is made of many frequencies, which can be accessed with a
Fourier Transform of the pulse. As opposed to CW systems, pulsed systems
are broadband in nature and emission is not continuous. Therefore, pulsed
systems are ideal for spectroscopic applications and the study of ultrafast
phenomena. Pulsed systems have typically evolved from the photonics side
by generating the electromagnetic transients with ultrafast femto-second
pulsed lasers. Pulsed systems are active systems only. Figure 1.3 summarizes
the major differences between CW and pulsed systems.

F IGURE 1.3

can provide much better resolution than THz but infrared waves
cannot see through covers.
Resolution. Because the wavelength of THz waves is in the range of
mm to tens of microns, THz images of macroscopic objects provide lot
of details and localized data. This high resolution is a benefit
compared to microwaves.
Safety. THz photons are non-ionizing and, therefore, do not
represent a health hazards for living tissue or humans as X-rays do.

Applications
Given the main features of THz waves, the following list summarizes the
major foreseen applications:
Non-contact spectroscopic identification:
Continuous-Wave and pulsed systems features comparison.

Explosive detection and identification.

Chemical and biological threat assessment.
Pharmaceutical drugs characterization.

Features

Non-destructive evaluation (NDE):

Regardless of whether THz waves are generated by a CW or pulsed system,

the main features that make THz wave technology so interesting can be
summarized as follows:

Corrosion inspection.

Fingerprint. The rotational and vibrational modes of many

molecules, especially organic ones, are distributed across the THz
band. These modes can be observed as absorption peaks in the THz
spectra. The specific location and amplitude of these absorption peaks
can be used to identify the molecules.

Content inspection:

See-through. Many dry and non metallic materials, such as plastic,

paper, cardboard, and textiles are transparent to THz waves. This
property allows THz waves inspecting samples that are under cover or
inside non-optically transparent containers. Microwaves have this
see-through capability as well but their larger wavelength compared to
THz waves does not allow achieving high resolution images. Infrared

Cracks, voids, and other structural defects.

Thickness measurements.

Security inspection.
Spectroscopic imaging.
Examples of some of this applications will be shown and explained in more
detail in the next sections of this chapter.

References
1. Siegel, P H (2003). THz technology: An overview. International
Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems, 13(2), 351394

2. Siegel, P H (2002). Terahertz Technology. IEEE Transactions on

Microwave Theory and Techniques, 50(3), 910928
3. Ferguson, B, & Zhang, X-C (2002). Materials for terahertz science and
technology. Nature Materials, 1(1), 2633
4. Leitenstorfer, A, Hunsche, S, Shah, J, Nuss, M C, & Knox, W H (1999).
Detectors and sources for ultra broadband electro-optic sampling:
Experiment and theory. Appl. Phys. Lett., 74(11), 1516-1518
5. Fattinger, C, & Grischkowsky, D (1989). Terahertz beams. Appl. Phys.
Lett., 54(6), 490-494
6. Smith, P R, Auston, D H, & Nuss, M C (1988). Subpiconsecond
photoconducting dipole antennas. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 24(2),
255-260
7. Valdmanis, J A, Mourou, G A, & Gabel C W (1983). Subpicosecond
electrical sampling. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 19(4), 664-667
8. Lee, C H, & Mathur, V K (1981). Picosecond photoconductivity and its
applications. IEEE J. Quantum Electon., 17(10), 2098-2112
9. Mourou, G A, Stancampiano, C, Antonetti, A, & Orszag, A (1981).
Picosecond microwave pulses generated with a subpicosecond laser
driven semiconductor switch. Appl. Phys. Lett., 39(4), 295-365
10.Lee, C H (1977). Picosecond optoelectronic switching in GaAs. Appl.
Phys. Lett., 30(2), 84-86

S ECTION 2

Time-Resolved Teraherz PumpProbe Method

Introduction
THz pump-probe is the method of choice for almost all pulsed (or timedomain) THz systems used in both spectroscopy and imaging applications.
Pioneering works on the generation and detection of THz waves using
pump-probe approaches began in the late 70s focused on the study of the
response of photoconductors to laser pulses. Time resolved pump-probe is
typically used to measure physical phenomena in the time scale ranging
from nanoseconds (10-9 seconds, or ns) to femtoseconds (10-15 seconds, or
fs). In the late 80s, the first practical pulsed THz systems were realized using
photoconductive antennas to generate and detect THz waves. Other methods
were developed using electro-optic crystals but they also implemented a
pump-probe approach to generate and detect the THz waves.

Operation
In a THz time-domain or pulsed system, a laser pulse is split in two beams.
One of the beams is referred as the pump beam and the other one is referred
as the probe beam. The pump and probe pulses are derived from the same
optical beam and, therefore, have the same pulse duration, which typical has
a range between 20 to 120 fs. The energy of the pump beam is much larger
than the energy of the probe beam because the pump beam is used to

generate the THz pulse. In the most basic configuration, the pump beam
generates an electromagnetic transient, through the excitation of a
semiconductor or electro-optical material. This electromagnetic transient is
the THz pulse. The duration of the THz pulse is in the rage of few ps, which
is larger than that of the pump beam. The probe beam is used to detect the
THz pulse through the inverse process for the THz generation. The detection
of the THz pulse provides the waveform, which is the amplitude of the
electric field of the THz pulse as a function of the timing difference between
the probe and pump beams.
The timing difference between the pump and probe beams is controlled so
the response of the sample to the pump beam as a function of time can be
measured very precisely. The most common way to control the timing
difference is by using a mechanical delay line in the pump beam. A time
delay changes the path length path of the beam and, thus, changes the
relative timing between the pump and probe pulses. Other methods to
control the time difference include changing the refractive index of a section
of the optical path of one of the beams by using materials such as liquid
crystals. However, such material offer a limited time delay range and are
slow to respond. The maximum difference between the pump and probe is
referred to the delay range. Delay ranges for common THz time-domain
systems go from 10 ps to 100 ps. However, delay ranges up to 1 ns or more
are necessary for certain standoff and high resolution spectroscopy
applications.

Process
The generation and detection of a THz pulse with the pump-probe method
can be divided in 5 steps (Figure 1.4):
1. Beam splitting. The femtosecond laser pulse is separated into the
probe and pump beams. Typically, the energy of the pump beam is
much higher than the energy of the probe beam because the pump
beam is used to generate the electromagnetic transient, or THz pulse.
A common method to split the laser beam is by using a polarized beam
6

splitter and a half-wave plate. Assuming a linear polarization of the

laser pulse, the beam splitter decomposes the polarization of the beam
in two perpendicular components. One of the components will be the
pump beam while the other perpendicular component will be the
probe beam. By changing the polarization angle with the half wave
plate, it is possible to control the amount of energy for each
component of the polarization and, thus, the energy ratio between
pump and probe pulses can be adjusted.
2. Delay. A time delay is introduced between the pump and probe. This
delay is usually controlled by changing the relative path between the
pump and probe beams with a linear stage. Often, this delay is
introduced in the pump beam because the emitter structure is
typically more robust with respect to small misalignments introduced
by the delay line. If that is the case, the THz pulse moves around the
position of the probe beam, which remains fixed, as the relative time
position between pump and probe changes.
3. Electromagnetic transient generation. The pump beam excites
the emitter, which generates an electromagnetic transient with a
duration that is much longer than the pump beam itself. For a THz
time-domain system, the generated transient is the THz pulse, which
has a typical duration of few ps. Photoconductive antennas (PCAs)
and electro-optical crystals (EO rectification) are the two most
common devices to generate THz pulses. The THz pulse is then
optically collected and guided to the sample to perform the
measurement.
4. Probe and electromagnetic transient merge. The probe and
electromagnetic transient (e.g. the THz pulse) are brought together so
that the amplitude of the THz pulse can be measured for a specific
time delay. The merge can be achieved by using a pellicle, which
reflects the probe and is transmissive for the THz pulse, or by a piece
of glass with an Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) coating, which is
transmissive for the probe but reflects the THz pulse. In Figure 1.4
pellicle is depicted (reflects probe beam and transmits the THz pulse).
Both the probe and THz pulse are optically aligned to hit the detector.

The merge is necessary so that the THz pulse and probe beam can
interact within the detector.
5. Detection. The amplitude of the THz pulse is measured for a
particular time difference between the probe and pump. The output
signal is typically proportional to the convolution of the probe beam
and the THz pulse. Because the probe beam duration is much shorter
than the THz pulse, at first order the probe can be considered as a
delta function, thus, the output is proportional to the amplitude of the
THz pulse for that particular time delay between the probe and pump.
The mechanism of detection depends on the particular detector. For
instance, photoconductive antennas (PCAs) and electro-optical crystal
(EO sampling) are also the two most common means to realize THz
wave detection.
Because of the pulsating nature of the laser source, which repeats itself with
a frequency given by the repetition rate, this process is repeated for
successive pulses (Figure 1.5 and Figure 1.6). Depending on the laser system
and vendor, repetition rate lies between few kHz up to 100 MHz. For each
pulse, the time delay is changed so the amplitude of the THz pulse can be
measured at different times and, thus, the shape of the THz pulse is
recovered. The signal recorded by this process is called the waveform.
The pump-probe method assumes that the shape and intensity of both pump
and probe beams do not change between successive pulses. In reality, there
are always small variations from pulse to pulse. This variations contribute to
the noise floor of the system. Therefore, it is extremely important to use a
very stable and repeatable laser source in this method. Furthermore, the
probe beam is not quite a delta function, thus, the measured waveform does
not exactly reproduce the real shape of the THz pulse. If the temporal shape
of the probe beam can be measured and the response of the detector can be
modeled, it is possible to use deconvolution techniques to extract the real
waveform of the THz pulse. However, for most applications, this issues does
not represent a major hassle and assuming a probe beam as a delta function
is acceptable.

F IGURE 1.4

Pump-probe layout. Lpump<Lprobe, therefore, THz beam is ahead of the probe

beam, which remains at a constant temporal position.

F IGURE 1.5

Pump-probe layout. Lpump~Lprobe, therefore, THz beam is approximately at the

same position as the probe beam.

F IGURE 1.6

2. Smith, P R, Auston, D H, & Nuss, M C (1988). Subpiconsecond

photoconducting dipole antennas. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 24(2), 255-260
3. Fattinger, C, & Grischkowsky, D (1989). Terahertz beams. Appl. Phys. Lett.,
54(6), 490-494
4. Fattinger, C, & Grischkowsky, D (1988). Point source terahertz optics. Appl.
Phys. Lett., 53(16), 1483-1485
5. Elzinga, P A, Kneisler, R J, Lytle, F E, Jiang, Y, King, G B, & Laurendeau, N M
(1987). Pump/probe method for fast analysis of visible spectral signatures
utilizing asynchronous optical sampling. Appl. Optics, 26(19), 43034309
6. Valdmanis, J A, Mourou, G A, & Gabel, C W (1983). Subpicosecond electrical
sampling. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 19(4), 664-667
7. Lee, C H, & Mathur, V K (1981). Picosecond photoconductivity and its
applications. IEEE J. Quantum Electon., 17(10), 2098-2112
8. Lee, C H (1977). Picosecond optoelectronic switching in GaAs. Appl. Phys. Lett.,
30(2), 84-86
9. Yang, K H, Richards, P L, & Shen, Y R (1971). Generation of far-infrared
radiation by picosecond light pulses in LiNbO3. Appl. Phys. Lett., 19(9),
320-323

Pump-probe layout. Lpump>Lprobe, therefore, THz beam is past the position of

the probe beam, which has remained constant.

References
1. Zhang, X-C, & Auston, D H (1992). Optoelectronic measurement of
semiconductor surfaces and interfaces with femtoseconds optics. J. Appl. Phys.,
71(1), 326-338

S ECTION 3

The Fourier Transform

From Time-Domain to
Frequency-Domain data

Mathematically, the FT and the inverse FT can be defined as:

In reality, waveforms with infinite duration do not exist. Furthermore,

waveforms are not acquired continuously but in a discrete fashion.
Therefore, the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is the practical method to
computed the FT instead of the pure mathematical definition. The DFT and
the inverse DFT are calculated as:

Introduction
THz time-domain systems use the time-resolved pump-probe method to
measure the shape and intensity of the THz pulse, or waveform. Therefore,
data is recorded in the temporal domain and, hence, the name of THz timedomain. However, spectroscopic applications and research require data in
the frequency domain so that material characterization and analysis can be
achieved properly. The way to obtain frequency-domain data from timedomain data is by computing a Fourier Transform on the acquired
waveform.
The general result of computing the Fourier Transform (FT) is a complex
function. Therefore, FT provides amplitude and phase information of the
THz wave and, thus, detection in pulsed THz system is considered to be a
coherent measurement. Because of the this coherence capability, the real
and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of a material can be measured
directly without indirect methods such as the Kramers-Kronig. In reality we
measure the refractive index and attenuation of the material in the THz
range, which are directly related to the complex dielectric constant.

Before computing the DFT, the waveform is multiplied by a sampling

window. Due to the convolution theorem, the multiplication of the waveform
x(t) and the sampling window w(t) means that the FT is the result of the
convolution between the FT of the waveform and the FT of the window:

In the FT, frequency resolution (f) and bandwidth (B) are functionally
related with the window length (T) and sampling interval (t) respectively.
The sampling interval is the inverse of the sampling rate (fSR). Figure 1.7
shows a summary of the FT and relationships between these parameters. In
this process, there are three main aspects that must be considered in a THz
time-domain system. These three aspects are:
1. Frequency resolution versus window length. Frequency
resolution f is inversely proportional to the window length T.
Therefore, the longer the window length is, the higher the frequency
resolution that we can get. This is very important when considering
the width of the spectral features that we want to measure. For
instance, gases, such as water vapor, have very narrow absorption
peak and, thus, high resolution is necessary (100 MHz to 1 GHz),
10

which requires scan lengths larger than 100 ps or even 1 ns. On the
other hand, absorption peaks in solids are broader and a lower
frequency resolution (~100 GHz) is needed to resolve the peaks
properly. In this case, scan lengths around 10 ps are usually enough.

F IGURE 1.7

2. Bandwidth versus sampling rate. This is defined by the NyquistShannon sampling theorem. The theorem determines that an analog
signal can be perfectly reconstructed if the sampling rate fSR is at least
twice the bandwidth B, which is defined as the highest frequency
component of the signal. Typical THz system have a bandwidth of 5
THz, which requires a sampling frequency of at least 10 THz, or a
sampling interval of 100 fs. Most systems are capable to sample at 20
fs, therefore, this is often not an issue for standard time-domain
systems.
3. Acquisition speed versus SNR. One way to reduce the noise level
is by averaging. Therefore, averaging increases SNR. Typically, an
extra 10 dB or more can be gained by averaging compared to a single
shot measurement. However, averaging increases the time required to
complete a measurement. Therefore, higher SNR means longer
measurements while lower SNR means faster scans.

Waveform versus spectral information flow.

F IGURE 1.8

Figure 1.8 shows an example of a waveform and its corresponding FT using a

rectangular sampling window. In this figure, we can see the water vapor
absorption lines as very sharp dips in the spectrum. Absorption features of
solid materials are broader and require less frequency resolution and, thus,
short scan lengths to be resolved.

Numerical artifacts
All data processing introduce artifacts that we should be aware of so we can
distinguish what is real information and what is not. Knowing the nature
and behavior of the artifacts can help us to mitigate its effects when setting
up the operational conditions of the instruments. In THz time-domain
systems, the most important numerical artifacts to consider in the
transformation of data from the time-domain to the frequency domain are:

Example of waveform and the resulting spectrum after computing the Fourier
Transform applying a rectangular window.

11

 Aliasing (Figure 1.9). It is the distortion of the signal resulting from

a sampling rate smaller than the Nyquist frequency. If the sampling
rate is less than twice the bandwidth, then, high frequency
components cannot be recovered. Therefore, it is important to have an
idea of the bandwidth of our signal before setting up the sampling rate
of our system. Usually, sampling rate exceeds this constrain in
standard THz time-domain systems.

F IGURE 1.9

Leakage (Figure 1.10). It is the spread of the energy of a particular

frequency component to neighbor frequency components due to the
application of a particular sampling window. The major effect of
leakage is that it reduces spectral resolution. Different sampling
windows have different FT profiles that change the final spectrum
when they are convolved with the FT of the waveform. Therefore,
different sampling windows will provide different frequency
resolutions. A common sampling window is the rectangular window,
which offers a good frequency resolution. Other windows such as the
Hann and Hamming are popular in applications that require high
frequency resolution.
Etalon effect (Figure 1.11). Most THz systems show echoes of the
original THz pulse due to the reflection of the THz pulse at the
interfaces of optical elements such as beam splitters and lenses. If the
waveform scan length is long enough, these echoes show up as smaller
replicas of the main pulse. If such replicas are included in the Fourier
Transform, the result is a spectrum with interference features known
as etalon effect. These interference features make the analysis of the
spectrum very difficult and they can hide real spectral features.
Therefore, the most common mitigation strategy is to keep the scan
length just short of the first echo. This mitigation strategy limits the
maximum frequency resolution because scan length is limited.
Another strategy is to deconvolve the echoes by numerical processing.
However, deconvolution require a very precise model to describe the
shape and amplitude of the echoes and does not work well with low
amplitude signals.

Aliasing causes under-sampling of the signal.

F IGURE 1.10

Sampling windows have different effects on the Fourier Transform.

12

F IGURE 1.11

Including the echo of the main peak in the Fourier Transform generate etalon
features in the spectrum.

References
1. Kauppinen, J (2001). Fourier Transforms in spectroscopy. Ed. Wiley-VCH, 1st
ed., Berlin.
2. Lathi, B P (2005). Linear systems and signals. Oxford University Press, 2nd ed.,
New York.
3. Oppenheim, A V (1989). Discrete-time signal processing. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs.

13

S ECTION 4

Terahertz Emitters for TimeDomain Systems

Introduction
The generation of THz pulses is typically realized through the excitation of
certain materials or patterned structures with fs laser pulses. The two most
popular mechanisms for the generation of THz waves with a fs laser pulse
are the transient photo-carrier generation in photo-conducting antennas
(PCAs) and second order nonlinear processes in electro-optical (EO)
crystals, in particular the optical rectification process. Recently, it has been
demonstrated that air plasma can also be used as THz wave emitter and
detector, offering a bandwidth that is much greater than possible with PCAs
or EO means. THz wave time-domain systems that use PCA or EO crystals
offer a bandwidth that lies typically between 3 to 5 THz with an average
output power that ranges from nW to few uW.

Electro-optical rectification
EO rectification is a second order nonlinear optical effect in which THz
waves are generated as a result of a difference-frequency process between
the frequency components contained in the fs laser pulse. The differencefrequency process occurs in materials that have a second order susceptibility
that is different from zero. Mathematically, the polarization induced by the

electric field associated with the optical pulse can be expressed in power
series:

EO rectification comes from the second term in the previous equation. If the
incident light is a plane wave, the polarization induced by the second order
susceptibility can be expressed as:

Where is the frequency difference of two frequency components of the

laser pulse and (2) the second order susceptibility, which depends on the
crystal structure of the material. The radiated electric field caused by the EO
induced polarization is proportional to the second derivative with respect
time:

EO rectification does not need bias to realize THz generation (Figure 1.12).
For a given material, the radiation efficiency and bandwidth are affected by
factors such as thickness, laser pulse duration, absorption and dispersion,
crystal orientation, and phase matching conditions. In particular:
Laser pulse duration. The shorter the duration of the laser pulse is,
the wider the bandwidth of the THz spectrum could be.
Absorption. It refers to the absorption of the laser pulse and
generated THz waves by the material. In both cases, absorption
reduces the amount of THz output power. Therefore, the higher the
absorption is, the lower the THz output power is.
Phase matching. An optimal THz wave generation occurs when the
group velocity of the laser pulse is equal to the phase velocity of the
THz pulse. On the other hand, the more dissimilar the group velocity

14

and phase velocity are, the narrower the bandwidth and lower the
power of the generated THz pulse.
Dispersion. It refers to the fact that the different frequency
components contained in the laser pulse can propagate at different
velocities within a material. Dispersion affects the phase matching
characteristics of the crystal and it has a major impact on bandwidth
and radiation efficiency. The higher the dispersion, the more difficult
is to achieve phase matching and, therefore, narrower bandwidth.
Crystal thickness. Thickness affects both bandwidth and output
power of the THz pulse:

Bandwidth. The thinner the crystal is, the broader the

bandwidth of the THz pulse is because different matching
conditions have a smaller effect due to the reduced interaction
length. However, thinner crystals tend to generate lower output

powers and introduces secondary echoes very close to the main

pulse that reduce the practical scan length, and, thus, reduce
frequency resolution.

Output power. The thicker the crystal is, the higher the output
power is because the interaction length of the laser pulse with the
materials is longer. However, the thicker the crystal is, the higher
the absorption too and dispersion has more influence, which
reduces power and bandwidth.

Popular materials for EO rectification are ZnTe, CdTe, GaSe, LiNiO3 and
LiTaO3. Among them, ZeTe is the most favorable as THz wave emitter
because of its high nonlinear coefficient, high-damage threshold, and best
phase matching characteristics with laser sources such as Ti:sapphire.
However, ZeTe has phonon absorptions around 5 THz that limits its
practical bandwidth.

Photoconductive antennas

F IGURE 1.12

A PCA consist of two metallic electrodes that are deposited onto a

semiconductor substrate, which is typically a direct III-V semiconductor
such as GaAs or low-temperature grown GaAs. A bias voltage is applied
between the electrodes to accelerate the photo-carriers generated by the
laser pulse. The acceleration of those photo-carriers provides the basic
physical mechanism to generate THz radiation. The polarization of the THz
wave is parallel to the bias field, which is perpendicular to the gap between
the two electrodes.

EO mechanism.

The photons of the laser pulse need to have an energy higher than the
bandgap of the semiconductor to generate photo-induced free carriers. If the
laser is focused at the gap between the electrodes, the photo-induced
carriers are accelerated by the bias field across the gap, which generates a
current. Because of the pulsed nature of the laser beam, the amplitude of
this current is a function of time and, thus, the derivative of the current
respect time generates the THz pulse (Figure 1.13).

15

Where A is the area of illumination, 0 is the permittivity in vacuum, c is the

speed of light, e is the electron charge, z is the penetration of the laser pulse
into the semiconductor, is the mobility of the carriers, Eb is the bias field,
and N the density of photo-carriers. Because the mobility of electrons is
often higher of the holes, the major contribution to the photo-current comes
from the electrons.
The most important factors that affect the performance of a PCA can be
summarized as:
Semiconductor bandgap. The energy of the laser photons need to
be higher than the bandgap of the semiconductor so that photocarriers are generated. Otherwise, THz emission is not possible.

size, laser fluence, and carrier density. The combination of high bias
field, narrow gap and high laser power is a recipe for destroying a PCA
easily, thus, it is recommended to start applying low bias voltages and
increase once the limits of the system have been well stablished.
PCAs structures can be resonant or non-resonant. Resonant PCAs generate
THz radiation around a central frequency, which depends on the gap
distance. Non-resonant PCAs have variable gap distances and provide
broader frequency THz emission. With regards to the material substrate, the
most popular choices are low temperature GaAs (LT-GaAs) and doped
silicon. Figure 1.14 shows a picture of a PCA and common gap structures.
Figure 1.15 plots the performance of a PCA commercialized by Zomega
Terahertz Corporation.

F IGURE 1.13

Carrier lifetime. Semiconductors with short carrier lifetime are

desirable because they can generate short THz pulses and, thus,
achieve broader THz spectra.
Carrier mobility. High carrier mobility increases THz emission
efficiency because carriers accelerate faster with less bias.
Antenna gap. The gap refers to the distance between the electrodes.
Narrow gap PCAs require less bias but they are easier to damage
because damage threshold voltage is lower. Narrow gap PCAs also
require an excellent optical alignment of the laser pulse and a proper
focus spot size to illuminate the gap efficiently. Broad gap PCAs allow
for a larger active area and are more robust because damage threshold
voltage is higher and are less sensitive to misalignment and focus
characteristics of the laser pulse. Broad gap PCAs are typically capable
to generate more intense THz pulses than narrow gap PCAs, thus, they
are preferred as THz emitters.

PCA generation mechanism.

Bias field. The THz output power increases with increasing bias
field. However, there is a maximum bias that could be applied before
the material breaks down. This maximum bias depends on the gap
16

F IGURE 1.14

Examples of PCA emitters from Zomega Terahertz Corporation.

The diameter of the laser spot has to match the size of the gap for an optimal
operation of the PCA (Figure 1.16). A laser spot smaller than the gap size will
leave part of the gap with no illumination and, thus, that part will not
generate carriers, which will reduce the current and, thus, reduce the THz
output power. On the other hand, a laser spot larger than the gap size will
waste part of the energy of the laser by illuminating non-active parts of the
structure and, thus, a higher power will be needed to generate the same
amount of THz output power. One way to control the spot size of the laser
pulse on the gap is by mounting a focusing lens on a translation stage
(Figure 1.17). By moving the lens back and forth the spot size of the laser
pulse can be adjusted.
It is important to be very careful with the fluence of the laser pulse (energy
per unit surface) and the bias applied on the gap. A combination of high
fluence and high bias will usually burnout the antenna. Therefore, when

F IGURE 1.15

Strip-line antenna (PCA-LTGAAS-L50) measured with EO detection with

<110> ZnTe (1 mm thick), pump beam 780 nm, 100 fs, 10 mW average power
at 50 MHz repetition rate.

operating with a PCA for the first time, it is recommended to start with low
bias and low fluence, which usually means large spot sizes on the gap.
For instance, a safe bias for any antenna is determined by taking the gap size
in m and multiplying by 1 V/m to get the peak to peak voltage to be
applied. Many antennas will tolerate operation at up to 2V/m, but the risk
for burning is greatly increased. Then, to avoid laser damage to the antenna
during alignment, keep the focal point of the laser ahead of the antenna, and
slowly bring it closer to the focusing lens to achieve the appropriate spot
size.

Surface emission
Surface emission is an unbiased THz generation method based on chargeseparation at the semiconductor surface when excited with a laser pulse.
17

F IGURE 1.16

This charge separation occurs due to the built-in field at the surface of the
semiconductor or through the photo-Dember effect.
The built-in surface field appears in semiconductors in which the Fermi level
at the surface is different to the Fermi level at the bulk material. The
transition from the Fermi level at the surface to the level at the bulk material
is called the depletion layer. This difference in Fermi level generates an
electric field that drives electrons towards the bulk material, therefore, the
electron density of the depletion layer is lower than the bulk material. When
a laser pulse illuminates the surface, it creates electron-hole pairs that are
accelerated by the built-in surface field as if they would in a biased PCA.

Laser spot matching gap size optimizes performance.

F IGURE 1.17

Surface emission can also occur in materials that do not show a built-in
surface field through Photo-Dember effect. When a laser beam hits the
surface, electron-holes pairs are generated and diffuse towards the bulk
material. Because electrons have a higher mobility than holes, they diffuse
faster, which causes a charge separation and a transient current is
generated. This transient current generates the THz emission.
In surface emission setups, the laser beam illuminates the emitter with an
angle different from normal so that the emitted THz radiation can be
separated from the laser beam easily. Furthermore, non-normal angles
increase emission intensity in case of built-in surface field materials. For this
type of emission, semiconductors with smaller electron masses are desirable
because they can generate rapid photocurrent rise and decay. Typical
materials include InAs, InP, and GaAs.

References
1. Zhang, X C, & Xu, J (2010). Introduction to THz wave photonics.
Springer, New York.
A precise adjustment of the PCA respect the focal point of the lens is very important to avoid damaging the PCA.

2. Sinyukov, A M, Leahy, M R, Hayden, M, Haller, M, Luo, J, Jen, A K-Y, &

Dalton, L R (2004). Resonance enhanced THz generation in electro-optic
polymers near the absorption maximum. Appl. Phys. Lett., 85(24),
5827-5829
18

3. Reimann, K, Smith, R P, Weiner, A M, Elsaesser, T, & Woerner, M

(2003). Direct field-resolved detection of terahertz transients with
amplitudes of megavolts per centimeter. Opt. Lett., 28(6), 471-473
4. Sinyukov, A M, & Hayden, L M (2002). Generation and detection of
terahertz radiation with multilayered electro-optic polymer films. Opt.
Lett., 27(1), 55-57
5. Zhao, G, Schouten, R N, Van-der-Valk, N, Wenckebach, W T, & Planken,
P C M (2002). Design and performance of a THz emission and detection
setup based on a semi-insulating GaAs emitter. Rev. Sci. Instrum., 73(4),
1715-1719

14. Heiliger, H M, Vosseburger, M, Roskos, H G, Kurz, H, Hey, R, & Ploog, K

(1996). Applications of liftoff low-temperature-grown GaAs on
transparent substrates for THz signal generation. Appl. Phys. Lett.,
69(19), 2903-2905
15. Rice, A, Jin, Y, Ma, X F, Zhang, X-C, Bliss, D, Larkin, J, & Alexander, M
(1994). Terahertz optical rectification from <110> zinc-blende crystals.
Appl. Phys. Lett., 64(11), pp.1324-1326
16. Zhang, X-C, & Auston, D H (1992). Optoelectronic measurement of
semiconductor surfaces and interfaces with femtoseconds optics. J. Appl.
Phys., 71(1), 326-338

6. Shimada, Y, Hirakawa, K, & Lee, S-W (2002). Time-resolved terahertz

emission spectroscopy of wide miniband GaAs/AlGaAs superlattices.
Appl. Phys. Lett., 81(9), 1642-1644

17. Zhang, X-C, Ma, X F, Jin, Y, Lu, T-M, Boden, E P, Phelps, P D, Stewart, K
R, & Yakymyshyn, C P (1992). Terahertz optical rectification from a
nonlinear organic crystal. Appl. Phys. Lett., 61(26), 3080-3082

7. Nakajima, M, Takahashi, M, & Hangyo, M (2002). Strong enhancement

of THz radiation intensity from semi-insulating GaAs surfaces at high
temperatures. Appl. Phys. Lett., 81(8), 1462-1464

18.Zhang, X-C, Jin, Y, Yang, K, & Schowalter, L J (1992). Resonant

nonlinear susceptibility near the GaAs band gap. Phys. Rev. Lett., 69(15),
2303-2310

8. Han, P Y, Tani, M, Pan, F, & Zhang, X-C (2000). Use of the organic
crystal DAST for terahertz beam applications. Opt. Lett., 25(9), 675-677

19. Darrow, J T, Zhang, Z-C, Auston, D H, & Morse, J D (1992). Saturation

properties of large-apertures photoconduction antennas. IEEE J.
Quantum Electron., 28(6), 1607-1616

9. Leitenstorfer, A, Hunsche, S, Shah, J, Nuss, M C, & Knox, W H (1999).

Detectors and sources for ultra broadband electro-optic sampling:
Experiment and theory. Appl. Phys. Lett., 74(11), 1516-1518
10.Leitenstorfer, A, Hunsche, S, Shah, J, Nuss, M C, & Knox, W H (1999).
Femtosecond high-field transport in compound semiconductor. Phys.
Rev. B, 61(24), 16642-16652
11. Tani, M, Matsuura, S, Sakai, K, & Nakashima, S (1997). Emission
characteristics of photoconductive antennas based on low-temperaturegrown GaAs and semi-insulating GaAs. Appl. Opt., 36(30), 7853-7859
12. Dekorsy, T, Auer, H, Bakker, H J, Roskos, H G, & Kurtz, H (1996). THz
electromagnetic emission by coherent infrared-active phonons. Phys.
Rev. B, 53(7), 4005-4014
13. Jaekel, C, Roskos, H G, & Kurz, H (1996). Emission of picosecond
electromagnetic pulses from optically excited superconducting bridges.
Phys. Rev. B, 54(10), 6889-6892

20.Planken, P C M, Nuss, M C, Brener, I, Goossen, K W, Luo, M S C,

Chuang, S L, & Pfeiffer, L (1992). Terahertz emission in single quatum
wells after coherent optical excitation of light hole and heavy hole
excitons. Phys. Rev. Lett., 69(26), 3800-3803
21. Darrow, J T, Zhang, X-C, & Auston, D H (1991). Power scaling of largeapertures photoconducting antennas. Appl. Phys. Lett., 58(1), 25-27
22.Zhang, X-C, Darrow, J T, Hu, B B, Auton, D H, Schmidt, M T, Tham, P, &
Yang, E S (1990). Optically induced electromagnetic radiation from
semiconductor surfaces. Appl. Phys. Lett., 56(22), 2228-2230
23.Exter, van M, Fattinger, C, & Grischkowsky, D (1989). High-brightness
terahertz beams characterized with an ultrafast detector. Appl. Phys.
Lett., 55(4), 337-339

19

24.Smith, P R, Auston, D H, & Nuss, M C (1988). Subpiconsecond

photoconducting dipole antennas. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 24(2),
255-260
25.Yang, K H, Richards, P L, & Shen, Y R (1971). Generation of far-infrared
radiation by picosecond light pulses in LiNbO3. Appl. Phys. Lett., 19(9),
320-323
26.Bass, M, Franken, P A, Ward, J F, & Weinreich, G (1962). Optical
rectification. Phys. Rev. Lett., 9(11), 446-448

20

S ECTION 5

Terahertz Detectors for TimeDomain Systems

Introduction
The emission mechanism explained in the previous section can be reversed
and used for the detection of THz pulses. The reverse mechanism for EO
rectification is EO sampling and the same PCAs structures can be used as
emitters as well as receivers. Other types of detector such as bolometers,
pyroelectric detectors, and Golay cells can also be used for detection.
However, these devices detect the average power of the THz pulse rather
than the electric field amplitude and, therefore, they cannot provide a
coherent measurement.

birefringence of the EO crystal can be measured by analyzing the

polarization properties of an optical probe beam going through the crystal.
The most common setup to measure the THz waveform with EO sampling is
with a balanced measurement approach (Figure 1.18). In this approach a
linearly polarized optical probe beam goes through a polarizer and then
travels through the EO crystal. A quarter wave plate (QWP) located after the
EO crystal changes the ellipticity of the probe beam and a Wollaston prism
separates the two perpendicular components of the elliptical polarization.
Each polarization intensity is detected by a photo-diode. The photo-diodes
are configured in differential mode so common laser noise is cancelled.
When no THz wave is illuminating the EO crystal, the ellipticity of the probe
beam can be set so that both polarizations are equal and, therefore, the net
current from the photo-diodes assembly is zero. When a THz wave
illuminates the EO crystal, the electric field associated with the THz wave

F IGURE 1.18

Electro-optical sampling
Electro-optical (EO) sampling is based on the Pockels effect, in which the
birefringence properties of a material are induced or modified by the
application of an electric field. The Pockels effect is a change in the refractive
index or birefringence that depends linearly with the electric field. However,
Pockels effect only appears in crystals that have no inversion symmetry, for
example, in zincblende crystals such as the ZnTe.
In the EO sampling method, the THz field is measured by the change it
causes on the birefringence properties of an EO crystal. Such changes in the

EO sampling schema.

21

changes the birefringence of the material and, thus, it changes the ellipticity
of the probe beam. This change in ellipticity breaks the balance between the
two polarization and, therefore, a net current is generated at the photodiodes assembly that is proportional to the amplitude of the electric field of
the THz wave. Autobalanced detectors based on EO sampling are
commercially available (Figure 1.19).
F IGURE 1.19

Where k is the phase mismatch between the optical group velocity ng and
the THz phase velocity n, f is the THz frequency, and is related to the
power absorption by

, where 0 is the free space wavelength. The

phase mismatch includes both the THz dispersion and absorption and it
goes to zero at very low frequencies. Copt is the spectrum of the optical pulse
autocorrelation and is the effect of the finite probe pulse width. This
expression for the filter function does not include effects due to focusing,
group velocity dispersion or the dispersion of the nonlinear tensor element.
According to these equations, the filter function goes to zero for large value
of k L, which increase with frequency, crystal thickness, THz absorption
and phase mismatch between the THz and probe pulses. Thick EO crystals
have larger sensitivity but with a trade-off of lower bandwidth.
Table 1.1 (extracted from reference 2)

Commercial auto-balanced EO detector from Zomega Terahertz Corporation

and noise characteristics as a function of the QWP orientation.

Crystal

ng
800/1060/1550
nm

r (pm/V)

CdTe

-/3.17/2.86

DAST(a)

n/ (cm-1)
0.5 THz

1 THz

2 THz

r41 = 4.5

3.20/0.58

3.22/2.51

3.32/14.33

3.39/2.55/2.25

r11/12 = 77/42

2.51/2.76

2.94/134.26

2.27/10.19

DAST(b)

1.98/1.73/1.64

r41 = 1.43

2.01/3.91

2.24/66.01

1.43/97.24

GaAs

4.18/3.93/3.54

r41 = 0.97

3.61/0.03

3.61/0.13

3.62/0.58

GaP

3.57/3.30/3.14

r41 = 0.97

3.34/0.82

3.34/0.04

3.35/0.16

ZnTe

3.24/2.96/2.81

r41 = 4.04

3.17/0.08

3.18/0.32

3.23/1.60

The strength of the EO sampling can be modeled by:

Where reo is the electro-optic coefficient, nopt is the optical index, L is the
thickness of the crystal and Feo is a filter function defined as:

A number of EO crystals are listed in Table 1.1. ZnTe is a popular choice

because it has a relatively high EO coefficient and good phase-matching with
Ti:sapphire and doubled Erbium lasers. However, it is limited to low THz
frequencies due to its phonon at 5.3 THz causing strong dispersion. GaP has
a much flatter dispersion curve, but a lower EO coefficient. GaP is better
suited for 1 micron probes, requiring thin crystals for 800 nm operation.
22

CdTe and GaAs are popular crystals for 1 micron and 1.5 micron probes
respectively. Other crystals such as GaSe and DAST are suitable for very high
frequencies, but have strong absorption around 1 THz.
Figure 1.20 plots the simulated response of two ZnTe crystals with different
thicknesses and a GaP crystal. We can see that the 0.3 mm thick GaP crystal
has a much broader bandwidth than the ZnTe crystals but the response is
lower. On the other hand, we can see that the 2 mm thick ZnTe crystal has a
similar bandwidth than the 0.3 mm thick ZnTe crystal but has a much
higher response.
F IGURE 1.20

Photoconductive antenna
The structure of a PCA as a detection device is very similar to the structure
of PCA for emission. Two metallic electrodes are coated on top of a
semiconductor substrate, which is often LT-GaAs. Using a PCA as a detector
involves measuring the photo-current generated by the probe beam across
the electrodes gap and biased by the THz electric field. This current is
collected by the electrodes and measured with an ammeter. If no electric
field is applied across the gap, photo-carriers created by the probe beam
diffuse randomly and do not generate any net current. However, when a THz
wave illuminates the gap, the electric field associated with THz wave
separates the electron hole pairs and a net current is generated. This
transient current is proportional to the applied THz electric field (Figure
1.21). Typically, the gap size for PCA designed for detection are much
narrower (~10 um) than PCA designed for emission (>50 um) because
narrower gaps require less electric field to bias the structure and generate a
measurable current.
The factors that affect the performance of a PCA as detector are similar to
the factors affecting the performance as emitter:
Semiconductor bandgap. The energy of laser photons need to be
energy higher than the bandgap of the semiconductor to generate
photo-carriers. Otherwise, THz emission is not possible.
Carrier lifetime. Semiconductors with short carrier lifetime are
desirable because they can measure short THz pulses and, thus,
broader THz spectra is possible.

Simulated EO response of 2 mm thick ZnTe, 0.3 mm thick ZnTe and 0.3 mm

thick GaP crystals.

Carrier mobility. High carrier mobility increases detection

sensitivity because a small field can generate high currents. Therefore,
semiconductors with higher carrier mobility are desirable.
Antenna gap. This refers to the distance between the electrodes. As
opposed to emission, PCAs for detection tend to have dipole
structures with narrow gaps. Larger dipoles have higher sensitivity
while smaller dipoles have larger bandwidth. However, alignment and
23

laser focusing are critical for an optical operation of the PCA because
gap sizes are the range of 10 um.
Similar to PCA for emission, preferred materials to build PCA for detection
are low temperature GaAs and GaP.
F IGURE 1.21

3. Kono, S, Tani, M, & Sakai, K (2002). Coherent detection of mid-infrared

radiation up to 60 THz with an LT-GaAs photoconductive antenna. IEEE
Proc. Optoelectron., 149(3), 105-109
4. Kono, S, Tani, M, & Sakai, K (2001). Ultra-broadband photoconductive
detection: Comparison with free-space electro-optic sampling. Appl.
Phys. Lett., 79(7), 898-900
5. Han, P Y, Tani, M, Pan, F, & Zhang, X-C (2000). Use of the organic
crystal DAST for terahertz beam applications. Opt. Lett., 25(9), 675-677
6. Leitenstorfer, A, Hunsche, S, Shah, J, Nuss, M C, & Knox, W H (1999).
Detectors and sources for ultra broadband electro-optic sampling:
Experiment and theory. Appl. Phys. Lett., 74(11), 1516-1518
7. Vossebrger, M, Brucherseifer, M, Cho, G C, Roskos, H G, & Kurz, H
(1998). Propagation effects in electro-optic sampling of terahertz pulses
in GaAs. Appl. Opt., 37(15), 3368-3371
8. Wu, Q, & Zhang, X C (1997). 7 terahertz broadband GaP electro-optic
sensor. Appl. Phys. Lett., 70(14), 1784-1786
9. Nahata, A, Weling, A S, & Heinz, T F (1996). A windeband coherent
terahertz spectroscopy system using optical rectification and electro-optic
sampling. Appl. Phys. Lett., 69(16), 2321-2323
10.Wu, Q, & Zhang, X C (1996). Ultrafast electro-optic field sensor. Appl.
Phys. Lett., 68(12), 1604-1606

Detection layout with a PCA.

References
1. Zhang, X C, & Xu, J (2010). Introduction to THz wave photonics.
Springer, New York.
2. Pradarutti, B, Matthus, G, Riehemann, S, Notni, G, Nolte, S, &
Tnnermann, A (2008). Highly efficient terahertz electro-optic sampling
by material optimization at 1060nm. Optics Communications, 281(19),
50315035

11. Wu, Q, & Zhang, X-C (1995). Free-space electro-optic sampling of

terahertz beams. Appl. Phys. Lett., 67(24), 3523-3525
12. Exter, van M, Fattinger, C, & Grischkowsky, D (1989). High-brightness
terahertz beams characterized with an ultrafast detector. Appl. Phys.
Lett., 55(4), 337-339
13. Auston, D H, & Smith, P R (1983). Generation and detection of
millimeter waves by picosecond photoconductivity. Appl. Phys. Lett.,
43(7), 631-633

24

S ECTION 6

Terahertz Wave Air Photonics

simplified description of the generation mechanism would be perturbative

four wave mixing, where:

with (3) being the third order nonlinear susceptibility of the gas. In this
mode, two fundamental photons of frequency are mixed with a second
harmonic photon of frequency 2 through the third order susceptibility of
the plasma. The mixing process results in a photon of frequency = 2-.

Introduction
In the past years, a new method of Terahertz (THz) wave generation and
detection has been developed using gases and plasmas as a nonlinear optical
medium. THz radiation generated from air plasma offers much broader
bandwidth than PCA or EO rectification because plasmas do not have
phonons and dispersion is very small. For instance, bandwidths from 0.2 to
30 THz have been demonstrated, covering the entire THz gap. Another
feature of the THz wave generation and detection with plasma is that there is
no breakdown field to worry about and, therefore, it is possible to generate
very high electric fields (>1 MV/cm focused). Finally, the setups
implemented for such generation and detection method do not need
reflective surfaces and, thus, the presence of echoes is eliminated, which
allows for very long scan length (high frequency resolution).

The exact physical mechanism of the THz radiation has been a matter of
some debate in the community. However, recent calculations indicate that it
likely a two step process of asymmetric ionization followed by collisions with
neighboring atoms. Among other features, this model explains the
experimentally observed intensity threshold of the emission. In other words,
a plasma has to be generated for THz emission to occur. This physical
requirement means that a powerful laser is necessary for this technique.

THz wave detection in plasma

Using incoherent techniques such as FTIR, it was verified that the
bandwidth of the generated THz was limited only by the laser pulse width.
Fortunately, the broadband generation process can be inverted to realize
broadband detection. Initially, THz was detected in a gas plasma via the THz
induced second harmonic generation. Here, in the language of four wave
mixing, two fundamental photons of frequency are coupled with a THz
photon of frequency to generate a second harmonic photon of frequency
2:

THz wave generation in plasma

Initial work on Terahertz gas photonics focused on using a gas plasma as a
THz emitter. Here, an intense ultrafast laser pulse with a center wavelength
of 800 nm is frequency doubled by a nonlinear crystal such as BBO. Both the
800 nm and 400 nm pulses are focused together and ionize some gas,
creating a filament of plasma and intense, broadband THz radiation. A

However, detectors for the second harmonic are only sensitive to the
intensity and not the electric field, thus:

25

This technique was broadband, but could not distinguish between THz
electric fields in opposite directions. With sufficiently high pulse energies, a
400 nm local oscillator could be generated within the plasma, allowing the
THz to be detected quasi-coherently. However, this technique placed strong
limits on both the probe and THz power.
A refinement of the induced second harmonic technique uses electrodes by
the detecting gas to directly provide a local oscillator. This heterodyne
technique is known as Air Biased Coherent Detection (ABCD) and is the
principle under which the ZAP detector module operates. Here, unlike the
generation process, the mechanism is accurately described by pertubative
four wave mixing. The second harmonic electric field follows the form of:

And the second harmonic intensity is described by:

Experimental setup
Figure 1.22 shows a diagram of a THz-ABCD setup. A Barium-Borate crystal
(BBO) produces the harmonic beam from the fundamental beam. Typically,
the fundamental beam wavelength is 800 nm and the harmonic is 400 nm.
Both beams create a plasma, generating the THz pulse. The optical pump
beams are blocked by a Si filter. The THz and probe pulses are focused
together in a gas which is biased by a high voltage modulator. The resulting
second harmonic (400 nm) light is detected by a photo-multiplier tube.
Typically, the high voltage is modulated at a frequency of the laser
repetition rate and the signal from the photo-multiplier tube is measured by
a lock-in amplifier referenced at this frequency. The minimum requirements
for a laser system to make a THz-ABCD system work is an amplified laser at
F IGURE 1.22

Where ELO is the electric field generated across the electrodes. If we

modulate the bias field, then, we can use a lock-in amplifier to isolate the
middle term:

ABCD has a number of important benefits. First, it is coherent and can

distinguish between THz electric fields of opposite sign. Second, the local
oscillator improves the sensitivity such that lower probe pulse energies can
be used. It is not necessary (and indeed is somewhat detrimental) to create a
plasma for detection. Third, it is ultra broadband. The limiting factors for
the bandwidth are the laser pulse width and the phase mismatch between
the fundamental and second harmonic beam. For air (or nitrogen) at
atmospheric pressure, the phase mismatch is not a concern.
THz wave ABCD setup schema.

26

800 nm with a pulse energy of 1 mJ, a pulse duration of 40 fs, and a

repetition rate between 1 and 15 kHz. Figure 1.23 shows a picture of THz
ABCD detection module, the ZAP-BDP, commercialized by Zomega
Terahertz. This module implements the detection part of the system in a
convenient and relatively easy to setup package.

F IGURE 1.23

2. Wang, T J, Yuan, S, Chen, Y, Daigle, J F, Marceau, C, Theberge, F,

Chateauneuf, M, Dubois, J, & Chin, S L (2010). Toward remote high
energy terahertz generation. Appl. Phys. Lett., 97, 111108
3. Thomson, M D, Blank, V, & Roskos, H G (2010). Terahertz white-light
pulses from an air plasma photo-induced by incommensurate two-color
optical fields. Opt. Exp., 18, 2317323182
4. Ho, I-C, Guo X Y, & Zhang, X-C (2010). Design and performance of
reflective terahertz air-biased-coherent-detection for time-domain
spectroscopy. Opt. Expr 18, 2872
5. Liu, J, Dai, J, Chin, S L, & Zhang, X-C (2010). Broadband terahertz wave
remote sensing using coherent manipulation of fluorescence from
asymmetrically ionized gases. Nature Photon., 4, 627631
6. Liu, J, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Terahertz-radiation-enhanced emission of
fluorescence from gas plasma. Phys. Rev. Lett., 103, 235002
7. Karpowicz, N, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Coherent terahertz echo of tunnel
ionization in gases. Phys. Rev. Lett., 102, 093001
8. Wen, H, & Lindenberg, A M (2009). Coherent terahertz polarization
control through manipulation of electron trajectories. Phys. Rev. Lett.,
103, 23902
9. Dai, J, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Terahertz wave generation from gas plasma
using a phase compensator with attosecond phase-control accuracy.
Appl. Phys. Lett., 94, 021117

THz ABCD detection module commercialized by Zomega, the ZAP-BDP.

References
1. Dai, J, Liu, J, & Zhang, X-C (2011). Terahertz wave air photonics:
Terahertz wave generation and detection with laser-induced gas plasma.
IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum Electron. 17, 183190

10.Dai, J, Karpowicz, N, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Coherent polarization control

of terahertz waves generated from two-color laser-induced gas plasma.
Phys. Rev. Lett., 103, 23001
11. Karpowicz, N, Lu X, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Terahertz gas photonics. J.
Modern Optics 56, 1137
12. Kim, K Y, Taylor, A J, Glownia, J H, & Rodriguez, G (2008). Coherent
control of terahertz super continuum generation in ultrafast laser-gas
interactions. Nature Photon., 2, 605609
13. Lu, X, Karpowicz, N, Chen, Y, & Zhang, X-C (2008). Systematic study of
broadband terahertz gas sensor. Appl. Phys. Lett., 93, 261106
27

14. Karpowicz, N, Dai, J, Lu, X, Chen, Y, Yamaguchi, M, Zhao, H, Zhang, XC, Zhang, L, Zhang, C, Price-Gallagher, M, Fletcher, C, Mamer, O,
Lesimple, A, & Johnson, K (2008). Coherent heterodyne time-domain
spectrometry covering the entire terahertz gap. Appl. Phys. Lett., 92,
011131
15. Houard, A, Liu, Y, Prade, B, Tikhonchuk, V T, & Mysyrowicz, A (2008).
Strong enhancement of terahertz radiation from laser filaments in air by
a static electric field. Phys. Rev. Lett., 100, 255006
16. Liu, Y, Houard, A, Prade, B, Akturk, S, & Mysyrowicz, A (2007).
Terahertz radiation source in air based on bifilamentation of
femtosecond laser pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett., 99, 135002

25.Meyer, S, Eichmann, H, Menzel, T, Nolte, S, & Wellegehausen, B (1996).

Phase-matched high-order difference-frequency mixing in plasmas. Phys.
Rev. Lett., 76, 3336-3339
26.Hamster, H, Sullivan, A, Gordon, S, White, W, & Falcone, R W (1993).
Sub-picosecond, electromagnetic pulses from intense laser-plasma
interaction. Phys. Rev. Lett., 71, 27252728
27.Radziemski, L J, Loree, T R, Cremers, D A, & Hoffman, N M (1983).
Time-resolved laser-induced breakdown spectrometry of aerosols.
Analyt. Chem., 55, 12461252

17. Shen, Y, Watanabe, T, Arena, D A, Kao, C-C, Murphy, J B, Tsang, T Y,

Wang, X J, & Carr, G L (2007). Nonlinear cross-phase modulation with
intense single-cycle terahertz pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett., 99, 43901
18.Thberge, F, Akozbek, N, Liu, W, Becker, A, & Chin, S L (2006). Tunable
ultrashort laser pulses generated through filamentation in gases. Phys.
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generation in ambient air. Phys. Rev. Lett., 96, 75005.
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waves with a laser-induced plasma in gases. Phys. Rev. Lett., 97, 103903
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Generation of single-cycle THz transients with high electric-field
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6769

28

C HAPTER 2

Spectroscopy
Applications with
Terahertz Waves
Zomega Terahertz Corporation

Technical Overview
Edition: June 2012
(c) 2012 Zomega Terahertz Corporation. All rights reserved.
The information contained in this ebook is for general information purposes only. The information is
provided by Zomega Terahertz Corp. and while we pursue to keep the information up to date and
correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the
completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the ebook or the
information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the ebook for any purpose. Any
reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk. In no event we will be
liable for any loss or damage including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage, or
any loss or damage whatsoever arising from loss of data or profits arising out of, or in connection
with, the use of this ebook.
We would like to receive your feedback! Please, send your comments and suggestions to
books@z-thz.com

S ECTION 1

Terahertz Wave Time-Domain

Spectroscopy

Introduction
THz time-domain spectroscopy (or THz TDS) is the most widely used
technique to characterize the spectral properties of materials in the THz
band. In particular, most materials, especially organic ones, have their
vibration and rotational modes in the THz band. Therefore, THz TDS is
poised as a suitable technique to study such modes and get an
understanding of molecular structure and dynamics. Alternative methods
include Raman spectroscopy and Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR). Raman spectroscopy uses a laser source to excite the sample. The
inelastic scattering of the light is collected and analyzed with an optical
spectrometer. The inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, causes a shift of
the excitation frequency from the laser that can be associated with particular
vibrational and rotational modes of the sample. FTIR is the technique used
to obtain the spectroscopic information of materials in the infrared band. In
an FTIR, a broadband source illuminates the sample. The light returning
from the sample is mixed with a reference beam in an interferometer
(typically a Michelson interferometer). The interferometer pattern, or
interferogram, obtained by moving one of the arms is used to compute the
spectral properties of the sample in the frequency band of the source, which
needs to be broadband and cover the frequency range of interest.

One of the main differences between FTIR and Raman with respect THz
TDS is that both Raman and FTIR measure energy whereas THz TDS
measures electric field. That makes THz TDS a coherent detection technique
that allows recovering both phase and amplitude data. This coherence allows
measuring the real and imaginary part of the dielectric constant of a
material in the THz band directly. On the other hand, FTIR and Raman
require the use of models and indirect computation, such as the Kramers
Kronig, to retrieve the complex dielectric constant. Summarizing, the main
features of THz TDS as spectroscopy tool are:
Fingerprint. The rotational and vibrational modes of many
molecules, especially organic ones, are distributed across the THz
band. These modes can be observed as absorption peaks in the THz
spectra. The specific location and amplitude of these absorption peaks
can be used to identify the molecules.
See-through. Many dry and non metallic materials, such as plastic,
paper, cardboard, and textiles are transparent to THz waves. This
property allows THz waves inspecting samples that are under cover or
inside non-optically transparent containers. Microwaves have this
see-through capability as well but their larger wavelength compared to
THz waves does not allow achieving high resolution images. Infrared
can provide much better resolution than THz but infrared waves
cannot see through covers.
Coherence. THz TDS measures electric field and phase and
amplitude are readily available. The phase and amplitude can be used
to measure the dielectric constant of a material in a more
straightforward manner than with FTIR or Raman.
The application that has driven most of the technological development of
TDS systems and spectrometers in the recent years has been security and
explosive and related compounds (ERCs) detection. Early spectroscopic
measurements showed that most explosives had unique fingerprints in the
THz band that could be used to identify them. Furthermore, those
fingerprints were measurable even with covers such as plastic, cloths, paper,
and cardboard. Therefore, THz TDS had the potential to be used in
30

applications such as mail inspection and suicide bomber. Development for

these security applications has greatly improved the integration and user
friendliness of THz spectrometers and current TDS spectrometers can be
applied to other applications in the pharmaceutical and food safety
industries.

Material characterization
The basic application for THz TDS is the characterization of materials in
either reflection or transmission geometries. The goal of this
characterization is to extract the optical constants of the material, which
can be related with the complex dielectric constant. The optical constants
are the index of refraction (n) and absorption coefficient (). In a
transmission geometry, the two parameters can be calculated as:

Where d is the thickness of the material, f is the frequency, c is the speed of

light, sample is the phase data of the sample (extracted from the Fourier
Transform of the temporal waveform), reference is the phase data of the
reference, Asample is the amplitude data of the sample, Areference is the
amplitude data of the reference. Because the THz waveform is a
measurement of the electric field of the THz wave, the absorption coefficient
refers to the attenuation in electric field, which is half of the absorption
coefficient in energy. The factor multiplying the reference amplitude in the
denominator for the absorption coefficient considers the Fresnel losses due
to refractive index mismatch between the material and the reference
measurement, which is typically done in air. If the sample has a low
refractive index, the Fresnel loss factor can be omitted.

Typical values for the refractive index of plastics in the THz range is in the
range between 1.3 to 2. For ceramics, typical values are between 2 and 3. For
semiconductors, refractive index values are often above 3. For example, the
refractive index for high density polyethylene is 1.54, for TPX is around 1.3,
and for silicon is 3.4. Absorption coefficient typically increases with
frequency in plastic and ceramic materials due to scattering as the grain size
and trapped air pockets have a typical size (~100 um) that matches the
wavelength of the frequencies in the higher part of the THz band. Table 2.1
shows the refractive index and absorption coefficient of commonly used
materials in the THz range at 1 THz.
Table 2.1
Material

Refractive index @ 1 THz

Absorption (cm-1) @ 1 THz

Saphire

3.096

1.9

LaAlO3

4.98

HDPE

1.534

0.45

LiNbO3

5.156

16

PTFE

1.431

0.2

SiO2

1.957

3.3

Quartz

2.109

0.15

BK7

2.593

50

GaAs

3.55

<1

Si (regular)

3.416

0.3

Si (high resistivity)

3.413

0.3

FZ Si (high resistivity)

3.4175

0.3

InP:Ir

3.509

<5

ZnSe

3.021

GeBi

4.042

5.9

Explosive identification
THz TDS offers a non-contact, real-time detection of ERCs at standoff
distances of few centimeters. THz wave offers several advantages over other
31

identification techniques. THz waves can penetrate cloth, plastic, paper and
other non-metallic and dry materials and, thus, provide the possibility to
identify the explosives behind non-optically transparent covers. The
identification can be performed either in transmission and reflection
geometry. For a real application, reflection geometry is the most realistic
approach.
Explosives such as TNT, RDX, HMX, PETN, tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-nmethylnitramine), 2-amino-4,6-DNT (2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene), 4amino-2,6- DNT, 4-nitrotoluene, 1,3,5-TNB (1,3,5-trinitrobenzene), 1,3-DNB
(1,3-dinitrobenzene), 1,4-DNB, 2,4-DNT, 2,6-DNT, 3,5- dinitro aniline, and
2-nitro diphenyl anine can be identified with THz wave spectroscopy. Figure

F IGURE 2.1

Explosive and related compounds fingerprints in the THz range up to 3 THz.

2.1 shows the spectra of some of the explosives in which we can see that each
ERC has a distinct spectral profile. However, not all ERCs show absorption
features in the THz band. The position and relative amplitude of the peaks
can be used to identify a particular ERC.
One of the major issues for the application of THz TDS for standoff distance
is water vapor absorption, which reduces the available standoff distance
significantly. Figure 2.2 shows water vapor absorption lines in the THz
band. These absorption lines introduce features in the spectra that introduce
distortion in the THz spectra and make the identification process more
challenging, especially for those materials that have a resonance nearby a
water line. However, the effect of water lines is manageable for standoff

F IGURE 2.2

Water vapor absorption lines in the THz window up to 2 THz.

32

F IGURE 2.3

waves from 0.1 to 2 THz with a waveform acquisition rate of 500 Hz and a
time delay >100 ps. Battery operation lasts up to 4 hours.

Pharmaceuticals and other organic molecules

THz TDS has been applied in the pharmaceutical industry for drug analysis
and discovery, and coating thickness measurements. In particular, THz TDS
has been used to study polymorphisms and chiral symmetry in drug
compounds. Different polymorphs and chiral symmetry have an impact on
the effectivity and toxicity of a drug. THz TDS has also been used to study
phase transitions between different molecular configurations as a function
of temperature and humidity (hydration). For example, sulfamethoxazole
(SMZ) is a compound used to treat bacterial infections that interacts with
caffeine and may cause side effects in certain patient. The bonding of SMZ
with caffeine can be studied with THz TDS by analyzing the evolution of the
absorption peaks in time. Figure 2.4 shows an example of studying the
hydration and dehydration of D-glucose with THz wave spectroscopy.

F IGURE 2.4

Zomegas Micro-Z handheld THz time-domain spectrometer

distances of few tens of centimeters or less than a meter. Indeed,

applications for mail inspection and powder identification have been
demonstrated.Figure 2.3 show Zomegas Micro-Z THz TDS spectrometer.
The Micro-Z is the first handheld, real-time operation, and completely
integrated THz TDS spectrometer in the world specifically designed for the
identification of ERCs in the open field. The Micro-Z is a self-contained unit
designed to be a handheld turnkey and highly compact system that can be
carried to the sample. The Micro-Z has a form factor comparable to a
cordless and it is configured to work in normal incidence reflection in a
point-and-shoot fashion. The Micro-Z produces and measures pulsed THz

Chemical reaction dynamics can be studied with THz TDS.

33

Depending on the temperature, we can see that the speed of the hydration
changes. It is also possible to do spectral imaging, in which each pixel
contains the spectroscopic information of that location. Figure 2.5 shows an
example identifying three pellets corresponding to different compounds.
From an industrial perspective, THz TDS could be used to identify and
classify pills based on the drug compound they contain. This capability could
be used to discard those pills that do not meet certain quality standards
because they do not have the proper compounds or do not have the
compound in the right amount or concentration.

F IGURE 2.5

Spectral imaging. Each pixel contains the spectral information of the sample,
which allows identify the position of a particular compound.

contaminants and hazardous compounds such antibiotics or pesticides. For

instance, a recent application has been studied for the detection and
identification of antibiotics in highly scattering dry food matrices. Several
antibiotics commonly use in veterinary field were found to have absorption
features in the THz range. These features could be used to detect the
presence of such antibiotics in dry food for chicken stock. Eventually, the
identification of the antibiotics residues may be performed in chicken
derived dry products to ensure that concentration is below the levels
established by governmental entities such as the FDA. Figure 2.6 shows the
main results of the described research work.
F IGURE 2.6

The presence of antibiotics could be determined looking at the characteristic

absorption peaks.

Applications in food safety

Outlook

Food safety is another sector that will benefit from the progress of THz TDS
technology. Because THz waves can penetrate plastic and paper, THz TDS
has the potential to analyze food that is already packaged in search of

To summarize the potential and benefits of THz TDS, table 2.2 shows the
strengths and weaknesses of THz TDS and its closest alternatives, for
instance, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy. The most important strengths of
34

THz TDS systems versus FTIR or Raman are that THz TDS can interrogate
samples under cover, operate in room temperature (FTIR usually requires
cryogenic temperature to achieve high sensitivities), and provide data in
real-time. On the other hand, standard TDS systems offer less bandwidth
and less frequency resolution than FTIR and Raman systems. For instance,
FTIR bandwidth can cover 100 THz or more. However, bandwidth is
excellent in TDS system based on recently developed TDS ABCD method, in
which bandwidth can go beyond 20 THz.
One of the major challenges for THz TDS is to increase the sensitivity so
smaller detection thresholds are possible. This is especially important in
applications that require detecting the concentration of substances in parts
per million (ppm). As of today, THz technology is still far from such
sensitivity.
Table 2.2
Technique

FTIR

Raman

TDS

Strengths
High frequency resolution
(~1cm-1)
High sensitivity
Broadband (up to 100 THz)

Weaknesses
Cannot interrogate targets under
cover
No coherent detection
Need cryogenic conditions for high
sensitivity
No real-time data rate

High frequency resolution

(~1cm-1)
Room temperature operation
High sensitivity
High selectivity

Cannot interrogate targets under

cover
No coherent detection

Can interrogate targets under

cover
Room temperature operation
Coherent detection (amplitude
and phase data)
High selectivity
Real-time data rate

Lower frequency resolution than

FTIR (~10cm-1)
Narrower bandwidth than FTIR (up to
5 THz with standard TDS; up to 20
THz with TDS ABCD system)

Table 2.3 shows current measurements of minimum detectable amounts of

some sample materials. Current minimum detectable amount are int the
range of few micrograms per cm2. However, this levels may be reduced as

the technology progresses and higher sensitivity detectors and techniques

will be developed.
Table 2.3
Sample

Peak Position

SNR (dB)

-Lactose

0.54 THz

2HBP

Minimum Detectable
Absorbance

g/cm2

38.06

0.0765

97.1

0.69 THz

37.50

0.0817

25.8

RDX

0.82 THz

37.14

0.0852

24.5

2.4 DNT

1.09 THz

34.15

0.1213

35.2

L-Glutamic Acid

1.23 THz

32.04

0.1559

114

4HBAL

1.54 THz

24.08

0.4154

383

References
1. Redo-Sanchez, A, Salvatella, G, Galceran, R, Rolds, E, Garca-Reguero, J-A,
Castellari, M, & Tejada, J (2011). Assessment of terahertz spectroscopy to
detect antibiotic residues in food and feed matrices. The Analyst, 136(8), 1733
1738
2. Zhang, C, Zhong, H, & Zhang, L (2009). A phase extraction technique for
terahertz reflection spectroscopy. In Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 7158, pp.
71580Q71580Q14
3. Zhang, L, Zhong, H, Deng, C, Zhang, X-C, & Zhao, Y (2008). Terahertz wave
reference-free phase imaging for identification of explosives. Applied Physics
Letters, 92, 091117
4. Redo-Sanchez, A, & Zhang, X-C (2008). Terahertz science and technology
trends. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 14(2), 260
269
5. Jepsen, P U, Mller, U, & Merbold, H (2007). Investigation of aqueous alcohol
and sugar solutions with reflection terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. Optics
Express, 15(22), 1471714737
6. Zeitler, J A, Shen, Y, Baker, C, Taday, P F, Pepper, M, & Rades, T (2007).
Analysis of coating structures and interfaces in solid oral dosage forms by three
dimensional terahertz pulsed imaging. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
96(2), 330340

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7. Gan, F, Ruan, G, & Mo, J (2006). Baseline correction by improved iterative

polynomial fitting with automatic threshold. Chemometrics and Intelligent
Laboratory Systems, 82(1-2), 5965
8. Zhong, H, Redo-Sanchez, A, & Zhang, X-C (2006). Identification and
classification of chemicals using terahertz reflective spectroscopic focal-plane
imaging system. Optics Express, 14(20), 91309141
9. Shen, Y C, Lo, T, Taday, P F, Cole, B E, Tribe, W R, & Kemp, M C (2005).
Detection and identification of explosives using terahertz pulsed spectroscopic
imaging. Appl. Phys. Lett., 86, 241116
10. Chen, Y, Liu, H, Deng, Y, Veksler, D, Shur, M, Zhang, X-C, Schauki, D, Fitch, M
J, & Osiander, R (2004). Spectroscopic characterization of explosives in the far
infrared region. Proc. SPIE, 5411, 1-8
11. Yamamoto, K, Yamaguchi, M, Miyamaru, F, Tani, M, Hangyo, M, Ikeda, T,
Matsushita, A, Koide, K, Tatsuno, M, & Minami, Y (2004). Noninvasive
inspection of C-4 explosive in mails by terahertz time-domain spectroscopy.
Jpn. J. of Appl. Phys., 43, L414-417
12. Taday, P F (2004). Applications of terahertz spectroscopy to pharmaceutical
sciences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical
Physical and Engineering Sciences, 362, 351364
13. Strachan, C J, Rades, T, Newnham, D A, Gordon, K C, Pepper, M, & Taday, P F
(2004). Using terahertz pulsed spectroscopy to study crystallinity of
pharmaceutical materials. Chemical Physics Letters, 390(1-3), 2024
14. Kemp, M C, Taday, P F, Cole, B E, Cluff, J A, Fitzgerald, A J, & Tribe, W R
(2003). Security applications of terahertz technology. Proc. SPIE, 5070, 44-52
15. Fayer, M D (2001). Ultrafast infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Marcel Dekker
Inc, NY, Basel
16. Koch, A, & Weber, J-V (1998). Baseline Correction of Spectra in Fourier
Transform Infrared: Interactive Drawing with Bezier Curves. Applied
Spectroscopy, 52(7)
17. Grischkowsky, D, Keiding, S R, van-Exter, M P, & Fattinger, C (1990). Farinfrared time-domain spectroscopy with terahertz beams of dielectrics and
semiconductors. J. Opt. Society Am. B, 7(10), 2006-2015
18. Fadini, A. & Schnepel, F M (1989). Vibrational spectroscopy methods and
applications. John Wiley, New York

36

C HAPTER 3

Imaging
Applications with
Terahertz Waves
Zomega Terahertz Corporation

Technical Overview
Edition: June 2012
(c) 2012 Zomega Terahertz Corporation. All rights reserved.
The information contained in this ebook is for general information purposes only. The information is
provided by Zomega Terahertz Corp. and while we pursue to keep the information up to date and
correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the
completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the ebook or the
information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the ebook for any purpose. Any
reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk. In no event we will be
liable for any loss or damage including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage, or
any loss or damage whatsoever arising from loss of data or profits arising out of, or in connection
with, the use of this ebook.
We would like to receive your feedback! Please, send your comments and suggestions to
books@z-thz.com

S ECTION 1

Teraherz Wave Imaging and

Non-Destructive Evaluation

capable of providing higher spatial resolutions but they cannot see

through covers.
Resolution. The wavelength of THz waves is in the range of mm to
tens of microns, therefore, THz images of macroscopic objects provide
detailed and localized data in the order of mm. On the other hand,
microwave systems have similar see-through capability but they
cannot provide good spatial resolution because of its larger
wavelength.
Spectral imaging. If imaging is achieved with a pulsed system, each
pixel will contain spectral information that could be used to
characterize and identify the material being imaged. Therefore, not
only structural information can be extracted from the image but also
chemical information.

Introduction
THz waves can be used for imaging applications and non-destructive
evaluation (NDE). Because of its proximity with the infrared, optical
approaches can be adapted to design and build THz imaging system. For
instance, lenses and mirrors can be used to guide, focus, and collimate a THz
beam. Paraxial optics equations can be adapted to design THz system to a
first order. However, diffraction, size of the source, and mode characteristics
of the beam need to be considered in some cases because of the larger
wavelength of THz compared to the size of the optical elements. On the
other hand, a large wavelength reduces the tolerance requirements for lens
fabrication, surface roughness, and alignment. Examples of applications can
be found in corrosion inspection, crack and voids detection in ceramic and
foam materials, and thickness measurements.
As an imaging tool, the main features that make THz imaging attractive can
be summarized in:
See-through. Dry and non-metallic materials such as plastic, paper,
cardboard, and textiles are transparent to THz waves, which enables
the inspection of samples that are under cover. Infrared systems are

Safety. THz photons are non-ionizing and, therefore, do not

represent a health hazards as X-rays do.
Imaging can be realized with both CW or pulsed systems. In general,
imaging systems implementing CW transceivers are less complex to design
and they are capable of faster imaging rates than systems implementing a
pulsed approach. However, this situation may change in the future as the
technology of pulsed and TDS system advances. In addition, TDS systems
have the capability of obtaining spectral or depth information for each pixel.
Because CW systems are single frequency and coherent, they tend to suffer
from interference or standing waves caused by the different reflections of the
THz beam with the optical elements of the systems (lenses, beam splitter,
mirrors, etc.). This interference affects the resulting images by introducing
fringes that can hide the defects or other structural features. However, the
effects of such interference can be mitigated by minimizing the number of
optical elements, adjusting its geometry to avoid back reflections, and the
use of absorbing materials to eliminate internal reflections. On the other
hand, pulsed system are minimally affected by the presence of interference
because of its pulsed and broadband nature.

38

The broadband nature of pulsed THz system has to be considered when

specifying the spatial resolution of the system because spatial resolution will
depend on the frequency. Figure 3.1 shows the same THz image at different
frequencies. We can see that resolution at a low frequency (0.3 THz) is
worse than at a higher frequency (1 THz) because wavelength at 0.3 THz is 1
mm while wavelength at 1 THz is 300 um.
F IGURE 3.1

the spectrum (Figure 3.1). This mode is suitable to identify and locate
certain material within an image.
The other imaging mode is achieved by measuring the position and
amplitude of the echoes of the main pulse reflected by the structure of the
sample. This imaging mode is very similar to the images obtained with
ultrasound systems, which is also known as a B-scan (Figure 3.2) or time of
flight analysis. The B-scan mode is often conducted in reflection geometry
and provides depth information of defects or structures within a sample.
This is an imaging mode particularly suited for samples with a layered
structure. This mode can also be used to measure layer or coating
thicknesses. The B-scan imaging mode is not compatible with the spectral
imaging. Therefore, the imaging mode must be decided beforehand in order
to perform the proper data processing and analysis.

F IGURE 3.2

Spatial resolution in a pulsed system depends on the frequency. In the diffraction limited case, frequency determines resolution.

Modes of operation: spectral and B-scan

Time-domain systems can be operated in two modes of imaging due to its
pulsed nature. The first one is the spectral imaging in which the each pixel
contains the spectral information of that point by computing the Fourier
Transform of the acquired waveform (either in transmission or reflection
geometry). Then an image can be obtained for each frequency component of

B-scan imaging mode. The position of the reflected THz pulses provides information about layered structure and position of defects.

39

Figure 3.3 shows an example of a B-scan of a sample made of different layers

of paper and Chinese paints. The layered structure can be clearly seen on the
B-scan profile. The images of different layers can be obtained by plotting the
amplitude of the waveform of each pixel at a particular depth (Figure 3.4).

F IGURE 3.3

Security

The different layers can be seen on the B-scan profile.

F IGURE 3.4

The development of THz wave imaging systems in the past years has been
largely driven by security applications. In particular, THz wave imaging
systems have been developed to be used as body scanners in checkpoints at
airports because of its see-through capability and good resolution.
Furthermore, THz photons are non-ionizing and, thus, represent minimal
harm to biological tissue and human operators as opposed to using X-rays.
Both passive and active approaches are possible. The passive approach is
based on the black body emission of a human body, which is mostly in the
infrared range but has a tail in the THz band. Because low THz frequencies
(~0.1 THz or 100 GHz) can travel through clothing and other dielectric dry
covers, it is possible to use that emission to detect suspicious or potentially
hazardous objects hidden underneath the cloth. Any object different from
clothing will block the natural emission of the body in the THz range and,
therefore, provide the mechanism to detect it. Likewise, an active imaging
system in the THz range can be designed to illuminate the target and
measure the reflection. Any reflection different from typical reflection of the
body and clothing could be used to determine the presence of a suspicious
object. This is the basic foundation of some of the full body scanners being
deployed for testing at selected airports in the U.S.

Non-destructive evaluation

Images at different depths.

Because of its see-through capability, THz wave imaging has a lot of

potential as a NDE tool. As of today, almost all THz imaging systems are
single pixel, which requires raster scanning approaches to generate the
images. Raster scanning requires to move the sample or move the system
across the imaging area, which is translated in imaging rates far from realtime. For example, the typical time necessary for acquiring an image is in the
40

range of few minutes. This difficulty to achieve real-time imaging rates is

currently the major limiting factor for the application of THz imaging in
industrial applications. However, proof of concept applications in NDE with
THz wave imaging have been demonstrated.

F IGURE 3.6

One of the first application examples of THz as NDE tool was the inspection
of the insulation panel of the external tank of the Space Shuttle. After the
Columbia tragedy in 2003 caused by the detachment of an insulation panel
that hit the wing and destroyed part of the thermal shield, NASA studied
which technologies could be used to inspect the panels and avoid future
detachments and accidents. THz wave imaging turned out to be one of the
best techniques. The insulation foam was an excellent material for THz
imaging because it had a low absorption coefficient and low index of
refraction (n~1.1). Figure 3.5 shows a THz image of a test panel. The image
F IGURE 3.5

Inspection of corrosion of metal pipes under insulation.

F IGURE 3.7

THz image of a Space Shuttle insulation foam. The frequency is 0.2 THz and a
CW system was used to acquire the image, which required 20 minutes to complete.

Defects in airbag cloths samples. THz images were taken with a pulsed system.

41

shows defects such as voids as small as 0.25 and natural defects such
rollovers. The panel was 2x2 feet and the image took 20 minutes to complete
with a step size of 1 mm. The THz frequency was 0.2 THz and a CW system
was used. Three systems were developed capable to inspect foam samples
with thicknesses up to 6.
Another interesting application is the detection of corrosion in pipes under
insulation (Figure 3.7). The pipes were machined with pits of varying
diameter and depth to simulate corrosion pits. The pits were filled with wet
rust flakes to simulate wet corrosion, and with dry rust flakes to simulate dry
corrosion. Using a 0.2 THz CW system, it was possible to see a difference
between a non-corroded spots and wet and dry simulated corrosion spots
under different insulation materials. While certain materials exhibited
strong THz absorption and scattering, two common insulating materials
(mineral wool and urethane) were transparent enough to allow the
identification of all defects, providing the ability to differentiate between
dry, wet and rust filled spots of 1/8 in diameter. Therefore, THz wave
imaging has the potential to be used for the examination of corrosion in
metal pipes under 2 thick mineral wool and urethane insulation without
removing the covering material.
Figure 3.6 shows an imaging application tested with a pulsed system. In this
application, the seams of two airbag cloth pieces are inspected for defects.
Defects include missing and broken threats, and cuts of the cloth. Some of
the defects are visible while others are not visible to the eye. The images
were taken with a THz pulsed system. The frequency of the THz image was
be selected so that the frequency of the THz wave is high enough to match
the size of the defects that we want to detect. In this particular case,
frequencies between 0.4 and 0.6 THz were appropriate. An added benefit of
using a pulsed system in this applications is the possibility to count the
number of layers. This can be done by measuring the temporal shift and
change in amplitude of the TH pulse.

Outlook
When comparing THz wave imaging with other alternative and competing
technologies, THz wave imaging has some unique features that makes it very
interesting for many applications. For instance, main competing
technologies include microwave, infrared, and X-ray. Table 3.1 summarizes
the main strengths and weaknesses of THz wave imaging compared to
alternative technologies.
Table 3.1
Technique

Microwave

Infrared

X-Ray

Terahertz

Strengths
Non-hazardous
High sensitive detectors
Good penetration depth

Non-hazardous
Good spatial/imaging resolution
High sensitive array devices
Fast imaging acquisition rates

Weaknesses
Low spatial/imaging resolution
Metals/water block radiation
No spectroscopic imaging
Low penetration depth
Thermal noise affects images and
introduces artifacts (reduces
performance)
No spectroscopic imaging

Highest penetration depth

Excellent spatial/imaging
resolution
High sensitive and selective
devices
Fast imaging acquisition rates

Hazardous for human operators

Strict maintenance and operation
policies
No spectroscopic imaging

Low imaging acquisition rates (no

array devices yet available)
Less sensitive system than
alternatives
Metal/water blocks radiation

Non-hazardous
Good penetration depth
Good spatial/imaging resolution
Spectral imaging available

Microwave waves offer similar see-through capability as THz but their larger
wavelength (~3 to ~30 cm) do not allow resolving small details in
macroscopic samples. Infrared waves have an excellent spatial resolution
but they cannot go through covers and, thus, see-through capability is not
possible. However, THz waves cannot go through metals or water, which
limits the application of THz wave imaging to dry and non metalic materials.
Finally, X-rays offer the highest resolution and penetration capabilities but
they are potentially dangerous and hazardous for both the operator and the
target under inspection if the target is a living body or biological tissue.
42

Finally, as stated previously, the major limiting factor for the deployment of
THz systems in manufacturing environments is the low image acquisition
rate. The development of optical scanners specifically designed to work with
THz systems and the development of more integrated detector devices will
increase the imaging rate and close the gap between current THz imaging
systems performance and application requirements in manufacturing and
quality control in production lines.

References
1. Friederich, F, Spiegel, W, Bauer, M, Meng, F, Thomson, M D, Boppel, S,
Lisauskas, A, et al. (2011). THz Active Imaging Systems With Real-Time
Capabilities. IEEE Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology, 1(1),
183200
2. Cooper, K B, Dengler, R J, Llombart, N, Thomas, B, Chattopadhyay, G, &
Siegel, P H (2011). THz Imaging Radar for Standoff Personnel Screening. IEEE
Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology, 1(1), 169182
3. Jansen, C, Wietzke, S, Peters, O, Scheller, M, Vieweg, N, Salhi, M, Krumbholz,
N, et al. (2010). Terahertz imaging: applications and perspectives. Applied
Optics, 49(19), E4857
4. Fukunaga, K, & Hosako, I (2010). Innovative non-invasive analysis techniques
for cultural heritage using terahertz technology. Comptes Rendus Physique,
11(7-8), 519526

9. Lffler, T, Siebert, K J, Hasegawa, N, Hahn, T, & Roskos, H G (2007). AllOptoelectronic Terahertz Imaging Systems and Examples of their Applications.
In Proceedings of the IEEE (Vol. 95, pp. 15761582)
10. Dougherty, J P, Jubic, G D, & Kiser, W L (2007). Terahertz imaging of burned
tissue. In Proceedings of SPIE (Vol. 6472, pp. 64720N19)
11. Redo-Sanchez, A, Karpowicz, N, & Xu, J (2006). Damage and defect inspection
with terahertz waves. In The 4th International Workshop on Ultrasonic and
Advanced Methods for Nondestructive Testing and Material Characterization
(pp. 6778) Dartmouth, MA.
12. Siegel, P H, & Dengler, R J (2006). Terahertz heterodyne imaging Part I:
Introduction and techniques. International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter
Waves, 27(4), 465480
13. Siegel, P H, & Dengler, R J (2006). Terahertz heterodyne imaging part II:
instruments. International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 27(5),
631655
14. Karpowicz, N, Zhong, H, Zhang, C, Lin, K, Hwang, J S, Xu, J, & Zhang, X-C
(2005). Compact continuous-wave sub-Terahertz system for inspection
applications. Appl. Phys. Lett., 86, 054105
15. Lee, A W M, & Hu, Q (2005). Real-time, continuous-wave terahertz imaging by
use of a micro-bolometer focal plane array. Opt. Lett., 30(19), 2563-2565
16. Xu, J, Zhong, H, Yuan, T, Xu, X, Zhang, X-C, Reightler, R, & Madras, E (2004).
T-rays identify defects in insulating materials, CLEO, CMB2

5. Adam, A J L, Planken, P C M, Meloni, S, & Dik, J (2009). TeraHertz imaging of

hidden paint layers on canvas. Optics Express, 17(5), 34073416.

17. Report. NASAs implementation plans for space shuttle return to flight and
beyond. Vol. 1, rev. 2, April 26 (2004)

6. Song, Q, Zhao, Y, Redo-Sanchez, A, Zhang, C, & Liu, X (2009). Fast continuous

terahertz wave imaging system for security. Optics Communications, 282(10),
20192022

18. Zhang, X-C (2004). Three-dimensional terahertz wave imaging. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A, 362, 283-299

7. Redo-Sanchez, A, Kaur, G, Zhang, X-C, Buersgens, F, & Kersting, R (2009). 2-D

Acoustic Phase Imaging With Millimeter-Wave Radiation. IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 57(3), 589593
8. Stoik, C D, Bohn, M, & Blackshire, J L (2008). Nondestructive evaluation of
aircraft composites using terahertz time domain spectroscopy. In Proceedings
of the IEEE (p. 146). Presented at the Proceedings of the IEEE, ProQuest.

19. Wang, S H, & Zhang, X-C (2003). Tomographic imaging with a terahertz binary
lens. Appl. Phys. Lett., 82(12), 1821-1823
20.Wang, S H, Ferguson, B, Abbott, D, & Zhang, X C (2003). THz imaging and
tomography. J. Bio. Phys., 29, 247-256
21. Walker, G C, Berry, E, Zinovev, N N, Fitzgerald, A J, Miles, R E, Chamberlain,
J, & Smith, M A (2002). Terahertz imaging and international safety guidelines.
Proc SPIE medical imaging, 4682, San Diego, 683

43

22. Smye, W S, Chamberlain, J M, Fitzgerald, A J, & Berry, E (2001). The

interaction between terahertz radiation and biological tissue. Physics in
Medicine and biology, 46(9), 101
23. Woodward, R M, Cole, B, Wallace, V P, Arnone, D D, Pye, R, Linfield, E H,
Pepper, M, & Davies, A G (2001). Terahertz pulse imaging of in-vitro basal cell
carcinoma samples. Proceedings of the conference on lasers and electro-optics,
Baltimore, pp. 329
24. V. Minin V, & Minin, O V (2000). System of microwave radio-vision of threedimensional objects in real time. Proc. SPIE -Int. Soc. Opt. Eng., 4129, 616
25. Hadjiloucas, S, Haratzas, L S, & Bowen, J W (1999). Measurement of leaf water
content using terahertz radiation. IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., 47(2),
142-149
26. Knott, M (1999). See-through teeth. New Scientist, 162(2192), 22
27. Mittleman, D M, Gupta, M, Neelamani, R, Baraniuk, R G, Rudd, J V, & Koch, M
(1999). Recent advances in terahertz imaging, Appl. Phys. B, 68, 1085
28.Mittleman, D M, Jacobson, R H, & Nuss, M C (1996). T-ray imaging. IEEE
Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 2(3), 679-692
29. Wu, Q, Hewitt, T D, & Zhang, X-C (1996). Two dimensional electro-optic
imaging of terahertz beams. Appl. Phys. Lett., 69(8), 1026-1028
30.Hu, B B, & Nuss, M C (1995). Imaging with terahertz waves. Opt. Lett., 20(16),
1716-1718
31. Lash, A A, & Yundev, D N (1984). Visualization of sub-millimeter laser
radiation with a pyroelectric television camera. Instrum. Exp. Tech., 27(3)
32. Hartwick, T S (1977). Far infrared imaging techniques for law enforcement
applications. Optics in Security and Law Enforcement (SPIE), 108, 139
33. Hartwick, T S, Hodges, D T, Barker, D H, & Foote, F B (1976). Far infrared
imagery. Appl. Opt., 15(8), 1919-1922
34. Malykh, N I, Nagornyi, A G, & Yampolskii, E S (1975). Submillimeter-wave
imagery. Instrum. Exp. Tech., 18(1)

44

C HAPTER 4

Biology and
Terahertz Waves

Zomega Terahertz Corporation

Technical Overview
Edition: June 2012
(c) 2012 Zomega Terahertz Corporation. All rights reserved.
The information contained in this ebook is for general information purposes only. The information is
provided by Zomega Terahertz Corp. and while we pursue to keep the information up to date and
correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the
completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the ebook or the
information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the ebook for any purpose. Any
reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk. In no event we will be
liable for any loss or damage including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage, or
any loss or damage whatsoever arising from loss of data or profits arising out of, or in connection
with, the use of this ebook.
We would like to receive your feedback! Please, send your comments and suggestions to
books@z-thz.com

S ECTION 1

Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy and Biomedical Applications

Introduction
Since the first practical THz time-domain systems became available in the
late 90s, researchers have been interested in applying the newly developed
technology in the biology and medical fields. The first research using THz
wave spectroscopy focused on the study of molecules and proteins common
in biology such as DNA. Later research focused on the study of tissue such as
skin and breast for cancer diagnosis purposes. As of today, research is still
focused on understanding the underlaying mechanisms of the interaction
between the THz waves and the behavior of proteins and cellular structures.
One of the major challenges that the application of THz waves faces in
biology and medicine is the high absorption of liquid water to THz waves.
Given that most biological samples require a water media, there are
important constraints in the geometry and thickness of the samples. For
instance, transmission geometry limits the thickness of liquid samples to
less than 100 um and reflection measurements are better conducted in
attenuated total reflection (ATR) setups.

Safety
THz radiation is considered non-ionizing as opposed to X-rays, which are
considered ionizing. The main reason for this consideration is the fact that

THz photons have an energy between 0.4 to 4.1 meV (one million times
lower than that of ionizing X-ray photons), which is orders of magnitude
below the required energy for molecular ionization (several eV). Therefore,
THz radiation is generally considered to be safe for humans operating most
of the available THz systems, which typically have maximum emission
power of few uW.
Given that water strongly absorbs THz radiation and that THz waves can
affect the folding behavior of proteins, living tissue could be affected if THz
power and irradiance (power per unit surface) is very high. Damage to tissue
in high power/irradiance scenarios is mainly caused by thermal effects due
to the temperature increase of water absorbing the THz radiation (one of hte
main results from the THz-bridge project from 2001 to 2004). However,
although some studies exists about the interaction of high power/irradiance
THz and tissue, there is still a long way to go to completely understand the
interaction and derived effects of THz waves and organic tissue.
Safety standards have been defined for THz frequencies. In reference 1, a list
of such standards is reported. These standards have been defined by the
European Parliament & Union (EP & EU), the International Commission on
Non-ionizing Radiation Committee (ICNIRP), American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),
European Committee of Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC),
Australia/New Zealand (AUS/NZ), and the National Radiological Protection
Board (NRPB). These standards have been obtained by extrapolating
estimates from neighboring spectral regions and few experimental data.
Figure 4.1 shows the maximal permissible exposure (MPE) levels defined by
different safety standards. This plot shows an experimental tissue-damage
threshold (ED50) (7.16 W/cm2) and its predicted value (5 W/cm2), and a
predicted value extrapolating model at short infrared wavelengths (IR-B)
(2.5 W/cm2). The plot also shows the MPE defined by the ICNIRP (1.19 W/
cm2), the EP & EU (0.3 W/cm2), the ANSI-Z136 (0.3 W/cm2), and the IEEE
C95.1 (0.01 W/cm2). Most commercially available systems are not capable to

46

provide the output powers reported in the standards. However, THz sources
such as free electron lasers are capable to provide such high output powers.
F IGURE 4.1

Furthermore, imaging technology still needs to be developed so images of

the skin area can be acquired in a matter of seconds rather than tens of
minutes.
Recent studies (Gerald J Wilmink etal) have been focused on using THz
spectroscopy and imaging to analyzer skin burns and wounds. In this
studies, THz time domain spectroscopy is posed to be an excellent technique
to characterize the optical properties of different types of skin-related
tissue and its water concentration, and to study the thermal mechanism
involved in burns and skin wounds. Figure 4.2 contains a description of the
tissue and structure of the skin analyzed in such studies. The tissue is
extracted from porcine specimens. Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4, Figure 4.5, and
F IGURE 4.2

Different THz radiation safety exposure standards.

Applications
Early application studies focused on the use of THz imaging as a diagnosis
tool for skin and breast cancer. The fundamental mechanism to use THz for
such diagnosis is its high sensitivity to the presence of liquid water and the
different water concentration between healthy and cancerous tissue. In
particular, cancerous cells tends to demands more water than healthy cells,
therefore, cancerous tissue will tend to have more water than healthy tissue.
Because THz could penetrate hundreds of um into the skin, the research
study the water concentration as a function of the depth and, thus, enabling
the possibility to assess the extend of a skin cancer beyond the extension
resulting from optical inspection. However, further studies are necessary
given the highly variability of skin conditions and moisture levels.

Histological evaluation of porcine cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues. (a)

Freshly harvested muscle. (b) Freshly harvested adipose. (c) Freshly harvested
skin. (d) Frozen/thawed skin. Scale bar is 75 um. Abbreviation: muscle (panniculus carnosus = pc); adipose (panniculus adiposus = pa); epidermis = epi;
basement membrane = bm; dermis = d; and capillary = c.

47

Figure 4.6 show the results of the read index of refraction, absorption
coefficient, and optical penetration depth for water, muscle, adipose, and
skin tissue, respectively. The results reported in recent publications will pave
the way for future investigations and applications using THz system for the
evaluation and diagnose of different skin conditions, diseases, and burn
wounds, which will help develop faster healing treatments.

F IGURE 4.4

Outlook
The unique combination of imaging and spectral information that is possible
to obtain with THz systems, makes THz technology very attractive as a
diagnosis tool in skin and adipose tissue. For instance, THz systems are
envisioned to provide a quick assessment of the type of a tissue (cancerous
or non-cancerous) in certain surgical procedures. However, there is still a
gap between application needs and current technological capabilities. For
instance, images still require several minutes to complete and sensitivity is
F IGURE 4.3

Optical properties of water at THz frequencies for different studies. (a) Real
index of refraction. (b) Absorption coefficient. (c) Optical penetration depth.

Optical properties of muscle at THz frequencies fof different studies. (a) Real
index of refraction. (b) Absorption coefficient. (c) Optical penetration depth.

F IGURE 4.5

Optical properties of adipose at THz frequencies for different studies. (a) Real
index of refraction. (b) Absorption coefficient. (c) Optical penetration depth.

48

F IGURE 4.6

2. Nakanishi, A, Kawada, Y, Yasuda, T, Akiyama, K, & Takahashi, H (2012).

Terahertz time domain attenuated total reflection spectroscopy with an
integrated prism system. Review of Scientific Instruments, 83(3), 033103
3. Wilmink, G J, Ibey, B L, Tongue, T, Schulkin, B, Laman, N, Peralta, X G, Roth,
C C, et al. (2011). Development of a compact terahertz time-domain
spectrometer for the measurement of the optical properties of biological
tissues. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 16(4), 047006
4. Wilmink, G J, & Grundt, J E (2011). Invited Review Article: Current State of
Research on Biological Effects of Terahertz Radiation. Journal of Infrared,
Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves, 32(10), 10741122
5. Wilmink, G J, Rivest, B D, Roth, C C, Ibey, B L, Payne, J A, Cundin, L X,
Grundt, J E, et al. (2010). In vitro investigation of the biological effects
associated with human dermal fibroblasts exposed to 2.52THz radiation.
Lasers in Surgery and Medicine, 43(2), 152163

Optical properties of skin at THz frequencies for different studies. (a) Real index of refraction. (b) Absorption coefficient. (c) Optical penetration depth.

still low for certain applications. This gap is expected to reduce as

technological progress advances and systems become faster, more integrated
and with specifically designed modules designed to cover specific
application needs.

Acknowledgments

6. Taylor, Z D, Singh, R S, Bennett, D B, Tewari, P, Culjat, M O, Stojadinovic, A,

Lee, H, et al. (2011). THz Medical Imaging: in vivo Hydration Sensing. IEEE
Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology, 1(1), 201219
7. Li, X, Liu, J, & Hong, Z (2010). Far-infrared in vivo signature of human skin by
terahertz time-domain spectroscopy using waveform rebuilding technology. In
Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 7854, pp. 7854127 854126
8. Nazarov, M, Shkurinov, A, Tuchin, V V, & Zhang, X-C (2009). Terahertz Tissue
Spectroscopy and Imaging (pp. 128). Handbook of Photonics for Biomedical
Science
9. Mller, U, Cooke, D G, Tanaka, K, & Jepsen, P U (2009). Terahertz reflection
spectroscopy of Debye relaxation in polar liquids. JOSA B, 26(9), A113A125

We would like to thank Gerald J Wilmink for providing the material

reported in the figures, references, and reviewing the manuscript.

10. Arikawa, T, Nagai, M, & Tanaka, K (2008). Characterizing hydration state in

solution using terahertz time-domain attenuated total reflection spectroscopy.
Chemical Physics Letters, 457(1-3), 1217

References

11. Newnham, D A, & Taday, P F (2008). Pulsed terahertz attenuated total

reflection spectroscopy. Applied Spectroscopy, 62(4), 394398

1. Wilmink, G J, & Grundt, J E (2012). Terahertz Radiation Sources, Applications,

and Biological Effects. In J C Lin (Ed.), Electromagnetic Fields in Biological
Systems (1st ed. pp. 369423). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press

12. Yada, H, Nagai, M, & Tanaka, K (2008). Temperature Dependences of the

Dielectric Constants of Lower Alcohols Revealed by Terahertz Time-Domain
Attenuated Total Reflection Spectroscopy. Presented at the Conference on
Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference

49

and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies (2008), Optical Society of

America
13. Cheng, L, Hayashi, S, Dobroiu, A, Otani, C, Kawase, K, Miyazawa, T, & Ogawa,
Y (2008). Terahertz-wave absorption in liquids measured using the evanescent
field of a silicon waveguide. Applied Physics Letters, 92(18), 1811041811043
14. Nagai, M, Yada, H, Arikawa, T, & Tanaka, K (2006). Terahertz time-domain
attenuated total reflection spectroscopy in water and biological solution.
International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 27(4), 505515
15. Woodward, R M, Wallace, V P, Pye, R J, Cole, B E, Arnone, D D, Linfield, E H,
& Pepper, M (2003). Terahertz pulse imaging of ex vivo basal cell carcinoma.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 120(1), 7278
16. Pal, S K, Peon, J, & Zewail, A H (2002). Biological water at the protein surface:
Dynamical solvation probed directly with femtosecond resolution. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(4), 17631768
17. Mickan, S P, Menikh, A, Liu, H-B, Mannella, C A, MacColl, R, Abbott, D,
Munch, J, et al. (2002). Label-free bioaffinity detection using terahertz
technology. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 47(21), 37893795
18. Woodward, R M, Cole, B E, Wallace, V P, Pye, R J, Arnone, D D, Linfield, E H,
& Pepper, M (2002). Terahertz pulse imaging in reflection geometry of human
skin cancer and skin tissue. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 47, 38533863
19. Ermakov, I V, Ermakova, M R, McClane, R W, & Gellermann, W (2001).
Resonance Raman detection of carotenoid antioxidants in living human tissues.
Optics Letters, 26(15), 11791181
20.Lffler, T, Bauer, T, Siebert, K J, Roskos, H G, Fitzgerald, A J, & Czasch, S
(2001). Terahertz dark-field imaging of biomedical tissue. Optics Express,
9(12), 616621
21. Smye, S W, Chamberlain, J M, Fitzgerald, A J, & Berry, E (2001). The
interaction between Terahertz radiation and biological tissue. Physics in
Medicine and Biology, 46(9), R101R112
22. Brucherseifer, M, Nagel, M, Bolivar, P H, Kurz, H, Bosserhoff, A, & Buttner, R
(2000). Label-free probing of the binding state of DNA by time-domain
terahertz sensing. Applied Physics Letters, 77(24), 40494051

50

C HAPTER 5

Appendix

Zomega Terahertz Corporation

Technical Overview
Edition: June 2012
(c) 2012 Zomega Terahertz Corporation. All rights reserved.
The information contained in this ebook is for general information purposes only. The information is
provided by Zomega Terahertz Corp. and while we pursue to keep the information up to date and
correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the
completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the ebook or the
information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the ebook for any purpose. Any
reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk. In no event we will be
liable for any loss or damage including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage, or
any loss or damage whatsoever arising from loss of data or profits arising out of, or in connection
with, the use of this ebook.
We would like to receive your feedback! Please, send your comments and suggestions to
books@z-thz.com

Table 2.1 is in chapter 2, section 1.

S ECTION 1

Tables

Table 2.1

Table 1.1 is extracted from reference 2 in chapter 1, section 4:

Pradarutti, B, Matthus, G, Riehemann, S, Notni, G, Nolte, S, &
Tnnermann, A (2008). Highly efficient terahertz electro-optic sampling by
material optimization at 1060nm. Optics Communications, 281(19), 5031
5035.
Table 1.1
Crystal

ng
800/1060/1550
nm

r (pm/V)

CdTe

-/3.17/2.86

DAST(a)

Material

Refractive index @ 1 THz

Absorption (cm-1) @ 1 THz

Saphire

3.096

1.9

LaAlO3

4.98

HDPE

1.534

0.45

LiNbO3

5.156

16

PTFE

1.431

0.2

SiO2

1.957

3.3

Quartz

2.109

0.15

BK7

2.593

50

GaAs

3.55

<1

Si (regular)

3.416

0.3

Si (high resistivity)

3.413

0.3

FZ Si (high resistivity)

3.4175

0.3

InP:Ir

3.509

<5

ZnSe

3.021

GeBi

4.042

5.9

n/ (cm-1)
0.5 THz

1 THz

2 THz

r41 = 4.5

3.20/0.58

3.22/2.51

3.32/14.33

3.39/2.55/2.25

r11/12 = 77/42

2.51/2.76

2.94/134.26

2.27/10.19

DAST(b)

1.98/1.73/1.64

r41 = 1.43

2.01/3.91

2.24/66.01

1.43/97.24

GaAs

4.18/3.93/3.54

r41 = 0.97

3.61/0.03

3.61/0.13

3.62/0.58

GaP

3.57/3.30/3.14

r41 = 0.97

3.34/0.82

3.34/0.04

3.35/0.16

ZnTe

3.24/2.96/2.81

r41 = 4.04

3.17/0.08

3.18/0.32

3.23/1.60

52

Table 2.2 is in chapter 2, section 1.

Table 3.1 is in chapter 3, section 1.

Table 2.2
Technique

FTIR

Raman

TDS

Table 3.1
Strengths

Weaknesses

High frequency resolution

(~1cm-1)
High sensitivity
Broadband (up to 100 THz)

Technique

Cannot interrogate targets under

cover
No coherent detection
Need cryogenic conditions for high
sensitivity
No real-time data rate

High frequency resolution

(~1cm-1)
Room temperature operation
High sensitivity
High selectivity

Cannot interrogate targets under

cover
No coherent detection

Can interrogate targets under

cover
Room temperature operation
Coherent detection (amplitude
and phase data)
High selectivity
Real-time data rate

Lower frequency resolution than

FTIR (~10cm-1)
Narrower bandwidth than FTIR (up
to 5 THz with standard TDS; up to
20 THz with TDS ABCD system)

Microwave

Infrared

X-Ray

Terahertz

Strengths

Weaknesses

Non-hazardous
High sensitive detectors
Good penetration depth

Low spatial/imaging resolution

Metals/water block radiation
No spectroscopic imaging

Low penetration depth

Thermal noise affects images and
introduces artifacts (reduces
performance)
No spectroscopic imaging

Non-hazardous
Good spatial/imaging resolution
High sensitive array devices
Fast imaging acquisition rates

Highest penetration depth

Excellent spatial/imaging
resolution
High sensitive and selective
devices
Fast imaging acquisition rates

Hazardous for human operators

Strict maintenance and operation
policies
No spectroscopic imaging

Low imaging acquisition rates (no

array devices yet available)
Less sensitive system than
alternatives
Metal/water blocks radiation

Non-hazardous
Good penetration depth
Good spatial/imaging resolution
Spectral imaging available

Table 2.3 is in chapter 2, section 1.

Table 2.3
Sample

Peak Position

SNR (dB)

-Lactose

0.54 THz

2HBP

Minimum Detectable
Absorbance

g/cm2

38.06

0.0765

97.1

0.69 THz

37.50

0.0817

25.8

RDX

0.82 THz

37.14

0.0852

24.5

2.4 DNT

1.09 THz

34.15

0.1213

35.2

L-Glutamic Acid

1.23 THz

32.04

0.1559

114

4HBAL

1.54 THz

24.08

0.4154

383

53

S ECTION 2

SpectralCalc.com

Resources

GATS, Inc. produces LINEPAK for performing spectral line transmission

and radiance calculations. Their online tool SpectralCalc.com will produce a
spectrum for a selected molecule (and isotopes if desired) based on the
HITRAN2004, GEISA2003 or HITEMP databases. The free portion of the
tool gives you a taste of what it can do, and more features are unlocked.
Below is a sample graph generated using the tool that shows water vapor
absorption through an atmospheric pressure, room-tempterature cell with a
volume mixing ratio (VMR) of 10%.
Link: http://www.spectralcalc.com/info/about.php

RIKEN THz Database

The Tera-phtonics Laboratory, RIKEN Sendai have produced a substantial
database of terahertz signatures of many molecules and materials. The
database consists of both room temperature and low-temperature
measurements (4K) of materials, and some effort has been made to keep the
format consistent from record to record.
Link: http://www.riken.jp/THzdatabase/

JPL Molecular Spectroscopy

This resource has many molecules in its database, including water and its
isotopes. The search feature allows you to set the range of frequencies to
search, in units of GHz. The output format is found in a README file. The
database indicates the line's central frequency, and its strength along with
some information on what molecular mode is responsible.
Link: http://spec.jpl.nasa.gov/ftp/pub/catalog/catform.html

54

Bandwidth
Measured in the frequency domain, it is the frequency range in which the amplitude is larger than a
specified threshold. Also defined as the highest frequency component of a signal.

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Damage threshold
Maximum power, energy, or fluence that a structure or material is capable of handling without breaking up
or being damaged irreversibly.

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Delay range
The maximum amount of time difference that a system can introduce between the pump and probe beam.
Delay ranges for typical THz time-domain system go from 20 ps to 100 ps. However, delay ranges up to 1
ns or more are also possible, which are required for standoff and high resolution spectroscopy.

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Chapter 1 - Time-Resolved Teraherz Pump-Probe Method

Dynamic range
Measured in the frequency domain, it is the ratio between the maximum signal generated by the emitter
and the minimum signal detectable. Often, when referring to the dynamic range of a system, we refer to the
value of the highest dynamic range available in the system at the peak frequency.

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Energy per pulse

Amount of energy contained in a single pulse.

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Femto-second
Unit of time equal to 12-15 seconds. Abbreviated as fs.

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Frequency resolution
The smallest significant frequency difference. Frequency resolution of a Fourier Transform is inversely
proportional to the window length.

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Laser fluence
Amount of energy per unit surface. This magnitude is very important when focusing the laser beam on a
PCA gap or EO crystal. Focusing a laser beam very tightly will concentrate the energy on a particular spot
and damage the material or structure although the energy of power of the beam as a whole is below the
damage threshold.

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Micron
Unit of length equal to 10-6 m. Abbreviated as um.

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Nano-second
Unit of time equal to 10-9 seconds. Abbreviated as ns.

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NEP
See Noise Equivalent Power.

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Noise Equivalent Power

Minimum detectable power per square root of bandwidth. Also defined as the input signal with a SNR
equal to 1. Noise Equivalent Power is also referred as the sensitivity. Abbreviated as NEP.

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Noise floor
In a THz time-domain system, the signal of the system when no THz is reaching the detector. The noise
floor includes the noise contribution from the laser and the detector.

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Pico-second
Unit of time equal to 10-12 seconds. Abbreviated as ps.

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Power
Amount of energy per unit time. In pulsed sources, power is equal to the energy per pulse multiplied by the
repetition rate.

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Pulse duration
The temporal length in which a determined percentage of the total energy of the pulse is considered to be
contained.

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Repetition rate
The inverse of the time between the pulses emitted by the laser source. Repetition rate is expressed in units
of frequency. Depending on the laser system and vendor, repetition rate ranges from few kHz up to 100
MHz.

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Responsivity
Ratio between the output signal from a detector versus the energy or power exciting the detector.

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Sampling interval
The smallest measurable time difference. The sampling interval is the inverse of the sampling rate.

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Sampling rate
The inverse of the sampling interval. Due to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate has to be at least twice
the bandwidth of the signal.

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Sampling window
A function that is applied to the waveform before computing the Fourier Transform. This function is zero
(or sufficiently rapidly decaying towards zero) outside a selected time interval. It is useful to have the
window smoothly decaying to zero in order to avoid discontinuities in the waveform before the Fourier
transform. Sampling windows affect frequency resolution and spectral leakage.

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Scan length
The total temporal length of the waveform. A typical THz waveform length lies between 10 ps to 30 ps.
However, lengths up to 10o ps or more may be necessary depending on the frequency resolution
requirements.

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Signal to Noise Ratio

Measured in the frequency domain, it is the ratio between the maximum signal detected by the detector
and the noise floor. Often, when referring to the SNR of a particular system, we refer to the maximum SNR
available in the system at the peak frequency.

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SNR
See Signal to Noise Ratio.

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Spectrum
Amplitude of the Fourier Transform of the waveform.

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Terahertz
Unit of frequency equal to 1012 Hz. Abbreviated as THz.

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Time resolution
The minimum measurable time difference between the probe and pump. In systems in which the timing
difference is controlled with a delay stage, this resolution is given by the minimum spatial step size of the
stage, which often lies between few to tens of microns.

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Waveform
The amplitude of the electric field associated with a THz pulse as a function of the relative timing between
pump and probe.

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Chapter 1 - Time-Resolved Teraherz Pump-Probe Method

Window length
The length of the resulting waveform of multiplying the raw waveform with the sampling window.

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