THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

ARITHMETIC,
as a
{Co7isldered

Branch

of Mathematical ScieJice)
THE

AND

EJLEMEMTS
DESIGNED

AND

IN

AID

you

have

**

exercise his mind

"*

train.

**

should

"

them

Nothing
be

in

USE

JOHN

OF

DUBLIN

well,you

reason

those who

Mathematicians,

to

as

have
make

time and

PRINTED
Sold

by DuGDALE,

Porter,

BY

R.

opportunity:

reasonable

Conduct

NAPPER,

betimes,and

following them

in

Ithinl',
therefore,
not

so

much

to make

creatures,^*
of

the

Understanding,

UBUN:
29, CAPEL-STREET.

Dame-Street; Keene,

Grafton-Street

to it

and

which

Mathematics;

them

him

use

of ideas,

Locke's

COLLEGE.

must

observingthe connexion

does this better than

taught all

INSTRUCTION,

WAT/K^FR-

FELLOW

man

SCHOOLS,

OF

PRIVATE

OF

PORMIRLY

Would

THE

FOR

Rv

"

^LGEEMAs

OF

Mercier,
1812,

and

College-Green; Mahon,
Parry,

and

Anglesea-Street.

tir

Walker

Mr.

this

Treatise^

and

the

as

"well

other
in

as

No.

lower

six

of

parties

or

in

gvoe$

of

persons^
the

Elements

Mathematical
the

private

Greek

73,

Dorset-Street,

and

instructions

either

in

sex^

of Geometry^
Natural

Branches

of

Latin

Classics,

to

1\%

individuals^

the

Subjects

in

Astronomy^
Philosophy

of

TO

AGNES

Mss.

As

To

to

CLEGHORN^
Lady

is well

who

estimate the Execution

WHO

AND

That

the

than

more

HKR

Worker
following
XXAMPLEy

ordinaryAcquirements!

LITERATURE

WITH

consistent
perfectly

of

the

its attractive
THE

SCIENCE,

AND

Retiredness
With

AKD

BT

EVIDENCES,

Are

With

of the

superiorintellectual Endowments,

Improved by
IN

^uali"e4

MOST

Female

Character^

Graces,

EXEMPtAJlT

SISCSARGe

OF

DUTIES

DOMESTIC

This

Treatise is

By

inscribed
respectfully

her faithful

And

much

obliged

Servant

THE

84721

AUTHOR^

PREFACE.

""e*"I^I"""e"

Arithmetic

fear

the

with

comparison
either

Geometry,

in

her

in

sister.

In clearness

practicalutility,or

in

the

of

deduction

beautiful

the

favoured

more

precision of ideas,

certaintyof demonstration,

and

of

branches

great

two

treated, needs
scientifically

and, when

Mathematics;
not

of

one

is

interesting

most

truths.

the

In

take
a

precedence

more

is that

''

which

things

all

question
has

of

Geometry

divest

whether
been

not

it of
I

that

have

by
the

us

are

doctrine

measurable.''
of

elsewhere

ratio

by

considerations.

expressed

to

conceive,
are

some

remarks,

of, in measuring

use

needlessly obscured,
numerical

than

Locke

Mr.

as

makes

mind

the

it,

with

Number,"

"

has,

and

connection

allow.

ought

instruction, Arithmetic

necessary

willingto
*'

of

order

in
vain

Upon
my

views

And

Geometry
attempt

to

this subject
more

at

lar^e.
A

Eut

PREFACE.

VI

But

degraded from
into

the

of

rank

and

Science,

mechanical

almost

art

an

useful

but affording
more
compting-house,

fingersthan
taughtby
of

men

the

to

v^ho

persons,

the

which

they perform.

among

them

of

are

calculation,perhaps there

men

are

and this

of

their contempt

by

are

the

to

operations

questionscurrent
multipliedhy

of
exemplification

thingswhich

few

few

branch

this
dren
chil-

the technical

thingsof
the

indeed
ignorance

it,as

commonly

common

generallyignorant,than

more

of Arithmetic

there

the

to

strangers

generallytaught,than

more

are

is

product of money

while

Thus,

in the

expert Clerics than

absurd

sufficient

remark.

The

the

afford

"c.

money

most

converted

exercise

themselves

are

principlesof
about

rather

are

been

indeed

understanding.It

Scieiice^and

rational

has

generallytaught, Arithmetic

as

of

art

which

Science

is betrayed

study beneath

scholar.

rationally
taught,it

Yet, when
the
its

youthful mind

the

most

and

reasoningpowers,

intellect becomes

that

parts of the science may

understanding the
also
vested

by

to

most

few

the

knowledge
.

for which
while

try the

vigorous and

the

of

human
vanced
ad-

more

energiesof
mature.

an

duced
Re-

"

di-

of various littles^
multiplicity

subjectis commonly

of it may

the

and
comprehensiveprinciples,

of that needless

which

perhapsto

advantageousexercise

earlyripe:

most

affords

be communicated

perplexed,
"

with

the

unspeak-

ably

PREFACE.

and
ably greater facility

attained, will

be

not

Vll

expedition
j and,

liable

when

(as at present) to

once

be

soon

forgotten.
To
the

in that scientificform, Is

present Arithmetic

objectof

may

treatise ; which,
following

the

beneficial

prove

the young

to

of

to some
uninteresting

not

are

coincident

so

with

those

Arithmetic)that
the former

Of
difficulty.

given such

I have

of science
extend

to

the

works

to

the

extant

on

Having designed
those, who

come

have aimed

at

most

view,

may

to

by

enable him

the aid of emy

for

this work
it

givinga

most

clear and

plain, yet

of
rigidness

demonstration.
other

Science

in

any

have

How

at

his

field

pleasure

of the

larger

Instruction of

for my

to

departingfrom
far I have
decide.

the
be
the

succeeded
I

shall

labour, if it should

occasion

from

explanationof
endeavoured

judges must

degree, the

of Arithmetic

the

full

without

myself compensated

prove,

that wide

uninitiated in Science, I

I
:
elementaryprinciples

"in this attempt,

therefore

Algebra
open

serious

no

subject.

familiar and

think

as

versal
Uni-

(or

acquaintedwith

persons

Student, and

the

Algebra,

of

his progress,

Arithmetic

common

Elements

and

age.

of the latter offer

the Elements

"

hoped,

sexes,

advanced

of

to

"

of both

more

of
scientificprinciples

The

it is

of

rescuing the

generalneglect,and
of

PREFACE.

Vni

of

this
introducing

into the

of Mathematics

branch

system of liberal education.

to

this

so

much

is
treatise,

of
dignity

of civil

It is

attention.

Mathematical

society, that

not

Science^

the

to
application

a motto

portant
im-

most

recommends

"

object of general study. In its influence on

and
character
mental
habits,it possesses a still

as

an

the

stronger claim for

contributes

to

the
as

of

course

general

that of Mathematics,

of judgment
precipitancy

correct

of

clearness
patienceof investigation,

promote

and
the

adoptioninto

study so much,

No

education.

to

worthy of

its extensive

even

purposes
it

well

the intrinsic

nor

"

remark, which I have prefixedas

Locke's

Mr.

accuracy

of

ception,
con-

cate
communi-

to

attention,and

of fixed

power

reasoning;

closeness

of

thinking.
These

are

in

derive

these

should

the

pursue

how

study to

proceed;
"

or

much,

smatteringof

far

any

of

that whatever
should

be

and

Here

length,or

it is of much

half information

is calculatedto excite that

ground

about

that
"

as

we

far

learn, whether

we

learned

to

studies,that

great

the

to be

in order

proceed, than

we

fullymasters

ourselves

we

little

mathematical

benefits from

less consequence

as

is it necessary,

Nor

profound Mathematicians.

become

make

important;
universally

early Hfe.

formed

we

habits

thoroughly.
a

varietyof

jects,
sub-

vanityand presumption
of

PREFACE.

knowledge, which

of

the

with

ance

IX

is repressed
by

radical

of
elementary principles

most

acquaintsome

one

science*

I be allowed

May

females, than

to

adapted to
which

the

to

other

enfeebles

that I

information

solid

minds

of whose

which

^ucation,

an

it is
and

would

againstthose, on

while

with

it

faction
satis-

illiberalprejudice
shut

the door

the formiation

of the welfare of

much

so

importantly

judgment,

absurd

perceivethat

rapidlygivingway,
of

the

less useful

no

; and

sex

imagination? Indeed

the

is

tendency of

the

often

opinion,that some

my

knowledge

counteract

too

excites

express

mathematical

of

degree

to

must
society

depend.

In

bringingthis
in

seat

of

City"

"

learned

culties have
of

the

work
of

that,if
had

been

to
s\yelled

through the

which
difficulties,

encountered
occur

Volume

an

been

the

be

expectedto

metropolisof iREi^AND,

University.

such,

as

higher,than
equalbulk

little more

might not

press, I have

"

Some

of the modern

employed,the

Volume

the

generallyaffixed

though it may
art

to

price
lumes
Vo-

be remarked
of

printing

have
might easily

twice its present size, without

the

of those diffi.

make
necessarily
is

and

any

h^^Vi

increase

of the matter.

Notwithstanding

.PREFApE*
much
Notwithstanding
of

the press,
for the

of the reader

escaped my

I have

the passages had

others

have

the

on

intreat the

to

errors
following

and

eye,

pains bestowed

indulgence
of which

some

been

rection
cor-

generatedafter

last revision*

undergone my

ERRATA.

Page
8.

for

line 21.

difference

"

difference between

"

14?. 1. 19.

"

3681

15.

1. 23.

for

16.

1. 15.

for

22.

1. 34.

read,

'^

34.

1. 16.

for

"

5 times

35.

1. 27.

for

"

is

47.

1. 9.

77.

Ex.

81.

last line, for

83.

1. 2.

read^
9. The
for

for
"

87.

"

""

and

62," read

1080"^

63."

9 is

equal to

whosp

"

is

sum

1^

should

last term
"

6," read,
a"
read,

read

y"
^3/*-"

5 times

'*

is

be

equalto

c."

^ax^:'

"

'iaxy"r

**
"

ibid. 1. 4.

xf-^y^''.

"'

9 is to 6."

\\t'*

or

2"axy,"read

"

for

1. H.

*'

;n/,"rea^,

;n/\"
for

1. 25.

=:cZ,and

=:

ibid. 1. 28. for

d.

r^"^,

=f,

"

c,

and

7)1

and

3681

" 62 and

"

exercise."

j/^",rmt/, ""j/V*ibid.

"

5," read^

5."

108, ''read,"

and

61

"

""

and

23

and

28

engage'*

ready
"

between

"

aj =

cfw, and 6

cm,''read^

and

*^a=cm,
88.

1. 4.

for

for
"*

"

da

b=zd7n."

or

c6," rm^,

last," r^"^,

90.

1. 18. and

105.

1. 8. from

20.

for

bottom,

"

"

""

"/5.". ibid. 1. 22.

or

least."

lOOth."

for

c"

""

|,"

read,
read

"

"

lOOOth."

f"
119.

errata;

Page
119.

1.2.

"

for

zl.

read,
,

2x

5
**

*'

155.

2.

156,

1.

25.

157

1.

5.
""

162.

1.

11.

165.

1.

18.

168.

1.

2.

from

bottom,

for
from

""

57,"

bottom,

for

"*4,*'

r^fl^,"
and

ready

27.'*

"

last

line,

for

""

"60^"

read,

"

^100

for
for

from

"

^"

"284,"

read,

""

4056,"

read,

'"

bottom.

After

""

"290."
7056."

+7."

add,

"*

+6

4"."

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

arithmetic;
^c.

CHAP.

and

Nature

Principles of

the Arabic

Advantages above the Greek and

the Magnitude of high Numbers,
THE

1.

claims

first

tilingin

Roman,

to
Insensibility

Duodeciinal

Notation,

subjectof* this treatise,which

the

numeral.,

of

method

attention, is our^jtresent

our

'Notation, Its

Niimeral

For

(
designatingnumbers
/
well
the
of
aid
characters.
written
as
some
as
Faj;:J[t,
by
in
other
Arithmetic,
most
important improvements
we^
It was
to the Arabs.
brought by the Moors ];
are. indebted
nQtatiojx

the

or

and

John

into^^ain

j,

cester, is

supposed

about

middle

the

of

of

introduced

the

1 1 th

we

often

it

It is

centur3^

England (

into

of

one

those

out
enjoy the advantages, withimportance. Simple, ingenious,

duly estimatingtheir
highly useful, it is yet so familiar to us from
that it fails of engaging our
attention,

and

of Lei-

Basingstoke,archdeacon

have

to

inventions, of w^hich

hood,
child-

our

exciting

or

admiration.

our

2.

its

employed

method

We

be

may

impressed however

ingenious simplicity,if

rieties
observe

and

that

indefinite
we

are

we

reflect

magnitude
enabled,
B

by

of

wdth

conviction

on

the

endless

numbers

the aid of

and

only

ten

of
va-

then

cha-

racters

tcf
(t"henine significant
figuresand the cypJier)
whatsoever
numbers
with
the utmost
designateany
facility
and distinctness ; and this, in a form
which subjects
them
arithmetical
most
t
o
portant
conveniently
computation. The imof
contrivance
it
the
be
sufficient for
utility
may
the present to illustrate by the following
remark.
Most
with
children of a very young
can
ease
multiplyor di^
age
the
number
vide the number
508.
But let the
67,489 by
be expressed by the Roman
method
of nosame^niimbers
tationT \nuci\
prevailedin Europe before the introduction
facters

\
/

Arabic, thus

of the

Ixvii.cccclxxxix

"

will be

and

dviii

"

man

either

operation. The Greeks

puzzledto perform
numeral
similar
notation
to the Roman
and
:
employed a
their
how
it is trulywonderful
mathematicians
(even with
the aid of

mechanical

some

which
difficulties,

they

calculations
in

of

some

when

3. Yet

contrivances)surmounted

had

to

while

encounter

know

very
examine

we

the

notation, it becomes

the Arabic

the invention

their arithmetical

that

of

surprisethat
earlier discovery
; for it proceeds

of

not

was

the

they were
gaged
encomplicatednature.
fundamental
of
principle

we

long and

in

matter

have
extremelysimple,and one that must
principle
there was
been employed in all ageSy whenever
a
practical
We
of*counting any very large number.
occasion
may
had
that
illustrate the principle
to
we
count
by supposing
of
a great heap
guineas. It is^plainthat unless we employ
on

check

some

lose

on

obvious

is the most

reckoning? Is it not
number, beyond which
when

aside in

parcel;

one

But

ten.

securingaccuracy

count

by

tens,

accumulating so

as

lead

us

hundred
may

ten

such

combine
cv

simple
beyond

whenever

and

them

the

that
principle

number
we

have

we

them

ten

ten

we

have

uji into

guineas,or

such

one

rouleaus,

we

of ten hundred,
one
set, consisting
And
by this^
guineas: and so on.

into

thousand,

contrivaJice

ten

times

Thus

parcelsfrom

astray, whenever

may

lay them
may
another
parcel

of these

make

in

fixed

some

proceed

guineas,we
proceed to count

and

to

or

ten

parcelswe
rouleau, containingtherefore
counted

shall

never

prevent the number

to

we

of

we

reckoned

have

we

very apt to
advance.
What

method
to

our

of

shall be

we

reckoning,and get astray as

our

then

numeration,

our

it would
ten.

proceed

never

Now
in

be necessary
to reckon
it is precisely
this
upon

designatingnumbers

by

the

Arabic

(
Arabic

several columns

column,

hand
rijght

the

The

notation.

the

is the

righthand

the
next

the left

on

column, for

third

of

place for
hand,

all odd

ten

we

first column

unk^sr^Jjelo^^

second

or

in which

The

ten.

below

of Jen,
aU^^parcels

for

place

it

to

from
figures,

the compartments

are

disposethe several combinations

on

of

column,

is the

such

the

of
a3Lj2ar"3["_
Jmndj^^^^(or ten

times

all parcels"o"^gtihQUgand
; the
fifth,for all parcels of
thousaiid- below^ien i the sixth,for all parcels of a
ten
himdredjllj^^
(or ten times ten thousand) below ten :
of ten hundi'ed
the seventh, for all^parcels
thoi\sand (or a
^^'
million)belgjBLJLeilj
for

ten) below ten : the fourth,

(or ten hundred) below ten

Thus

4.

the

by

we
cyj^he'r

great

and

digits,from

the

help of

are

able

this, wlide
the Latin

tlie_sa^^

tains

numbers

the two

each
seven

but

in the former

latter,where

the

five

character

570, the

character

the

th6 5

in

hundred

standingin the

parcelsof ten

it stands

parcelsof

and
significant
figures

however \
designateall numbers
the
ea,ch of
figures(calledthe ten/
wore! signifying
a ^/7^6^r)
alwaysx^gsl
For
example, in)

five, and

designatesfive

nine

to

57. and

number

the

the

denotes

the

in

number

second

lumn
co-

each, or fifty
;
it
column,
nates
desigbut in

the third

each,

or

five hundred

and

column
former, the 7 standing in the right hand
units ; but in the latter,standing in the
seven
designates
second
column, designatesseven
tens, or
seventy. And
in the

thus

we

see

number

710

in

m;der to
pkces. If
7nillionand

cypher, though it denote that there is

be written ;
to its column,
belonging.
yet must
into .their proper
fig]y|i:eg
bring the significant
that the

therefore

to

want

express

the number

the
tJiousand andjifty-three
sixty-eight
j

being the placeof millions, the character

the fourth
column
followed by six figures
; and

column
be
the

place of thousands,

the characters

68

must

Jour
seventh
4? must

being

be,followed

that besides the

thence I conclude
: and
by three figures
posed
significant
figures4, 68, and 53, a cypher must be interbetween the two latter,and aitother cypherbetween
the

two

'5. To

former

thus

facilitate

"

4068053.

commonly mark off by

a
comma
commencing from
every period of six figures,
often semi-periodsof three figures.
the righthand, and
of a inillioiiis given to ten hundred
And
the name
thouas
numeration,

we

5"and,

(
gand,

In like

column.

lion^ "c.

therefore

which

placeof

the

thousand

hundred

ten

so

given

to ten

are

millions

at

of

names

hundred

called

are

commences

the

manner

billion ;

the thirteenth

trillion^qiiadriU

thousand

lions,
billions,tril-

"c.
here

But

6.

which

can

we

vv^ith
observed, that the facility
designatethe highestnumbers, and perform
it is to

calculation

arithmetical

every

be

on

has

them,

occasioned

an

of
magnitude of the numbers
which we speak* One billion is very easily
mentioned, and
easilydesignatedby art unit followed by twelve cyphers:
A child ako can
thus"
1,000000,000000.
multiplyor di( vide that number.
But
perhaps the reader will be surthat there is not one
billion of seat the
statement
/ prised
")conds in thirtythousand years : though there/ be 60 seconds
to the
insensibility

minute,

in every

day,

every

above

of the

50

of

In fact it is

form

can

seconds, which

7. From

hours

in

hours

48

nutes
mi-

calculation,the precise
;
years is only 946707,840000
less than
have

onlyby

24

hour,

days 5

some

one

billion.

passedsince

less than
world, is considerably

billion.

such

So that

the creation

the fifth part of

considerations

one

that

immense.
so
any conception of numbers
the
Arabic
the view we have taken of
notation,

\ it is plainthat
( fold the value

cypher, wherever it occurs, increases tenof every figure

standingon its left hand 5 but
affect the value of the figures
standingon its right

does

( hand. not It
conceived
nels of
8.

solar year 365

seconds.
At that
a

in 30,000
thousand
millions

the number

'^

48

in every

of seconds

number

we

minutes

60

in

about

and

or

and

enormous

also that the several columns

be
appears
may
with
their
be
headed
to
respectivetitles,as par^

thousand

If the

reader

each, of

revert

to

of tens, "c.
illustration adduced

hundred,
the

that, instead

in

of

counting the heap of

of tens, we might as well
guineasby tens and combinations
count
by twelves and combinations of twelves ; or by any
And
low.
other fixed number
to the numeration
sufficiently
for
similar
the
notation
Arabic
to
instance,a
by twelves,
be applied, only introducingtwo
characters to
new
may
and eleven.
the figures
Then
ten
designatethe numbers
the number
denote
10 would
twelve; for the 1, standing
in the second
column, would denote one
parcelof twelve :
Iand the figures203 would denote the number two hundred
"nd ninety-one5 for the 2, standingin the third column,
"

3.

he may

observe

would

perform, tlie change made on

/ metical operationwe
be either an
increase or diminution
must
\ given number

the^
of

/it, that is, an addition to it or subtraction from it. And

) accordingiywe shall find that multiplicntion
and
division
t^ are but abridgedmethods of addition and subtraction.
In addition

13.

want

we

"eii"-lgivennumbers
between

in

subtraction, to find the difference

givenimmbers, or the number remainingafter

two

takingthe

less from

the

it is necessary
assignthe sum of any

nine,
1 4'. In

addition

that

column,

]^ieft,

the

between

each

we

column)
;.

the
8

Ave

carry

have

of the

writingthe
afterwards
write

tens,

or

(the sinn
and

these

first column

from

the

those

sums

right to

sums

each

units,9

adding the
(thesum

1 hundred

the

of

give
lefi^we

of the

under

right
right

of jthe

of the

sums

12

are

combined

third
with

802

by

tained
con-

of the second

which

added

to

column) gives
in the

By

ceeding
pro-

saved the

trouble of
and
separately,

second

column

ten

the 2 units

columns
a

(or90)

tens
one

in

numbers

the total.

as

are

several

comhinih^them

down

combine

Thus,
and

or

10

ceeding
ex-

of the

sum

jonjlig combination

Now
700,
units to the 9 tens

hundreds

hundreds

sum

12

the

of

may

hundreds,
in the

not

them.

column, and

293,
standingin the several columns
7

another

take
successively

we

/"unis'^c^
Addingtogether5019
and

and

commencing from the

j;eason
of
from
units,^nd proceedings
place

or

~ls fHat

either ration,
opelearner should be able to

perform

given number

The

total.

one

hand

greater. To

the difference

or

^digitsstandingin
/into

amount*"oF*^^

find the total

to

the

We

addition.

righthand

figure
the
to
next
lumn.
cofigures
carfy
the .same_resjihjyvill
be obtained by repeated
from
left to riglit^^or
proceeding
takingthe sums

of its sum,
But
additions

and

the

other

oT thej?olumns_in_an^prd^
And in this way the young
scholar may advantageously
be made
his work.
to prove
In

which
want
to add it
we
arrangingthe numbers
is obviouslyneedfid, that the digits
of the corresponding
should be disposedin line exactly
columns of each number
under each other : as it is necessary,
in adding pounds,
and
avoid
to
shillings
placinga number denoting
pence,
in
the
column
noting
deappropriatedto the* numbers
pence
And
the
scholar ought to be exercised in
shillings.
15.

the due
have

arrangement

them

givenhim

of the

numbers

arrangedby

for

himself,and

not

the teacher.
16.

In

which
In subtraction,tlienumber
the other is called the subtrahend

16.

from
have

subtract

to

346

from

579, it is

the units

from

that the

hundreds

and

and

tens

the number

from

plain

If

that

we

cessively
suc-

minuend*

of the

hundreds

we

may

of the subtraliend

of the. remaindei's

sum

is to be subtracted

the minuend.

be

the units tens

subtract

made,

is to

the subtraction

which

and

is the remainder

233

,.

Arid

sought.

left to

ceed from

units from

units,nor

we

5^6^
tens

as

we

if

from

anyv

corre-

if

we

subtract

cannot

tens,

we

""

pro-

subtrahend, for instance

from

279

whetiier

rightto left. But

than
the digitin tlie

less

of the

subtract

to

not

from

right,or

column

sponding

case^itmatters

mijfuendbe

digitof the
have

such

sup-l

may

resolved into the parts 16, 130, and

the 9 units from 16 ; the 7 tens
subtract

pose

the minuend

400

and

then

from(

13

tens

and

the

hundreds

two

from

hundreds.

And,

tbju^^yiien.
any^di^it-of the mirmend is less,tliatnthe corresponding
digitof the subtrahend, conceivinga unitpreand
nxecTto ft
when
we
performingJjj^e.^^kti'action,
ceed
pro.

the

to

w:Q^ijjayjfe
tp conceive

columii

next

of the minuend

less

by 1,

borrowed
T^eenalreacTy

of the

account

on

from

it.

But

tlie next

digit

whicli Jias\

one

it aflPords the

same

re-

suit in

hend
practice,to conceive the next digitqf the subtraincreased
altered
by one, and the digitof the ouRtraliendunit obviouslygives the "ame
remainder
tract
to sub; as
from

the

appears

14,

of what

reason

and

the

7 from

subtract

to

as

is called

the

And

13.

carriage in

hence
.

traction
sub-

of

proceedingfrom rightto left : (

be obtained
same
by repeatedsub- \
may
left to rights The
tractions proceedingfrom
carriagein
subtraction
be
another
accounted
for on
principle,
may
that
if
numbers
be
the two
namely,
equally increased,
;

reason

though the

result

their difference will remain

from

19

that

numbers
be

we

10

Besides the
as

exercised

whether

have

add

must

17.

B6, when
also

10

take

to

the

from

16,

we

minuend,

attention
in

to the

ing
subtractceive
conmay
and fore
there-

arrangement of the

addition, the

scholar

performing the operation

remainder

in

Thus,

to the subtrahend.

same

the subtrahend
The

we

added

is necessary
in

unvaried.

be above

or

below

ought

to

of subtraction

the minuend.

found

being the difference betuten

the" given numbers, or the number
by which the minu"|d
exceeds the subtrahend, it is plain that adding the re18.

mainde

(
inainder
minuend
nuend

the

to

that

or

affords

addition if
other

subtract

we

total, the

remainder

remainder

equal

the

equal to

from

the mi*-

the

be

must

to

of the numbers

one

any

remainder

total

subtrahend.
of provingsubtraction.
And
in

methods

two

give a

must

subtractingthe

give

must

This

subtrahend

";

the

equalto

from

the

of all the

sum

numbers.
The

19.

between
sign -|-interposed

that the numbers

two

tracted

from

be added

to

are

numbers

between

denotes

the former.

These

the

that

numbers

two

the

sign

denotes

interposed

"

latter is

be subf

to

called
signsare technically

minus, from the two Latin words signifying

more
less. Thus
denotes
23
the
SS-f-S (read
phis 5)
sum

j)hisand
and
of 23

and

And

5.

(read 23

"

5 from

remainder

subtracting

between

numbers

two

any
between
equality
side and
is called

23

the number

Thus

equation.

an

and

28,

sign
of

denotes

23

and

one

statement
5

"

an

the

on

232^and
"^

the

interposed

such

28, and

sum

and

difference between

the

that

sign

of numbers
:

23-1-5

equations,denotingthat the

denotes

5)

of numbers

set

or

the other side of that

on

The

23.
sets

or

ijiimis

is
5

18

are

equal to
is equal

""

18.

to

We

20.

and

such

that the

terms,

become

familiar

them,

with

as

think

how

have

study of Algebra, by
its

out-works,

Arithmetician
A

little

make

soon

the Arabic
many

for these

frequentoccasion

young
them.

with

illustration will

and

to

shall have

deterred

the

signs
soon

familiar with

as

and

it is ridiculous

from

attemptingthe

formidable

mere

number

too

patient explanation

child

characters
been

cannot

of

strange

which

of
appearance
symbols and terms,
every thingthe most

But
they do not understand.
obscure
is
it
understood
is
is
till
term
simple
; arid every
tillits meaning is explained,
alike unintelligible,
In the followingquestionsfor exercise in addition
21.
and
to
1

difference
of the numbers"-is
subtraction, the sum
or
be supplied by the scholar
after the sign of equality,
Ex.

2 Ex.

Let

the

+ 726 + 30874

5209

5,678093 + 23,456789
the

numbers

subtracting
any
the
comparing

addingtwo

these

to

answ'ers

or

one

908

examples

+ 4321
be

from
successively
or

remainder
more

of them

more

with

of the

the

given numbers

tracting
sub-

proved by
the

from

sum

+ 86

total

the

of the

-,

or

by

total, and

rest

or

by

an^
separately,
the^

(
their

by repeatedadditions of the digiti

proceedingfrom left to right.

to tlie rest;

sum

or

in the several cohimiis

Ex.

3456"508

the

Let

the remainder

to

proved by adding

be

and

the
by subtracting

the minuend.

from

remainder

987654"109345

examples

these

to

the subtrahend

Ex.

answers

the first
trees, of which
bears 157 apples,the second 264, tjiethird 305, the fourth
He sells42 3 apples; 186 are stolen.
97, and the filth 123.
Ex.

apple

five

has

man

I
has he left for his own
use
many
of 57,068 men,
Out of an army
9503, are killed
6 Ex.
taken pri^
in battle ; 586 desert to the enemy
are
; 4794
the passage
die of their wounds
1234
on
home;
soners;
How
alive to their owu
drowned.
return
850
are
many
How

country ?
7 Ex.
went

London

from
travelling

man

mile^, the

day

day

miles, and going the

third

115

day 94 miles, the

fourth day 86 miles he

second

the first

87

Edinburgh

to

is the distance
Edinburgh, What
how
far from the
and JCdinlpurgh
betwee^ London
; ai:id
the traveller at the end of the third day ?
latter town
was
finds himself
A man
8 Ex.
at the beginningof the year
of
the
Li
the
w^orth ."'123,078.
course
year he gains bytrade .^8706; but spends in January .5^237, in February
much as in the two
as
^301, and in each succeedingmonth
at the end of
preceding, What was the state of his afF^]irs
the year?
within

was

miles

12

Chronology will

of

furnish

varietyof examples.. But

that

pains

should

of the terms
to

solve it : and

Arithmetical
with

which

that

the

should

indefinite

an

it is to be observed

in

general,

first illustrationsof the

Arithmetic

is the exercise

borrowed

be

great advantage of
when

from

use

of

the

objects
proposed in low
to
earlyapplication

familiar, and

the cliild is most

The

with

give the child a clear tion

concephe
is
before
in
called
employed
p, question,

rules

iiiculty.And

teacher

be take^i to

numbers.

solve

the

which

child

question,the meaning

is

an

it affords

to

the

thinking

how
taught practically

of which

he

does

not

to

clearly

understand, instead of any benefit accruing,a mental habit

the most
injuriousis contracted, of resting in indistinct

conceptions,and mistakingsounds
Here
patienceand judgment in the

or

signsibr knowledge^
teacher
are
especially

needful.

CHAP,

10

CHAP.
"Nature

and

Principles
of Multiplication.Sign X
Powers.
of Proof Abbreviated Methods.
Exercise.
foi^

thoch
iions

22.

III.

MULTIPLICATION

is but

an

Me-^

Qjies-

abridgedmethod

of addition,

employed where we have occasion to add the

number
same
repeatedlyto itself. Of the two numbers
of
multipliedtogether,and called by the common
name
is that number
which
want
to
factors^the midtip"licand
we
add repeatedly
and
the midtiplierexpresses the
to itself;
number
times
of
that the former is to be repeatedin that
The
addition.
sum
requiredis called the product. Thus,
derstand
by the product of 6 multipliedby 4 we are reallyto unthe

of four

sum

sixes,or

table, which
furnishes
memory,
times 12, or the sum
teaches
where

us

with

of

us

the factors

is

The
tiplication
mul+ 6.
be committed
to

supposed to
all the productsas high

12

how

twelves:

and

derive

the

to

both

or
(either

of

12

as

the rule of Multiplication

higher products,

them) exceed twelve.

23. The
is the same,
ever
whichproduct of any two numbers
of them
be made
the multiplier.For instance,if we

multiply8 by
multiply5 by
to

prove
admit nor

we

I have known

8,

this,conceivingit

requireproof.
with the fact.
familiarity
that the
8

fives,or

-f5 5 which
it admits a

Suppose
other.

of 5

sum

that

way,

at the

we

attempt

neither

to

they are imposed on by their

is by no
self-evident
means
be the

must
eights

smile

many

8-}-8-f-8-}-8-f

of the

with

same

the

of

sum

+ 5 + 5-|-5-}-54-5 +

very
rows

must

liave 5

count
way we
be the same.

times

it is plain that we
way,
obvious
that a similar

eight;
have

them, the total

and

countingthem one
countingthem another
But

8 times

proof would

amount

five
be

It is

counters.

to
applicable

any

highernumbers.
The

is X
St. Andrew's
or
a
sign of multiplication
between
the factors ; and is to be carefully
cross, interposed
from
the
addition
of
Thus
-}-.
distinguished
sign
12 X 8, or 8 X 12, denotes the product of 8 and 12.
24.

proposition.However

meaning
illustration.
easy proof from the following
of 8 counters
regularly
disposedunder each

Whatever

we

It

if

product, as

same

self-evident;as

so

But

is the

of the number

the

sh^llhave

25.

The

productof

The

25.

of all the
into which
the

11
two

any

all the
multiplying

products obtained, by
either is divided, by
into the

8 divided
suppose
of 5 times 8 will be

the

other

the

which

parts into

is equalto the

numbers

other,

is divided,

3, and

parts 4,

equalto the

the product of

8 will be

5 times

if

we

suppose
3 and 2

of the six

sum

of the three

each
by multiplying

productsobtained

product
products,

parts

the

equal to

we

the

of the three

sum

of

if

Thus,

1 ;

And
1.
5 times 4, 5 times 3, and 5 times
into the two
5 also divided
the multiplier

parts,

each

by

or

sum

ponent
com-

ponent
parts of the multiplicandby each of the two comparts of the multiplier*The truth of this will appear

in the

adcluced

was

the

same

section,

In

plain,by employing

very

23d

counters,

aptlyrepresenting5

first,two

lines

times

downwards

drawn

illustration that
the

8, let

three

into

of 5 times 4, 5 times
and
line drawn
across

sets

supposing a

into 3 and

counters

will be divided

and

twice

these

This

And

3 ;

sets

is

2, it is

the

proof is exhibited

it is

3, and

plaineach

set

one

the eye

to

0000

000

0000

000

0000

000

0000

000

0000

000

plainlyapplicableto

any

of

row

It is then

1,

is divided

5 times

Then

1.

of 5

row

of the 3 former

sets

4 ;" 3 times

twice
so

that

of 5

times

iiithe

suppose,

dividingeach

into two, 3 times 4 and

twice 1 :
times 1 and

equal to

us

dividing each

eightcounters into the three parts 4, 3, and

plainthat the whole set of 5 times 8 counters

of

rows

the
8

3,
of

sum

counters.

scheme.
subjoined

divided

other numbers,

into any parts whatsoever.

Thus, if we suppose 17 broken
into the
into the four parts, 6, 5, 4 and 2 ; and 9 broken
three
must

parts,
be

obtained

4, 3, and

2 ;

the

product

of

times

17

of the twelve
of each
products
equal to the sum
tiplicand
by multiplyingeach of the four parts of the mulby each of the three parts of the multiplier:

that

is 17x9=24

12 +

10 +

8 +

4.

+
With

section the student

both

of

20

the

cannot

18 +

15+12+6

principle
brought forward
be too

familiar

; as

+
in this

dation
it is the foun-

and Algebraic,as
multiplication

common

nvell as fruitful in the

+ 16 +

most

important inferences.
26.

If

12

productof any two knoMTi

numbers, we may
employ a successive multiplication
by
is the product. Thus,
the multiplier
the factors, of which
tiply
if we
to
want
multiplyany number
by 54, we may mulit by 9, and
that product by 6 : for 6 times 9 being
If

S6.

when

54,

be
multiplier

our

first find

we

and

then

be 6 times

must

It appears

27.

the

that is 9 times

number

multiplythat
times, or
from
" 7

the multiplicand,

numV/er

by 6, our product
54 times the multiplicand.
and " 25. that the product of

number

multiplied
by 10, 100, 1000, "c. is obtained
at once
by annexing one, two, three, "c. cyphersto the
Thus, the product of
multiplicandqn the righthand.
327
multipliedby 1000 is 327,000: for each digitof the
And
bining
commultiplicandis increased in value 1000 times.
the principle
of the last section, it is plain that if
any

be 20,
multiplier

our

product by annexing
then

300, 4000,

multiplying
by"2,

429,600

two,

one,

"c.

we

three, "c.

the

cyphers,antj

Thus

3, 4, "c.

obtain

may

4296x700

X 7.

the

From

stated in " 25. it is manifest that

principle
find the product of any two numbers
\te
: for however
can
into parts not exceeding
great the factors, they may be broken
furnished
all
of
which
the
are
12,
products
parts
the
when
But
the factors, either
table.
by
multiplication
28.

or

both

of them,

into which

we

exceed

twelve, the

by the digits. Thus,

537
multipliedby 9, I

broken

them

conceive

can

if I

most

convenient
are

those

part|"
cated
indi-

product
vided
multiplicanddiinto the parts 7, 30, and 500 j and
the product is
of the three products9 times 7,
by " 25. equal to the sum
the multipli9 times 30, and
9 times 500
cation
j each of which
table furnishes.
For 30 being 3 tens, 9 times 30
of

must

be 27

tens,

hundreds,

or

270;

want

conceive

and

9 times

to, find the

the

5 hundreds

must

be

product sought therefore

must
sum
products,63 + 270 + 4500,
that is, 4833.
of the successive products,
This addition
by proceedingfrom rightto left in takingthe parts of the
able to perform mentally,without
are
multiplicand,we
if I
Now
writingthe whole of each product separately."
to find the product of 537
want
multipliedby 69, I suppose
the multiplier
also divided into the two
9
parts and
60 ; and
having found the product of 9 times the multiplicand,
I proceedto find the product of 60 times the mul^.
45

be the

or

4500.

of the

The

three

tiplicand

1*

(
instance if

be
multiplier

our

this number

that

4989,

obsei^ve by

we

is within

of 5000.

11

tion
inspec-

If then

the

multiplicand,and subtract from that

the remainder
be
must
product 1 1 times the multiplicand,
the multiplicand
times
be the product
4989
must
or
j
of operationare
useful
sought. Such abridgedmethods
for exercising
youthfulingenuity: but ought not to be prematurely
introduced.
Rational
hand
in
theory, going
will soon
the student expert in
hand with practice,
make
For
discerningvarious advantageswhich may be taken.
example, if we have to multiply123,456789 by 107988,
the multiplier
being within 12 of 108000, and 9 times 12
being 108, we may first find 12 times the multiplicand,
and
subtractingthat product from 9000 times that product
will give the remainder
for the
13,331851,730532
product sought. But in generalit is useless to occupy the
take

times

5000

learner's

arithmetical

in

time

operations on numbers
so
in real practice. A much

occur
high, as scarcelyever
more
advantageousexercise is to enSgehim in operating
low numbers
to
on
mentally,without
committing them
find
the product of 25
times 36.
to
paper ; for instance

This

is calculated

form

to

habit

of fixed

attention, and

to strengthenthe mental

powers.
of
32.
product
any number
called the square of that number,
The

thus

number
original

product.

of the

root

square

by

or

its second

multipliedis called

itself is

The

power.

the

square root
is the square of 8 : and 7 is the
If the square of any number
be multiplied

Thus

of 49.

64

product is called the cube, or third

Thus, 64X8,
or
originalnumber.
512, is

its root,

of the
power,
the cube of 8

multipliedby

the

and

the

cube

root

of 512.

And

if the

its root, the product is called its

of any number
Those
fourthpower : and so on.
powers
often represented
are
by annexing to the righthand of the

cube

multipliedby

be

root, and
which are

somewhat

elevated, the

figures2,

3, 4,

"c.

called indices of the powers.

Tlius 8
expresses
And
the square of 8 ; 2 being the index of the power.
of 15, or 15x15x15x1
15"^ expresses the fourth power
5.
33.

square
Thus

the

Among

laid down

which

in

"

we

shall have

we

number

of any
8

25.

"

64

flowing from the principle

here proceed to state two, for
may
frequentoccasion in Algebra. The

inferences

and

is four times
4

1 6.

But

the
64

squaj-e of its half.

this
That
16X4.
must

(
be

must

so

is

evident from

and
into the
the

to

being botli

divided

be

in

both

tiplicand
mul-

factors

the

be equal
must
product 8X8
products,each of which is 4X4, or

+ 4
of four

the square

and

For

25.

"

multiplier,
may
4

parts

sum

IS

of 4.

Again, the square of the sum of any two numbers

of their squares togetherwith twice
is equalto the sum
of 4 and
3 is 7 : and the
their product. Thus, the sum
34.

with
together

of the squares of 4 and 3,

twice the product of 4 and 3 : that is 49 =

16-|.9_[-24*

This

of 7 is

"quare

supposingthe
the

parts

two

in like

sum

and

of the

any other
shall hereafter see,

3 ;

we

into

or

root, and

square

student

it will afford

and

too

cannot

by
into
On

parts.

depends the

reduction

the

become

soon

good 'exercise

two

It is of such

equationsin Algebra.
that the

immediatelyappears
7 divided
multiplier

manner

multiplicandand

as
principle,

this

the

equalto

of

dratic
qua-

frequentuse,

familiar with

calculate,without

to

traction
ex-

it :

the

of any number
within 100, by resolving
pen, the square
into the two
the number
parts indicated by the digits.

Thus,

child may

if he

35.

only know

and

is 108,

Any

add

can

to

and

mentally 3681

productis said to be

either factor

and

find the square of 69 mentally,

that 60 X 60 is 3600, that twice 54
led

be

is called

1080

multipleof either factor ;

of the product.
siibnmltiple
a

multipleof 8 or of 12, because 12 X 8=96

;
of 96.
and 8 or 12 is a submultiple
In the following
36.
let the
examples of multiplication
write
the
requiredproduct after the signof
young student
him
observe that, as 234X89
let
And
notes
deequality,=.
the product of 234
and 89, so 234-f 6 X 89 denotes
the product obtained
of 234 and 6
by multiplyingthe sum
(that is 240) by 89 ; and 234 + 6 X 89 + 11 denotes the
of 234
and 6
product obtained by multiplyingthe sum
of 89 and 11, or 100.
In like man(or 240) by the sum
ner
Thus

96

is

is the
X 89+11
that product is equal ("25)

234+6+7
and
ducts

234X89,+

6 X

Again 234

89

thingas

same

to

the

7X89

of the six pro-

sum

234X11

7 denotes

247X100:

6X11

the

productobtained
by multiplying
by 5, and that product by 7 ; and is
with
the same
the product of 234 X 35.
(" 26.)
Again
+

7X11.

5 X

234

let it be

observed

" 32.) denotes

the

that

10^

(or the

product of

10

5th
10 X

power
10

10

of
x

10,

see

10.

1st. Ex.

1st. Ex.

1+24-3

2d. Ex.

2X3X4X5

3d. Ex.

9 +

+ 7 +

Wliat

4th. Ex.

4. X

5 +

6x7x8x9
5

123456789

8th. Ex.

7539

9th. Ex.

How

much

square of 24
10th. Ex.

==

3 +

2 +

(or 3d. powers) of the

bers
num-

10?

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
5th. Ex. 35 + 45 + 9^ =
3453 X 100^ =
6th. Ex.
7th. Ex.

+ 74-8 + 9

+
the cubes

are

16

(See " 31.)

9988=

See

60054=

" 30.)

the square

does

the

of 48 exceed

(See " 33.)

How

much

57 + 28]*) exceed

the

does
?

57* + 28*

of 57+28

square

(or

(See " 34.)

of

provingraidtiplication,
independently
other
methods
see
" 61 and 62.)
(For
"
of multiplication
Questions for exercise in the practicalapplication
will be found in Chap. VI.
the method

For

of division,see

29.

CHAP.
and

Nature

Principlesof Dlvisio?t"
Number

smaller

tions

37.

from

Division

^.

of

Qiies-

of Proof

for Exercise.
DIVISION,

one

in

called

number

the

the

called

enquire

we

be subtracted

divisor^ may
the

anx

how

The

dividend.

quotient

tracted
times, that the divisor may be subdividend, or is contained in it. Thus,

the

I divide

Here

of

the number

expresses
from

of it, is but

primary view

the

of subtraction.

number,

another

when

Sign

Methods

by a greater.

abridged method
often

IV.

96

by

divisor

12

quotientis

12, the
from

the

dividend

for I may

96

just 8

tract
subtimes.

by performing the successive

of them : but is
reckoning the number
discovered
forms
inat once
table, which
by the multiplication
that 96 is equalto 8 times 12, and therefore conme
tains
12 in it exactly8 times.
If I divide 103 by 12, it is
12 from
103
plainthat after subtracting
eighttimes, there

might be

This

ascertained

subtractions, and

will remain

fox

so

remainder.

that the

quotient is still 8,
(See J 4 3 )

but

with

38.

When

When

38.

exactly,without

of times

number

is said to

number

the former

96, but does

measures

12

and

twice.
12 exactly

24

above

the

Thus

lowingsymbols

=12

"

divided

tient of 84
also

is sometimes

"

division of

the latter.

measure

The

103.

measure

Thus,

12

numbers

in it exactly
3

times,

by writingthe dividend
them.
interposedbetween

line

division

of 84

express

therefore

by

the fol-

and

that

the

quo-^

by 7 is equal to 12. The symbol -^

vidend
employed to express division, the diit, and the divisor
of

way

on

expressingthe

42

well

as

of

is another

42-4-6

by 6,

42

leavingany remainder,

the left hand

standingon
right. Thus,

the

the

expresses

-r-

certain

division

often express
divisor with

We

39.

not

in another

8 being contained

and

measure

is contained

number

one

17

as

"

6
.
.

be made
If any quotient
the divisor 6f the same
vidend,
diwill
divisor
the former
be the new
quotient,and

40.

the

remainder

Thus, dividing
(ifany) as before.
is 8 with the remainder
7.
Now
if
103 by 12, the quotient
divide 103 by 8, the quotient
be 12, leaving
the same
must
we
same

remainder.
contains

first division

shews

and

eighttimes

12

8 twelve

contain

must

the

For

times and

that

8 times

dend
divi-

Therefore

over.

over

the

it

and

12

12

beingequal. {"23.) And thus also it is manifest

productbe divided by either of the factors,the
quotientmust be the other factor : and that any dividend
the product of the divisor and
be considered
as
may
tient,
quoadded.
with the remainder
(ifany)

times

that if any

In

41.

the

view

division which

of

proposed,the

divisor

the dividend

else itwould

it is contained
of

may

by

greater.
12,

into twelve

of each.

The

that amount,
contains

When
we

we

may

consider

enquirehow

of
to

former,
a

divide

as

therefore

the

quotient

called to
the

before, is

or
part of 96.
in it just8 twelves, it must
contain

is the

number

stance,
96, for in-

ascertain

twelfth

divide
amount

of

number

For

since

just12

twelfth

view

in which

smaller

ourselves
to

often

there is another

called

are

hitherto

greater than

not

the

with

equal parts, and

quotient,found
the

to

But

the division

conceive
easily

by

and

be absurd

in the dividend.

division,closelyconnected

we

96

be conceived

.must

been

has

96

eights
;

part of

96.

And

18

the quotientmay
be considered as
universally
of the dividend which
is denominated
that part, or submultiple,
sidered
by the divisor; as the divisor may be conof
that part, or
submultiple, the dividend which
the
is denominated
by
quotient. (HithertoI suppose the
the
divisor to measure
dividend,) Thus, dividing64- by
16
is
fours from
the
.16
644
quotient
j for subtracting
thus

And

there is

remainder.

no

64

5 and

42.

Now

of

or

then

part of
7, may
child

each

revert

now

the

close of

quotientwe

Therefore

that

The

view;

part of

the latter

divide 7

to

equalshares:

get the twelfth

quotient,or

twelfth part of

notation

"

("39;) and the

this notation, previous

of fractions.
to

the

to

vision
di-

must

duced
division intro-

example of

" 37. the division of

is 8, but

saw

8 is not

into 12

person

the doctrine

on

occasion

or
equally,

familiarized

be

to

us

at

The

plainthat
guineas.

entrance

Let

43.

accordingto

to

by the
represented

be

ought

his

to

seven

therefore any

is the twelfth

.12 persons

it is

enquirehow

to

7, and

instance, I might have

For

guineasamong
and

the sixteenth part

enquirewhat
dividing7 by 12 accordingto

absurd

not

to speak of

view.

is

is the fourth part of 64*

though it would be absurd

12

yet it is

16

be subtracted from
may
of 7 by 12 is inconceivable

often

7,

Therefore

by

103

leavinga

exactlythe twelfth part of

103

12,

of 7.

remainder
:

for if I

dividing103 guineasequallyamong 12 persons, after

givingeach of them 8 guineas there would be 7 guineas
7 guineasI should proceed to divide equally
: which
over
them ; that is, I should give each of them
the
among
twelfth part of 7 guineasin addition to the 8 guineas he
were

received, in

had

order

to

make

the,twelfth part of

Therefore

103

the division
is

exactly8^
wherever

the twelfth part of 7.

And
so,
the
student
remainder
on
a
division,

and

correct

the

by
44.

the

As

quotient by annexing

to

our

the

method
practical

of it

are

divisor

obvious
does

it be requiredto divide
from

times

the

"

"

there
be

is

taughtto

it that'Temainder

to

or

vided
di-

the divisor.

grounds
that

should

accurate*

not

51 12

from

of

performingdivision,

"

37.

exceed

12

by

8,

We

table that 8
multiplication
may
from the dividend, but not
700

Let
:

us

first suppose

for instance

let

immediatelyknow
be subtracted

600

times; since

600

times

times
a

greater than
from

4800

subtraction

in

greatest
it, or may

being 320,

therefore

30

in which

remainder

Thus

have

we

times

times

we

that from

times,

30

number

that

mainder
re-

it : and

contained

that 8 is contained

see

the

and

v^^e

30 times

in

times

If

the

dividend

our

be 639

with

eighthpart

just9

times.

be subtracted
may
in all 639
or

quotient,and

the

51 19 it is plain

were

the remainder

of

72

5112,

is therefore

eighthpart of 5112.
that the quotient
would
therefore

from

240, from 312, there remains

or

ascertained

which

8,

times,

600

8 is

the

to

now

multiplication-table,
that 8 is certainly

subtracted

before that

as

one

times ; 30 times 8 being240, but 40 times

number
greater than 312.
Subtracting

40

not

the

of times

be

this

distinct subtractions

proceed

consider, from

and

immediatelyknow
312, but

We

dividend.

and

312;

of 600

number

is the

contained

remains

tlie trouble

the

312,

there

5112,

saves

from

what

is 4800, but 8 times 700 is 5600,

the dividend.
therefore
Subtracting

(or 8 times 600)

number

of 8

19

is 639

5119

-f

and

-.

In

perform the

practice, w^e
subtractions

mentally,as

and
multiplications

successive

proceed; attendingonly to

we

that part of the dividend, which

ascertains the successive
of the quotient,
and writingonly those digits.
But
digits

ought to be exercised
the operationat large,as

the learner

for
I

that he may be grounded in the rational

contractions
which the practical
rest.
Let

45.

us

now

for instance, that

at

may

700,

700

times

(or 28000)

does

dividend

though600

the

that

40

therefore

and

divide

to

much

contain

not

times

40

(or 24000)
found

(Nothingbut practicecan

make

yet

this

and

trying numbers
too
or

which

we

remainder
7 times.

from

the

we

less than
the

times

the
;

for

the dividend,
the dividend.

greater than
the student

dend,
divi-

But

49.

is less than

We

quick in

ceiving
perhe may
for a time have the trouble of
in the quotient,which
he will find to be

subtract
343

be

600

even

12

49.

exceed
times

700

therefore
great.) Subtracting

24500,

by

quotient

the divisor

4^) will be

times

600

exceeds

must

more

performing
it ;

principlesupon

27783

would

in

described

divisor

our

conclude

once

as

that

suppose
have
we

time

some

have

60

500

times

the

dividend, there remains 3283

times the divisor,or
2940.

find that the

So that the entire

C

divisor

from

In

is contained

quotientis 567.
2

divisor,

In

such

the

just
in-

stances

(
is called

of what

stances

long division,it

remainders.

the successive

write

20

is necessary to
after the student has

But

the

of the operation,it will

principles
be expedientthat he should perform the subtractions without
the
successive
the several
products; subtracting
writing
them
he
with
the
as
composing
proceeds
digits
multiplication,
Thus it appears that we
enabled
46.
are
by the multiplication-table
the successive digits
of the
to determine
tient
quo-

groundedin

been

the left hand.

from

which

have

we

But

althoughthe

described

be

the

order

of proceeding

convenient,

most

the young
Arithmetician practisedin ing
resolvand
dividend
differently,
proceeding on similar

I would

have

the

order.
Let
but in another
us
principles,
again take the
illustrate
last example, to
27783
my meaning. In dividing
took
first
of
the dividend,
27000, a component part
by 49, we
500
and findingthat it contained
and
forty-nines
2500

incorporated the

we

over,

latter with

783

the other

ner
part of the dividend^ and proceededin like manfind the other component
parts of the quotient.But

component
to

the

be obtained

must

component part of the

latter
49

result

same

the

quotientis 15

by commencing with the

dividend 783.
Dividingit by

with the remainder

Adding that

48.

remainder
to the other part of the dividend 27000, we
may
times 49 is
to ascertain how
proceed in like manner
many
in their siim, by commencing with the component
The
will
be
with
7048.
the re143
mainder
quotient
part
And
the
remainder
the
41.
20000
to
adding

contained

which

has

not

yet been

in their

contained

sum

divided, 49 will be found

Now
20041
just409 times.

to

be
the

of the three

fore.
15-|-14'3-f-409, is 567 as bequotients,
thus the student
be taughtto prove the
And
may
of his work in division,not onlyby multiplying
accuracy
the
the divisor and quotient,
(" 40.) but also by resolving
dividend into any two
or
more
parts, dividingeach of
them
by the givendivisor,and adding the quotients.
47. If the given divisor be the productof any two
or
sum

more

known

factors,the quotient may

be obtained
Thus

in

from

often

successive divisions

more

by

ditiously
expethose factors.

the last

example, 49 being 7 times 7, if we

and
divide 27783
by 7,
again divide the quotient3969 by
shall
have
the
result
567.
7, we
Perhaps the child might
for
here be advantageouslyintroduced
to the principle,
which

we

have

such

constant

tlie 7th. part of the 7th. must

occasion

in

fractions,that

be the 49th. part, "c.

c.

(See
viii.

The

thing will

same

22

appear

from

number

is divided

by

as

from
digits

the

doctrine

of fractions.

Any
puttingoff

^" 51.

as

many
there

the

off express
the
dividend the
o
f
digits

thus

cut

with

of division
to divide

want

we

then

and

1000

remainder

righthand

of the

the divisor.

by
vidend,
di-

The

"viththe remainder
the

dividend

This

567.

is

equalto lOOQ
the product. Hence
567
added
it is
to
divisor consist of any significant
figures
of cyphers,we
number
employ the
may

plainthat if our
foliovved by any
method

"c.

digits
the remaining
remainder,
jThu",dividing234567
quotient.,,,

is 234
1000, the quotient
is manifest from " 40, since
234

100"1000

"

and

by

times

the

cyphers in

are

10

234567

by

in the last section.

described
7

and

of 3 is in fact 3

the first remainder

by 7000, we may
the quotient
will

when

For

3567.

And

we

to

shall have

be
the

the

with

by 7,

thousands, and is

567.

be 33

divide 234

we

if

Thus

divide firstby
the

mainder
re-

added
same

to
sult
re-

if we
first divide by 7'
(thoughnot so expeditiously)
and then by 1000,
of any of
52. When
the givendivisor is a submultiple
work
those last described, we
often abridge our
by
may
divide
if
I
have
1234
to
Thus
multiplication.
by 25, I
that the quotient
is 49 with the remainder
know at once
9.
.

For

is the fourth part of 100, which

is contained
in the
Therefore
34.
dividend 12 times with the remainder
25

{" 49.)
that

the dividend

is, 48 times with the

remainder
75

the

contain

must

25

being the fourth

75th.

that

part of
=

75

part of 300,

34.

as

But

In hke

over,

I know

at

is 16 with the remainder

Some

and

once

1234

16 -{--^
75

remainder

same

is contained

four times

25

once

often,
in this
ner,
man-

that

34,

or

other abbreviations of division,

less

commonly known, I shall point out in the following

chapter. They may evercise the ingenuityof the student,
and are
calculated to developevery curious properties
of

certain numbers.

Examples
the

for

examples

practicein division may

of

be had

jfrom all

the

end of Chap, III.

at
multiplication
let
the
student
following
examples
supply the quotient
after the signof equality

In the

1st. Ex.

2d. Ex.
3d. Ex.
4th, Ex.

123456789

--9000

987654321-125=
3933

-f-

19

(See " 52.)

31464-7-19=

Let

Let

student

the

in the 4th.

the dividend

quotientin

the

Sd.

observe

in the

being

the 4th. is

that
*jtu)iUf5Tes

twoiJlili

the

times

times

dividend

the

in

the

quotientin

the

3d.
5th. Ex.

3496

19=^

-^

9th. part of the dividend in

the 4th. example, the quotientalso is the 9th. part of the
quotientin the 4th.
Ex,

6th.

31464

quotientis

being 7

the divisor in the 4th. the

times

quotientin

180918^437

being the 9th.

example, the quotientis 9
divisor

the

7th

the 4th.

180918-3933=:

Ex.

Here
the

the 7th. part of the

7th. Ex.
8th.

133

-f-

the divisor

Here
'

being the

the dividend

Here

of the

part
times

the

divisor

in

quotient in

the 7th.

5907^9^

9th. Ex.

9^+P

1 0th. Ex.

Besides

-^

the methods

out,

another

and

62

^ ==

of

proving division alreadypointed

will be assignedin the

method

chapter.

63c

CHAP.
Methods

V.

and of provingDivision^
of ahhreviaied Opet^ation,

continued.

53.

next

WE

Propertiesof
arrive

may

for
by substituting

at

the Numhey^s

^^ 9, 11, 4'^.

requiredquotientin division,

the

given divisor any other whatsoever,

either greater or less than the given one.
exhibit this,
To
\ shall firstemploy a number
greater by 1 than the given
divisor.
Suppose fqr instance we have to divide 796 by 19.
of
Dividingit by 20 the quotientis 39 with the remainder
1 6.
I say then that the required quotientmust
be 4 1 with
the

remainder

17.

from
I have

the

subtracted

much.

39

units

I have

dividend

39

instead

20

that

Hence

containing39
^Iso

For

much;

1 too

too

the

that

found
:

is, I have

in which

tracted
sub-

but

subtracted

we

be

may

for every time that

subof subtracting
19, I have tracted
times

infer that the

may
nineteens
with a remainder

more

20

39

there

are

dividend
of

16,

all 39

in

besides
contains

2 nineteens
1

and
over.

(
1

Therefore

over.

(39 + 2)

teens

give

the

with

of the

of 17

suppose

nine*

(16-f-l). Or,

principle
upon
divide

we

in all 41

contains

the remainder

proceeds;

method

dividend

illustration

another

24

796

which

to

this

guineas equally

20 persons
first among
: they will each
get 39 guineas and
the 20th. part of 16 guineas. But
now
findingthat we
20
in making the division among
and
were
persons,
wrong

19, we take
ought to have been made only among
one
person'sshare from him and divide it equallyamong
shall now
the rest-r so~that each
get for his share 41 guineas
if we
and the l^^th. part of 17 guineas. Thus
have
to divide 1234
by 99, we may know at once that the quotient
For dividing
46.
is 12 with the remainder
by 100,
34 : but having thus
the quotientis 12 with the remainder
units too
12
subtracted
much, they must be added to 34
that it

and

24

and

once

24

Substituting

as

the remainder

the

necessary
number
to the

quotientsought

99

to

divide

knew

we

quotient,and
would

is 124

but

by

be

123456789

99

with

what

number

with

place
the

100,

99,

made

remainder,

by adding that

of this

result

of times

what

be ascertained
in

by

quotient is 1234567

that remainder

this would

division

If

quotient,and

quotientby

substitute

our

correction

Now

remainder.
first

contains

123

as

divisor, the

89.

in that

is contained

99

have

we

suppose
100

with

first quotient

69.

Now

54.

be 12345, the

the

1 to

inasmuch

that the

so

over

the remainder

if the dividend

by adding

remainder

the

to

made

be

will

correction

And

remainder.

for the true

the

to

former

the
by dividing
we
again
may

of which

is to

be

thus continually
And
dividingeach
similarlycorrected.
of all the quotients
successive quotientby 100, the sum
and

of all the remainders

sum

But
=

the

1234567

12345

we

us

have

with

the

the

true

quotient,

123-1-1 = 1247036.
remainders, 89-f 67-f 45-f 23-f- 1
+

of all the

sum

Thus

remainder.

quotientand true
addition,
by mere

will furnish

and 27 over,
add the
we
containing2 ninety-nines
that the true
the quotient:so
quotient is 1247038
At any
27.
the remainder
periodof the above process,

225,
to

with

when
we
quotient,

discontinue

may

the corrections
55,

Hitherto
exceeds

the

often

how

see

we

at

one

99

is contained

the division

by

in
100

the

and

last
plete
com-

step.

visor
supposed that the substituted digivendivisor only by 1. But let us now

we

have

suppose

'

25

divide

1234

We
by 95;
may with
that the quotient is 1 2 with the reconclude
mainder
equalfacility
the
is
12
with
For dividingby 100,
94.
quotient
that

suppose

have

we

the remainder

that

which

much,

60

adduced

have

is, we

that

subtracted

is therefore

to

also

to

apply to

easy

in

In

" 53.)

added

like

have

we

have

we

be

(Itis

remainder.

time

every

subtracting95,

instead of

much

too

for

But

34,

100
5

to

subtracted
all

in

this

too

former

the illustration

case

if

manner

60

the

34

to

tracted
sub-

have

we

to

the

which
8000
exceeds
by 7988, substituting
given divisor by 12, we have the quotient 154 with

the

remainder

1234567

divide

(154

12)

2567

which

to

shall have

we

if

remainder
for the true

4415

add

we

1848

remainder.

It

thod
advantageous to employ this methe given divisor be much
less than
it is convenient
to employ ; and if
substituted, which
be more
in the quotient
than those in
of digits
number

be

scarcelyhowever
in practice,if

can

the
the

divisor.

the

56

Hence

"

that if 9

it appears

the

measure

digitsof

the

that

number

number, it will measure

any
left on
the remainder
dividing any

be the

digitsby
because

Thus

9.

the

For

if

37 +

the remainder

with

same

of

+ 0, and

infer

nines,

like

dividing
dividingthe
that

in whatever

divided

9.

in like

may

+ 23 +
divisible

1=69:

by 99,

gtration will be
the

of its

sura

be 6,

9 must

give the

similar

property

number

but
since

found

the

the

14652,
52

in

46

" 59

mainder.
re-

thus

And

9.

the

it

digits,

same
on

being

99, 999,

only takingthe digits

Thus
12345
righthand.
;

remainder
or

any

of the numbers

be inferred

manner

quotients,

without

remainder

same

sum

that is the reihaindor

with

written

latter

that the remainder

digits 15 by

numbers
will

as

which

the former

to

it appears

by pairs, by threes, "c. from

divided
by 99 must
give
45

3 ;

quotientis 42

of the

any

7 +

8 +

carry

manner

sum

order,

by

we

exact

by

12345

is evident

"c.

the

that
In

on

9 must

the

of remainders

containing

on

by

evenly divisible by 9,

is

378,

or

and

digits2 -f 3 -f 4, or 3 -|-7 -f 8, is so.

instead
of dividing378
substitute
tinued
conby 9, we
divisions by 10, the series of quotients will be
sum

ji^.t2

and

234,

number

dividingthe

on

of the

sum

15246

+ 1=99.
and 60.

69
must

Another

for

be

because

evenly
demon-

the property

of

9.
57. Let

(
Let

57.

the

us

100

is

have

100

1 too

which

that is
little,

we

cont^iins 101

twelve

will appear

as

therefore would
from

the

mainder
with

be

made

which

times

at

But

with

remainder
have
tracted
sub-

the remainder

The

101.

tion
correc-

12
by subtracting

once

from

22

for

gives 1222

the remainder

the

in all too littleby

by

and

first quotient1234,
56

with

subtracted

dividing1234

on

101.

performed
given one.
Substituting

every time that we

101, we have
subtracting

of

instead

the

For

too great.
manifestly

1234,

by

123456

be

may

less than

divisor

divide

to

division

divisor,the quotient1234

our

subtracted

22

of

substitution

as

56

consider how

now

by
Suppose we

26

the

the

first

re^

quotient sought,

of

instead

the
ascertaining
correction
at once
by dividingthe firstquotientby 101,
let us again substitute a division by 100 ; and subtracting
the quotient12 and remainder
from
the :first quotient
34
and first remainder, it is now
plainthat we have subtracted
much

too

addition.

by

therefore the

and

be made

we

the

by

when

given one,

successive

our

be made

too

visor
di-

corrections

additions

and

add

then

much,

too

must

successively
employ

we

alternate subtractions

first subtract

Whereas

correction

next

thus when

And

less than
must

34,

much,

as

"c.

greater than the

corrections proceededby addition, as

employed

we

divisor

given one, all our

we
were
successively
adding too little. If our substituted
divisor be less than the given one
than a unit, it
by more
before that each quotient
be multiplied
must
as
by
appears
Thus
the quotientof 12345^6 divided by
the difference.
is 24 with the remainder
3168
5012
: for dividing
by 5000
is 24 with the remainder
3456
which
the quotient
; from
the true
have
remainder
(24x12) we
subtracting288
remainder.
58,

which

infer
may
shall be demonstrated
Hence

namely,
if the

sum

we

property of the number

other

from

in
principles

11,

" 61.

that any number

be evenly divisible by 11,
must
of the alternate digits
from the last and the sum

digitsfrom the penultimatebe equal,or

their difference evenlydivisible by 11.
Thus, 190817, or
the
718091, is evenlydivisible by 11, since 11 measures

of the alternate

difference

of

between

7 + 8 + 9 and

dividingby 11,

successive

the remainders

added

should

we

divisions

by

and

1
.

For

if,instead

the quotientby
investigate

10, the

these would

successive

be

to

be

would
digits

be

subtracted and

alternately.
59.

The

27

(
59.

property of the number

The

If from

demonstrated.
easily

be thus

instancejif from

For

divisible by 9.

(3+

12

stated in

divisible by
made up of 100
9.

5)

the remainder

the number

For

threes,

be

must

sum

evenly345

be

must

maj

we

evenly

be considered

may

fours, and

10

the

the number
333

345

56.

"

any number

subtracted, the remainder

be
of its digits
subtract

five.

Let

us

as

now

and observe the remainders.

subtract the digits,
succesively
Subtracting5, the remainder is 100 threes and 10 fours*
Subtracting4, the remainder is 100 threes and 9 fours.
3, the remainder is 99 threes and 9
Finallysubtracting
this number, as it is plainthat
But 9 must
fours.
measure
each of its component
parts. And so
the letters ", 6, r, d, "c. for the digitsof any

putting

it measures

lOc-^-dmust

be

'

number,

justexpressionfor any
that is, within 10,000.
number
written by four digits,
the
subtract
if from this we
of the digits
And
sum
a-^-b
995
be
+ 9c, must
+C+C?, the remainder, 999"2 +
evenly
each of its com*
divisible by 9, inasmuch as 9 measures
1005+

*1000"+

ponent parts,

immediatelyfollows from the last section that the

remainder
on
dividingany number by 9 must be the same
with the remainder
of its digits
on
dividingthe sum
by 9^
For instance,345 divided by 9 must givea remainder of 3,
since that is the remainder
on
dividing12 (3+ 4 + 5) by 9.
This is manifest from consideringthat 345
is equal to
60.

It

+ 12

333

of which

only remainder
which
its

occurs

on

by
digits)

demonstrated

we

have

that the for-*

just seen

evenlydivisible by 9, and therefore

on
dividingthe whole by 9 must be
dividingthe latter part 12 (or the sum

be

(333) must

mer

parts

9.
to

And

in like

belongto

the

manner

the number

same

the
that

of

property is

3.

similar process of reasoningit appears, that if

from any number
subtract the sum
of the alternate digits
we
of the
commencing from the last,and add to it the sum
61.

By

alternate

digits
commencing from the last but one, 1 1 must
For let a number
ing
consistnumber.
measure
resulting
of 4 digits
be represented
before by 1000"+1005
as
cZ and 5, there will remain
1000a
+ 10c + t/. Subtracting
Now
+ 99Z"+ 10c.
number,
adding c and cf, the resulting
1 00 1 " + 99Z" + 1 1 c, must
be evenlydivisible by 11
Hence
number
it
is
what
the remainder
given any
easy to know
it
be
11.
For instance, if the given
must
on
dividing by
the

number
*

In thisnotation 1000

stands for 1000

timet

; 999

for 999 times a j "c.

(
be 9 1827

number
for

subtracting
those

by

1 1

the

on

occurs

digitsto be
by l^, that
given number

we

other

We

also

consequentlymeasure

the

added

ceed
ex-

is ll-f3:
3

wants

of
11

might enlargeupon
number

even

an

But

1 1

dividingit by
1 1

"

of
consisting

number

any

that

or

:
(for instance, if
properties

curious

subtracted

21 by
dividing

on

infer that the

may
being evenly divisible by 1 1 ;
there will be a remainder of 8.
whence

10;

digits
is evenly divisible
dividingthe whole by
to be

be 9182, the
be subtracted

given number
the digitsto

if the

remainder

be that which

1 1 must

be

must

the remainder

added)

therefore

excess

be

to

remainder

of the

(the

2 1

above

72819, the

or

"

28

number

measure

of

and
digits,
consistingof the
of the digitsin
they are of little

digitsin an inverted order, the sum

each
quotientmust be the same,)" but as
thod
practicalimportance, we shall rather pass to a?f useful meof provingmultiplication
and division.
be proved thus : divide both the
62. Multiplication
may
and (neglecting
the quotients)mark
factors by any number
the product of those remainders
the remainders
; divide
the remainder.
This renumber
and mark
mainder
by the same
same

be the

must

the

by

same

instance, 648 X 23
7, the remainders

by

must

only remainder

remainders

occurs

For

mainder
re-

be

demonstrated
easily
of multiplicaprincijile
tion.

are

and

2 1
,

may

-f 4 and
evenlydivisible by 7,

parts

644

and

4X21,

Now

the

of the
644

the three first ; and

measures
on

dividing

also be the

multiplesof those parts.

is equal {" 25.) to the sum

these 7

and

1 must

7 ; which

parts of each

be that which
4

and

the factors into the

also any

Of

4X2.

the

2 ;

by

product 14904
pix)ducts644
following

four

and

on

givenfactors.

dividing648 and 23 by
whose
product 8' divided

fundamental

the

former

therefore

whole
and

are

breaking

21 -f 2, the

and

Now

14904.

remainder

product of the

dividing14904
from

For

the

for the remainder

gives1
on

the

number

with

same

2,

fore
there-

dividingthe whole
on

dividingthe

product by
productof the

2.

method
of
principledepends the common
by what is called cashingout the nines*
provingmultiplication
of the number
It is in fact nothing but an application
9 as
a
test, just as in the last example we
applied the number
7 : and the only advantage of the fbriiier is that we
can
63.

On

this

ascertain the remainders

without

performingthe

divisions

by

30

)
VL

CHAP.

Applicationof Multiplicationand
Qjiestionsfor Exercise,

Practical

HERE

^5,

be,

not

great objectof

the
furnish

to

his

the

child

rational teacher
of

rules

with

Division.

should

operation, but

the rules.
From
the
investigating
lirst initiation of the youthfulstudent
into multiplication
and division, he ought to be led to the practical
of
use
these operations by familiar questionsinvolving
low
bers.
num-

employ

to

For

apples

instance, he may
wanted

are

called

or

And,

and

order

in

of

called

find

to

how

to

many

16

to

96

distinct rules^

descending,as
and

be

give apiece
persons
4
apples equally among
persons.
called
is
what
ing
KeductioUy ascendlearning

divide

to

instead

"

in

reason

as

"

divide

soon

he

he

as

can

20,
multiply
by 4,
capable of
of farthings
in ^""
and the number
finding the number
of pounds in 1920
farthings. Such tables as are needful
will be found at the end
for solvingthe following
questions,
12, and

is

of the volume.
Ex.

How

1
.

who
Ex

2.

distance

day

87

goes

miles

many
miles a

each

miles

465

How

day.

travel in

nian

days,

day

travels

man

does

in 5

days, and

miles

many

does

he

equal

an

in

go

one

days ?
5824
days ?
day. How

Ex.

3.

How

many

hours

in 365

Ex.

4.

How

many

weeks

in

Ex.

5.

"pend
Ex.
annual
Ex.

spends

man

in the whole
How

6.

per
is "3^1314
.?

Supposing that

7.

grainsof wheat,
many
Ex.

of

produce

How

may

standard

grainsin

spend,

man

pint
one

whose

contains

gallon;

and

9216

how

wheat, how

1844670

day

many

Supposing

8.

bushels

how

bushel

one

does he

much

year

much

income

in

1 85, a
"i

that

many

bushels

Ex.

9.

Ex.

10.

How

many

Ex.

11,

How

many

many

one

acre
acres

of land
would

be

produces

30

necessary

to

farthingsin .^8738 : 2 :
pounds, "c. in 16777215
inches

in 25

8 ?

?
farthings

Englishmiles

.'*

Ex.12.

31

fex.12.

How
the

round

reach

)
inches

many

bank

earth,

supposing the distance

notes,

long, would
to be 25000

miles ?
Ex.

days,

days,
Ex.

exceed

would

to

How

Julian

many

in

are

solar year
lunar

(of

years

answer

therefore

may

in 7

seconds

of

which

seconds)

12

obtained

exceeds

year

to be

questionsought not
the meaning
that by a lunar month
between
time

full

one

which

between

intervenes

and

Ex.

19.

How

many

Ex,

20.

How

many

vernal

one

number

last

without

plaining
ex-

them

in

which

by

the

by

child

the time

that

the three

But
a

nutes
mi-

11

of seconds

employed

the next

and

moon

to

terms

mean

(that is,

number

solar.

by 7 days ?
questionamounts

days ; and
by dividingthe

proposed

of the
we

days 6 hours)

the

days by 672,

Julian

one

be

or

of solar years

equal to

are

month,

365

Let the young student observe that this

times 11' 12^'
the enquiry how
many
and

365

or

seconds

equal number

an

seconds

48

minutes,

44

in

are

seconds

many

hours,

12

15*

minutes,

48

How

14.

seconds

many

hours,

Ex.
29

How

IS.

"

intervenes

solar year,
equinox and

the

the

by a Julian year, the time which Julius Caesar

in his regulationof the calendar
assignedto the year,
reckoning 365 days in ordinary years, but 366 days in
givesthe average length
every fourth,or leapyear ; which
of the Julian year 365 days 6 hours.
Ex. 1 6. How
Englishmiles are equalto 1 1 Irish ?
many
Ex. 17. How
pounds, "c. in 680314
grains?
many
Ex.
18. How
grainsin 59 lb. 13 dwts. 5 gr ?
many
next

oz.

Ex.

in

in 35

drams?

4114201
ton

17 cwt.

lb*

1 qr. 23

dr. ?

13

21.

An

taking2

at

average

consumed,

lady observed

old

years
an

"c.

tons,
drams

oz.

of snufF

5d. per

and

how

that she had

weekly,

oz.

What

much

had

and

for 52

that the snufF

weightof
it cost

been
snuff

cost

had

she

her, reckoning the

years Julian ?
Ex.

22.

period

had

Her

husband

drank

that

remarked,

he

for

the

same

daily,and that the

guineas a hogshead. How

quart of claret

35
price had been
average
much
wine had he consumed,

and

what

had

it

cost

him

CHAP.

S^

CHAP.

VII.

inverse
direct
of Ratio
comjpound.
Abbreviations,
a
offinding fourth 'proportional.

Doctrine

"

Method

"

"

Ques*^

tions for Exercise.

alreadyremarked,

have

WE

6Q4

another

that when

any
is called

ber
num-

mida
multiplied
by
product
j
the latter is called a subtipleof the multiplicand
; and
mtdtipleof the product. Thus, 54 is a multipleof 6, and
54 is equal to 9 times 6.
6 a submultipleof 54 5 because
Thus
again,2 or 3 or 6 or 9 is a submultipleof I8* (Submultiplesare otherwise called aliquotparts.) Now when
numbers
two
are
number,
multipliedeach by the same
of the respective
tiplicands
multhe productsare called equi-mtdtiples

is

latter

called

are

of
equi-^subMultiples

multiplesof 3
products. Thus, 18 and 24 are equiof 18 and 24 : because
4, or 3 and 4 equi-submultiples

the
and
18

the

and

the

3, and

is 6 times

is 6 times

24

4.

their jrelative
mean
we
By the ratio of two quantities
in comparison of
magnitudes, or the magnitude of one
the other.
Thus, although the absolute magnitude of a
67.

mile

and

12

inch

and

T"""te greater than that of an

miles, is much
foot, yet the relative magnitude, or ratio, of

former

the two

is just the

with

same

that of the latter

or

words, a mile is just as small a space in comparison

of
a foot.
of 12 miles, as an inch is in comparison

in other

68.

ratio is written

the

between

terms

by

c^ the

which

the antecedent

cipyocalyor
The

of which

ratio

inverse of the
ratio of any

dots

interposed

the

former

greater or less than the

the
5 the

ratio

two

of

of

is

7:5

to

is

;
a

7 is called

sequent.
con-

5 ;

to

consequent

inequality.But

ratio of less

greater inequality.The
69.

is

Thusj 3 : 5 expresses
is the antecedent, and

ratio is

ratio

two

And
the latter the consequent.
of less inequality
of greater or
^

called the antecedent, and

the ratio is called a ratio

accordingas

the aid of

in

the

and

ratio of
the

re-

ratio of 7 to 5.
numbers

is the

same

with

the

of those
or
equi-multiples
equi-submultiples
of very extensive
This is an importantprinciple
numbers.
manifest on
most
its truth will appear
a
: and
application
ratio of any

littleconsideration.

Thus, if

we

take the ratio of 3

5,
and

to

multiplyboth

and
35

be the

it is

with

same

evidentlythe

times

Or,

7.

600,

to

of 90

or

the

5 ; and

with

the

another

take

products 21

(i.e.

60

same

9 tens

and

the ratio of 3

ratio of 3 times

with
6

to

to

products,because

instance, is it

is the

to

to

the ratio of those

same

of 9

that the ratio

to

by

of 3 and
equi-multiples

are

must

of it

temis

S3

7 to 5

evident

not

the ratio of 900

tens) or in short

the same
number
to 6 times
; that
any number
with the ratio of any equimultiples
of 9 and
is, the same
is it not
6 ? And
equallyevident that the ratio of 9 to 6
with the ratio of the third part of 9 to the third
is the same
of 9 times

part of 6, that is of
6 ? This

of 9 and

by
as

9 and

3 to

from

inference

of
equi-multiples

are

of 9 and
submultiples
with

of any
if it were

or

indeed,

necessary
6

2,

6 ;

and

other

equi-submultiples

needful, might be
the former
and

2,

therefore

in

inasmuch

of any

or

the

duced
de-

equiratio

same

them.

70.

The

four dots
denotes

of two ratios is
equalityor identity
interposedbetween the ratios. Thus,

that

the ratio

of 9

to

6 is the

to, the ratio of 3 to 2 ; or, as we

express it, that 9 is to 6 as 3 to 2.

same

with,

or

commonly
Such

denoted
9

more

by
3

: :

equal
briefly

series is called

series of

from
word, borrowed
proportionals,or by one
the Greek
language, an analogy. The first and fourth
of such a series (i.
the antecedent of the first ratio
terms
e.
and
:
consequent of the second) are called the extremes
the second
and third terms
(i.e. the consequent of the
first ratio and
antecedent
of the second) are
called the
a

ineajis.

If the antecedent

of the second

ratio be the

with

the consequent of the first,the terms

in continued proportion. Thus, the numbers
are

in
71.

said

same

to

be

3, 9, and

27

are

proportion; because 3 : 9 : : 9 : 27.

ratios be equal, it is plain that
two

continued

If any

their

is, that the consequent of

the first ratio is to its antecetleiit
the consequent of the
as
second ratio to its antecedent.
Thus, since 9 : 6 : : 3 : 2, we
be

must
reciprocals

equal;

that

iftferthat 6 : 9 : : 2 : 3.
For if 9 be as much
may
greater
in comparison of 6, as 3 is in comparison of 2, it follows
that 6 is as much
less in comparison of 9, as 2 is in comparison
of 3.
72.

Again,

antecedent

from

is to

any analogywe may

the second
antecedent

is to the second

consequent.
I)

infer that the first

as

Thus,i

the

first

ince 9

quent
conse: :

2,
we

(
infer iKat

^e may

of 3,
c6itr,parison
either
is

To

':

as

the

state

b,
c

the

from

" 74. for the

four

ratios

gri^ater in

of 2.

lliis

fourth

3 and

9,

to

or

last inferences

two

mitcn

were

3,

given

two

just as
compai'ison

may

tional
propor-

indifferently,

generally,
putting

proportionalnumbers,
a

: c

and

that

inference is called invei^sion

former

The

d.

Fbr

inay infer that b

c?,we

^.

for any

c,

is in

9, 6 and

to

the letters a,
since a : b : i
a

: :

demonstrated

be

^Iso

equal, unless

be

cotild hot

3*

the

latter alternatim,

permutation,

or

from

given analogy we
of
or
cqui-submultiples
equimultiples
Again,

73.

any
bear

the

any

ratio

same

to

tiples
9

times

part of

antecedents
and

ratio to any

equi-mulOf their consequents.

Thus,
equi-slibmultiples

or

since

the

respectiveconsequents

the

bear

the antecedents

that

their

infer that

may

: :

2 ;

to
3

2.

to

infer that 5 times 9 is 6 as Jl

may
that the fifth part of 9 is to 6 as the fifth
For it is plain that if we
increase
minish
dior

2,

or

same

w^e

of equal ratios proporcorrespondentterms

stillbe equal. And
ratios must
from
the resulting
tionally\
that if we
increase or diminish
it appears
the same
principle
tracting
correspondingterms of each ratio by adding to them or subIhe
other terms, the resulting
i-atios
from them
difference
be equal: or in other words, that the sum
or
must
the

of the first ratio is to either of its terms

of the terms

its
of

and

c:d

15

2)
we

a-\-b :

to

Or

2, "c.
infer

increased

drawn

second

a-\-b :b

diminished

or

the

between

: :

in this section

may

the

c-\-d :

it is
be

proportionally.
fer
inmay

we

(the

as

sign -{-denotes
which

ratio is to

correspondentterms

from
generally,

that

c-^-dy where

of the terms
inferences

then

Thus, from the analogy 9 :

of 9 and 6) is to
(the sum

may
c

of the

terms

For

correspondent term.
the equal ratios are
that

of the

difference

or

sum

the

as

analogy a
d

the

or

of

sum

:b

that
or

sum

interposed.
"

demonstrated

a:

ference
difThe
also

of " 76 and 77.

principles
have given the three first terms
of an analogy
If we
74.
find the fourth, by taking the product of the second
we
may
and
and third terms,
dividingthat product by the
want
to find a fourth proportional
we
first. Thus, suppose

from

to

the

the numbers

3, 4, and

6 j that

is, such

xi umber

that

the

35

tlie ratio of 3 to 4 sliallbe the

found.

the fourth number

by
product
sought. The
24

their

present instance,

the

being twice

given terms are 3,

found
by the same
by 3
given means,
6

with

4, and

5.

in

ratio

therefore

the ratio

the

of twice

But

the three
suppose
fourth
proportionalis

8.

The

2) is the fourth

the

By

is the

with

times

which

sought:

term

laid
principle

same

down

in

"

the ratio of their

69.

multiples
equi-

again, is the same

of the latter,the
equi-submultiples
5

to

ratio of the

the

is evident

process : divide 20, the product of the

the first term
; the quotient6 and
4 (or

the ratio of 3 to 4
times

result

of the second

with

same

to

the third part of

thus demonstrate.

of this

to

4, and divide
is the fourth proportional
and

of the first ; and

and

we

antecedent

the

is, of

4, that

twice

quotient

truth

be the

ratio of 3 to 4 must
to

Multiply

antecedent

3 the

same

the

with the ratio of 6

or

third part of 5 times 3 to the third part of 5 times 4. But

the third part of 5 times 3 is 5.
Therefore
3 is to 4 as 5
the third part of 5 timea 4, that is to the
from dividingthe product of the given means

quotientarising
by the first

to

term.^-Let
the

us

employ

now

Let

same

four

any
the three

letters ", b, c,
proof.
proportionalnumbers, of which

first,but
f

equalto

the

that is to the

product of

and

the fourth

find

to

want

for

generalnotation

b and

exhibiting
represent

have

we

a^,

given

divided

i"

say

by

a"

Forby "69.";6:;aXc:^'Xr,

or

::

^^

^JiE.

But

c-

is

latter

equalto^"^("40.

part).

Therefore

:b

: c

hXc

Q. E. D.
'

75,

Although the preceding demonstration

principle,but

what

must

mind, yet it may

demonstration
Let

then

of the

involve

be

evident
sufficiently

to

be

to
satisfactory

that

same

thing should

some

no

siderate
conther
ano-

be exhibited.

again

that we
want
to investigate
a
suppose
for findinga fourth
method
and
5.
to 3, 4,
proportional
that 3 is to 4 as 1 (the third part of 3) to the
know
We
us

third

terms,
Thus

part of
5

times

4 ;

or

that

1
,

we

are

landed

as

the

of
equi-multiples

is, 5

latter

the third part of 4.

result as before 5 for 5

to 5 times

in the

i)

the

same

times

times tiiethird p?trtof 4, and

be

when

fullyshewn,

more

its third part.

equal to

therefore

4, and

5 times

the third part of 5 times 4

be three times less than
must

the former

as
equivalent,

are

86

the

to

come

we

This will

doctrine

of

fractions,
is equal
analogythe product of the extremes
This
immediately follows
product of the means.

In any

76.
to

the

from

what
is

other

has

equal

the

to

that 14 is

seen

product

For

extreme*

have

last demonstrated

been

equal

and

c,

d, for any

that aXd

be

as

continued

in

is

extremes

equal
9

to

In like

bXCi

=z

numbers

to

10.

and

the

by

But

14.

we

viding
quotientarisingfi-om di-

10

it appears

manner

of the

of
prodiict

the

that,if three

proportion,the product of

the square

to

and

treme
ex-

by 5. Therefore {" 40.)

must
give a product equal to the product
the
letters
Or generally,
putting
a, by
four proportional
numbers, we may infer

product
14 by 5
multiplying
of 7 and

the

to

10:

t:

either

divided

means

instance; 5:7

of

the

of the

since

Thus

4 is

equalto

the

mean.

4 and

is

the

of 6.

square

We

77.

also infer

that, if two products be equal,

reciprocally
proportional/ that is, that the

may

their factors

are

is to the

of the other, as the

multiplier
the latter to the multiplicand
mer.
of the forThus, the product of 2 and 28 is equal to the product

of one
multiplier
multiplicandof
and

of 7
And

whence

we

employing
generally,

aXb^a^Xy,
the

we

may

numbers

three

it must

infer that

and

we

^,

y
the last section
a,

by

8 : 28.
infer that 2:7::
may
letters to denote
numbers, if
: x

find

be such

For

b.

if to

fourth proportional,
a

that

number

equal to the product of

be equal to b,
and y ; that is, it must
X
In
78.
multiplication,
unity is to either factor as
any
the other factor to the product. Thus, the product of 6
This immediatelyappears
and 5 is 30 ; and 1 : 6 : : 5 : SO,
product of

the

the

either from
5

and

the

30

a^

last

shall be

section,

or

from

of 1 and
equimultiples

are

"

69.

6, and

inasmuch

as

therefore

in

ratio.

same

79.

it and

division,the divisor is to
any
to the quotient. Thus
dividing36
In

and

is 9

the

that
principle

: :

36

9.

This appears

the dividend

of the divisor and

is

dend
unity as the diviby 4 the quotient

from

" 77. and from

always equalto
quotient.

the product

80.

When

(
If therefore A

Speed.

ride twice

journey
V

as

fast

as

be

must

that is

V,

to

lias to ride 50
the time

B,

as

the

to

25

as

40,

to

ratio

compounded

ratio

of

14

are

is, the

ratios 9

and

both
multiplying
27

12

both

: :

12

ratios

ratio of

54

Again,

85.

given ratio
the

to

number

to

considered
For

as

is to 6

compound

we

may
between

compounded
7 to

6.

86.

For
From

will

the

But

of the

that, if any
are

and

tional.
propor-

is the

its terms, and

ratios of the antecedent

and

of the

ratios

interposed

the ratio of 9
ratios

of 9

may
2 and
2

wx

numbers
the

may
the

of 9 to 2, 2

of 9
to

5,

said

been
fourth

of

numbers.

being divided evenlyby

the

an

For
of the

same

ceive
con-

given
posed
inter-

to

7, and
(" 69.)

manifest, that the

proportional to

frequentlyadmit
terms

it is

is the

will be

to

9:6::9X2X5X7::6X2X5X7.
has

6,

in continuation.

2, 5, and

ratio

be

(by " 83.)

ratios taken

and

6 ;

or

mayconceive

interposed, and

terms

and

first terms,

the

compounded
equality.Thus

6, which
In like manner

the

what

9 and

ratio

twice

to

more

of the

of

by 2,

by

12.

compounded

the

of the

of all the

lower
by substituting
the two

ratio of

Thus

conceive
9

two

terms

interposed between

compounded

or

27

equality.
being given us, we

consequent.
twice

the

ratio of

ratio

problem of findinga
numbers

that

compounded of
interposednumber,

compounded

Thus,

ratio

as

as

: :

thus

ratio mentioned.
two

any
ratio

the

of

antecedents

of the ratios of 9

whatsoever

number

any

any

3 is

the

both consequents

36

reciprocalis

54, i. e.

of the

it appears
proportional,their squares

compounded

the ratio

the

And

its

Thus

and

squares

81

also it is evident

ratio and

of any

definition

3:2.

be

Hence

84.

by

in

compounded of the equal

ratio 81 : 36, (9^ : 6^) or 9 : 4
: : 3 : 2, it follows
(" 73.) that

6, that

by

other

compounded

by 3 and
multiplyingboth

or

and

numbers

four

the

4 ;

is

ratio

antecedents

consequents

ratio 27

performs his,

ratio

is the

since

For

(3^ : 2-).

performshis

factors.

of 2

of the

the

40, and

8.

of their

the

ratio

Thus

ratio.

or

ratios

Hence

15.

equal ratios
either

of the

w^hich
5 to

said to be to each

ratio

two

miles and

in which

in

time

products
compounded of the ratios

Any

83.

58

three

abbreviated
in

the

given

solution,

first

place if

given ratio, admit

number,

we

may

of

substi-

tute

39
.

the

for them

ute

if it be

Thus,

ratio.

resulting
quotients,as beingin
find

fourth

required
solvingt^heproblem
to

27, 63, and 21,

to

rule laid ch^wn

the

to

in

74.

"

the

tion
proporcording
large ac-

at

should

we

same

have

to

product of 63 and 21, and then divide thaf product

the
which
49
the
fourth
1323
27,
quotient
as
gives
by
required.But 3 and 7 beingequi-submultiples
proportional
ratio ; {" 69.) and operating
of 27 and 63 are in the same
take the

numbers

these lower

with

we

find

the first and

secondly,whenever

the

result.

same

third terms

admit

But

of

being

number, we may substitute the

same
evenlydivided by
for
of the given
tho^e equi-submultiples
:
quotients
resulting
be proportional
must
antecedents
to the given consequent
Thus
in the last exand the consequent sought. (" 73.)
ample,
after reducing the questionto |;hatof findinga
fourth proportional
to 3, 7, and
substitute for
21, I may
the

their 6qui-svibmultiples
third of these numbers
for puttingjc for the fourth proportionalsoiight,

the first and

1

and

3 : 7 : : 2 1
inasmuch
as
the third part of 21
as

third part of 3 must

And
thus we
at once

.r, the

to

j:.

be to 7

arrive

before, that the number

soughti^49.
87. Let it be requiredto find a number, to which
a given
shall be in a ratio compounded of two or more
number

at the

result

same

as

given ratios. The ratio compounded of the given ratios

is (by definition)the ratio of the products of their
tive
respecthis problem resolves
Therefore
itself into
terms.
that of findinga fourth proportional
to three given terms.
Thus,
a

if.we

ratio

find a number
of 9 : 5 and

to

want

compounded
if

as
filing

we

were

that

we

therefore

may

quotients 3:4;
Hence
admit

of

that

the

the

by '9

ought not

to

resulting
quotients:

take the

ratios which
them

by

we

and

by 5, and
resulting

ratio of the

number

the

same

niimber to which 6
But it is plainthat

36.

divisible

substitute

being evenlydivided
the

be

5 X

6 shall be in

36, "it is the

soughtis

it appears
that, in solvingthis
and consequent of either the same

substitute

of the

so

find

requiredto

shall be in the ratio of 9^15

|3othterms of this ratio are

which

to

15

same

and

problem, if
or

or

8.

cedent
ante-

different ratios

number,
tliat

we

we

may

therefore

products of the correspondingterms

want
to compound,
tillwe
have inspected

for the purpose

of
capableof being thus reduced

whether
ascertaining
;

nor

till we

have

they
com-

pared

(
antecedents

the

pared

of the

of the ratio whose

antecedent

40

with the

given ratios

consequent

seek.

we

given
For

in

last instance, after

reducing the question to that of

finding a fourth proportionalto 3, 4, and 6, the term3
be reduced
still lower
for 3 and
6
by substituting
may
1 and
their equi-submultiples
thus a question,
2.
And
and appearing to reat first involving
quire
very high numbers
the

tedious
operation, may
very
brief and facile.
the most

solution

The

88.

is

rule
of

terms

findinga

fourth

of Three

analogy given us

an

justlybe

more
may
extensive

7 4. J for

called the Rule

commonly

three

("

admit
frequently

called the 7ide

proportional

because

find

to

the

Meanwhile

young

have

we

the fourth.

It

of proportion.

Its very
in the 1 3th.

practicalapplicationwill be shewn

Chapter.

exercise himself

student may

of this chapter by solvingthe following

principles
of the
questions; and may easilyincrease the number
examples, at pleasure,by substituting
any other numbers.
the answer
Besides investigating
quisite
by performingthe reof
and
I
would
operations multiplication division,
that he should
be accustomed
to exhibit
stronglyrecommend
it by the aid of the symbolsdenotingthose operations.
Thus, if it be required to find a fourth proportionalto
the numbers
be expressed
mav
23, 24, and 25, the answer
in the

bv^X-11
^
23

Ex.

1.

Find

Ex.

2.

The

fourth

to
proportional

firstand

two

the last terms

15, 40, and

of

analogy are

an

?
What
is the third term
17, 9, and 234.
of an
Ex. 3. The first and the two last terms
?
What
is the second term
18, 126, and 17
Ex.

What

4.

two

of the ratios of 7
Ex.

of 7:
Ex.
of 17:

Ex.

What

5.

3, and
What

6.

3,

3:

7. What

to
two

6:

numbers

analogyare

the ratio compounded

3, 4 to 5, and 11 to 13 ,^
in the ratio compounded
numbers
are
.?

14
two

in

are

24

numbers

14, and
is the

14:

in the ratio

are

compounded

16.?

ratio

compounded

of

17

3, and

34?

6:

Ex.

8.

may
Ex. 9.
^'

may ^

From

the

analogy,7

25

: :

21

75, what

tion
equa-

be derived ?
From

the

equation 12x7

14X6.

what

logy
ana-

be inferred ?

CHAP.

^1

(
CHAP.
On
IF

89.
a

we

one

third

of

them,

any

into

tliree

of the whole

take

we

of Fractions.

the Nature

divide

"c.

pound,

VIIL

equal parts,
thus

written

are

called

fractions
;

is called the

numeratm^

of

the line the

whose

numerator

fraction is called

conceived
the

Hence

any

denominator
the

For

if

are

txike 7

neither

more

that

or

and

^,

divided

the

number

greater, the

or

The

numerator

that

the

number

thing, or

taken

are

the

denotes

whole

or

as

07ie

parts,
less.

denotes

the

in the fraction.

integer is

of

integer,is
ber
num-

Thus

divided

into 7

of those parts in the fraction.

fraction whose
and
numerator
3

is

^, ^ "c.

or^of

to

part of

there

ever

whole

as

4?

fraction
is

speak

we

another

as

the third

the third part of one,

as
of one.
In like manner
either

part of 3

it must

the whole.

thing

singlepound,
pounds, feet, yards "c.
has hitherto

consider
view

it

also,

as

part of
be

the fraction

three sevenths

two

been

it will

of

is twice

be

of
be

the third

as

justequal to
^ may

given

thirds

two

which

of one,
the latter being three times
as

is

numerator

than

be considered
It may
to.
This view arises immediatelyout

for inasmuch

whole;

of the whole

it consist of

many
which

the

whose

greater

pound,

it is manifest

attend

two.

considered

so

the view

is

hand

other

and

whether
integer,

fraction, such

useful

the

On

consider

we

"c.

But

justtake the

we

improper
any
its denominator,

According to

of any

as

fraction, is less than

proper

any

foot, yard

pressions
4" Such ex^bove the line

or

number

the

take

we

of those

greater than
Observe, that

one.

two

improper
equal, such

nor

that 4"

92.

is

equivalentto
integerwhich we suppose divided into equal parts.
divide a pound, for instance, into 7 equalparts,
we

one

and

which

that

equalparts, and

take

we

fraction, and

the

always

intimates

If

denominator,

parts, which

fraction

91.

the

to

to be divided.

of those

\,

of them

improper,

into

equal parts,

one

'projpcr fraction is that

If the nuis less than its denominator.
merator

denominator

The

90.

the

denominator,

equal

be

"

any

thirds of the whole,

two

below

a foot, a yard,
tiling,

whole

one

two

mer
the foras

great
thirds

indiflerently
or

as

the

venth
se-

greater than
the

42

and therefore justequal to three

seventli part of one,
Thus
be considered as
sevenths of one.
any fraction may
the

the division

quotient,arisingfrom

And

denominator.

the

commonly employed
and
at

and

8 1

The

has

given of a
thing be divided

i^to

greater the number

of

the number

we

take

and

in the

take

quantitywe

eqi^al
parts

than

the less is any one

I is greater ihan \'m
4 ii^ the ratio of 3

ratio

compounded

Thus

the

numerators

that

is, as

of

them,

20,

tliat if a whole

5.

and

but

the greater
vided,
thing is di-

the whole
or

given

any

But

number.
^ is less

Therefore :^is to 4-in a

: 4
(the direct ratio of

ratio of

the

denominators.)

1,

Thus

the numerator

as

4 is

to

of the fraction
3

as

For

7.

to

equal to 4*. (^ 91.) But 4 is to ^ as 3 to 7. Here

we
speak of 1, it is
throughout the subjectwhen
the
understood
in
sense
explainedat the end of ^ 91.
if

value

The

95.

multiplyor

we

value

that

and

terms,

^ is
fraction

not

the

equal parts
take

10

part of

the twelfth
;

The
4.
that by
be made

times

just the

shall take

inches

in

the

each of the former

as

and
be

to

unaltered,

i^, "c.

or

For

1 is

ber
num-

of its
tion
frac-

and

comparing,

the

for

^ and
-^, in the latter the whole
be divided
into 10 times
as
many
former ; each of which therefore is

to

less than

times
we

fraction 4 or A
the fraction i.

fractions

as

remain

by the same
depending altogetheron the ratio
their absolute magnitude. Thus the

is conceived

thing

if

any fraction will

divide both
its ttirms

equal to
is equal to

instance,

10

of

the

the

parts the greater is

the ratio of 7 to 4.
to

the first

equal parts,

ratio

same

from

its denominator.

to

of those

inverse
"

of

into which

fraction is to

Any

94b.

of 3

and

21:

number

given

appears

said, compared with " 80

also will appear

fraction, when we consider

view

the

last

This

thing

same

is

directly
as th,enumerator

the denominator.

been

by

division.

fraction varies

inversely
what

the numerator
fractional
notation

the

express

as

from

once

to

of any

value

The

93.

hence

of

many

of them

i
as

and

consequently

of the

former, we
Apd thus,

quantityof the whole.

same

foot

being an inch, -^-^of a foot is 6

but that isjustequalto half a foot,or to the fraction
laid down
in this section are
principles
so
simple,

few
to

familiar

illustrations a very

comprehend

the whole

doctrine

them

yet upon

of fractions

child may

young
these

simple principles

depends.
96.

Hence

(
Hence

t)6.

we

how

see

*3

we

easilybring a

may

given frne-

if its numerator
and
denominator
terms,
number.
capable of being divided evenlyby the same

tion to lower

which

number

any
it ;

so

number

is called
admit

evenlydivides another is said to

which
evenlydivides two or more

common

greater

no

of them.

meamre

common

than

measure

|.is in its lowest

the fraction
be

its lowest

brought to

and

denominator

of numbers

prime

each

for

another

denominator,

of the

bring ^

shall be
6

and

given
to

18

an
we

to 18

we

which
said

to

of

fraction

be

cannot

we

as

Thus

terms.

the fraction

% may

by dividingboth numerator
the equal fraction y consists

other.

also it is easy to bring a

be in its lowest terms) to an

to

from

to

terms

Hence

97.

to

by

terms

bers
num-

unity are

prime to each other : and if the terms

prime to each other, it is in its lowest terms
fraction of lower
bring it to any equivalent

As

meamre

Numbers

be

be

provided that

denominator.

given fractien (supposed

of
one
equivalent

other

Thus,

be

if it be

equivalentfraction whose
observe that in changing the
multiplyit by 3 ; and therefore

tiple
mul-

some

required

denominator
denominator
to

maintain

must
equalityof the two fractions,we
multiplythe
numerator
by 3, tso that the requiredfraction is 4|. And
fraction ^ to another
if it be required to bring the same
denominator
shall be 162, we
whose
only want to ascertain
in order to give the
be multiplied
6 must
by what number
by
product 162, that we may multiply 5 the numerator
is
ascertained
number.
162
the same
This
by dividing
by
the
find
and
thus
that
is
5 X 27
6 ;
we
requirednumerator.
also ^ may
nator
denomiThus
be brought to a fraction whose
of 6) is a
is^15 ; because
15 (though not
a multiple
of the equal fraction
multipleof 3 the denominator
y.
To bring a given fraction
it is
98.
to its lowest terms,
its terms
both
to divide
only necessary
by their greatest
which
that is by the greatest number
common
measure,
tion
Thus, if we be given the fracevenlydivides them both.
are
f i, it is plain that both its terms
evenlydivisible
Bui of these common
measures
by 3, or by 7, or by 21.
is the greatest, and will therefore give the smallest
21
tients
quo-

the

so

that the lowest

to

unable

of the fraction

are

4.

But

of the

if the terms
be

terms

to

each other

given fraction be high numbers, we may

ascertain by inspectionwhether
they be prime
j

or

if not, what

number

is their

greatestcom-

mon

the method
the

Divide

99.

inasmuch

be

numbers

given

measure

common

greater than

12

Thus,

given numbers.
and

12

12

96,

for it

the less : if there be

greatest common
greater than itself

number

no

as

the less of the two

be

must

sure,
meacan

greatest
number

no
96,
But if there

12.

sure,
mea-

if the two

their

and

measures

measure

can

strate
demon-

is the

divisor

remainder, your

no

to state and

proeeed therefore
this.
of discovering
by
greater number

We

measure.

0ion

^4

be

mainder
re-

the fnst division,then divide your last divisor

on
der
till you come
that remainder
to a remain5 and so
on,

by

v/ill

which

the last divisor.

measure

is the greatestcommon
and therefore if jou

of the two

me?,sure

find

Thi"

such

no

remainder

givennumbers
tillyou

remainder

come

are
Thus,
giveftnumbers
prime to each other.
if the two
given numbers be 182 and 559; dividingthe
der
greater by the less we find the quotient3 and the remainfind
tlie
then
13:
quotient
dividing182 by 13, we

1, the

to

I say then that 13, the remainder

14, and no remainder,
the first divisor,is a common
of
which measures
measure
182

and

it is

559, and their greatest

common

therefore
the

times

we

the

by

saw

greatest common
Since
and

182:

equal

to

and

greater than
fore

Q.

13

17,

to

be

13

measure

Let

greatest

greatest common

which

and

182
3

measure

times
is

-f- 13, which

both

; that

of

182

3 X

is,a number

is absurd.

measure

common

the letters

hy

may

proofin

us

measure
a

let the

182

There?
and

559,

and

b,

we

Let
want

of which

quotient

be

to

generalmanner,

the

numbers, whose
find, be represented

is the less

represented by

and

:
x

and

dividing
the

mainder
re-

We

infer that b =a:Xa

Then
+ c.
may
let the quotientbe
d.
1/ and the remainder
infer that a =j/ X c -}-d.
Then
c by d,
dividing

by c.
dividinga by r,
We

182

13
:

of

measures

measure

the same
propose
puttingletters for the numbers.

ib

it

mon
com-

E. D.
100.

by

also

3 X
as

ber,
greater num-

measure

it must

then

it is

any

suppose

measures

or

secondly,it is their

common

182

-f 13,

equalto 559j^

Therefore

But

"

182

3X

that is

But

13.

182, and

measures

therefore

For

measures

must

559.

13, it must

is the

13

and

since 559, it
559.
Inasmuch

182

3 X

it

for it

first division.

measure.

for instance
559.

and

182

of 182

measure

and

182;

of 3 times

sum

as

measure

First,

measure.

common

of them

let

46

performingtliose operations is
of

subtraction

or

difference

their
tliat

integers. For

ninths

of two

Bum

and

shillingsis seven
Ninths
sliillings.
latter,are
add

v,e

the

headed
with

the

If the

denominator,
number

it is

by
2 ;

to

of

it is easy

since

ninths,

and

what

ascertain

is

Thus

equalto

the

the

of

sum

And

potmdi

of what

^-^

in the

of

case

and

equal

the addition

in

of the

12,

we

"c.
shilling,

called

are

rators
nume-

be

must

manner

is

taught in

divers

operations;

and
shilling,

mixed

|, ^,

if the sum
pence,
of pence
exceed

column

of

common

of the

sum

("91.) V

reallyfractional

all

are

the

might be
commonly

or
integral

the

In like

2|.

to

subtraction

for instance,being

nominations
de-

pence,
^ of a
shillings

even
half-penceand farthings,

is introduced*

the fractional notation

hend
subtraction, if the fractional part of the subtrathe fractional part of the minuend,
exceed
w^e
bine
comIn

103.

with

the latter

"3f the minuend

and

therefore

integraldigit of
Thus, in subtracting2 J
^ from

I,

remainder

is

^:

and

from

subtract
15|, since we connot
it from
1+^, i. e. from y.

we

But
15, but from 14.
subtract
we
to the subtrahend
which
104. If the fractions
have

them

to

then
or

to

different

proceed

before.

difference of f and

the

same

have

then

in

place of

3 from
we

Thus,

subtract

we
same

if

we

^, it is necessary
Now
denominator,
we

2,

not

this, carrying1
See " 16.

required to

are

of the

to

15.

denominators,

equivalentfractions
as

integral
part
the rightlessened
by one.

to conceive

minuend

from

subtract

have

the

the

subtract

we

from

unit borrowed

hand

both

it is

as

exceed

numerators

to

"

pounds
standingin

addition

sum

5 stand

it

And

and

in
shillings

by 12, the number of pence in one

in fact the operations,which
the child

divide

The

and

and
shillings

numbers

three

the

of

equal to, by dividingthe

therefore

and

five

shillings.
of the

sum

difference

and

case,

denomination

the denominator.
^ut

V**

their

the numbers

the denomination

and
shillings

numbers, which
in placeof the fractional notation,

and

in v/hich

with

102.

"Jis

in the former

the

ninths, and that

that 5-f-|^
=
-J and

seven

of two

sum

and
shillings,

subtract:

column

the

the denomination

but

or

is

the addition

plain that

as

ninths, (i.e.

that

as

"

it is

five ninths

is three

-J- "J= i)

obvious,as

as

must

add

or

first bring

denominator
have

to

find the

to

bring them

can

bring|

tQ
an

47

(
of any

equal fraction

an

of 5, and

to

which

denominator,

which

any

is

is

multipleof 9.

multiple
But

(" 97)

product of 5 arid 9 being a multipleof both, we may

And
45.
bring the two given fractions to the denominator
both
in doing this, in order to niultiply
of the
terms
number
fraction by the same
(i.e. in order to keep it of
value " 95 ) we
the same
must
of
multiplythe numerator
of the other ; when
each fraction by the denominator
they
the

difference

of
is
of

denominators,

various
the

plainof

multiplythe

denominators
that

we

But

105.

low

than

product

the

will be
"jzi

the
two

or

without

Ex.

Ex.

I forbear

What

is the

Ex.

3.

What

Ex.

4.

What
sum

is the

sum

sum

of

terms

product
and

by all the
is by these

and

least

number

which

to
a

y,

mon
com-

^, and

multipleof

the fractions

common

less

is yet

for

add

present from

at

fractions,

our

answer

beingalso

become

ward
bringingformultipleof

(see Chap. 18.) as

the demonstration

2.

5. A

reason

the

it

as

have

we

findingthe

is the

Ex.

if

denominator,
for

make

the

the

fraction

denominators,

and

What

-f T and

to take

will therefore

little knowledge of

added,

often find

may

given numbers;

more

to

we

Thus,

tI-

rule

be hard

it would

of it clearly
intelligible

Algebra.

of -|, 4, and -J.?

of |, |, ^, and
of

excess

-Jabove

is the difference

-J.?
| ? and of -Jabove

between

the

sum

of y-f

"'*

of

| + |4-i-i ?
left a legacyof 10,000^

three sons,
among
that the eldest should have 4 of it,and the second 4- of it.
so
What
did the youngest receive ?
proportion of the leg^acy
man

CHAP.
On
1 06.

and
Multiplication

FROM

^i^, and their .^*"

fractions,^f''
many

denominator,

keep the

to

all, and

common

riy ^^^

be

to

inasmuch

of all the

product of

so

of each

own

and

denominator.
36

ever

common

numerator

it is desirable

multipleof them
^;

Ji"f

its denominator.
multiplied

possible
;

as

the

for

except its

have

practicalrule,

common

all the denominators

to

is

sum

let there be

Hence,

-^.

so

ever

then

as

If-, whose

and

become^

what

X
Division

of Fraction^,

has been

preceding chapter, it

is

said in the firstsection of th"

evident
that to
multiply any

Iraction

4S

its numerator
integerwe need onlymultiply
by the integer: and that any fraction will be divided by
by the integer,
an
integer,by dividing its numerator
the numerator.
the integraldivisor measures
whenever
For it is as plain that 3 times -^ is 4-^, or 2-i^, and that

by

fraction

an

third part of -^ is w,
that the third part of 9 is
the

is -^ and

tenths

still

"

is

27, and

we

cannot

not

measure

that

tenth.

equal

to

tain
ob7.

third part of
But
have
we

the

so

of

fi-action is

enquirewhat

to

2 and

third

one

3.

to

part of 7 is

third

times

divide -r^by 3,
this
process, as 3 does

want

quotientby

the

The

if we

But

107.

that 3

as

third

one

of

by 3. In such
therefore we
cases
employ an operationalwaysequivalent
to the division of the numerator,
namely the multiplication
the third part of
i"
And
of the denominator.
accordingly
For if we
thing divided first into
suppose
any whole
"Yo'
then into 30
10 equal parts, and
equal parts, the latter
tenth,

is the

what

or

divided

quotient of ^

to

being 3
be

times

of them

the former
as
many
less than
each of the former

times

be

must

other words

-o

Thus

108.

as

times

less than

each

must

7 of

former

the

or

in

See " 93'

is the third part of t^.
the universal rule for dividinga fraction

integeris, to multiplyits denominator

have
whenever
And
to multiplya
we

by

an

which

therefore 7

and

of them

its

measures

denominator,

the

by
integer*

fraction
the

dividingthe

by an
product is

teger
inhibited
ex-

denominator

by
by
its
numerator.
Thus, 3
the integer,than by multiplying
other
the
times I is by the one
^ : results
; by
process
know
which
are
we
equal from " 95.
in

lower

terms

109.

the

From

of

methods

a
multiplyingand dividing

multiplication
and division
multiplyby a fraction,
divide
the product by its
its
and
numerator,
multiplyby
denominator.
To divide by a fraction, divide by its numerator
denominator.
its
the
and
quotientby
multiply
Thus, to multiply 4 by |-, multiply4- by 3 ; and divide
the product V by 4 : the quotienti| is the productsought.
For the multiplier
I being the fourth of 3, ( " 92.) the first
product V (obtainedby multiplying4 by 3) is 4 times too
fraction

great

by

and

an

integer,it is
by a fraction.

easy
To

therefore its fourth

sought.
by 3
dividing

to

part

In like manner,

if we

the

is 4

quotient

tt

pass

must

have

times

to

be the true
to

too

divide 4

duct
pro-

by ^^

small, as

we

have

(
liiivcemployed
the

divisor four times

be

quotientmust

true

Ilence

1 i 0.

given
namely, take

to

product

great : and therefore

-rV or

times

appears the reason

for multiplyinga
the

too

4t.

of the

rule commonly
practical
fraction
fraction
a
by

of the

numerators

for

the

merator
nu-

nators
of your product, and the product of the denomiof your
for the denominator
product. It appears
that the latter operationis in fact a division of the fraction,
Another
product to itsjustamount.
proof of the operationmay be derived from the principles
For if we
laid down
in " 78. and " 94.
to multiply
want
the multiplicand
as
4 ^^yT? unitymust be to the multiplier
1 : | : : 3 : 2.
Therefore
3 : 2 m
the product. But
to
i
be obtained
fourth proportional
must
to the product, which
by multiplying-|-by 2, and dividingthe product bv 3.
("74.)
The
is equallyevident of the practical
rule
111.
reason
commonly given for dividinga fraction by a fraction ;
visor.
namely to multiplyby a fraction the reciprocalof the diFor
it appears
by comparing the operations,that
divide | by -f is the same
to
thing as to multiply4 by 4,
Another
proof of the operationmay be derived from the
For if we have to divide -|by
laid down
in " 79.
principle
be to unityas the dividend to the quotient.
4 the divisor must
in order

But

to

which

the

reduce

: :

3.

Therefore

: :

-fto

the

quotient,

fourth

be obtained, by multiplymust
proportional
ing
4 hy 3 and dividingthe product by 2.
The
112.
the
at
to
once
same
applicable
things are
of
division
The
an
or
multiplication
integerby a fraction.
the
as
product of 7 multiplied
by | is V" or 5|; the same
1
of
The
))roduct
multipliedby 7.
quotientof 7 divided
is
the product of 7 multiplied
V
or
as
by I
9|, the same
proper
by 4- Any integerindeed may be conceived as an im"

fraction, whose
it be

observed

fraction
and

the

must

that whenever

product

whenever
be

denominator

our

must

divisor

our

is 1.

multiplieris

less than

be

And

the

here
a

let

proper

multiplicand;

fraction, the quoproper

tient
the dividend.
For when
we

is

greater than

talk of

multiplyingany thing by i, we reallymean

takingof the multiplicand
talk
of
when
as
we
;
tiplicand
multiplyingany thing by 1, we
taking the mulpiean
But ^ (or any
once.
fraction)being less
proper
than one,
three fourths of the multiplicandmust
be less
three

fourths

than

50

(
whole

tljcin the

multiplicand.On

vision, the less the divisor is the

Now

if

we

the

equal to

is

divide

any

quotient
plainthat since

than

if

we

the

tient.
quo-

quotient

divide

by

greater than the

1 is contained
in 7 seven
be contained

) must

in 7

more

times.

seven

that

Observe

113.

be the

be

must

times, ^ (which is less than

by

in Ji-'

hand

greater must

Therefore

dividend.

It is

dividend.

other

number

fraction^the

proper

the

if

multiplyany

fraction

by its
the productis the numerator
denominator
integral.Thus,
the product of f multipliedby 5 is 3, of 4 multiplied
hj

"7*14

'^ i^

^5

^^^' I

^^'

we

the firstplace V 5 but to reshould

divide both terms
terms, we
result will be ^ or 3.
But w^e may
save
X

5 is in

***"#" (luce this to its lowest

:

tL"
:

/^
"*

5, when

by

the

and division, the

multiplication
The
Hatter just undoing the former.
same
thingindeed
from
at once
I as the quotientof 3
considering
appears
and
from
the
divided
by 5, ( " 92.)
principlethat the
and
of
the
divisor
It
is
product
quotient the dividend.
be brought to a fractional
is evident also that any integer may
form
of any given denominator, by takingfor the
of our
fraction the product of the integerand
numerator
Thns, 7 is equal to V? to V5 "c.
given denominator.
It is plain indeed that since there are 5 fifthsin 1, there
trouble

the

be 35

must

both

of the

fifths in 7.

Ex.

1.

^X5=

4-f-5=? x'^X3=

ii"x.

z.

-^x^"

_-r-T"

Ex.

3.

^X9=

^VX27=

V.

Ex.

ttX-t"

T-r-r-y

? 2X4=

"

? 2-T-4=

be proved by division^
examples of multiplicatioii

Let the
and

? A-^3=

V.

4.

fractional part of

What

questionlet
les"^than ^ds. of
this

the student
4

that

observe

in the ratio of 3

is

4 ?

^ds. of
^ds. of 3

4 ; and

"

On

must

be

therefore

the

be greater than ^ds. of it,

fractional part sought of 3 mu"t
Whence
the following
in the ratio 4 : 3.
analogy,as 3 1

^.

4:r4:
4 = 2f
Ex.
Ex.
of the

What

o.

6.

accordingly^ths.of

And

fractional

Wliat
A

man

remainder
was

the

2|; and ^ds. of

part of 7 is^'ths. of

of
spent :^th.
in 7 months

amount

of the

5 ?

legacyin 5 months
; and

then

had

"95

^ds^*
left.

legacy?

spent ^ of the legacy,

left. And
when
he had spent ^ds. of this, he
were
|tlis.
for | of =A
had
4.
=
spent in addition i of the whole:
Here

observe

that, when

he had

Ex,. 7.

7. A

Ex,
son

to

that

yds.

750^

widow

whence

find

we

(or ^ths-of it)amounted

the whole
fortune, of which

to

the

the

student.

of the

notation

and

we

the

XI.

of

doctrine

mastered, decimal
It

of

present

can

is

denominators

positionof

Fractions

vulgar

fractions

denominators

those

Fractions,

Decimal

only necessary
employed in them.

other

no

use

younger's

^th.

had

11 4, After

we

Here

rest

told

071 the Nature

to

the

are

CHAP.

been

exceeded

the

and

the fortune

|ths.of

"

his eldest

to

younger

the widow?

had

much

How

"150,

his

to

elder son's share

The

his widow.

by

remainder

-fds. of the

fortune

his

^ds.of

devised

man

51

In

than

clear view

decimal

10, J 00,

fractions
"c.

1000,

intimated

by

the

as

followinga unit in the denominator,

many" cypliers

there

Thus

the

that

it appears

but
the

have

decimal

need

only to

merator,
nu-

intimated

the

write

And

onlythe

denominator

that to

point : and

write

we

as

equivalentwith

with t4^"

.037

notation

understood

understand

we

of the decimal

is

.7

the decimal

-r^Vcr decimally,
we
and

fraction

in decimal
the

jpoint
;

the riorht hand

on

decimal

vulgar fraction -^

by

decimal

dii^itsstanding

are

point.
the

the

for

opce

difficulty

no

written^but

not

are

take

to

has

tion
vulgarfrac-

the denominatof

omit

the decimal
point followed
prefixto the numerator
It is necessary
to prefix
by two
cyphers thus .0037.
order
that
stand
the
in
four
two
on
cyphers,
digitsmay
righthand of the decimal point, as there are four cyphers
to

"

the
following
the

digitsof

in the

unit

denominator

the decimal

fraction may

and

in order
the

yet express

that
merator
nu-

given.
115.
one

or

hand

From
more

makes
as

what

cj^hers

for

or

more

every
are

ten

said it appears,
decimal

everv

both

fold:

ten

the left

fold for

of the

annexed

increased
on

fraction

in the value

cypher

cyphers

of the fraction

to

change

no

denominator
one

has been

hand,

but

that
on

annexing
the right

much
fraction, inasnumerator

that

decreases

and

prefixing
the value

cypherprefixed,inasmuck
'E2

as

(
tlie understood

"s

without

"ro"6%"c.
times

T^^

their

or

.7,

is the tenth

And

{" 107.)

by
point one,
have

.007

100,

J5.7 ; in which

by

the

the decimal
i.

3^

e.

decimal

is

and
integral,
For

Whereas

by 10^ by
removing it one
quotient2;437.
equal to \%%" :

For

the

tenth

the

product
7

the

are

of

if I
i"

affected

{" 108.)or

numbers

on

is divided
integral)
the decimal point,

equal

part

decimal

the

the left ; which

is

2W-^

part.

is multiplied

Thus

-r^ is 44

digitunder

place towards

.7,

to

givesthe
(24 being

^^

which

is

441^

i.

e.

2.437.

or

116.

point

ten

righthand

left.

(in which

24.37

the

the

by 10,
only

times

10

bringinganother

2.^^;

fraction

the

.37

is

.07

less than

by removing

it towards

of the decimal

the left hand

fold

many

the hundredth

decimal

"c.

1000,

point.

3.7.

times

three, "c. placestowards

two,

so

the decimals .7,

{" 95.): but

hundred

one

general any

multiply the

to

value

same

divided, by removing

or

Thus

numerator.

part of t^, and 7^0

in

10,

is increased

equivalent
vulgar fractions t^o,x^,

all of the

are

less than

since

denominator

an}' change in the

.70, .700, "c.

52

In

short

there is

operationon decimals, which

the student
not
investigate
by performingthe same
may
operation according to the notation of vulgar fractions ;
then
and
expressingthe result decimallyaccordingto the
I shall proceed however
simple nde of decimal notation.
exliibit this investigation
to
brieflyin the following
the method
of bringing
gar
chapter: after ]:)remising
any vulfraction

to

no

the decimal

Suppose then

form.

requiredto bringthe fraction

4 to the decimal
form, or to find a decimal
equal to the
flict
4
to bring
to
an
vulgarfraction ^. This is in
equal
117.

fraction, whose

we

are

shall be

denominator

of 10.
some
power
that
know
Now
we
i is equalto |^, i-g^? iM-h "c. or that
of cyphersto both numerator
annexing an equal number
and

denominator
instead

But

that

want

number

of

than

by

will

of 4 followed

change
by any

the value
number

should

the denominator

be

cyphers. This change can

of the
by dividingsome

and

then

we

must

to

it becomes

maintain

also divide

accordinglydivide
and

not

t^,

both
a

terms

fraction

of

cyphers,we
by some

followed

be effected
former

tlie value
the

of the fraction.

of the

fraction

by

fraction

capable of

wise
other-

denominators

of the

innnerator

no

4,

i^^

being

Let

by

altered
unus

4 ;

written

decimally

(
the

denominator,

same

then

and

^9_o^^^
or

5i

before

find tlieirsum

can

we

become

-r^wu and ^-^%

their difference t"^,

.904, and

whose

ference
dif-

or

Now

.764.

or

is

sum

.834

if we

given decimals

the

write

points shall

decimal

stand

cypher after the 7 on

change in the addition
take the

to

And

results.
above

sum

or

here

the

.07

"

in

line, we
righthand,
subtraction

or

see

that

one

in

consists

so

"

as

that

the

understand

may

it will make

as

and

shall

difference,we

we

vulgar fractions

thus

then
have

a
no

ing
proceedthe

same

advantage of decimal
the facility,
with which

denominator.
The
decimal
they are broughtto the same
of
the
also stand in line with
difference must
sum
or
point
of
the
the decimal points
fractions,which we add or subtract
that
left
its
tegral.
hand are indigitsstandingon
; so
any
Thus

if

we

add

.9643

and

.8, the

is 1.7643.

sum

denomination
in vulgarfractions
brought to the same
the given fractions are
of whose
-i^^%- and t^^% ; the sum
is 17643.
But the improper fraction 44lw is
numerators
equal 1 44M, that is to 1.7643.
120.
Suppose we have to multiply.04 by .3 ; that is,the
vulgarfraction t|^ by tV : the product is -i4^^, or .012.
of cyphersin the denominator
of the product
The number
the sum
of the cyphers in the denomi^
being necessarily
For

of the

nators

of the

factors,the denominator

product must

by pointingoff as many decimals in the product

of the numerators
the
as
as
suin
(multiplied integers)
of the decimal placesin both the factors.
The
rule
same
or
applies,where one of the factors is an integer,or one
Thus
both mixed
numbers.
the product of 1,2 multiplied
For 1.2=44,
and .8
^: the denominator
by .8 is .96.
of whose
product is 100 ; and this product is intimated by
pointingoff' tv/o decimal placesfrom the product of their
the product of 12 mulIn like manner
tiplied
96.
numerators
by .8 is 9.6 : but of 12 multiphedby .008 is .096.
be intimated

Hence

121.

the dividend
there
the

as

quotient.
placesthan

the
is

sum

the

decimal
which

we

always the

must

And

have

i:ule of division is obvious.

product of the

For

since

divisor and

tient,
quodecimal
dend
placesin the divimany
of the decimal
places in the divisor and
be

as

if the

given dividend

divisor, we

cyphers

to

seen

cannot

make

fewer

have

tlie luimber

the dividend

on

the

decimal

nexing
equalby anrighthand,

alter the value of the dividend.

(5115.)

(
"\"115.) Thus

55

givesthe quotient
24.69
must
: for we
pointoff two decimal places from the
that the decimal
placesin the dividend may equal
quotient,
of those in the divisor and quotient. But
the sum
1.2345
divided by .0005 givesthe g 469
123.45
vided
di: and
integral
: for we
by .0005 givesthe quotient246900
integral
two
must
annex
cyphersto the dividend in order to make
of its decimal
the number
visor,
placesequal to those in the dibe
decimal
and then there can
no
place in the
the number
of
quotient. It is plain that, in calculating
take into account
decimal placesin the dividend, we must
which
have occasion to annex
we
to
every decimal cypher,
the division-. And
for -continuing
the remainders
that if
in the quotientbe less than the numof digits
the number
ber
of decimal
in it, we
cimal
must
placesrequisite
supply deIhus
cyphers on the left hand,
dividing .25 by
For since there is no
4 integral
givesthe quotient.0625^
decimal placein the divisor, there must
be as many
in the
and
have occasion to annex
we
quotientas in the dividend ;
dividend
decimal
in order to get a comtwo
plete
cyphersto the

dividing1.2345

quotient.

is

.25 decimal

T^U^
122.

measure

i. e.
In

is -^^

:05

of all these results will likewise

truth

decnnals

by expressingour

appear

Thus

The

by

tV^^

or

vulgar

as

fractions.

ihe foui*th part of which

.0625.

division

the

of

integers,when

dividend, it is

the

continue

to

common

divisor does

net

the

vision
di-

cyphersto the

remainders, and
decimally,annexing
off
decimal
the quotient as
from
as
pointing
places
many
have annexed
we
cyphers. For by this operation we in
fact reduce to the decimal
form the vulgar fraction which
is part of the quotient. Thus
in dividing25 by 8, wcliave
that the real quotientis 3^^,of which the fractional
seen
be turned

part may
123.

But

here let the student

for
requisite
as

into the decimal

far, as might be necessary

result.

accurate

the annexation

observe, that it cannot

practicalpurpose

any

Thus

.125.

continue

to

in order

to

this process

obtain

of decimal

till the
useless

29th.
in

of the

place

same

three firstdecimal

perfectly

by 29, and continue

cyphers, I find the quotient
decimal

of decimals.

practice to

if I di^ ide 63

2.17241379310344827586206896551,
the circulation

be

continue

digitsgive

digitsnot
But

the
us

"c.

commencing

it would

process

so

be
far.

quite
The

the fractional remainder

within

56

Wg^th.

less than

find it that it k
part; (forwe
but less than ttoo) : the four
than tWo,
somewhat
more
That
the fraction "^^^
first,within less than To,^o^th. "c.

within

"

reduced

the decimal

to

if

easilyappear,
a

terminate

each
10

is

it

no

remainders

with

or

20;

is the

sum

must

that there

so

are

"

cur,
lengthre-

and

29,
but

tiplying
mul-

cypher

at

be less than

must

produce

cannot

digitwhich

product ending

remainder

either

be

there

of the

one

some

since

length circulate,will

at

l"t. that

"

since

give

can

jnust

consider

we

decimal,

29

2ly.that

form

not
can-

possible

26

remainders.
1. What

Ex

of 20.05

Ex.

5.

What

is the

difference

Ex.

3.

What

is the

product

"05?

and

Ex.
.15?

of 3.75

4.

and

is the

of 375

-f-

IF I

rate, for

375

and

3.75
X

.5 ? of 3.75

3.75

-v-

5 ? of

4-

the

Rule

of Frojwrtion,

purchase 4 yards Cloth for "2

what
quantity I ought to get, at
it

I2s.

3.75

XIII.

can

"2

375

.15

Aj^pUcationof

know

to

want

of

quotientof

CHAP.

124.

between

.005

10.5?

What

Practical

1.5

be

the

the

ascertained

by
quantitiespurchased at
can

1 5s, and

same

rule of

a
proportion. For the
given rate
the pricespaid : therefore
be directly
4 yards, the
must
as
be greater than the
quantitypurchased for "2 : 155. must
ratio in which
purchased for ^2 : I2s. in the same
(juantity

the former

of money

sum

the ratio of 55s.

Therefore

fourth

which
duct

55

to

525.

52

or

is greater than
of the abstract

yards

to

third

and

latter, or

numbers

55

in
52.

quantity sought:

(" 74.) by taking the pro

proportionalis found

of the second

the

the

terms

and

dividingit by

the

5*^

4 X

first;oris

3f|- yards, that is, 3 yards 9 inches

or

~,

55

and

somewhat
125.

This

generalrule
the

third

is of the

term
same

more

than

example

one

may

solvingall

third
serve

to

of

an

inch.

ilhistrate the

following

questions. 1st. Place as

of your
analogy that given quantity,which
with the thingsought. Thus,
denomination

for

such

wwrvEKsn

57

example, the questionbeing what quantityof

I get, the given quantityof cloth, or 4 yards,
i.loth can
of the analogy. 2ly.Consider
ituist be the third term
whether
the answer
of the question
from tlie nature
must
and
than
that
less
be more
or
givenquantity
;
accordingly
of
ratio
less
in
terms
a
or
state the other two
given
greater
last
in
the
it
is
as
Thus,
example,
plain
inequality.
than
be
less
that
4
must
4*
that the answer
yards(thatis,
in
ratio
the
of
be
to
quantitysought a
greater
yardsmust
suins
of
the
be
stated
two
must
given
inequality)
money
the greater must
be
in a ratio of greater inequality
; or
the antecedent.
made
Sly.Having thus stated your terms,
first be mixed, or fractional,numbers, bring
if the two
and
denomination
the
them
then, altogether
to
same
;
their
denomination,
proceedto find a fourth
disregarding
of
yourself
proportional
by the rtile givenin " 74-. availing
last

the

^n

such

any

abbreviations

the numbers

as

Thus, in the last example, we

admit.

both

brought

See " 86.

the

of

sums

and then disregarded

to the denomination
shillings,
money
their denomination, as it is only the ratio of the numbers
that is concerned,
We

126.

another

form

now

may
of our

questionto

work
in the last : viz. If I pay
correctness
I pay, at the
for 3rf yardsof cloth, what must

of

given sum.
the analogy.

the

And

of money,
the two
in a ratio of less
terms,
VV and
is that
220

s82

1 2.^,^

rate,
of
thingsoughtbeing
money,
"2
of money
be the third term
: i^s. must

yards? Here

for 4
the

the

prove

the

whose

125.

beingboth

ratio

Let

by

us

day,

mason

how

can

build
hours

of hours each

may
55 ; and

be stated
These

4.

become

that, as

208

we

then

may

to

tiie

by

sec

day

plainthat

day ;

and

or

12.

another

must

first terms

two

sought is 55S'
proportional

wall in 6

sum

denominator

The

questionin the

many
build it in 5 days ? It is

jmmber

greater

substitute for them

we

rule

applyour

same

55ths.
So

220.

525. in "2

are

commonly proposed as
If

common

sought.

4,

the fourth

15, since there

127.

and

sum

quotients52

inspectionthat
"2:

the
rejecting
208

the

to

divisible

ratio of the

be

denomination

same

of the numbers
"2

::

must

answer

sum

of cloth must
givenquantities
that
is, as 3rf to
inequality,

brought to
Vt

the

as

example,such
!

days,working 7
he
he

is

as

ule ofThreci?iverse.
work

must

in

work

hours

order
a

to

greater

tlvcreforethe fourth

term

cf

(
of

the

be

analogy must

hours

and

the

bence

38

greater than

number

thus
inequality,
hours
sought. The

of

Sf hours

this may

is 8

must

7 hours

therefore

answer

and

hours

7
third term,
be stated in a

5:6::

as

"

that

the

first terms

two

of less

ratio

24

minutes.

is

The

the

to

y-^

or

of

truth

proved by forminganother question in which

shall be one
of the given t^rms, and
this answer
one
any
of the former given terms
shall be the term
sought. Thus :
if a mason,
working 8 hours and 24 minutes a day, build
wall in 5 days,how
he work
hours a day must
in
a
many
order to build it in 6 chiys
? or
in how many
days shall
he build it working 7 hours
a
day ? or lastly if he build
it in 6 days working 7 hours a day, in how many
days shall
he build it working each day 8 hours and 24 minutes
? And
thus whenever
a
questionhas been solved by the rule of
be

"

"

proportion,the
three

forming
of his

of

answer

tlie

since

find any one

having given the three
we

who

systems, will

common

Three

learned

direct and

others.

Arithmetic

perceivethat
in them

introduced
inv^^se.

It is

in

the truth
prove
of the four terms

to

can

have

the distinction
of

exercised
profitably

questionsadapted

Those,

128.

be

may

other

analogyfrom

an

to

student

according
regard
wholly dis-

the Rule

between

useless
perfectly

and

like all useless distinctions it is calculated

only to perplex
the learner
render
and
to
a
simple subjectcomplicated.
They will also perceivethat I placethat as the third term
of the analogy, which
is commonly stated as the second.
The

order

common

to

as

have

by men
degraded from
difference
the

the

into

even

been

of science.

in
to some
may
appear
calculated
is mischievously
on

which

to

the

conceal

from

solution

view

proceeds :

absurd ; as absurd, as
we
spoke of
intrinsically
5lbs.
such
ratio between
as
heterogeneousquantities
and

we

questionis affected
two

ratios, or

instance:

wall in 6
in order

of music.

bars

Hitherto

129.

For

had

if

of beef

be

rency,
cur-

Unimportant as the
rangement
practice,the vulgar ar-

rank

is

tlie

treatises

some

Arithmetic

science, unless

of ratio,
princi})les

and

admitted

been
of

written

havp obtained such

could

never

supposed cases,
only by one given ratio

ever

if 3

so

masons

many,

which

hours

build

days i

many
it in 5

but

there

hours

day

must

Here,

if

in the

concerned

w^orking7

days,how
to

in

have

4
we

the
may

question.

day

build

masons

consider

work

only
the

the

than

the

is

the

to

of

number

the increased

in

answer

of

that is, in the ratio

But

9.

10

hour5,

of 4

20

and

18

{"

the third
the

how

of

term
answer

only

would

be greater
Therefore
7 hours

the

minutes.

and

87.)

83.

Therefore
18

consider

we

of 5

compounded

4^.

3.

be less than

The

3,

of

or

10:

is

answer

GyV

generp.1rule

for solvino- all such

therefore

sider

hours

or

if

7 hours

masons,

ratio

would

And

6,

in the ratio

answer

hours

days, 7

ratio of 5

in the

answer

of

number

the decreased

59

mine
questionsis this : 1st. deterthe analogyas before.
2ndly. Con^
of the
would
be affected by each
"

and
of each ratio acthe terms
separately,
cordingly,
arrange
the
rule
before
the
3rdly,
Multiply
by
given.
vide
third term
by the product of all the consequents and diBut
here much
by the product of the antecedents.
trouble may
be saved by observingwhether the
frequently
of the givenratios may be reduced to lower, according
terms
to the rule given " 87.
ratios

of

convinced
have

student

may
of the
justice

the

in

proceeded

first

how

find

to

the

that

observed

should

masons

the solution

the

be

thoroughly

more

on
principles,

of this

which

question might be resolved

hours a day the same
many

work

in

order

to

into

hours

the

solved

by
questionby
thus

And

of

number

same

we

days.
analogy as 5
"

the

analogy
"

that

see

the

multiplying7 hours

The
:

as

6
4

first
: :
:

7
3

:
:

"^^5 and

answer

build

of

days ;
many
it in
be

the second
answer.

be obtained

of each of the

the

two

would

the

^^

would

how

question

:' V

it be

number

the wall in

build

we

question, let

secondly,after havingfound this, to find

should work
in order
to
a
day 4 masons

and

the

the

That

130.

by
given

by
consequent
the
antecedent of each.
dividingby
Let us now
131.
apply our rule to a questioninvolving
three distinct ratios.
If a familyof 13 persons
spend ^64

ratios, and

on

butcher's meat,

lb. how

of
in
and
of

is to the
ratios

of the

6i.

to

13, the

is Gd-

the meat

ratio

is

the last ratio

terms

of the

13

being the

first and

to
same

the

12,

with

of

times

lb. that
8

12

lb ?

Giper

compounded

number

of the ratios of

per

family of

of consumers,
the pricesof the meat
per

But

to

sought in

sum

consumption, and
ratio compounded
a
12

when

(at the same

rate) should a
spend in 9 months, when the meat

direct

months

much

persons
.^64
Here
the

in

to

is,
9,

that

last ratios may

be
erased
^

{
therefore

(" 87.) and

erased

60
8

as

j^64

: :

the answer,

to

by inspectionto be "1^,
1 32.
Consideringthe different questions,to which have
of
liitlierto apphed the rule of proportion, any
person
the absurdityof conceiving
them
must
sense
see
common
it
that
woukl
solved by different rules ;
surd
be abmust
see
solved
to talk of the
question " 1 24. as
by the ride of
the
Yet
rule of masovry,
"c.
clcdhy the questionJ 126. by
is known

which

"

this

be

not

all the
perva(5es

which
in

would

absurdity

presentingto

Interest^of

that,
greater than
of
Arithmetic,
systems

common

student

the

whit

of

Exchange,

distinct

as

rules the Rule

"c.

"c.
Felloiscshij)

All

of

these

of the one
Rule of Pi'opoi'tion
applications
with the prin?
and
student, acquaintedscientifically
any
ciplesoi^ proportion^needs only to have the meaning of
the terms
employed in these different subjectsdistinctly
explainedto him, in order to be able to solve every question
shall proceed to exemthat can
in them.
Wc
occur
plify
but different

are

this in

and
per

cent,

4inn.

what

plain

therefore
be

the

to

poumled
of
,

that

find

to

the

^
therefore

interest

interest of

in

sought

principalsand

of

and

2754

100:

7, that is in the
3857X5,

the

given

are

we

interest

of the

ratios

Interest

"

for 3^ years.
The
third
be the given interest
must

rate

same

of the terms

if it be asked, At
5 per
cent.
pe?^ annum
for '6\ years?
is the interest of .^275
: 10

order

in

year,

instances.

the meaning
explaining

per

it is

few

After

183.

times,
of 1

ratio

-'

"^

or

the

at

this

and

must

of the

ratio

of 200

com-r

and

551

The

385?.

answer

'.
^,
,

400

compoundi3d

3|,

3857
or

for 1

10

pf the analogy

that is in

of 400

is

^^75

term

ratio

of 100.^'

that

^.^
,"48

is

^
in

3.

80

the
though often not the most expeditious,
time to calculate all questionsin
learner, ought for some
interest ; and to prove his answer
by such questionsas the
will the inwhat
terest
rate
: At
following
per cent, per annum,

this

manner,

of ^275

10

for 34 years be ^48

: 4 : 3 ? or.
what principal
will gain at 48

per annum,
per cent,
interest in 34 years?

gain

^48

liave

known

in

what

interest ? And

in

interest

by

persons,
the common

how

set

about

to

the

or

"

who

solution

have

time
some

been

technical

will

children

5
:

10

forms

calculating

rules, quite at

j while

^275:

of those
for years

At

loss

rationally

taught

12

as
answer

be

may
13th

13

And

answer.

the

On

British
the

at

the

to

by subtractingits

par

in British

amount

is

10

this

contrary Irish money

Irish, exchange being 9\, it

be
as
analogy must
109^ : 100 : : "215

"215

fore
There-

12.

expeditiously
by adding

part.

calculate

To

the

to

most

into

changed

part.

10

fomid

its 12th

10

"275:

::

be

may

^275

of

13

in the ratio of

greater, and

be

must

rency

62

currency

plain that
10

"

the

to

answer,

In

137.

the

calculations

profitsof

trade

accordingto the time

capitalhe has invested
in the

of

we
Felloisoship

several

among

each

has

If

in it.

for the

trade and

trade
had

they have

time, it is

same

vide
di-

to

partners equitably,

in the

been

called

are

and

the

pitals
equal caplainthat

them.
And
be divided
profitsmust
equallybetween
be in a
each partner'sshare of the profits
must
universally
ratio compounded of his capital
stock, and of the time it
has been
employed in the trade : for supposing either of
the

these

circumstances

their shares
therefore

will

be

resolves

the

be

to

itself into this

parts that shall be

25

and

be

must

the

it is

the ratio of 4

32, and
to

parts
and

die end

and

Now

in trade

12, 9,

7:

into parts in the

that is, as 24, 27, and

Therefore

share,
138.
enter

sB21

as

to

Although

is in

required are 40,

bers
given num-

parts

of the

sum

parts is

suppose
of
capitals

to

the

number

the tional
proporthat three partners,
to

us

^^2000, ^3000,

79
B's

compound
28,
2133

the

of those

of

as

of which

sum

(or as

share, and

it be

into the minutiae

ratio

is

^"2133

to

2, 3, and
be divided

are
capitals

and

them
79.

+ 84-7

and that
for 12, 9, and 7 months;
them
they have to divide between

of the

as

let
had

have

10

25, that

given numbers

several

year
of
Their
profit .^2133.
times

the

ratios of the

required.

B,

A,
"3"4000

the

as

tional
propordivide
100

to

Now

7.

greater than

the
universally

assignthe

divided,

be

is

100

Therefore

1.

And

28"

which

instance,

proportionalparts of 100
and
7, (the parts of 25) in

10, 8,

ratio in which

same

the

plain that

greater than

problem
ber
given num-

given ratios, or

10, 8, and

as

The

divide

^To

"

into parts that shall be in any

for
to any
given numbers:
into

other.

the

directlyas

all the partners,

with

same

: :

27)

^-28

to

: :

4 ; their

between

numbers,

numbers
^24

at

to

is

A's

C's share.

design of this treatise to

Arithmetic, as applied
practical

not

the

to

(
to

transactions, yet I

mercantile

pointingout

without

another

to

matter

of payments. If
"fel2.5
payable in

and

pay both
creditor.

he should
debtor

or

that

obvious

pears

for thus

months:
for

for the

A
7

without
together,

sums

if the

Now
the

time
the

withhold

of payment,
lose the interest of one
times

two

gain the

the

But

payment
the payment
he anticipates

of

interest

of the

for

that A

longer

time

in order

^125,

ment
pay-

at the different

obvious

as

or

equal payment

an

due

sums

appears
of the ^75

the

either

to

equal, it aj)be exactlythe

sought must

would

and

loss

were

sums

being unequal, it

times

the subject

of the rule of proapplication

portion
of frequentoccurrence
t/ieequation
B "15
in
5
months,
owe
payable
time
at what
months, it is inqiiired

time.

same

dismiss

not

"

each

month,

must

the

period between

middle

63

to

must

than

make^

equal; and that, in the ratio of

We
have only then to divide in that
125:
75, or of 5:3.
the
ratio the interval of 2 months
(the distance between
and
the
add
two
given dates of payment)
greater part,
the
in order to find
\~ months,
to 5 months,
equatedtime
interest
thus the
of "15
held
withof paying both sums
: for
is
month
the
and a quarter
for one
interest
equal to
the
^125
of
anticipatedin
payment by J;ths.of a month.
if A should owe
Now
B a third sum,
"Sl
payable
suppose
combined
the
former
into
in 9 months, having
two
one
sum
of ^200
in
it
is
similar
months,
payable 6-5:
plainthat by a
find
of payment
the
time
of the
equated
process we
may
three, dividing2 1 months
6^) into two
(9
parts in the
ratio of 87 : 200, and adding the lesser part to 6\ months:
which
givesthe equatedtime for the payment of the three
sums
together7tVt months, or what m^ay be considered in
and 3 days. Now
let the student calculate
practice7 months

gainedand

the interest

lost

"

the interest of ^75

^Vt of

and

for 2^4t months,

of .s^l25 for

for I^t months

month, and "S1
: he will find
the third, lost by A and gainedby B, exactlyequalto the
a

of the two

"um

139.

This

first gained by A

at

would

too
altogether

and

lost

operation however, which

described
be

and

largein

order

to shew

tedious

which
of the

we

two

Let

found

us

now

6j months as
first sums.
We

have

for mercantile

return

the

we

B.

the scientific

it fortunately
happens that it admits

abbreviation.

by

to

the

most

principles,
practice:
convenient

operation,by

equatedtime

first

hitherto

for payment

proceeded to

divide

months

{
months

by

the

to

the

64

in the ratio of

{'7'"5)

125

followinganalogy: (" 137.)

greater

part,

which

this is done

1 25 -f 75:2

as

"

Now

75,

is therefore

2 is equal("25.) to 125

fourth
We

proportional
maybe
added

then

order

with

expressed,

^.^

in the

and

.i

those

the

numerator

arrive

we

the

5 to

same

it becomes

two

their

is

numerators

plainly75

of the subtraction
its addition

in the
of the

+ 75 is the

when

of 125

ex-

other, that

products

it is

of

payable:

of the payments.
at the followingpracticalrule :
tiply
mul-

denominator,

thus

And

In

r
."
i
fractional

disappear)tliat is, the sum

pajmient multipliedby the time

each

5 months.

bring

us

must

part

account

and

let

of
pressions,the sum
plus 125 X 7 ; (foron
one

ZL_2i_

proportional,and

75

So that the

proportionalto

r
addniff

JN'ow

..

+ 75

"

the fourth

125

thus

that addition

+ 75X5

125X5

7 minus\2oX5,

this fourth

perform

to

denominator

125

But

"

125

125

::

125

sum

"

by the time when it is due, and divide

of the i^ayments
of those products by the sum
the sum
;
the quotientis the equated time of payment
cordingly
Acsought.
proceedingby this rule to find the equated time
of the three payments proposed in the last section, the
each

payment

is

answer

'[^"^l^"^^2^,
7

oVt

"

^s

"i"?^J:^
75 + 125

+ 87

75+125
or

or

+ 87

"

before.

287

have

matical
questionedthe mathethe principle
that
of this calculation,on
accuracy
before it is due
can
sidered
a
justlybe conpaying money
person
is
which
less
than
the
discount^
as
losingonly
this idea the calculation
is
the interest.
to
According
1 10.

somewhat

am

aware

unfavourable

the

principleupon
palpably erroneous.
months,
it not

as

that

some

to

which
If

the creditor.

But

it is controverted
I

owe

.^'100

I confess that
to

appears

payable

in

me

three

it immediately,must
the money
to pay
reasonablybe supposed that I can gain the interest
and

have

by delayingthe payment till it become due, as it

creditor will gain the interest by my
is supposed that my
paying him immediately? And if I have not the money,
XmX wish to raise it for immediate
payment, suppose by
of

"\00

issuingr

(
lose

I must

For

for

note

issuingmy

the

according

interest at 5 per cent,

foK-o-^lOl : 55. in order
this

is not

justthe

3 months

at 5 per

is it not

the discount

to

even

months,

than

more

65

theojy

receive

for 3 months

of discount
I

annum)

per
to

equallyplainthat

of j^lOO

(reckoning-

issue

must

note

my

immediately^^100.
if I borrowed

same

thing

cent,

interest,in order

as

And

^100
make

to

for

diate
imme-

creditor ? But accordingto the mercantile

my
I
of
discount
issue
must
for
note
a still
practice
my
to

payment

much

it has

said

much

ideas should

my

will be

and

be found

while

Those

will not

contested

been
;

worth

subjectfurther.

of this

discussion

so

however

It is not

largersum.

wonder

for

If I of a yard of cloth cost

rate ^
9 yardscost at the same
Ex. 2. At the same
rate, how
many
Ex.

If 7 horses

days,how

eat

the

5.

finish

mason

the wall in

wall, as
Ex.
how

6.

7.

of

at

Ex.

8.

Ex.

9.

I get

corn

in 9

days ?
in 12 days,

work

rate

his

of wages,
in
and he finishes

dispatch:
much
per day

How

days more.

is he to

ceive
re-

if he had

at the

At

5 per cent, per

^725
: 15
: 6 ?

10.

at

"

Of

cent,

What

Commission

factor for

4, 6, and

what

factor to the

pieceof

increased

an

miles will he walk

54. per
Ex.

yards should

will

here that,
continued to work at
would
have
taken 3 days to finish the
rate, he
4 of it remained to be built.
If a man
walk 7^ miles in 2 hours and 10 minutes,

many

Ex.

at

Observe

same

what

finish it ?

he shall increase

proportionas
"

if

me,

having built 4 of a wall in 6 days, at

6d, per day, his employer agrees to pay

wages of 3^.
him for the remainder

Sd,

will eat it in

rate

will 1 5 workmen

the

the

Ss.

quantityof

certain

same

If 75 workmen

time

Ex.

at

many

4.

in what

pardon

19?

3.

Ex.

having

my

practice.

1.

for ."4^

how

incorrect.

Examples
Ex.

at

to

the

pursue
know

who

ready

most

to

an

4i

cent,

per

is ^27
principal

per annum
is the

amount

is

what

annum,

is the

per
10

in 3 hours

rate

same

the

annum

terest
yearlyin?

yearlyinterest,

?
commission

of ^576

allowance

of

so

on

15

much

8,

goods bought by
at

per

24- per

cent.

cent,

made

"

to

for his employer. Brokerage

buying or selling
F

is

(
is

allowance

similar

merchant
Ex.
*83

Ex.

Ex.

at

At

12.

10:

10?

13.

At

broker, for assisting

a

amount

-|per

rate

for

41 per

the interest of ^100

cent.

what

of .^100

Interest
^.^24

11|,

to

buying or selling
goods.
of goods is the brokerage

what

On

11.
5

made

factor in

or

66

cent,

per

and

years

cent,

"s"34

to

16

to

amount

in what

per annum,

amount

will the

per annum
2 months

time

will

8 ?

Divide

79 into 5 parts that shall be in the ratio

of 2, 34^ 5, 64, and 8 ?
Ex. 15. Five
partners A, B, C, Dj and E joined in
Ex.

14i

beginning of the year, putting in the

capitalsof ^200, ^350, ^500, ^650, and
Their jointprofitat the end of the year was
^790.
their respective
shares of it ?
are
trade

the

at

Ex.

A.

16.

into trade

went

capitalof ^2576

with

took

with
B. into partnership

1st. of June

they took

capital. The

How
Ex.

British currency
of

Ex.

an

^217

15

them

iat par

15

beginningof

of the year
?

what

is the

Irish ? and

the

on

equal

is "1725,

in

amount

in Irish

rency
cur-

British .?

Ditto, Exchange being 9|j

18.

What

: and
equalcapital
partnershipwith an

between

of ^"217

"800.

the year
the 1st. of March
he

the end

jointprofitat

Exchange being

17.

On

10.

C. into

is it to be divided

the

at

tive
respec-

and

Exchange

being 104^?
Ex.

If A.

19.

mow

it in 7

mow

it ?

hours,

On

"

can

mow

what

in

this and

that, if A. and

B.

field in 5

time

similar

worked

can

hours, and
A.

and

B.

B*

can

together

let it be considered
questions

with

equaldispatch,theywould

of them
togetherdo the work in half the time that one
would
requireto perform it alone : and if B.'s dispatch
twice as great as A.'s, they would
were
togetherperform
it in the third part of the time, which
A. would
require
to perform it alone ; for A.
and
B. togetherwould
then
be equivalent
Now
to three A.'s*
according to the terms
of the question B* working slower than A. in the ratio of
7 : 5, A. and
B. are
not
equal to two A.'s, but only to

A-f

of A.

5 hours

Ex.

to

So that
tlie time

20.

If A.

can

mow

(or 14)

is to

1,

or

12

is to

7,

as

sought.

field in 5 hours; and A. andB. together

it in three hours, in what time can
B. mow

can

mow

it

67

(
it alone ? Here
last
5

question,that
i. e. 2

"

it is

Ex.
how

B.

: :

bushels

many

A-f B

Therefore

dispatchis as

tlie

on

(" 72.)
fore
There-

5.

dispatch.
of

corn

the

at

will

rate

same

horses

serve

day^,

10

horses

20

serve

days?

21

Ex.

the

At

22.

bushels

rate, how
in what
And

same

days?

in 3

horses will

many

will 21

time

27

eat

horses

eat

bushels?

18

Ex.

If

23.

family of

months, how

much

19

the

at

dig

can

how

trench

the

days at
day dig a

hours

will

rate

same

hours

rate

same

day for
and

trench

of 175

108

can

in S

i^235

familyof

yards long, 3 wide,

400

mahy

expend

persons

?
persons expend in 5 months
Ex. 24. If 96 men
working 9

men

12

days

10

deep, in
working 7

yards long, 4 wide,

and

deep ?

Ex.
of

25.

At

5'

15

26.

At

"61
Ex.

of
:C175

27.

gain

^^350

Ex.

28.

41^ per

what

29.

capitalof

for

5 per

At
A.

and

years

will the interest

annum

per

months

to

amount

per annum,
interest in 10 years

began

^'1000

C.

a
as

cent,

per

10

amount

trade

and

ths

on

the

on

partner

;
a

and

15

January

March

took

on

the

capitalof

will

time

of

1st.

1st. of

capitalof ^1 500
with

in what
"^

3 months

and

annum,
to

principalwill

what

cent,

5^375

partner with

they admit

cent,

per

4|: per

the interest of
Ex.

rate

is the interest

what
per annum,
?
and
11 months

At
:

cent,

for 7 years

^^1025
:

Ex.

observations

B.

But A/s

If 9 bushels

21.

the

plain,from

B.'s

5 to

: :

: :

with

in B.

1st. of

^^2725.

a
as

Ma^
The

What
are
jointprofitat the end of the year is ^1896.
shares ?
their respective
Ex. 30
Three graziers.
A, B, C, hold a pieceof ground
A. on
in common,
for which
they are to pay "75 a year.
the 1st. of January puts in 12 sheep, on the 1st. of March
draws
8 sheep more,
10
the 1st of June
and
on
sheep.
the 1st. of
the 1st. of January puts in 15 sheep, on
B. on
February draws 6 sheep, and en the 1st of July puts in
1 2 sheep more.
C. does not
put in any sheep till the end
of
on

one

the

August

and

month,
1st.

draws

of
9

the

on

April

sheep.

1st. of

February puts

sheep

more;

and

How

much

ought

on

the

each

to

in 14^;
1st.

pay

of
of
the

(
the

questionsin

during the

varies

end

of the year ?
where
the
fellowship,

the

at

rent

68

On

"

this and

of
capital

partnership,let the

student

similar

any partner
observe that

each
products obtained by multiplying
cajpital
by the time it has been employed must be proportional
of the profit,
to his share in the partition
loss,"c.
that if A. had grazed 10 sheep for 12
Just as we have seen
his share would be jtistly
months
representedby 10 X 12^
he grazes 12 sheep for 2 months, 20 sheep
120 ; so when
or
for 3 months^ and 10 sheep for 7 months, his share riiust
be represented
154.
or
+ 20X3
-f- 10X7,
by 12x2
"25
be
A.
in
B.
Ex. 81.
to
1 month
owes
paid
j ^30
j"45
in
in
2 months
to be paid
3 months
to be paid
;
; and
is
What
months.
be
in
the
4
J815
to
paid
eqtiatedtime
should he pay him "l 15^
for paying the whole ? i. e, when
with the several distinct paythat it should be equivalent
so
ments
?
at the time specified
Ex. 32. A. purchases goods froni B. on
the 15th. of
of ^^275 : on
the 1st. of February
January to the amount
the

to

of all the

sum

of ^125

the amoimt

of ^^312.

amount

He

purchase: but wishes

at 31 days after date.

and

the 10th. of March

on

is allowed

giveB.

to

When

3 months

credit

bill for the whole

should

it be dated

to
on

the

each

amount

XIV.

CHAP.

Origin atid Advantages of Algebra. AlgebraicN'otatiom

Dejinitions*
ALGEBRA

141.

is to

of Arithmetical

method

than
applicable
:

with

while

those

they
which

are

of the former

the

as

no

who

one

this treatise.

but

another
sively
exten-

more

much

principlesare

part of the
Elements
of

Mathematicians

modern

and

the common,

its fundamental

in
difficulty
pursued in

considered

computation,much

alreadystated, that

master

serious

be

more

erful
pow-

coincident
so
has made
self
him-

find any
Algebra,so far as

subjectcan

The

great advantage,
the ancient^

above

possess
with
this art ; which came
to
acquaintance
from the Arabs, according to the testimony^
tis originally

consists in their

of Lucas

de

Burgo,

who

firstpublished
a treatise

on

it in

ItaliaiJr

(
in

that

the

difference

observingeven
19, and

twice

70

twice

form, which
universal

once

extent

to

that the

denote

the
i^xz expresses
by the letters x,

or

three times

^nd Ixy

?/,

and

the

what

product of

be

numeral

"

a-i-b

if

to

"

ex-

"

3.r

by

it
ofx algebraically,
:^ths.

express

(as i"

or

Therefore

^mn
quotientarisingfrom dividing

want

we

vision
the di-

39.

presses the

pression
ex-

prefixed.

be

expressed thus

3 ;

letters is

or

other

no

observed

-^.

presses
ex-

of

forms

such
letter

to

3a

manner

multipliedby

when

been

thus
usual) fractionally,

morfe

In

xtJu

has

xyz, or zyx,
moted
three factors de-

In like

z.

is understood

1
to

Thus

prefixed to the

b may

by

"z

quently
fre-

or

the

; and
coefficient

According
of

of

times

seven
expresses
the numbers

coefficient appears,
144

most

it is more

but

them.

product

or

a,

called the numeral

in

ha, writing the

the factors in continuation, without

sign interposedbetween

any

obtained

are

said " 23. and 24. it appears,

numbers
representedby a and

has been

product of any two

be expressed oy axb
bxa\
or
and brieflyexpressed by ab

letters which

the

in

in their
principles

presents those
the attention

Fvom what

143.

h may

at

was

sum

Whereas

results

Algebraicoperationsthe

j^ame

the

that

particularcase

And

Sx.

is

for

"

'
-

"

the 4th part of three times x, or ||;hs.pf

this expresses
if w^
And
be called to find a fourth
See " 92.
X.
once
proportionalto three numbers
representedby a, b, and
c,

be

the fourth

will
proportional

'

"'

'

"

be

justlyrepresentedby

"

"

'

for this expresses

the

quotient arisingfrom dividingthe

See " 74.
product of the given means
by the givenextreme.
if we
And
have
this analogy a
b
infer
c
d, we may
the equation ad
the equation ax-=^bywe
be, or from
:

"

infer the

may

145.
or

The

analogya
square

3rd. power

But

they
of

ne?ifs

if I

And
power,

by

are

aaa

more

the

be e^^pressed
by oa ; its cube
may
its 4th. power
by aaaa, Sec, ($ 143.)

thus, a'',"%

multiply any
the 7th. power
by

the 12th.

77.

to

suppose

See " 76. and

x.

frequentlydenoted

powers,

want

will be

of

power,

Or

"%

by

indices

"c.
of

power
the 5th.

or

expo-

(See " 32.)

by any other

power,

"'*, its index

the duct
probeing the
sum

71

"

indices of

of the

"um

And

notation.

of the same
root
powers
indices of the factors,it is

be

from

the

of a^

root,

otherwise

We

surds.

exponents,
intended

notation

that number
We

fractional

for

of which

thus,a^,

instance,

divide

by erasinga^
of

againJ the

appear

"

::i-may be

called

are

indicates the
this

accordingto

at

from

once

many
lower
to

and

de-

this is done

by

both.

or

reduced

numerator

^3/ ; but
For as the

both

them

ation
annex-

mere

the
Algebraically

letters expresses
which
numbers

any
the

withdrawing of any
by tliat letter. Thus
be
ac
quotient must
Thus

And

aT^ "c.

"c.

the aid of fractional

by

and j/ being factors of both

of

prefixed

with which
facility
in Algebra may
be reduced to
expressions

minator, I may
at once

surds

the

thus Va,

the denominator

a^,

Va

signalone,
is a,

The

"

is ", is de-

square

cube

sign
such

a^,

notice the

here

may

For

terms.

write

of the divisor

expresses the cube root of the square of a,

of which a^ is the cube.
See Chap. 22.

"t

146.

whose

the radical

with

whose

the radical

by

or

that, number

or

Quantities

that number

or

the other

plain that they

^~

Thus

from

multiphed

are

index

thus, Va,

noted

dividend.

of the

index

root

square

by subtractingthe

divided

may

is evident

as

as

by adding the

root

factors

hy performingthe operationaccordingto

143.

cube

the

cation
multiplithe

mere
they represent, so
be equivalent
to division
letter must
divide abc by Z",the
if I want
to
abc.
acxb
(See " 40 )
5 since
"

fractional

"^"~expressioii

by writingthe givenfraction

xxyz^^^^ dividingboth

in the

^"

"

as

will

longernotation
denominator

and

nunxerator

by

2"xyyz
the

factor xyz.

common

147.

compound

vmculum^

or

quantity,i^ designed

Algebraicexpression.
of the

(withoutthe
understood

line drawn

sum.

vinculum
as

Thus
of

to

give precision

"\-6 X
and 6 by

sum

c;

terms

of

of

terms
to

unitingthe

denotingthe

several

over

denotes
whereas

a^b)
and

the

the

the

tiplication
mul-

a-f 6xc
might be

product of
h and

(
b and

a-^hc.

or

r,

of
multiplication

whereas

thing as

ca

like

by

the

"

and
difference between
a
the difference between
a
of the vinculum

the

expresses
difference between
and
a
it

mighi express

the

same

the square of the

b^ would
b ," whereas a
express
and the square of b. In place

b\^expresses

"

mark

employ the

often

we

cy^a^h

manner

vinculum

And

".

"

In

the

without

72

of

parenthesis.

[a^b) -r-x expresses the division of a-\-b by .r.

148.
Propositions
concerningthe relative magnitudeof
we
quantities
commonly express in Algebraby equations.
Thus

that a exceeds
(See " 19.) Thus to express algebraically
^ by 7, we employ the equationa-=^h-\-l^or the equation
6
7; any of which, according
equation a
the
of
notation
to
the
as already
explained,
import
will be found to express the givenrelation between a and b.
To express that half of a is less than two thirds of b by 4, we
a

"

6,

the

or

"

--.-|-4
employ this equation,

may

-^,

But

of this

more

hereafter.
1 49.

The

observation*

the grammar
the student to
ns

of

in this

himself

following. Putting the

the

it is very desirable for

expert in such exercises as

and

Algebra ;

make

"

be considered

chaptermay

letters

numbers,

ij for any two

addition
of twice y
and

1. the
express algebraically
to three fifths of ^,- 2. the subtraction

of half

from

.r

twice

of their sum
multiplication
by their difference 5
4. the quotientfrom
dividing25 by their difference j 5.
the quotientfrom
dividingtheir sum by three times X/
S.

1/ ;

the subtraction of the square

6.
K

the

7.

that the

product of

of 3/ from

root

their

sum

the cube

aiid difference is equal

8: that the square of

difference of their squares 5

their sum
exceeds
the square of their difference
the

to

times

their

product

exercise himself in
the

3.

followmg 1, X'\-y
"

.r+j/|-Xj:" I =10^^;

^^r5

8.

other hand

the

let the

by

four

student

such algebraic
as
expressions
interpreting

6.
^^yr=,^J^;

On

of

^^|T

"

j/= 2^/^
4.

4-3/X x-^y
=

2.

-f 2^

-r-

^i^^:^II^-f
7
20"^;
=

7.
x^'-^y-'
;

4j/

^"

"

5-

1/x

^HKyh" 4arj/

5.

CHAP.

V3

)
XV.

CHAP.

Addition
Algebraic
NegativeQjiantities.

Positive and

and

Subtractio7i"

Ever}^quantityin Algebra is said to ha positive

or
accordingas it is affected with the signpins or
negative
%has not
and whenever
either
a
hiinuSf-I-of-":
quantity
is
t
he
of these signsprefixed,
understood, and
sign -f
is
be
said
Thus
to
the quantity
5, or -f-^* is
positive.
5 is negative Positive quantities
other-*
are
; but
positive
ing
wise called affirmativeSome
mathematicians, in treathave involved it in much perplexity,
this subject,
and
150.

"

into extravagant absurdities

plungedthemselves
of

"

as

quantityless than

the former

that

him,

to

or

be

derived from

be

quantities
may
Five

the

pounds are
he

same

another

owe

considered

the

affairs may
is

be

wt^ile

merchant's
sum,

credits and

whether it be due
it
in the one
case

addition

"5^
iiegafive
if the

sum

of his credits by ."1000, the

represented
by lOOO^a^,and
"

to

for it is

of his debts
state

of his

undoubtedly

nothing and owed nothing. In

in meris often said even
cantile
indeed, the man
case
Whereas
if
thousand.
lano^uao^eto be inimis one
than

worse

such

sum

talking
disgrace

and negative
positive

but
36.% for it is an
positive

it to

as
may
his property ; and in the other as
subtraction from his property. And

exceed

be subtracted,

is to

the latter is to be added.

The
151.
simplestillustration of
debts.

the

"

same

consideration

to

notes
But the student is to observe that- 5 denumber
as
+5, but with the additional

of the science.

justthe

"c.
?iotki?ig,

if he

had

of his debts by
of his credits exceed the sum
'j^1000, the state of bis affairs may
be represented
justly
by -f-fOOO^. These oppositesigns then, without at all
to which
the absolute magnitudeof the quantities
affecting
intimate
{he additional consideration
they are prefixed,
that those quantities
in contrary circumstances.
Many
are
tlic

sum

illustration?might be employed. Thus, if jt, or

-fir, denote the force ^dth which a body is moving in a

other

certain

direction, x vv'illdenote
"

'

contrary direction.
more

expedientto

But
confine

illustrationfirst adduced.

contrary

we
affections^

and the
positive

the

other

signs-{"^^^

"

mean

an

equal force

in

the

students, I think it

for younger
their attention

the familiar
of
Wlieu we talk of quantities
is
quantitiesof which one
to

negatiyc.Aud by the signswe

mean

"

152.

Let

v*

{
Let

152.

negativequantities.And

positiveand

of

what

from

said, that

have

we

the

plain

subtract either

or

"

subtract

to

debt of ^5,

+ 5

subtract

to

as

for is it not

thing to

same

take

^5,

to add

subtract

to

it is the

justas

add

to

take away

to

or

+ 5

and

add

thingto

same

the other hand

debt

away

the

credit of

of po^itivQproperty ? On
be the same
5 must
thingas

"

is it not

result,as to subtract
quantitymust give the same
the same
add
quantitywith the contrary sign,or of
5 is the same
thing
contrary aifectiqn? Thus, to add

or

"5

add

to

subtraction

of

kind

as

and

addition

consider the

now

us

credit of

much
to give the person
so
or
positive
amount,
his
debts
credits
exceed
If
merchant's
a
by
property.
therefore
be
and
the
affairs
of
his
state
3g'5000,
+ 5000,

the

same

it M'illjustproduce the

cancel

debt

him

give

become

tq -f-^?the

4*3

be

must

sum

"5

is

"5

must

be

be

4-2

"

just as

but

merchant

to

to

add

5, the

"

and

of two

debts of "^

and

the

of +

of

sum

have

of his

credits of "'i

Again

the

we
"

of two

sum

state

if

but

sum

the

"S,

and

2 ;

if

the

justas

debt of

be

5 must

"

the

if

Hence

another

or

me,

alike

+8

whether

thcmj

owes

case

be

must

credit of ^'8

he

-f-6000.

sum

-S

"

which

In either

^1000,

affairs must

to

of .2^1000

in

change

same

"

be minus

su^n

added

to

added

-[-5

must

(that is, if

"5Q00

c^'5000 more
than he is worth) and I give him
}ie owe
if
^2000
i^3000, the state of his affairsbecomes"
j but
the state of his affairs have been plus .^5000, (thatis, if
than he owes) and there be then
}iebe worth .^5000 more
him
added
debt of .^3000, the state of his affairs
to
a
becomes

+2000.
of numbers
of the
the
negative)
the

suin

sought:

sum

thus

same

or
affection,(bothpositive,

we

see

of the numbers

with the

sought.
are
Algebraic quantities

153.

the
2x

xy

signof

literal part, that

same
letters find having the same

same
"

and
2x

Sx

are

like

quantities
; also

of

negative)the

like,when

is, are

written

Satj/and

they
with

Thus,

exponent.

"

trary
con-

the greater is the

said to be

of the

and

But

the other

both

signis

common

of numbers

but that in the addition

difference of the numbers

consist

the

with

affections,
(one positiveand
sum

that in the addition

And

4.v?/
; also

3 Vxy'^or
"-2x^1/ ; also V:cy and
x^\^and S^\^'
and 3j/are
7inlike quantities as aisoxt/ and
x""^.
,

From

what

has been

said and

from

the

import of

the

signs
4- and

75

be adde4
-|-and , it is plain that unlike quantities
can
only by annexing them togetherwith their proper signs.
"

Thus

the

-2/is X

"

of

and y is x -j-j/
but the sum
of x and
;
addition
of
the
^-{-x ;
7/ beingthe same

sum

;y, or
the subtraction of

"

"

thingas

-f 3/.
be further added
like quantities
may

But

154.

them

of
corporation
addition

is

into

the

according
and

Sx

the

annex

and

of Sx

sum

2x

last

the

the

of

sum

of

the former

letters. Thus

or

and

3x

"

is

of

quantity,w^e

and

2x^i/, For

"

of

sum

8^

"

Sx

"

is

in the

understand

must

the

5x

coefficient

numeral

no

the

is

5x

"

sum

3x^i/is

"

there

an

given at the end of J 152,

2x ; the

"

x^^ and

example, since
to

rule

sum

is

5x

"

sum

letter

common

is 8x

ox

one

by

in-^
the rule for their
j and
Add
their numeral
efficients
co-

simple.

most

now

to

and

"

pressed
ex-

the

coefficient 1 ; and since there is no signprefixed,

must
w^e
understand the sign -{-. Then
whatever quantity
present,
x^i/resince the
of +
sum
thus the rule for

of -j-1 and
3 is -^2, it is plain
and
-2x^7/,And
l;c^j/
3^*3/must be

sum

that the

"

"

adding

them

into

"

like

one

or
algebraic
quantities,

is

sum,

coefficients if

numeral

the

they be
sign; or

common

if

signof the

they

be

of

take

"

of the
the

same

the

sum

corporating
in-

of the

affection,
fixing
pre-

difference of

the

efficients
co-

the
prefixing
contrary affections,

greaterj and

in both

cases

the

annex

common

literalpart.
We

155.

have

how

seen

those which

or

are
quantities

those

called binomml

if

add

to

consist of but
which

consist

simple Algebraicquantities,
term.
one
Compound
of several

terms,

and

of two terms
consisting
(as the expression
of
if
three
a;^ y^) ;
pression
consisting
terms, as the ex^*added,
are
2xy-\-y^.,Compound quantities
the
that
like
and
the parts
are
by addingseparately parts
that are unlike,according
last
to the rules given in tlie two
trinomial

"

"

Thus

sections.

exhibited

i$ 2x^

let them

like

the

sum

2xy,

"

be

of the last binomial

If

and

trinomial

to ad4*
quantities
example, placing
following
other ; and added accordingto

have many

we

in the

arrangedas
under each
quantities

the rule.
5 Vrt6
3 Va6

Total

V"^
^"06

"

ilb

ale

"

2"ahc

"

"

^iobc
*

^hc

"

-h Sahc

125c

4- nic
"

"I

he

\bc

4. h^
2h^

"

3Z"*

"

"

"

W'

-f air'

86^ +

ah''

"

"

a^h
a^-h

Observe

76

(
that

Observe

in

from

any

quantityis

Now

example
the

into

one

sum

of all the

the

sum

of

have

add

-^Sahc to

to

7 abc and

"

and
"^hQ

of -|-5

sura

qiid the
the

ahc is

"

preceding
of abc^ we^

sets

example

-|-3 abc is -f 8 ahc

8 ahc ; so that we

"

their

8 abc j and

"

difference of their coe^cients

such

the

and the sum

pf all
positiveterms
distinctly
incorporatethese
5 an^ then

the

But

sums.

in

the several

suppose

smii,

negativeterms

two

of tbe like terms

incorporteany

to

take

algebraicoperationswe commonly prothat when

the leadingterm
of
: and
riglit
positive,the sign -f- is seldom prefixed.

left to

cecd

is 0, since

sum

nothing. Though

is

the

precedingis often proposed to the

(Student,for the purpose of exercisinghim in the rules of
addition,yet it is very rarelyindeed that any such occurs
in actual practice. The
student who
is expert in stating
the

an

of any

sum

as

iraryaffections,
cgn
The

156.

from

find

no

the, principlementioned

is

gative,suppose
add

simple, and

con-

obvious

beginningof " 152,

changedto its contrary ;
it

if from

Thus,

if

negative,and

positive:) then, instead

minuend.

it to the

or

in the

Ciupposethe signof the subtrahend

(thatis, if it be positive,
suppose
it

same

in algebraic
addition.
difiiculty

of Subtraction

rule

of the

whether

numbers,

two

of

ne^*

subtracting^
1

-f 2a

want

to

is 2a
2b,
tjicremainder
^The terms here
be further incorporated.)But if I
being unlike cannot
subtract
2^, the remainder, or result,miist'be 2a-f-26;
it being the same
thing('"152.) to subtract" 2/; and to add

subtract

+2h)

"

"

Thus

2h,
v-j-

again, it

to

the remainder

13^, the

"

longerexample can

now

of

sum

present no

V~ab +

Sahc

s^'ab

6abc -f- 5hc -|-4Z"*

"

to

as

The

commonly
as

3^

givesfor
Any

10^.

"

b''.

Take

"

"

for instance"^
difficulty,

ahc -f I2bc

-f

of

sum

IOj-,

"

and

Sx

"

Ibc

3^^ -f ah''

-"

this remainder

nddcd, the sum' will be the minuend

the minuend,
be subtracted from

ie"s :

from

5Vab--

accordinglyif

157.

subtractingSo: fron"

From

Remainder
And

that

this is also the

3"r subtracted

But

IOj:.

evident

is Ix'i but

10"r the remainder

added

is

the
:

we

or

"

""

a^h

06*

+ a^'b
subtrahend
be

if the

remainder,

shall have

the subtrahend

the result.

observe, that in Algebra

from
talk of subtracting
a
greater number
student

in the

should

leadingterms

of the

we
a

example we
preceding
subtract

78

XVt.

CHAP.

AlgebraicMultiplication,
product of any two simpk
as
x and j/, is expressed
by xy or yx. But we have
Quantities,
to regulatethe
now
sign of the product. The practical
rule is simple,viz. if the factorsbe of the same
affection^
be of
hut fiegativcy
the product is positive
if the factor's
,"
contrary affectionsthat is, tlie product either of
Xj/, or
have

WE

159.

that the

seen

of
is

"

y is 4- ^j/; but the

"

productof

a:

of

or

"

"

Xy

xy,

"

truth of this rule is

The

160.

of

the nature
To

multiplyany

as
multiplicand
stand
Suppose X

be

for the

number

of credit in mercantile
quantityadded 5 times must
that

sum

of that

debt

of 5

161.

;v rr

But

amount.
a

-}j/ X

is in fact to add

5, and

x,

be

if the

positive,
or

that

-}-Ay
us

but

"

And

amount.

yXxz=i

consider

now

"

the

be

thus

("22.)
an

ticle
ar-

of that

sum

credit of 5

be
multiplicand

negativequantity,suppose
quantityadded 5 times must

times

Let

The

accounts.

the

multiplicand

the

a
rejDresenting
positivequantity,suppose

-f^"

times

is posimultiplier
tive.

the

quantityby
times as are
represented
by

many

from

evident
sufficiently

where
multiplication,

"

presenting
-j/, re-

debt, then

the

negative,or a
it is plain that

xy,
case

where

the

multiplier

have
And
5.
to
first,suppose
we
negative x^ or
Some
5.
might be willingto conclude
multiply-\-yby
be "oyy
the principlethat it
that the product must
from
which of the factors be made
is indifferent in multiplication
that the product
the multiplier
have alreadyseen
we
; and
of
the
5 multiplied
5y, Others have drawn
by -\-yis
inference from the consideration,that the multipliers
same
tions
5 and
+5, must
give productsjust of contrary affecsince the product of -\-y multipliedby -f-5 is
; and
the product of -\-y multiplied
be
5 must
by
-}-53/,
^5y,
render
the
conclusion
But although such
arguments may
from
ing
to a convincanalogy,they do not amount
probable
be derived
This must
to the reason.
proofsatisfactory
from
consideringwhat we mean
by multiplyingany thing
by a negativemultiplier.Now as multiplj'ing
any thingby
5 times, so
5
of
the
addition
an
imports
4*
multiplicand

is

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

multiplying

79

(
it by
multiplying
of +j/ is the
and
therefore

The

5y,

"

to

add

multiply

to

or

(" 1^2.)

y:

y five times,

"

product
at

be

must
to

once

or

view

appeared mysterious to many ;

two
product
negative quantitiesis
the
instance,
product of
by
y multiplied

positive- For

of

"

be

must

times,

to

"

has

the

namely, that
5

of

is, the
leads us

that

which
principle,

of the

"

thing as

same

subtraction of ,^lie
mul-*
that the subtraction

addition
five

+5;
consideration

same

seen

the

+y

by

"

have

we

subtract

5, is the

"

import a

thing as

same

multiply

to

But

times.

5
tiplicand

+3/ by

5 must

"

the

since

+5y,

subtraction

of

y five times
-\-yfive times.
"

thing as the addition of

of simplequantities,
there
After the multiplication
162.
in the multiplication
of compound.
remains
no
difficulty
The
as
principleon which it is performed is justthe same
Arithmetic
each
:
in common
(See " 25.) multiply
part of
each
the
and
add
all
the multiplicandby
multiplier^
part of
obtained,
in
the
thus
the products
gularly
(Proceed
operationrelest
from left to right of each
should
factor,
you
Thus
the
the
of
omit any
product of 2x-^$y
products.)
5 is
multipliedby
multipliedby 5 is \Op(-{-lBy
; but
The product of 2a? + Sy multipliedby 5
I By.
\Qx
y
of
four
the
be
sum
must
parts, namely 10a?+15j/ (or
The
3j/*(or 2a; + % X"^.)
2a:+3j/X5) and -^2a2/
2 at?/
Sj/^. If any
product soughtis therefore 10a?-|-1%
write them
of the productsbe like quantities,
under
one
is the

Same

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

the other,

to

prepare

for the addition

"

in the

as

following

example.

Multiply
by

Product
163.

If the student

tiieproduct "*
the binomial
in
power.

the

And

and

use

binomial

at"

"

y by a;
y, he will fijrid
is therefore the square'
of
"

of which

hibited
consequentlythe product exprecedingexample is the cube, or third

y,

here
of

"

^^y+y'^i which

"

x
multiply

we

may

Algebra, or

3/ is

see

another

Universal

instance

of the

Arithmetic.

generalexpressionfor

ture
na-

The

the difference,be-

tween

(
tween

numbers.

two

any

"

80

If

take

we

numbers,

two

any

7 and

tiply
mul3, we
may by common
their difference 4 by itself,and the product 16 is the
But here the product appears
square of that difference.
does
enable
not
to observe its relation
in a form which
us

for instance

performing the same

comparing the product a;*
But

the factors.

with

and

of the

with

immediately furnished

are

of

squares
and y
x

of

product

the

that

observe

once

sum

the

twice

minus

at

of the

consists

gebraical
operation al-

^xy-\-y^ with

"

factors, we

Uie

Arithmetic

":

"

this universal

is less than the

product. (Thus
like

of their squares

sum

3t'

7"

16

4.9

-L-

by

42

9"

x-^y)^ (or the square of the sum

is equal to the
or
=i"?*4-2A?2/-f^^,

manner

numbers)

"

-\-y^)
{j"^
we

truth, that

of the difference between

square
any two
of their squares
mimis
twice
equal to the sum
; or

: whence
2Arj/)

the

duct

of

square
and
y

numbers

is

their

pro-^

twice

their
In

58"42.

of any two
of their
sum

served.
plv^ twice their product ; as we have before ob(" 34.) Again if we multiply ^+3/ by x y, we
find the product at* y^ ; for of the four products

squares

"

shall

"

which
when
the

it

compose

added

x^-\-xy
"

their

squares.

(or 4)

square

the square

be

can

the

of 3.

of either

manner

of "9

root

is

a*

"

-f ^

the square

assignedfor

the square

is

an

the square
either of these
a ; since
or
+"
gives -f-"* for the product. And
"

quantityin Algebra
one

is considered

the other

positiveand

th" student

employ

now

questionsfor exercise in
1.

x-^-y

Ex. S. x-i^y

2a
-^

2a

oi'

is -f 9, no
of
9 : and
3

"

root

"

ber
num-

fore
there-

impossiblequantity.

expressionthat

an

quantity. But

Ex,

difference between

plication,
Since, accordingto the rule of the signsin multithe square

roots,
Let

third

this presents to us
of the sum
difand ference

the

this is the

is 40 J but

of 7 and

164.

like

But

and

product
is equal to the difference of
numbers
two
Thus, the product of 7-f 3 (or 10) and

of any
3

3/^,the second

"

togetherdisappear.

generalprinciplethat

"

xy

root

indicates

of a'' may

an

In

possible
im-

be either

multipliedby itself
therefore
every positive

roots

as

having

two

square

negative.
himself

on

the

following

multiplication.
?
=:

"x"3.

Ex.

6.

Ex.

7. What

Ex.

8.

;c^
"

+ Satz/^" j/^ X
3.v^j/
is the 6th

+ J ?
b ?
of a

power

CHAP.

Division:
Algebraic

of

power

is the 6th

What

*?+^=
"

"

XVIL

Resolution

Fractions

of

into

infinite

Series*

and

the

IF

165.
the

divisor and

divisor

dividend

simple quantities,

be

the dividend, the

quotientis expressedfractionally.Thus, the quotientof
divided

ab

is

1ab

"

"

by
and

dividing
expressed.

-"

is

is

V2

by

obtained,as

expunging

And

a.

is evident from

productof
or

"

^ac

2ahc

2ac

"

2ac

by b,

or

"

since

"

In like manner,

2abc,

and

proper

"

"

"

2ac

2abc, and

"

if the divisor

remaining

signs. Thus,

-^

and

"

is the

2abc divided
quotient. Thus
b^ gives the quotient2ac ;
by
b, givesthe product 2ahc. But
divided by
2abc
6, gives the

common

writing the

divisor be

that the dividend

factors,but others not

Is performed by expunging the common
any

thiig

and

divided

2abc

Z",or

be

the consideration

divisor

divided

quotient
"=.

the

be

of the
of co7itrary qffectiotis
/
and

dividend

if they

since

ah

"

dividend, the quotient

already observed, (" 146.) by
the dividend : and the sign of

if the

"

by b,

by

factor of the

flictor from

that

be -{-^
but
affection
;

as

divided

quotient may

any

have

we

quotient7nust

same

quotient arisingfrom

the

expresses

"

of

quotientof

the

"

factor

any

If the divisor be

166.

"

.v

not

a
"

the

be

terms

a'^bc divided

and

common,

dividend

with
fractionally

by

"

2dc

"

have

the divisioa

factors from

?"axy^SbxyzzZZ^^,This
Gr

-~-2ac

givesthe

both,
their
tient
quo-

is in fact but

reducing

"^

both
by dividing
and

and

numerator

be

of the

term

that

performed by expunging
the dividend, observingthe
part of the

each

For

instance

x^

And
x-\-\.
found in each

factors, the

common

Thus

x^

2x y-7- Zxa

"

or

dividend
And

"^a.

and

here

of the

hy^a

ax

signs:

for

the divisor.
a~

"

other factors

have

of

term

not

after

expunging the
expressed fractionally.

'^"j^
; and

divisor

by

and

3^:

quotient is

ax

quotientWe

; in

ab=

a-i

"

the

"^
,

have

divided
form

second

by

be

it may
in any

observed, that in any fractional

division, we
change all the
may

expression,or
signsof the numerator
and

"

each

of the

is divided

dividend,

In the firstform

both

z=

from

rule

simple divisor

of the

term

dividend, the division

former

^xy-^x-=.x

"

by Satj/.

but the divisor simple

factor

dividend

if the

"

denominator

compound,

is

thus

terms*

2,bxy

factor of each

lower

to

If the dividend

167.

fraction
oric^ional

tlie

reducing

S2

and

divisor,without

denominator,

the
altering

dend
of the divi-

or

of the fractioi"

value

quotient.

or

If the

divisor be

compound, the quotient is often

most
convenientlyexpressedfractionally.But not unfrequentlyalso we may obtain the quotientin a simplerform
by an operation perfectlyanalogous to long division in
in the first instance to arrange
numbers
: only it is needful
dividend
divisor
the terms
of both
and
according to th^
168.

of

powers

some

a;.? y^ by
:ixy^ 3.v^j/-f
"

x^

of the

dividend, by
the

down

Then

"

tlie dividend.
like

by

manner
X

and

quotient:

and

The
divide
set

"

down

of the
divide

"

divide

of the

letter ^, it be-^
x^, the first term
divisor

and

of your quotient.
/v^,the first term found

2/ by

subtract

the

remainder

is

from
product ;v^";"f*j/
2x^tf-\-Sx7/^ y^. In

"

"

2x^2/, the first term

the

terms

of the

term

to

the first term

as

divisor

have

we

arrangingthe

first

the

quotient ^^

multiplythe

of the

x^

y,

povrers
1/^" Now

5x^y-\-^xy^

"

"

if

the

according to

comes

set

"

dividend

Thus

letter.

one

quotient

"

of this

2xy

as

remainder,
the

second

of your
quotient: by which multiplyingthe divisor
the product
the second
2a?^j/-|-2a;j/^,
^"-3/, and subtracting
term

"

remainder

^^^. Finallyrepeatingthe
a:j/*"

operation=

(
tloh

this remainder, the third

oil

product of which

+?/^, the

equal to the
sought is x^

?c-

"

and

last remainder

?/)x^

method,

any

be

is

quotient
Let

us

2^2/4-2/*

"

+ ^J/'" y

"2/

prosecute any

whatever

the

remainder*

"

^xtj

may

quotientis

3/*,which

therefore

3^*y-{-3.^j/*2/^{x^

"

"

large.

at

169. We

tj is xy^

"

and

of your

term

without
2x^-{-i/^y

"

exhibit the work

now

83

the

algebraicdivisioti by

terms

of the

dividend

this

and

visor,
di-

providedthe divisor be compound. But obviously

shall never
arrive at an exact
it must
often happen, that we
mon
quotientwithout a remainder : but, as in the case of comdivision, the exact
nexing
quotientmay be exhibited by andivided by the divisor
to the
quotientthe remainder
be done
at any
fractionally
(" 43. ) ; and this may
of
the
division.
For
the
vidend
diinstance, taking
same
period
but
divisor
the
in
the
last
as
example,
^+j/, we
shall find the
of
the
first
three
terms
quotient to be
-j-7?/^,but with
4.^3/

fc^

"

the

quotient may

be

the remainder

8?/^. Therefore

"

completed by annexing

it -^

to

thus"
^^
^'^+j/)

2/^ ("*

*
3 ;v *?/-}3^3/

"

^Jf^z+T?/*

"

"

-^

"

"

x^ +
"

"

x^ly

^+3f

4^x^y+ Sx2/^ -j/^

4"x^i/ 4^2/*
"

"

-f 7xy'^
"

t/^

7;vy+ 7y

"8^3
170.
the

Accordinglyif

quotientby
we

the

multiplythe three first terms of

divisor /v+3/, and add
Sy^ to the product,
"

shall find the

the division

we

at

dividend.

the remainder
G

But
"

instead

Sj/^,we

nating
of termi-

may

con-

tinue

(
thiue the

8^

process of divisron

same

longas

as

please:

we

onlylet the stuclent recollectthat any fraction is multiplied

viding
dithe numerator
or
by an integereither by multiplying
the denominator
integereither

by an
the
dividing

and

the
by multiplying

liow continue to divide the last remainder

need not continue

manifest
for it is now

namelythat

the

by

83/^
by ^"-i-i/'

law the series proceeds,

by what

signsof

last term

the terms

by

and

by "^.Such

last term

the
multiplying

us

the process of division fur^

and 7nimis,and that each successive

jplus
the
multiplying

"

or

Let

8^

171. We

ther

denominator

107. 108.)

106.

(Sec "

numerator.

is divided

the other hand

on

are

term

alternately
produced

is

dividing
by x,

or

series is called

an

because it may be
series,
htfinite
and at any periodof it,in order

without end

continued

completethe true tient,

quodiscontinue the series,and annex
the last
must
we
divided by the divisor. And
remainder
by this method of
actual division
series : for
may
two

c+l

even

we

may resolve any fraction into an infinite

if the given denominator
be simple,
we

consider and
numbers^
for

to

Thus

express it
let

~-

as

the

express any

sum

or

diiFerencc of

we
fraction,

put

may

the actual division of

5, and performing

er

by
+

86

by their difference givesa quotient greater by 1

of twice the less divided by the difference.
than the quotient
2i ; and 6 -^ 4
7"3
U.
Thus the quotientof 7 + 3
Each of the examples in multiplication
at the end of the
last chapterwill afford the student an exercise in division :

numbers

-v-

and

infinite series the fractions

resolve into

let him

1
1

oc-\-y

i-{-a'X

y'

"

y'

"

CHAP.

AlgebraicOperationson

XVIIL

EVERY

rule

Quantities, Method

Fractional

findingthe least
174.

"

here is

of

Multiple,

common

exactlythe

that

with

same

Arithmetic.
correspondingoperation in common
the student therefore to chap. 8. 9. and 10.
After referring
it is only needful to illustrate the several operations
amples.
by ex-

for the

Let it then be
fractions

having

merators

and

fore the

the

requiredis

to

denominator,

same

subscribe the

sum

add

required to

in like

And

the

add their

we

manner

subtracting from

is the remainder,
tions to

they

one

of the

1 hus

denominator

same

denominators

xb

-{

-4--=-"

"

b
yb
y
the consideration
We

by

ay
'Zzz

yb

if

y
.

tors,
different denomina-

have

product of

the

and

the

nominator,
dealways afford a common
they may all be brought. (" 104.)
xb -\-ay
"L-^,

1 hat

from

yb

zr

appears

-"

yb

that the value of

same

xh

rr",

multiplyor
the

must

which

to
m

y
subtracted

frac-

if the

ference
difor
(in order to incorporatethe sum
tions
fraction)be brought to equivalentfrac-

must

into

several

or

But

-.

be added

nu-^

There-

denominator.

common

L-.

-"

Here

-.

fraction remains

divide both

and

numerator

Thus
quantity.

altered,
un-

again,

J 75.

"

nominator
de-

^-zz

Since

Since

175.

"either

by

any

87

fraction

is

multipliei!
by an integer,
nominator
numerator
or
dividing the de-

the
multiplying

by that integer, it follows that

li"fx^

^"^or=:^^l"^. Andthuslx7/

ay

And

(See " 113.;

^;for^^

since

fraction

any

is divided

by dividing the numerator

denominator
by that integer,it

integer, either

an

the
X

X
--~a

and

"

by

same

,T-i

J.

divisor,

ffiven

by

hug

^a
x

:^X-^=:1;

multiply
by

to

divide

divide

by

ax
=

and

7-

^y

hx

a
=

-----

"

^y

xy

Let

that

recollect

student

the

brought to a fractional
multiplyingthe integerby
be

may
y

Thus,

("113.)

-,

^=1.

since

y
177.

"

"

and
fraction we

and

that

the numerator

divide

to

follows

multiplyby the denominator, or (which

thing) we multiplyby the reciprocal

and

to the

the

and

the numerator

oi

common

multiplyby

we

the denominator

amounts

in

plying
multi-

or

^y,
Arithmetic,

in Algebra as

or

fraction

"

by

a4-ax

i"

-r-"=

"

^y
176.

X-^-x

^a-\-ax
"^

and

"

ay

=-.

Xa-=.

"

1" (^^"^
=

pression
integralexany
nominator
of any
given de-

denominator,

that

'^".Therefore

f^"^

We

178.

least

let

given, and

dy

c,

greatest

let^='S^and'^^X

(" 98. 99.) and

product of

their

be

and

is the

two

numbers

two

least

the rule

demonstrate

multiple of

common

first,let any

And

numbers.

and

propose

now

may
for findingthe

or

and

be

measure

common

Then

more

I say that the

common

multipleof

multipleof them 5 for

^
since -et^dm^ and ^Muwr, it is plainthat both a and h mea-^-^
But
cdm.
multiple; ^^ /^
sure
2dly. it is their least common
for let any other common
multiplen be assumed, and let
a

and

Z", And

1st. it is

common

ya

w, and

xh

(J 77.) But

w.

=
:

Then

b: ,'c:d

yaz=:xb^

and

therefore

(J 81.) Therefore^

x
;

:.y : :a:b

y::c

d.

Now

being
plainthat

Now

it is

Therefore
7ja

than

the

xb

or

in the

Any other
multipleof m.
of

and

in
Then

71

measure

least

is the

fore
There-

d.

e^, that is
tiple
mul-

common

the

to

by

dividingthem

and

the

lowest
both

product

multipleof

common

multipleof

common

For

b and

xm

that

by

and

is

since both

of
15

and

also

b must

tiple
mul-

common

??z, but

that

is

tained
con-

t/, less than

remainder

leavinga

-\-y. Now

measure

suppose
measured

not

times,

nzzxm

must

in that ratio*

numbers

4,

?,

and

(See " 181.)

179.
a

and

ratio, 3

(or 60;

20.

be

numbers

the least

bring those

20, I

same

hnd

to

want

greatest common

3, 4, and
and

if I

Thus,

their

bj

the lowest

arc

of

measure

c^ and y greater than

(thatis 7i)is greater than rf", or

of 15 and
terms

common

is greater than

m.

greatest

and

88

;??.

m, they
measure
hypothesisthey
by
7?, or
and xm -f ?/, they must
xm
they measure
a

measure

and

+ 2/. Since then

xm
less than
both measure
W2, will be a
y ; and j/, a number
to the
common
multipleof a and b i which is contrary

hypothesis.
three
suppose
their tea common

find

to

numbers

Now

180.

given, a, b, mule;

multiple.

Let

the least

be

the least

Let

of a and b.
common
raultiple
?i be
Then
I
is
least
the
comr
multipleof 111 and c.
say tha^n
have
of
and
since
For
c.
(as we
just
mon
multiple a^ b,
of
and
also
be
a
b, must
shewn) any common
multiple ^
of
that
of
it
is
evident
multiple
multiple w,
any common
common

b, and

a,

therefore

be

c, must
n

the

least

also be the

must

common

common

least

conmion

It is plainthat, how

their least

find

can

we

and
multipleof w and c
multiple of the two latter
mer.
multiple of the three forbe given,
numbers
soever
many
-,

multipleby

common

similar

process.

appear
Let

form.

has

What

181.

and

Then

for if there
y

by

ma

b, and
and

mb

were

find b. (~
in the

in

ar^d-jwould

same

represent any

ratio
two

in

the

lower

be

which

numbers

may

the

the

haps
per-

following

numbers

be their least

must

any

" 178.

proposedin

b represent any
two
the lowest
therefore

other, and
ab, their product,

each

and

if
clearly,

more
a

demonstrated

been

prime

ratio.

same

tiple
mul-

common

quotientsof

vided
it di-

less than

numbers
is absurd.
not

to

prime

Now
to

ci

let
each

other,

(
otLer, of which
therefore
Then

mab

be

for if there

by

7nb and

by
the

same

Ex.

the

must

mb

1.

Ex.

2.

the least

is the

Do.

...

Jt^ and ^^^

"

of the two

and

what

and

sum,

the

would

be

ia

of
diiFercnce,

fractions

^
"

"

^and

J^X-^

Ex.3.

Ex.4.

_J-_x^/+5=
-^

Ex.5.

y + 5

A?-f-j/

A?

.V-

Ex.6.
Ex.

and

the same,
i. e. than a
is absurd.
ratio : which
What

an4

ma

quotients of it divided
the quotients of 7nab divided

any
be less than

would

rua

ratio.

same

nmltipleof

common

and

measure,

the

less,the

were

fractions

two

is the greatest common

the lowest numbers
in

and

s""

~J/
=r

-j

"

7. Find

}", 20,

25

the least

multipleof

common

number^

35?

and

XIX.

CHAP.
Arithmetical

^82. QUANTITIES

gressioUywhen

the

said to be in Arithmetical pro-^

ference.
difdecrease by a common
or

are

they

increase

the

Thus,

Progression.

series

of natural

numbers,
difference

the

1, 2, 3,
1 j
the

common
^, 5, "c. increasingby
ferences;
difseries 7, 10, 13, 16, 8^c. increasingby the common
the series 19, 15, 11, 7, 3, decreasingby the

difference

common

4.

It will be

sufficient to consider

the

increasingseries ; as
to
applicable
every thing said upon that kind will be easily
the other : for by takingthe terms
of an increasingseries
shall have a decreasingseries.
in the contrary order we
constitution

and

Now

if

183.

and

d for the

properties of

we

common

put

for the

an

first term

of such

series

difference,the increfisingseries

in

Arithmetical

^0

progressionmust

be

(
Arithmetical

a-\'d,

a,

the

series
the

to

is

as

generatedby adding

the

-{-2d, tt-f-3"/,"c.

is

first term,

less than

one

lOOthc
the

term

be

universallyif
nth,
71

and
term

put

we

series

For

term.

the second

the

common

be

must

of the first
a

of

term

instance, the
and

is 1 2 and

series

is the

term

a^dii

second

from

For

"c.

the

last but

and

term

two,

from

the

the last

gression
prodifference 3 ;

The

100th.

sum

13

Or

+ 17
185.
a

22

is

extremes

the

Thus

term.

Hence

11

and

2d.

just

as

is less than

justequal to

the

the

a-^-Sd, is

and

5th.

7th.

X2,

or

it is easy

of

odd

an

equal to
term

twice

terms,

or

series

of the

sum

3d.,

5, 7, 9, 11,
it is

is

equal

evident,

of terms,

the

the mean,
middle
or
last series is 17 j and

the fourth

to find the

of the

which

number

twice

the
series,by multiplying'

-^-Sd: but the.

2a

last is 20,
in like manner

And

that if the series consist

of the

be

in the numerical

9+11.

to

be

must

other

of the first and

sum

or

the

must

sum

last

series a, a-^-dj
last, Thus,
a-\-^d, a-\-5d, consistingof 6 terms, the

terms.

15, the

7 +

of them
as

and

equallyremote

terms

in

extremes,
is the sum
of the

4th.

of

any txm
for instance, of the

pair of

first and

of the

same

one,

therefore their

and

',

a-\-2d, a-^-Sd,
sum

term

(thatis,

of the third term

or

you take, one

the first term

extremes

of the

such

"

in Arithmetical

common

the extremes

whatever

greater-than

much

the

that

remote
equallj/

terms

sum

And

term,

is 12 + 2997 = 3009.
must
12-f 999X3,
In any such series the sum
184.
of the extremes
of the first and last terms) is equal to the sum

to

sum

^^; for dn

"

15, 18, "c.

12,

be

13,

time^

99

of the

increasingseries

an

first term

is, of the

that

and

number

have given the first term

thus, if we
difference, it is easy to find any proposeci
common
For instance, let it be requiredto find
the series.
of"^
whose

but

it is

difference.

the number

for

Hence

on.

multipliedby

just as

once

so

term

to the second

of the first term

sum

so

And

IXd,

lOOth.

the

and

of such

term
"

the

difference

the third

series consists

of that

difference

common

of the first term

common

difference

the number
must

a-\-d,

of

term

common

difference

of such

that any term

the common
j)l2is

term

the second

a-\-2d: and

is therefore

term,
manifest

is therefore

and

adding the

generatedby
and

justlyrepresented by

For

sum

term.

of all the terms

of the extremes

of

by
half

/'^^

half the number

of

equal

into 3

being equal
times

all the

equalto

is

15

13,

the

term,
thus, if we

series,we

of terms

the number

if

Hence

"186.

difference and

by adding

to

the

and

4-67

ber of

"

"

this
of

IS

the

difference

common

also is

becomes

"

"

"

16

3-f.4x

the

the

4 ;

67

fore
there-

must

difference,n
be

must

thereiore

is

of

let
universally,

And

the num-^

a-^-dXn

"

be ^a-^-dn-^d

general express

equal

progression.

the first term,

to

when

And

equalto

common

3H-64

to 1 7 terms

expressionbecomes

terms

{"183.)

difference

term

the

series in Arithmetical

series in Arithmetical

of any

sum

common

the number

of the series must

sion for the

When

of

than

595.

which
"

one

common

sum

the

product of the

by

be

the last

Then

terms.

plain that

easilyfind

can

common

must

d the

"

the

70 X 84

jzza-^-dn d; and the

X

we

the
less

and

be the first term,

ries.
se-

from

find the last term

can

number

3,

of the

it is

first term,

of the series continued

sum

be

we

of that series

term

of

numbers

for

of terms

first term

progressionbe
17th.

5047

given the

have
since

49

let the first term

Thus

terms.

And

in the series is 98,

we

the

and

difference

sum

11,

number

sum

natural

of

ther
ano-

77.

the

sum

to

find the

once

of the

the number

of the series

sum

at

can

103

and

extremes

pair

5, 7, 9,

is 22x31

series

the

given

the

equal to
series

bined
com-

therefore

if continued

and

60;

of the

inclusive is

100

to

be

be
may
of each

and

of the

sum

20X3

instance the

For

extremes

pairs must
the

sum

have

in the

terms

of the

sum

Thus

terms.

let the series

all the terms

of 6 terms,
pairs of terms, the sum

of these

one

any

the

to

For

in the series.

terms

consist for instance

91

the number

the

first term,

expression

find the last term

may
given the first term, the common
As

187.

we

of

number

terms

so

from, havinggivenboth

namely, by

we

may

extremes

subtractingthe
and

and

series from

ing
hav-

difference,and

find the

of terms

[a) from

dividingthe remainder
a

the

difference

common

the number

first term

{a-\-dn d)
Thus, let it be requiredto constitute
"

of

{dn
"

the

d) by

last,
?2

"

1.

in
series of 8 terms
Arithmetical

Arithmetical

whose
progression,

tlie last term

30.

Accordingly

the

by

(ij

132, dividingthat

divided

by

If there be

188.

dillerence

common

gression,which

1 affords

"

therefore

may

be

product of the extremes

a-l-2c?5 the

less ihan the square of the mean,

by the square of the common

(" 76*) that the

seen
a

geometrical

given the

are

^^

"

the

"

the

quotient,th"j
result.

same

in arithmetical

pro-"

representedby ", "-f-"^,

is
(a^'\-2ad)evidently
a* +

a-\-d\ (or

^ad-t- dl )

But

difference.

have

we

the square
Thus
extremes.

product is equal to

same

betv/een the

mean

184" 22^,

series of 3 numbers

we

and

V =3^.

be

must

1^4,

sum

6 {2a) from
subtracting

^nd

remainder

shall be

series

of the series

smn

first term

js 3, 6^, 104,
if,insteaci of the last term,

Or

30.

26y,

The

9'^

same

pf
in

series 2, 10, 18, the product of 2 and 18

the square of 10 by G^, the square of the couit

the arithmetical
is less than

But in the

8.
differ.ence

mon

the product of
arithmetical

an

between

Ex.

1.

and

2.

is the 17th. term

What

the 10th.
Ex.

3.

is the

What

of the

sum

what

The

15

trical
geome-

is the

of the Arithmetical

series

of the series ?

sum

diiSerence,and what is the

series,whose first term is 5, and

?
difference

common

series is 3| y the first term

i^ietical
term

than

18,
And

common

Arithmetical

term

equal

6,

of 6.

extremes.

same

5, 9, 13, "c. ? And

Ex.

to the square

alwaysbe greater

must

mean

the

is

18

geometricalseries 2,

of

12^.

decreasingArithWhat

is the lOtlu

Ex,

4.

If I

spend os. in the first week of the year, and

each succeedingweek
than in the preceding,how
Is. more
iTiuch shall I spend in the whole year ?
Ex. 5. If 100 eggs be laid in a rightline,1 yard asunder,
and a man
be placed at a basket 1 yard from the first
egg,
in what
he put the eggs one
time can
into
the
ket,
basone
by
him to go at the rate of 5 Ei]gHshmiles au
suppcfjing
hour, includingail delays?
Ex.

6.

What

iOOO

Ex.

is the

sum

of the

even

jiumbers from

from

1 to 999

2 to

inclusive?
7, Do.

of the odd numbers

inclusive ?

CHAR

9^

tlieSrd.
the

ad.''; the 4th*

term

the last term

then

the index

be

must

that

1 5

"

let

And

ad^^ "c.

term

in the series

of terms

number

)
bd

of d in

is, the last term

be

must

Any geometricalseries therefore is justlyrepresented

ad^
And
the
ad"*"^.
product of
by ", ad, ad^,
the extremes
is evidentlyequal to the product of
any two
from the extremes
is true of the
terms
equallyremote
; as
ad""^^.

of the

mms

Let

192.

in

terms

it

be

now

series, continued
We

Arithmetical

an

find

proposed to

(suppose) to
that

know

seriesi^

the

terms

and

of such

sum

put

for that

a-\-ad-{-ad^-{-ad^-]-ad^i and if
we
multiplythese equalsby d, the products must be equal.
But the product of s multiplied
by d is sd; and the product
of a-\-ad-{-ad^-\-ad^
ad'^
h
d
ad-\-ad^
by
+
multiplied
ad^
ad"^
ad^
since
Now,
+
"{"
-\subtractingequals from
sum.

equalsthe remainders
the value

5f/, and

of

equal remainders.

Remainder
this

from

Thus

sd

"

ad^

we

annex

from

student
of

value

equal;

ad^

the

that sd

"

"

s.

"

"

Hence

the
a

sum

of the

if

now

"

be

as

appears

"

by observingthat

it follows that

di*

we

=5,
d

tracted
sub-

fore
There-

"

ad^

quotients must

II_

5=
a"

fore the

sd, all the

sign-

and

sd

-n

or

that in

is therefore

Jout

"

and

of

fo subtract

of the minuend

1, the

"

"

="

by performing the division,

5=56?

value

which

ad.^

"

the

a,

s =

"

ad^

is,
d

sign

last term

equalsby

sd

'

that 4.

the

from

observe, that

by annexing it with

of these

4.1.

will

subtrahetid

certain

are

Tide both

serve
ob-

"

it to sd with

the first of the

we

shall have

perform the operation,and

us

disappearexcept

terms

of 5^?,we

a-\-ad-^ad^-\-ad^-^ad'^

"

subtractingthe
and

the value

from

"

operationthe

sd

from

subtract

we

sd=ad'{-ad^-Yad}-\-ad'^^ad^

Take

In

be

Let

the result.

From

equal,if

must

and

"

there-

-1

series,a, ad, ad^, ad}, ad^, is found

the last
by continuingit to one term more,
(or multiplying
ad"^ by d) subtracting
term
the first term
dividing
a, and
the remainder
by a number less by 1 than the denominator
of the

common

ratio.

And

whatever
universally,

be

the

number

95

of terms, s=:a-{-ad-{-ad^,,"'\-ad'-"^
; and multlpU'-'
both sides of that equationby d, sd-=ad-\-ad^ -^ad^^

iilimber

ing

^i^-^ad"; and

from

equals,5^

ad"

8=^

"

equalssubtractingthe former
dividingthese equalsby d 1,

these
a

"

and

"

ad'

I93. Thus
is found

by

we

of the

denominator

the

and

the

ratio is 3 ; therefore

the

first term

divide

this product

from

remainder

the

of the

series 2, 6,
denominator
of the

sum

The

by

instance, let

For

1.

by

ratio whose

common

in the series

ratio minus

requiredto find
continuedto 8 terms.

it be

series
geometrical

multiplythe

"

of the

of terms

the first term

subtract

denominator

is the number

index

of any

sum

followingrule

the

of the

that power

that the

see

18, "c"
common

of the series is

sum

3"1
-^l-

"

the

common

trouble

When

6560.

the denominator

of

ratio is 2, since 2
1
of the division.
Thus
the
"

12, "c. continued

The

calculation

we

saved

are

the

of the series 3, 6^

sum

is 3x2^^

10 terms

to

1,

3,

"

or

3 X

1024^

"

is

obviouslyapplicableto
the sum
of a decreasing
series, as 54", 18, 6, 2, by taking
in an inverted
order ; or
the terms
the
always subtracting
from
the product of the greatestand
the denominator
least term
of the ratio considered as a ratio of less inequality*
=

3069.

[And

this method
of

tertingthe
thod

same

"

for in

series the

54)

(y

-f as

is less apt to perplex tiros,than the consideration

of the ratio.
the denominator
By in-

y.

by

2 ;

so

is

Tlie

-J

dividingby

and divide

sum

we

two

should

in the

other

me-

expressionsare

multiplythe

equivalent
diviclend by 3
"

that the

expressionbecomes

in which

fractional expressionboth

being negative,the
..

54

with

3"2

From

that any

digit,as

and
positive

minator
deno-

the

same

.J

_^"

194.

value is

and

numerator

the nature
of the Arabic notation it is evident
number
written
of the same
by a repetition

3333,

or

77777,

may'be

considered

as

the

sum

of

(
6i

series,in
geometrical

accordinglythe
the rule

of t*i^

denominator

Ami
70 + 700 + 7000.
of this series calculated
accordingto

sum

thef last

given in

the

which

for 7777

ratio is 10:

common

96

7 +

~-^^^,

section,or

is 7777"

J?

50000

And

"

"

Q
"ci

o"""

--"=3333^

so

It is observable

195.

rapidlynumbers

how

billioti is the

progression. One
geometrical
decuple progressionwhose
have
already noticed
(" 6.)

first term

that number.
is

have

desire.

might

it

desired

board,

would

only

for the

Monarch
1

not

globe, if
The

t^ation.

number

1,048576^
1048576^

(" 190.) that

10,9951 1,627776;

2+

18,446744,073709,551616,
half.

Now

minions
majesty'sdo-

him, but
surface

supposing

of tlie terraqueous
under

culti2^*^

was

of

acre

1.

"

1,048576
2^^=1048576^

and

16

trillions and

18

to contain

corn

and

600,000

standard

supposingan

of

all that

not

2^'^=

less than

or

bushel

grains,(i.e.. Supposing
grains)and

in his

1,1529^1,504606,846976

But

square;

grains demanded

of

and.

64th.

all arable land, and

were

already seen

have

24"=

it

for the first

corn

for the third

second, 4

he

reward

any

grain of

be suflicient to pay
produced in 8 years on the

be

could

2*54

Eastern

an

geometricalprogressionto the
found that riot only all the corn

was

unity: and we
magnitude of

enormous

in

on

We

by

He

of the

square
so

offered

been

of

term

inventor

board

the

is

13th

ir?

of Chess, which
of the game
divided
into 64
squares, is said to

The

played on

increase

pint to contain
land to produce in

9375
d year

billion of acres
of corn,
it would
requireone
to produce 18 trillions of grains. But the wliole surface of
bushels

30

the terraqueous
1 billion

of

196.

term

Let

globe amounts

of

acres*

us

now

to

a
suppose
for instance
progression,

of tin? series

be

must

series
than

of the

sum

to

66

by

series

terms,
a

the

siun

jfraction so

than

decreasingseries
2, 1, 4

"c.

T"

or

"

2*^

the

little more

--.

must

small

and

the

8th.

in Geometrical

The22d,
therefore

1048576

And

be

if

we

^-:

continue

th-e

that is, less

that, althoughsubject to
iiumerical

calculation,it baffles all conception. But there

numerical
is

limit

no

further
4

to

our

1000

the

Hence

can

by "
^)

1, -f, -^is(9
"

-r-

from

the

193.
:

end, there is
tlie

sum

sent

least term

And

is f.

to

For, continued

sum

that, let the

mean

of all the terms

sum

continued

The

series.
to

",

"c.

-,

is

"

But
know

its sum

terms,

is

( ax

that the vulvar

form, produces the

be

this

decimal
circulating

is in

X-')

end, there

ax*

"c.
+ xIo+two,
calculate its value accordingto

section.
common

The

greatest term
ratio

10.

the

into

decimal

.666, "c.

fact the

sum

(JUS.)
of

progression
;
geometrical

in

equalto t^

the

without

from

subtracted

fraction 4" turned

decimal
circulating

decreasingseries
is

"

cussion
generallyobserved, that on the first disof this very curious
subjectthere remains in the^
latent fallacyin the reasoning.
a
suspicionof some
We
let us
test.
to a particular
bring its accuracy
'"

Now

3,

ever

I have

197.

mind

to

"c.

of that series

sum

). But if the series be continued

fraction

no

In

repre-

-^,

(a-

a%

continued
without
or
infinite^
be subtracted, and therefore

^"1
-i-

ver
ne-

littleless than

so

ever

ries
se-

far

so

of the finite series

sum

let
universally

decreasinginfinite

_^^

of 2.
power
of that series

the last,or
by subtracting
by 2. But
dividingthe remainder

9, and

no

fraction whose

let the series be continued

and

to

be found

would

sum

series

small.
so
by a fraction ever
the infinite
series 3, 1, -f, |,

the series is considered

when

is

far, the

the

of

sum

For

44.

leasts term

we

and

4 ;

the

far, the

which

approach

sum

the 998th.

is the exact

so

ever

is less than

4, or
like manner

minus

be
that it may
shall exceed
any number

sum

that

or

that
:

exceed

that the

be

the

of all the terms

sum

continued

we

the denominator

say

continued

be

would

infinitum by

in

continued

if

For

sum

may

we

far, the

so

series ; and

the

must

nearer

ever

4.

is 1 and

numerator

so

it, the

exceed

terms,

continuingthe

of

power

continue

we

can

never

is %

to

while, continued

97

(See " 114.) Let

of
the principles

is

Therefore

-^

the

the

sum

us

finite
in-

for it

then

the last

denominator
of the

an

of
series

(-/^XlO)~10
1=". But this fraction being equiva*
lent to }, we
have a confirmation
that the principles
are
=

"

just

just,which
and

for

decreasingseries.

Thus

"c.

^+T^,
"c.

.999,

these

fraction, which'
For

=(tVX10)-^9

produces

of the

denominator
of the

series

through the

and

ten

they set

if

**

the latter

at

be

shall circulate

The

minator
deno-

10^ the

sunt

196.

the tortoise

we

to prove

overtake

never

were

toise,
tor-

at

first

the torIf," said he,

furlongbefore Achilles,:though-

"*"

"

times faster than

100

runs

could

Achillesv

settingoff

toise

it

,-

and
together,

before

distance

*"

Let

1111111111

Achilles

out

the

reduced

principles
brought forward in "
sophism, by which Zeno pretended

the

the

1"7174210
=

swift-footed

that the

accordinglyyy

the

Upon

detect

where

Therefore

100.

vulgarfraction, which
digitsin regular order.
being the tenth power of

9999999999

any

manner

tlie vulgar

"c.

the

is

series

easilyfind

can

ratio is

.^1234-567890

may

.222, "c.

like

=t?o^+t^W"

Ji=y'y:

of the ratio

199.

|/

In

produces the given circulate.

be requiredto find

^
of the

again ^

of

sum

decimaL
given circulating

any

"c.

common

is

form

the decimal

to

we
principles

instance, .212121,

sum

the
calculating

=1.

Upon

198.

kid

down

we

infinite

an

have

98

the tortoise

crawls,.

he has run
the tortoise will be the
a furlong,
yet, when
Achilles.
100th. part of a furlongbefore him: and when

*"
*"

that

advanced

*"

has

""

before him

by

it is very

Now

the tortoise

space^

the lOOth^

part of it,and

so

will still be
on

for everJ^

take the spaces or times de"^

geometricalratio of 100: 1, we cannot

that, if

true

that

creasing in
assignamong

small

them

(how

"

we

far

soever

we

the progression)

continue

Achilles will have overtaken

at which
any one,
But it is altogether
of
false,that the sum
the tortoise.
is implied
those spaces or times will be an infinite quantity,as
"

in Zeno's
YiQs

I, 74^,

that

givesus

the tortoise

conclusion

the
:

Ex.

moving

an

What

he

for when

confirmation,,
of

sum

of the infinite

se-

exactlyVV ^^ ^irV* -^^^^ accordingly

precisespot where Achilles will overtake

that is, they will be

sum

for the

8tc. is

the tortoise,

the

100

has

times

VV^^s* of
slower, will:have
gone

just together. And

to

prove

infinite

the truth of

furlongs
^'pth,

gone

this affords
q\w

ther
ano-

calculation

of

series*
decreasing

is the 8th. term

of the

Geometrical

series-

4, 12, 36, "c.

and

what

is tlie sum

of the series ?
Ex.

2,

(
Ex.

is the 9th. term, and what

series ", a*, a^, "c. ?

What

2.

the Geometrical
Ex.

continued

2, "c.

4.

Do.

Ex.

5.

What

decimal

If

man

preceding,how
7. In how

Ex.

hand
Ex.
the

of

time

same

"c.

in
spend 1 farthing
week
twice
succeeding
will he spend in
much

after

minutes

many
overtake
watch

If two

8.

18, 6,

decreasingseries a^, a^, a^^ "c. ^

vulgarfraction will produce the circulating-

each

and

year,

series
decreasing

of

P
iji irifinitum

.102102,
6.

of the

sum

is the sum,

of the

Ex.

Ex.

is the

What

3.

99

at

men

much

as

in the

as

year ?
will the minute

o'clock

the hour

hand
a

circle set out

direction,with

same

of the

the whole

oppositepointsof

in the

and

the firstweek

at

velocities

the quicker
times must
as
: 6, how
are
many
go round
the slower ?
the circle before he overtakes

that

Ex.
and

If

9.

in

of
-|:

an

dispatchedto
hour,

at

what

courier ride

after he has

hour
recall

at the rate

distance

number,

extract

whose

second

an

hour,

courier

be

ride at the rate of 74 miles ani

will the second
overtake the first?

XXL

of the Square Root.

Extraction
TO

out

miles

him, and

CHAR

200.

set

of 6

the square root of a number

square is the given number

table
multiplication

enables

us

to

assign the

is to find
:

and

root

the

of any

far as 144.
as
Many fractional numbers
square number
have
their square
roots
assignedwith equal facility.
may
Thus
the square root of |t, or V^^^ is ^, because 4 X |
the square root of -5^is | ; for, althoughwe
=
|-f. And
cannot

extract

square

the square

numbers,

of

root

yet

"

of 18,

8 or

:J=|p :

so

they not

that

before

ing
bewe

conclude

that the square

be exof a fraction cannot
root
actly
the
its
be
lowest
fraction
to
should
assigned,
brought

terms.

It is

equallyeasy to assignthe square root of any

simple Algebraic quantity,which is a perfectsquare.
201.

/1 2 a*

Thus

V^a^zz^a-^ for

SaXSa:=i9a^

and

2"

y/^Y^^i^*
for

lOO

(
^'*^i*
TTiTTT

this last

example

z=ab; for a6 Xah

Va^b^

and

'

KTi

VI

And

6.

4X16

hence

the square

product of
V64

and

64,

it

The

numbers

square

of the binomial

divide

the

which

the

extract

we

the

proceeds on

two

f 0 but

twice

contain

must

plus

part of the binomial

and

other

quotient. And

part for the

and

that

the

sought is

root

we

of 70

square

product of

plus the

(140)

70

of 5476.

the

know"

now

(4900) from
^ab-^-b^,

correspondingwith

of the latter

the square

twice

the

576,

the

of which

(a+^j

subtract

root

Consideringtherefore

70.

binomial

remainder

The

5476.

than

more

{a) we

part

one

the

and that if we
a-j-6 is a^ -\-2ab-\-b^^
latter terms
2ab-\-b- hy2a-\-b the quotient

sought as

root

of

root

that
princi})le

to find the square

want
suppose we
that the square
of 70 is 4900,
We
know
is
J
herefore the square
6400.
square of 80

less than

factors.

Now

is b.

V4

4=r

its

product of any two

number
j for its square

operationby

highersquare

of

roots

2 x

of

root

follows, that the

be a square
square numbers' must
is the product of the roots of the two
root
202.

From

a^b^,

observe, that the square

we

may
the
is
to
equal
product
any

factors. Thus

and

70

the

therefore

part

thus

other

by

give that other

must

find that

we

part

if divided

the

second

is 4 ; for 140 -f-4 X 4 = 576.

The
root
sought therefore is 70 -j-4, or 74.
Let it now
be requiredto extract
the square root of
203.
We
know
that the root
225625.
at once
sought must be

greater than
but

500*

and

400

there

(400 X 2) above
(or 880) so often as
therefore

65625

80

times.

must

root

stands

in the

place

470, but below

part of

proposed number
the last

and

of the

three

root,

digitof

plus

the

quotient. But

we

160000,
from

400*

contains
contain

indeed
800

more

want

to

for the

than

for

is less than

60900

have

70

now

digitsof
find the

however
which

the

last which

sought is above
470
the first
then, considering
as
subtract

the root

may

root

its square
from
the
the remainder
divided by twice

we

225625,

4'70

not

product
We

only

If

but

4725.

of units:

480.

binomial

400*

+ 80
remaining part of the

The

80,

the

second

consist

for

which

times,but does

multiplying870 by 70
65625
by the remainder
ascertained

80

is less than

the

500

Subtractingtherefore

remains

800

root

less than

250000.

225625,

root

save

must

givethat

last digit
for

ourselves the trouble

of

squaring

is, that

in the shorter

we

the

let

But

process.
in that

6.

whose

root

The

we

dividing 29
being

the

be

there

our

it is 4,
root ; and

which

to

we

4,

or

digitof

we

the

the

But

root.

the

as

6 times
we

digitsof the proposed square

doubling 26, or adding 6 to the last divisor 46,

37.

next

that 52 is contained
3

digitof

the next

as

subtract

times

three

in 193
the

523,

root, and
from

1569,

or

Then
observe

we

writing

annexing it to 52,
1937, and to the

we
mainder
re-

digitsof the proposed

Then
69.
doubling 263, or adding 3 to the last
square,
divisor 523 ; and
in 3686
observingthat 526 is contained
next
times, we write 7 as me
seven
digitof the root, annex
368

it to

nothing

hand,

to

with

the first

determine

the two

or

whether

exceed

that
double

fall short

first

we

the

in the root,
there cannot

by

there
be

more

must
more

the

we

rule, by which

with

the

first

first

digits;

be
than

1.

at
6

Thus

least
:

5 in

digitof

if there

cannot
cannot

if there be 3
the
be

square,
or

we

let it he

digitsin any square

in the root, and
digits

than

begin

to

are

to

the left hand.

the two

of

right

annexed

of

number

the nvunber

of that

begin

with

or

to

are

of the

to

are

be

plete
com-

number

digitsfrom

on
digits

reason

is

proposed

whether

and

remainders,

proposed number

observed

pairsof

explainthe

To

206.

The

when

36869,

proposed number

by
pairswhich

the

ascertain

successive

off

from

5267

is 2637,

root

commonly pointed

last

times

that the

sp

whose

the

the

subtract

remains

square
is

annex

we

and

526,

the two

46,

annex

Therefore

times.

47

digit

next

subtract

remainder

that

times

19

two

Theif

95.
square,
conceive
might

fix upon
it to 4 we

we

and
of the root;
annexing
or
276, from 295, and to
the

annex

proposed

our

295,

below

digitof
2 ;

operation

proposed
singledigiton the

next

remains

2,

next

than

more

to

square
write as the first

twice

by

the

number

digitsof

next

should

first attend

we

The

subtracting4 from
two

the several steps of the

number
in the
of digits

trace

us

example.
being odd,

square
left hand,

operations

two

neglectwriting the cyphers, and attend only

in each
figuresconcerned
part of the
significant

method

the

these

them

between

only difference

that the

to

plain by inspectionof

It is

205.

102

10

digits
and

digits

in the square there must

be 5 digitsin the root.
For take
the greatest number
for instance,of 3 digits,
consisting,

namely

103

namely
of

Its square
must
that is, less than

1000,
of

number

in
digits

of

the

square

Therefore

1000000.

the square

the least number

less than

be

999.

999

the

exceed

cannot

6.

Now

take

100

consists of 5 digits. By the same

its sqnare
of reasoningit is manifest
that, if the root begin with

written

digits,
namely

and

mode

digitexcept 1, 2, or
the square
must
singledigit)
the

squares
of twice

consist

therefore

Since

root.

(whose

3,

any

as

with

6,

the

not

nearest

digits

many

proposed in the
square
of 7 digits,
the root must

consists
example, 6953769
and its first digitmust
of 4 digits,
consits
Therefore
we
begin with inquiringthe
to

as

the

last

number

of

consist

69.:

to

be

less than

nearest

4.

square

for this would

give 8

for the first digitof the root

If

207.

we

conclude

find any
that the

remaindej' after the last subtraction,

is not
a
proposed number
complete
but
in
decimal
by annexing
cyphers
pairs,and
square ;
thus continuingthe process of extraction, we
may
imate
approxthe root
such
it
is evidently
In
to
at
a
case
pleasure.
arrive
at the exact
to
root
impossibleever
; since
ends
with
there is no
a
significant
digit whose
square
it
but
than
we
approach nearer
able
assigncypher :
any
may
we

Thus,

difference.
shall be
we

the

nearer

need

if

than

root

only continue

desire to find

we

by

that in 9's, the

from

equal

to

circulate
be

t"o-5-5-o^o^.
:

for the value

seen

that the

of
a

if the

even

in

this

annexed

could

root

would
case

unity,
places
6

culate
cirbe

only
can

never

decimal
may
every circulating
finite fraction {" 198.) and
we
root

exact

have

must

we

root

which

part of
of extraction
to 6

remaining part

the

But

exactly assignedin

have

the millionth

the process

of decimals, for which

purpose
pairsof decimal cyphers. For

number

of

such

number

as

we

the
be
annex
can
assigned. We
supposed never
decimal
cyphers in pairs,because for every digitin the
be two
after the fii-stthere must
root
digitsin the square.
cimal,
If the proposed number
and
be partly integral
partlydeand
must
we
point off the integralpart distinctly,
make
the number
of decimal
places even, by annexing a
if
root
Thus
in extractingthe square
cypher
necessary.
of 27.345, the first digitof the root is, not 1, but 5.

have

208.

From

cither express

what

the

has

been

square

that we
said it appears
may
of 2, for instance, as
root

surd.

thus

surd,

"

VS

degreeof

any

or

2^,

it within

else

or

proceed to extract
be required:
may

that

accuracy

104.

"

thus.

2.00(1.414213
1

24)1.00
281)

400

2824)11900
28282).60400

l)Ts"83600
2828423)T0075900
28284

"c.

1590631,
Kow

the

of
square
of 1.414
square

The

and

so

is 1.999396,

within

or

within

or

of 2.

.0119

of 2

.000604

on.

The

209.

extracted

the

terms

one

the

compound algebraic
squares
first
same
manner
arranging
;
the proposed
the
to
according
powers
square
letter. For example let it be requiredto extract
exactlyin the

of

some

of

root

square

a4__4^3^

2a^"

of

roots

square

are

of

is 1.9881

1.41

2aZ")

-~4a^^
"

26^
4Z"4(a*^2fl5"

^ 8^33 ^

8"/^H4^"+
4tt3Z"-f-4"^Z"*
+

"

4a^Z"^ +

8flZ"3^4Z"4

a^
2ah
multiply the trinomial
accordinglyif we
the
will
the
be
26* by itself,
product
proposed quantity.
that
the
It is manifest
this
second
in
remainder
example
the
of
has been found
a*
^ah from
by subtracting
square
2ab\^=:a^
the given quantity:for a^
4"^64-4"^Z"*.
remark
that
here
We
times
4
210.
the product of
may
numbers
two
differingby unity, plus 1, gives the
any

And

"

"

"

"

square

c-fl
But

of their
will

2a-f

For

sum.

represent

lp=4a*

the

"

let

represent the less ; then

greater; and 2a-\-l their sum.

+ 4fl4-l;

and

4a*

4^5

4 X

"

X"4-l.
Thus

or

{
10

number

its square
4-^5 the
-f " + ^ is the square

for

1G5

Thus

if

And

91"=361=4.X90+1.

^rar*

be

must

sum

add

we

to

any

number:

square

of a-\-i.
Thus
9 + 8 1 + ^ is
the square of 94 or \^.
Lastlythe sum of any two numbers
differing
by unity is the difference of their sqiiares. For
a

"^

"

lV"a^-^a+l,

Ex.
of

and

Ex.
and

the

Extract

1.

the 4th.

Extract

2.

V^^,

the square

it is

Fractional
IT

211.

the square

and

root

a^.

And

Calculations

tiplyingits
a"

the fourth,
may

of a"^ is a^

putting

of ", the square of

So that
a^""^"c.
index

a""

of Surds.

a"
n

since

that
In

aaXaaXaa=z

of

for the index

any power
is aj^",its cube a^% its fourth power
is raised to any power
by only mul^
It follows
by the index of that power.

is the square

7i

root

of

rootofc^",

a^'\ the cube

So that we
biquadrate,root of a^" "c.
of
a
given quantityby dividingits
any root

or

express
index
by the denominator
root

XXII.

that the square of a* is a^^ and

of a^ is a^ ; since aaa
aaaaaa=:a^.
=
X aaa
cube

be

sought must

of 4096.

NegativeIndices.

the

that

Va;'*

is evident

manner
=

? Since jp^=

the 4th. root

plainthat

of the square

root

of 4096

root

CHAP.

aaaaaa

of 38416?

3 ?

a:=

like

of 6889?

roots

square

of a^ is ",

"%

or

and

of

that root

the cube

of a^

root

the

cube

is a^.

For

just as

the originof expressingroots

Hence
4=1,
andf|-=2.
by fractionalexponents : for thus the square root of a*
is

justlyexpressedby a"",its cube

In like

by a^, "c.

root
J.

manner

is

the square

a"^,"c.

And

root

of a^

is a^

the

puttingn
universally,

cube

and

root

for any

of a*
num^

bers

whatsoever, the nth.

of notation

has many

root

of a*" is

above
advantages

"".

the

And

this mode

expressionby

the radical

sign Va*".
212.

Since

(
Sincei

212.

106

|:= |, "c. and

|, "c. therefore

J=

a*

"c. it
(or Va)=:a^z=:a^, "c. and a"^ (or Va)=d^=za^^
follows that, as we
can
or
bring any two numbers
integral
fractional

fractions of the

to

easilyreduce
of the

radical

to

bring a"^

to

reduce

the

indices

aaaa^

or

equal to

product

is

factors:

whence

and

and

hhh^

V a'^ and

or

(" 201) that the square

the

product

it follows

the product
universally
equal to the nth., root
n

and

observed

have

we

sign: we have only

tions
fract to equivalent
the expressions
be-

radical

same

denominator,

same

a'^ and

Now

6* to the

and

instance, let it be required

For

sign.

the fractional

with
come

two

any

same

denomination, we may
quantitiesto equivalentexpressions
same

that

of any
of its
roots
root

of the square

VaX

6^.

And

VhzzVab.

of the ni\\, roots

of any factors is
of the product of the factors : or

w
,

\^a

Vbzz

Vab*

to
applicable

transform

any

of the

under

surds
for

same

the

express

radical

product
radical

one

since

sign, it is

plainthat

quotientof any

or

we

of different radical

siffn. Thus

Vb:=ibnm.^but

and

Va"a^'"^

And

/^.

surds

given

two

be
evidently

principlemust

division V"~-VZ"=:

into surds

thus

similar

Va
oT

can

signs
can

we

given

two

VbzzVa^'br

VZ""=

a^'b"",

In like
213.

Let

quantity are
a^Xa^"a^)
divisor

3 -^

manner

"

that powers
of the same
adding their indices, (e.gr.

it also be remembered

multipliedby
the
and divided by subtracting
of the

index

the

from

dividend,

index

of the

(e.gr. -_=fl^)

multiplyVa hya: the productmay

be expressedby prefixingfl^ as a coefficient,
thus, aVa,
But since a=
Va*, the product may also be expressedby
Now

suppose

Va^
at

',

the

for VaX

have

to

JL

and

Va^,

Va^zz

for a^ X

"

But

we

by adding the

conclusion

same

a-

we

may

at

once

arrive

indices of the factors

="^,

since i-f 1 =1.

In like

man-

ner

Va^'XVa,

ner

Now

214.

2,

"

or

"

1,

"

we

iiave observed

that the

1 :

ciprocal IS

OT.

e.

product of

"

a"

otherwise

they

have

part and

rational

or

of

is

2\/2

V8
and

also

2\/2

sum

its re-

accordingly

a^

\/16

product
And

as

coefficient ; so,

^4

and

and

4:

of any

V2

V8

It is

which
be

must

may

And

5v^3.

V8

be incorporated

difference ^^2.
versally
uni-

plain that
like,or

are

rational.

the
may

Thus
wise
Other-

a'x'KVh''x"abx.

quadraticsurds

two

and

therefore

2,

their

\^.r.

surds,

may

of them

difference is a/8z"= V2.

3V3
X

the

tional.
irra-

be

must

take one
part of a given
may sometimes
the radical sign and prefixit as a rational

we

under

coefficient,we

like

into

Thus

by

surds

both

being like surds

V2

part, and

unlike
or

poration,
incor-

by

subtraction

or

quadraticsurds

two

any

from

and

being 3^2

sum

transformed
the

or

V2,

and

same

V24+v'81=2v'3-f

product of
V8

quantityand

happens that
resolvingone

V"2".a;:":V 6" J7="=":6

V2X

W^e

irrational

irrational.

an

V4?X

; their

Thus

"".

And

addition

their

and

surds,

since

surd

that

subtract surds

or

the

the

denote

must

unlike

be

see

"

add

"

And

I,

"

mn

.sign-f- or
; yet it often
be transformed
into like by
a

any

1.

"

cannot

we

unless

But

may

_,

l.

Though

215.

are

ex"

a"

just expressionfor the reciprocalof -p

into

or

"

Thus

"c.
,

"

^-"

also be

may

-"

it

in like manner

since

But

^=:at

~,

a"'

"2

="x

"

:^=a^"

1.

Va"^, since |+i=J,

or

and

a'^. And

or

expressedby

thus

that

know

we

pressed by a'-*,
be

"^X^*=ra^,

or

-^=a^"~^="'

also

Thus

107

whenever
may

we

bring it

have
under

surd with

the radical

rational

sign:

since

aV

x-zzV
216.

both

aJ'x*

Any

of whose

fraction with
terms

is a

binomial

surd, may

denominator,
be transformed

one

into

or
an

equivalent

product of the

that the
the principle

upon

of any

both

^^

g^^
becomes

denominator

and

numerator

aV

ox

by
For

V 2.

2""a

and

sum

ence
differ-

^g^^^"by

fraction

the

Thus

(" 163.)

squares.

be rational

the difference of their

is equalto
quantities

two

shall

denominator

whose

equivalentfraction

108

V3

when

tiplying
mul-

V2,

"

mul-

we

"

of VS
and
V2) by ^3
V2, (the sum
^2,
be
the
the
difference of
product must
{theirdifference},

tiplyV3+
their

"

of three

consist

V2

2+

it rational,

Vai

"

we

the other

if

multiplyboth numerator
V2
Va, the
by 2

we

in it but

\\\\\have

irrational

one

"

the

both

the denominator
a

"

and

parts

this

or

process

is but

binomial

surd

by

"

as

tiply
mul-

we

2v^2a,

"

And

thus the

of

irrationahty
suing
Pur-

will find that the fraction

'

and

=:W2',

^-^

if

2\/2a,

5V'2

"

there

to the numerator.

student

the

of the fraction

difierence of the squares

the

l2a-\-a^.

"

and

denominator

new

denominator

be

term,

one

2 + 2^/2^;

the

and

g,

"

the denominator

from

is removed

of

two

and

as

since

term,

square

tiplications
mul-

denominator

denominator

new

consideringthe

must

2V2a,

the

now

numerator

Va

"

denominator

and

the

in

term

^2

successive

the denominator

Let

gr.

irrational

one

And

a.

of
consisting

term

"

"

e.

by

may

composing

and

as

we

consider

may

if the denominator

manner,

parts,

more

or

render
be

in like

And

squares.

accordingly4

+ ^2X3

"

2v/2

5V/2.

"

The

217.

root

square

by
representted

the

of any

binomial

a-:"=h may

be
justly

followingexpression, /?d_^JZI^
2

*y

A/a^

"

"

b""
;

for

the

square

of this

expressionis

2
_

^2Vb

that is a:"ib.

By performing the operation

the student
what

we

will find

have
he may

that the square

that the

assigned;

and

be convinced
of any

of that binomial
is
square
from
the following
rations
conside-

that it must

binomial

is

be

so.

composed

We

of the

know
sum

of
the

HO

tlieradical signto
signatedby prefixing
or

But
a=i=:\/b\'^'

number,

let

us

number,

and

may

binomial

by y^/

thus

Vadt:\/b,

square

we

put

express

the binomial

whenever

for the

^+~^ JZL,

Thus

the

'

/iilzZ\/94-V2
^/ii"2+.
V
^

given
root

square

"V49

"V

which

3H-v'2:

isa

Again ^7-1-2^/6

simplerexpressionthan Vll-^6V2.
simplyexpressed,since
may be more
the square

Therefore

number.

of the

root

is

of that

root

i/72)isy/iii^^
+ ^"

ofll+6v^2(orll +
=

tt*"^'

square

the square

sUrd

1
,

1 +

or

49

24

of 7 + 2 V

root

And

6.

"

25,
6

square

j^ _i_.

1 +
accordingly

ef

2
=

7+2^6.

V2a''a:XVSaV=

V^^~Va:*=

1/3^3^5

3.

^^3/Xa^=

? J^^X^

Ex.

4.

"V^ 125j;=S=V^

Ex.

5.

Reduce

Ex.

1.

^^^X

Ex.

2.

Ex.

V^*=
3

4jr

^=
V

-^V2"*^=

?
20jc4j^
SOo-^j/rtA/
3

fraction with
Ex.

6.

Also

the

fraction

to

rational denominator

7. What

Ex.

8.

is the

...of V

219.

TO

the unknown

"

simplestvalue

V^
of V9

+ \/45

19"1/261?

CHAP.

jReduction

equivalent

the fraction

l-^Vx
Ex.

an

XXIIL

of AlgebraicEquations Simple and Qjuadratic"

^

reduce

an

equationis

quantityin it, which

to

discover
has

been

the value

of

represented

by

of the

one

final letters of the

proposedto

have

HI

the

us

equation5x

alphabet. Tims,
34

"

57 +

we

"

if

may

by
PC

and

short

very

stands for.

discover

process

easy

Now,

what

the

number

according
import
braic
Algethe
alreadyexplained,
proposed equation

symbols as

to

of the

this fact, that the subtraction of 34 from

expresses
the number
representedby x gives a remainder

the

of 57

sum

of /v, this
that if we

^rds

substitute

of the

amount

that letter

of the

amount

the number

terms

terms

occurs

in the

at

side

one

side of

by reducing the equation 5x

Thus,

found

for Xy

x.

each

in

so

pression
ex-

proposed equation,
be equal to the
must

the other

at

number

found

to

the value

ascertained

the

belong to

5 times

equal
representedby

number

shall have

we

must

property

where

the

and

of the

therefore whenever

And

we

the

equation.

34=57+-",

"

we

shall find that

;v =

21

and

the truth of this result will ap*

2x

5 X
by substituting

pear
5X21

105;

and

71.

Such

21

4X21

for 5x
14:

and

but

for

X 21

For

"

105"34

and

71;

2a?

57 +

14

called

equation

an

5x

as

"

34

is

57H

simpleequation,because the unknown

quantityx
of it beyond the 1st. power.
does not rise in any term
The
of reducing such equationsdepends
220.
process
the following simple principles;that if to equal
upon
add the same
or
we
equal quantitiesthe sums
quantities
if from
will be equal ; or
subtract
equal quantitieswe
will be equal ;
the remainders
the same
or
equal quantities
if we
and
that
multiply or divide equal quantitiesby
the
the
number,
same
products or quotients will be
it follows,
of these principles
the former
equal. From
that we
of an
term
equation from
transpose any
may
side of it to the other, changing its sign. Thus
in
one
the

proposed equation5x

2a;
"

34

57 +

"

we

may

bringover

34

from

sign +

the left side of the

;

and

the

equation to

infer that 5;v =

57 + 34 +

-^.

rightwith
For

the

this is in

fact

an

addition of

34

to

both

sides of the

equation;

the
sum

li2

(
of

sum

ajad -f-34*being0.

34j

"

the

from

over

sign

infer that 5x

and

"

this is in fact but

But

of the

rightside

"

the

-1

"

it

follows, that

the terms

equation
2x

24)

"

2x=:

"

sides of the

which

only the

have

We
times

mial

take

2x
^

"

the

signsof
from

all
the

24+2^

"

(or
of the

negativeto

is

equation 5x

to

both

equalto

the

2x

"

at the

in

other side.

side is

one

But

equation.
1 5x

9l;

equationall
quantity)occurs, and

numbers

3 times

!L. =

"

side of the

one

of known

amount

the other side of the

5x

principle

same

subtraction

of the

(the unknown

infer, that

now

may

may
fact but

addition

broughtover

in which

terms

we

an

now

us

have

we

of

equation.

Lot

221.

the

From

infer that

this is in
and

terms,

sides

10,

"

for

10:

affirmative

the

both

at
24

both

at pleasurechange the
may
sides of an
equation. Thus

we

For

91.

0.

bring

the left with

34

from

subtraction of -1

since

equation;

57+

also

may

equationto

the

we

1 3a;

equalto

3 times
:

the bino-

for when

we

mul-

2x

tiplythe
the

fraction
^x

numerator

by

its denominator

integral.
(" 113.)

3, the

Therefore

product is
13a;

91 X 3

divide both sides of this tion,

And
273.
we
now
=
may
equawill be
13a: = 273, by 13, and infer that the quotients
equal. But the quotientof 1 3x divided by 1 3 is a^ j which
273

is therefore

equalto

And

21.

"

thus

have

we

ascer-

13

tained the value of

5x

"

34

57+

is

"

of the

reduction

the

and

completed.

Let

us

equation

exhibit the steps,

have

"which we

taken in

view.

one

9st!

5a;--34

57 + 1^
3

+
^

34-^?f

5;v"

57 + 34

91

XS

^'

{I5x"'2x = ) 13;c
;v =

9lX

273

273-~13=21
222.

The

(
The

222.

marks

to

both

the left hand

on

of the derived

the

operntion, by which

the

preceding;

denote

from

H3

1st.

each

the addition

of
sides,or the transposition

those

tions
equa-

equation is
of

34

with

terms

rived
de-

-i
"

their

2ndly. the mukiplicationof both sides by

division of both sides by 13.
And
it may
be useful to the student
at first to
adopt that practice, of
marking in the margin the operation by which he proceeds
come
to derive each
equation ; although this will afterwards beIn the first step of the preceding exunnecessary.
signschanged
3; 3rdly.the

ample,

both

and

the
ever

so

only taking

once,

by

one

terms

many

ration
ope-

transposedat
signs. But for a

the
to

one

be

may

change

to

care

transposedby

are

be better for the student

it may

time

and^

34

terms

transpose the

terms

one.

After

223.

the

by

reduction

product of

first

might

we

x.

If therefore

completed our

have

inference, observing that

one

"

step,

5^

1-

"

divide both

we

is the

sides

by

have the equaI, that is by 4j or y, we shall at once

tion
of
the
But
the
in
1
second
9 1
2
^ =
=
=
Vy
y
step
reduction, as exhibited at the end of " 221. the student
should well observe, how
an
equation may be cleai'ed of
5

"

-r-

expression,by multiplyingboth

fractional

any

equation by
there

be

ever

the
so

tion, they may

L-^-L-f2,

by

"

For

instance, if

by 4,

we

would

remove

Hence

e.)

let

7;v+L^

both

equatioiT
sides

by

several fractions,

the
"

4a? i.

this

have

the equations;c-fproducingsuccessively

(3^ +

And

fraction^

of
multiplications

5, successive

3, and

of that

fractional expressionsin an equa-,

many
be all removed
either successively,
or
by

operation.

one

denominator

sides of the

1
"

10, and

120.
=
30,and(28;t+18;tfi.e.)46A:

it is

result must
be afforded by
plainthat the same
of both sides by the product of 2, 3, and
one
multiplication
But
it will answer
the same
and
4, or by 24.
purpose,
keep our numbers lower, to multiplyboth sides l)y1 2 the

least

(
least

multipleof 2, 3, and 4 : for

expressionsmight be brought

common

fractional

given equation by 12,

the

of the three

each
to

equivalent

an

then
Multiplying

of tliat denominator.

fraction

of

11*

derive

we

both sides

this

equation

dividingboth sides
(6^+8.r-{-9^ i. e.) 23a' = 60: whence
by 23, we obtain the value of .v, namely Ar = |y=:2i4. But
to

this value

have

might

we

both sides of the

arrived

at

by dividing

once,

For

given equationby 44-T+i"

-+-7-

+~=4

Therefore

+ T+iX^^-

rule therefore

The

^T+"H=z5^A'

x=i5

for

reducingany simple equation

proposed: Bring over
by
may
side
all
of
the
the
to one
equation
transposition
terms, in
which
the unknown
tigating)
quantity(whose value you are inves224.

of this kind

occurs

thus

be

and

all the

other

terms

the other side.

to

equationby such a divisor as,

if multipliedby the unknown
quantity,would give the
former side for the prbduct. Let us exemplifythis rule by
divide

Then

both sides of the

2.V

Let

other instances.

49

2^:*.

"

Now

given equation be

the

3a?

-f --1 + 24

infer that

we
by transposition

(SA^-f
--

3
2a*

2a? i. eO

5^-f -^=49

24

"

25

and

both
dividing

sides

\j

equationby

of this

t"

find that

we

25

-r-

5y

25

-^

And

=
4^4=4'TT"
accordinglyif 4tt be substituted for
in the original
number
equation, we shall find the resulting

the

give on

both

same

on

one

side

for the

the consideration

That

sides.

that this

the

divisor, which

will

is 5-f--y,appears
from
quotient,
divisor multiplied
by x givesfor

2x

the

product 5^v -}-_-.

And

if there be

ever

so

terms

many

3
on

side, in each of which

one

unknown

quantity)appears
proposed in " 167
principle
for the

give X

tient

on

value of

the
^

in

to

-.

be

known

factor,it is easy from

if both

divided

left side will be

a

(orthe letter denotingthe

assignthe

quotient. Thus

Jl

"_^4:x

as

x,

sides of the

by 14-4
and

divisor which

on

"

"

the

the
will

equation

|, the quo-

rightside

the

number.
225.

i^gAin,

115

('

to
Again, if wie:procced

225,

equation-"1^

the

reduce

4- 20

20 4- ^"^?~

according to

the

the last section, we

beginningof

rule

proposed

observe

must

that

in die
^"^
.

is the

thin"?as

same

and that

-;

^1_

"

^55

that after the

necessary

So

-^4-~.

thing as

^j.
same

same

transpositions

t4-t

"

which

gives^r=44-|

Observe

the
also, that wherever
both sides of an equation with the
the last proposed example) it may

sides.

both

expunged from

be

-j-" -y

-5-=|f-^||=4T.
quantitystands on
sign, (as -f 20 in

"

same

2.V

Sx

be

equationwill

the

is the

For

this is

tion
only a subtraclet
But
same
us
hibit
exequals.
first
the same
it
reduced,
equation
by
clearing of
fractions,(after
expunging the -f 20 from both sides)and

quantityfrom

of the

aud

the

observe

let the student

two

correspondence

of the

tions,
opera-

of the results.

sameness

X5
7

X7

2U'
lLv

10.V

4.28"

15

28=:10.v-f

"

43

-r-ll
11

12

If

226.

be

we

ffiven such

an

equation as -4

1--

4"

XXX

where

factor but
not
a
as
appears
that multiplying
both sid(js by
-x

other
But
one
we

form;
if in

term

shall

divisor,it

will

bring it

is evident
to

giving the equation (14-24-3 i. e.) 6

equation the unknown
quantityx appear
=

an

as

find

factor and

produced

will rise to the second

1

be
"*quation

as

in

another

term

as

the
4a.,

in

divisor,

quadratic equation,in which x

or
Thus, if the given
power
square.
a

-4--=:

of both sides by
4, the multiplication
I 2

"fivfs

116

givesthe quadraticequation1 + .-^=4a';

reducingwhich

the niethc^ of

shall deliver in the 231st.

we

and

ing
follow-

sections^
that appear in the
contrarymany equations
form of quadratic,
cubic,"c. may be easily
broughtto the

On

227.

form
5a' ^

the

the

simpleequations.Thus

of

both sides of it by
7^, by dividing

"
"

equation
quadratic
becomes

x^

5,v

"

Bx"^+
equation

the cubic

And

=71

sides

by dividingboth

by

x^

becomes

*7;v^ 4^*,

"

5"v4--= 7.y

4.

"

here we may observe that,if allthe terms in an equation

factor or divisor,
have any common
we
ought in the
firstinstance to divide both sides of the equation
by that
that
both
sides
visor
dicommon
common
factor,or multiply
by

And

that

is,the .cominon factor

expmi^edfrom, all the

or

divisot oughtto be

terms.
.,-

of an equain any term

quantity
tion
free
be affectedwith a radical sign,we
the
may
tion
equaiind often bringit to the form of a
from irrationality,
simpleequationby bringingthat term to one side,and
then raising
both sides to sucli a poweiras will make
t|iat
if
be
V
the
rational.
Thus
3
term
7.
we
given equation x
'first infer by transposition
and then
that V^^lOj,
we
The ground of
100.
squaringboth sides we have ;^ 10^
this inference is obvious ; namely,that if two quantities
be equal. And
be equal,their squares, cubes, "c. must
228.

If the unknown

"

thus from
;^ =

1 03 =r

the

1 000

equationVx
:

and from

3=7,

"

the

we

equationw^

2, and

then

whence

"

8, and

infer that

may

f-5

"

2*

7,
4;

^ =

11,

If we

have

the

equation

b-\-x-=z\-\'Vx^ two such operationswill be necessary.

both sides,we have o -^x r=:\ ^^W
For first,
x "{ x
squaring
in
whence, expunging x from both sides 5 = l-f2V^:
which equation
there is but one surd, to be removed
fore,
beas
V

'^

ihus, 2V'^
both sides,^ = 4.

"

l=4j

or

Vx'=z2'y and

squaring
229.

As

(
side

Every

mixed

232.

similar

Let

complete square

of

the; binomial

x^-^-Sx

as

the

first terms

two

firstterm

root, whose

binomial

quadraticequationmay be reduced
Suppose we are given /v^ -}-3^= 18.

process.

consider

us

of

Pi"i/,

root

by

the

one'

render

we

118'

is

a\

of the
square
Now
I say that

is 1, and
that the square
will
be completed by adding,to both sides the square of I, or f.
of
For 3a: is the double
product of ^ and the other term
the other

of the root

term

the binomial
the two

And

now

always

the

that

simple product

is, .r and ^

of

the terms of
root.
Accordingly .v* -f-3.x -f fis the complete
of jr-fl. And
also
the
other
to
adding^,

square
of tire

side

the

therefore-^is

of the

root

equation,

we

terms

binomial

the

is

root

have

extractingthe square
the operationto be
have

square) we

cT^ +

aa'e

SAr-f-f=

IS-f f = V*
sides, (which

of both

root

employed after completing

/

a-'-f~=:

and

=1-,

"

therefore

#?

.222'
reducing
employ some

But

233.

in

often

must

the

mixed:
other

for completing
steps to prepare
the steps previouslynecessary

And

square.

obvious, when
sufficiently
arrive
propose ; namely to
side shall be the complete
is

At

.r.

at

of
square
side .v^ must

that

In

its proper
])ower
other

done

other
the
the

term

of the

part

brought
be

which

these

by

two

square

binomial
terms

to

And

or

whose

in the

first

dilfereiit

of

jt

at

any
that

appears

product
Now

coefficient

in its
of

both

side, with

simple

and

when

the
have

we

side, (which may

tlie

cessary,
ne-

in the equation:

multiplicationof

root.
one

one

affirmative, if

stand

double

and
transposition)

side of the
square.

is the

binomial,

all the terms

unityby a division
the second
place must
sign, the term in which

which

stand

divested

be

it may

-a

objectwe

coefficient

any
made

from

different
sides.

and,

what

equation of

an

place, affirmative, and without

from
always be
unity. It may
by changing the signsof
(" 220.)

consider

we

are

first term

quadraticequations,we

ahvaj^s

to the
remaining
equation,we are prepared for completing
it is completed by adding to both sides

of half the coefficient of

terms

.v

in tlio second
234j.

term.

Let

(
Let

234.

example.

us

exhibit all the necessary steps in another

now

Let

119

the

proposed equation be

appears simple,but will

is.thus reduced.

produce

which

:cz=Jl ^_"/.//i-d^

"

"

quadratic;

and

2x^
6x-^x^=:l5'-^x

Sx

"15

-6a"

^3

^*"

10a^="

25

^^

10a^4.25

'

+ 25
V

the student will observe

Here

in which

have

we

the

25

"

+ 25

on

that after the

broughtto

unknown

all the terms

one

then

both

sides, in order

term

first in which

placethat

term

has the coefficient j-,we

both
by dividing

sides

to make

then

are

Now
the second term
the^ square.
be
to
completedby adding such
it is

Whence

terms

and

the

the

being

of which

square
sides.
Lastly, 10;^

being negative,the
The

235.

student

the

ready for

of

them,
therefore, or

one

or

the

binomial

now

product of
be

must

25,

double
root

should

of the binomial

is the

5x

number, that

product of the terms

plainthat

make

be

a;

of

5,

"

those

the other

add

we

product

must

pleting
com-

being 10.r, the

is

square
lOjr shall be twice

affirmative,

^*

this
As
appears.
off that coefficient

x^

and

step,
ving
invol-

change the signsof

throw

next

by |

second

side all the terms

quantity,we

and

root.

xz=5

"

^-^5

himself

to

the
not

both

parts
x-^5"
at

expert

completingthe square, by takinga variety

process
of examples in which
shall be affected
in the second
term
x
with

of

various

will be

Thus, let

completedby adding ^

root

term

coefficients.

must

being 1.

be

Let

to

x^

both

+ 4? the coefficient
.V'"

14, the

-^xzz^l
sides
of

for the binomial

;
x

; the square

in the second

binomial

root

must

be

(
be

A'

^;

"

addins:

-f

"

the

be

to

ffives

extraction

"

36

__4-

"

H.

=:

"

bem":"= found

23

bf^
23

of 529.

root

square

x^

us

completed by

Hence

_^

a' =

28

36

will be

square

This

sides.

and

^36

both

to

"

tlierefore the

and

120

^^^

r='^f*

-="

every

positiyequantityhas

and
positive

(" 164.) one

roots,

square

since

the other

two

negative,

y529may
^"

23

either

23
or

"

And

"

the

latter

value

equation

mve

"

.r*

"

"-

And

^*

"

"

x=:

fe

f--=

will

"

"

be

14

we

accordingly,if

substitute

for

And

hence

a;

the given

in

either 4y

or

3,

"

shall find the result 14.

we

equations, we
values

for

unknown

quantity:

of which

reducingquadratic
at

two

distinct
in the

more

chapter.

next

If after

236.

for

the

arrive

commanly

may

in

having prepared

completingthe

in the second

term

we
square,
the
left
on

quadraticequation

our

for the coefficient of

put a
hand, and b for the number

the

righthand, it is plainthat x'^z"zax zz2"zb will be a

generalexpression for such an equationso prepared. And
be brought to that
every affected quadraticequation may
form.
To complete the square
add
sides the
to both
we
on

of

square

-^

whence

'=^h-\-. : whence
"

we

have

the

equationx'^z^ax-\-"-=i

by extractingthe

square

root

of both

slideswe

have

an4 therefore
^:rfc:?=:=t:^^z"zZ"-f^

'^^TV^^sJ=t:^-f-^.With

this

"=.

generalexpressionfor the

^4

value

of the

unknown

equation, the student

quantityin
ought to make

an

affected

himself very

quadratic
familiar.
And

in It let him

And

ambiguous sign=p
fe
the former

121

observe

the

step be .sr-f--,then

then-

"

_,

assignedvalue of a*. Let

ambiguityof the signprefixedto

arises from
^^:"rZ"-|-~-,

of any number

root

the
be

may

In

("164.)
negative.

affirmative,as it is the
'

it becomes

root be

that

him
the

that the

affirmative
indifferently

surd, the

term

has been

which

term

circumstance

in

root

transposing

upon

if the binomial

that the

also observe

or

If the binomial

-.

of th^

ground

affirmative in the

becomes

square

and

nature

prefixedto

negative.But

surd

is

"

added

always
both

to

The
term
completingthe square.
negative,according to the signit has
in the givenequationx^z"zax-=.z"ib.
annexed
237. A biquadratic
equation,or an equationof the 4th.
degree,may be reduced just as a quadratic,if the unknown,
quantityx appear only in the 4th. power or onlyin the 4th.
sides for the purpose
h is affirmative or

of

if ^'"'"
of it. Thus
=
81, the value of x is
powers
extractions of the square root : for ^^ = V81
found by two
tute^
And
if -v^
^x"- = 36, let us substi=
9, and a; == V 9 = 3.
for ;v* in that equation,and it becomes
y^ %=
2nd.

and

"

"

is

which

36,

an

affected

=t:y36
/i^
+ !f=^db
V
^

havingthe

value of y
the value of x^ since

^^,

extraction

second

a'=:V'j/=v'9=:=":3;

"

it is

For

gives us
the

to

as

an

index in the other term, may

an

Now

or-~4.

impossibleor imaginaryquantity.
which
in
the
(" 164.) It is plainthat any equation,
is half of its
term
of the unknown
quantityin one

expressionV
index

"-!^=+9

or

affords 3/="

quadratic^and

affected
238.

If

be treated

manner

as

quadratic.
here

we

"236. then

Kzz

in like

y,

or

employ the
a'-,

same

generalnotation

as

in

fore
and there==p^^:":y="="+~;

^ 4- ^.
dby^|^="=^y
cfc

Now

let

us

put

for the
Vialue

122

(
z":h-\~

ralue of

and

"

the

)
the value of

expressionfor

in

4y

the
But

supposedbiquadraticequation becomes="=:,^/fzt=V
have

we

in

seen

simply,whenever

more
expressed

Let

239.

that this surd is

" 218.

student

the

himself

exercise

followingequations; of which the

but those at
of simple equations,
quadratics.
Ex.

1.

5x

Ex.

2.

Sx

"

3^

reducing the
are
examples

in

first seven

the

number.

of

end

of

240,

"

+ 20.

"

is a square

"
"

capableof being

+ i'.

-^4-12 7+12.

Ex.3.

5x

Ex.4.

\/251+Ar^

Ex.5.

5x''"\2x

Ex.

6.

Vl2

Ex.

7.

Va'+

S=x.

"

\1x-^^x\

"

Vx,

+ A=2-f

'la

Va-fAr:
V

Here

the letter
of the
the

both

from

reduction

completed are
sides by Vfl-j-^v,in

x^

when

if

sides, or

to

And

"

remove
a

transpose,

"

in order
both

side) 3rdly.square

one

get the

midx=:_.
number

order

x^ from

both

2i

be substituted for

V.v-^\/3+a:=="

"

2ax^

in the

the

have

to

sides ;

4-thly.
:
-f-^")

3fl;Af=a*,

or

for .v, whatever

geneixdvalue

givenequation. Thus,

(wherewe

======

reduction

sides,or expunge

simpleequationax-=.a^
this is

the

(thatis, multiply
the irrationality
(thatis, subtract

V a-\'K

denominator) 2ndly.

(thatis,subtract
we

1st.

"

the

steps by which

The

unknown.

a-\-x from both

^urd
alone
at
"

ject
number, and \\vgobany known
notes
deis to find the value of ^, which

denotes

be

may

a-\'X

have

substituted

for

-}"a:
10

a)

then

have

A- =

substituted

inolyif

we

If V

1=1.
5

for

-in \^ 6 -\-x

a^)

then.v

z=.

-p==^

4=ly.

(where

And

calculate the value of each side of the

we

accord-

equation
hy

hy substituting
| for

1^3

shall find

.v, we.

the

of

amount

each
20

be

side to
^^

For

Vl5,

then

v^^ + V5

-^^'^

(";215.)
'^

"

\/5+x
Let

z=:Vl5,

And

a/3-

/_=:"-_

10-i-:

the

student

,--

V20

\/5

"

and

himself

exercise

observe

how

V'S

V.

2v^5

similar

7, 8, "c. for a.
substituting
coefficient
Let us now
240.
change the numeral
of the fraction on the right side of
the numerator

equation;

V5=:V15.
-^-^rrrVSX

'

V3

A'=r^--hw^

of

tlie value

culations,
cal-

of

in

the proposed

will vary*

3a

let Vx+Va

Thus,

-\-a:=:

Ileilucino' this

"

"rz=z=,

A*ft

tion,

we

jc

"

the values of
and

jr.

\^ V

fractions

==,

now

For

having successively
employed 2, 3,

perceivethe

2x2

of

of

''^^^ t

the

in

product

numerator,

have

we

multipliedsuccessively
by

"

which

fractions

1,

"

1,4

"

the

1 ; and

"

and

1, 2x3"1,

"

of variation in

law

rators
nume-

"

of

squares

are

then

"

We

4-, Y^

the

are

__

x-{-V a-"rx:=.

Va-i-x'

the

equalto

cr

A*fi

"_

And

-.

coefficients of

the

as

found
the

"

find

Tj^^

find

cqua^

Va-\-x

2 x

the

nominators
de-

And

1.

"

Ba

if V

accordindy
^

5__1
^

"

-^V a'\-x=L"-^==^

''

But

fdrniula. for the

of

be

number

for

fractional.

the
and

this formula

:,

value

of

whatever

x,

let

Thus

ma.

=z^-ym"\\
^'

we

numbers
+

then

general

literal coefficient

From

"

12

V9+^'

the

7n

whatsoever, integralor

easilycalculate
substituted

a-^-x

2m"

may

at^

arrive

by reducing^the equation

x,

'^^ which

shall find x:=za+

we

at^once

may

"

V
any

we

value

\/ ^Ji^\/a^x^~

For

x:=za

16a

1-=:

denotes

sjiallfind

we

Va-\-x

'

9 +

jji

=|,

''

2m

"

1*

lz=j,''

2;;z"

124
"-i

1^1=: tV,

and^=:fljX.|^-J-=A
=

in the

found

will be

side

of each

the value

for

substituted

jnglyif j-be

iJ

And

T-

accord-

precedingequation,
be

to

Vl5-

These

observations might be pursued farther: but enough has

tages
been said to call the attention of the student to the advanin which we designate
of employing Ut^^al equations,

hy

letters known,

Ex.

8.

^*-~40

Ex.

9.

7^"^^

2a:"

+ 5

SA'^f7

Ex.10.

well

as

unknown, quantities.

as

"'

5.

4- 2t.

1 1

!f+4r*"21,

Ex.

^rrV'jr

11.

"Ex,12.

Ex.

e.

_.+

_=_^_.

^-!ff!
+ aa:

13.

brinoriiiorthe

"

liomial
X

V"^* + 5ca;" 15.

2a

having prepared for completingthe

after

Here

"

2"

equation

this form, ;v* 4-

to

consider the second

we

part of which

in each

_I!I

multiplying

'^

"

"

term

by

square

^^'^

-^^^

(thefractional tri-

appears)as

the

product of

the half of which

therefore,

or

IZ"iZL

^
"

is the other

Ha"^

whose

3wj

"

square

be

of

part

tjie binomial

w^ant

we

to

complete. The

square

completedby addingto bpth sides

root,

"

30g

5ac

g^

"

"

"

will therefore

r"

Sac

"

"^

-f-^

"

1 4a^

CHAP.
On

the Forms

24^1.

WE

equationsmay

"

3w

XXIV.

and. Boots

of QjiadratzcEquations, Method
of exterminatingthe Second Term,
have
be

seen

("236.) that all

brouglit

to this

form

mixed

quadratic

x''z"zaxz:zz":b.

But
of

(
in the

^^6

expression /w/" -^+

the

+~

"

"

iiQgatlve
part

is

less than the %affirmati

ve.
the root, or roofs, of
vakies,of the imkno^'n

By

the
We
mean
equation
vahie, or
quantity.Andwehavi*
that every quadratic
seen
equationhas two roots. For
this we have hitherto accounted
from the ambiguoussign
"ut
the same
trated
of every square root,
thing may be illusIf we bringall the terms of
from other principles.
side by transposition,
shall have 0
to one
we
on
equation
at tlie other side.
Thus, the quadratic
equationof the
tlie
firstform, .^^-f
4-4^ 21, may
become, by
transposition
21=0.
And
the roots of that equation
of 21, x^' + ix
substituted for
ai'e therefore the numbers, which
give0
244.

^ti'

"

as

the value of the trinomial

any

-f 4^*

2 1

"

binomials,each of which

two

Now

has

tiply
if we mulfor the first

into which x
term, and for their second terms
quantities
shall have a trinomial product,whose
does not enter, we
the
second term
tlie productof x and the
firstterm is^*,
of the second terms of the binomial factors,and the
sum
third term the productof the second tcnns of the binomial
factors. Thus the productof x-^a multiplied
by x b, or
"

be

x^-\-aX'-^bx^b, ^may
"

considered

as

trinomial,by

bx as one
ax
considering
quantity;and we see that it is
ab is
the productof x and a
b ; while the third term
for the sum
the productof a: and
b. If tlien we put ':"::-s
denoted
and
and
of any two quantities
b,
by a
p for their
by x-="ib,
product,then the product of x:-"za multiplied
-j"the general
be justly
must
by x''z"zsxz"zp
represented
in which all the terms
formula for a quadratic
are
brought
the other side.
to one
on
side,and therefore 0 standing
it appears that any such quadratic
245.
Hence
may be
of two such
considered as generated
by the multiplication
v/illbecome
binomials xz"za and x:"ib.
But their product
factors
0
if
of
the
be
to
either
equal
equaltoO,
; that is if
"

"

"

"

A'^z^tt,

in the

or

x'^z"zsx:"-p Q,
quadratic
=

And

second

irz^n^. So that there

term

we

have
is the

seen
sum

must

two

or

be two values of*'

roots of that equation.

eoeftieientof x in its
v/ith their signs
roots

that the
of those

changed,and that its third term is their product. In lilce

x^ ^'4"x 21=0
the quadratic
have
must
manner
equation
is 4-4
two
'theirsigns,
roots, whose sum, when we change
and
"

tlieirproduct

and

4-3

-"7

or

have

equation,we
:

And

^21

"

accordinglyreducingthai

dt:v'21

127

2^

4'

"

==t:5"

3 and
multiplyingthe binomial factors x
product is the given trinomial ^*-f 4;v'" 21, in

and

"

^-f-7, their
wliich -f ^ the coefficient of the second
and

"

the

and

+7,

third

If ;v'=-f3, then the binomial

and therefore the trinomial;
therefore

a'

-f-7

term

21

is their

oc

"

factor

"

x-=.

7, and

"

0.

quadratic of the first form, ^*-j-5^

of the binomial
generatedby the multiplication

be

x-\-a

jp^ will

"

and

5,

"

of

sum

product*
equal to 0,

is

also \i

it must

as

is the

term

24?6.

that is

-2 ;

if the

oi

sum

"\-a and

fax:toi*s

5 be affirmative:

"

that is if flj, the negative root, exceed

^, the affirmative.
of those roots
be negative,that is, if a be
But if the sum

Z",the

less than
form
and

;v*

sx

"

third

And

jp.

"

forms

second

the other

equation generatedwill
thus

a*

one

it is

that in the first

see,

be

must

plain that

affirmative and

quadraticof
generatedbut by

be

sx-\-jp^cannot

"

we

of the roots

negative. But

form,

also

be of .the second

of such binomial
factors as x
a
niultiplication
for thus alone the product of the two roots will
time their sum
and at the same
negative.
it is plainthat in this form both the roots
must
when
they are possible. We saw in " 243.

Hence

both

the

"

(inthe equationA^*

+_p) jp exceeds

5^

"

the

"

and
be

the
h ;

"

tive
affirmaalso

tive,
be affirma-

that when

roots

4*

that

and

of
appeared from the impossibility
the square root of a negativequantity. But the same
thing
tion
also appears,
and more
from the considerasatisfactorily,
of two
that s is the sum
numbers, whose product is ^.
For it is impossiblethat the product of any two numbers

impossible;

are

exceed

should
thus

sum

may

be

then

the

which

proved.
Let

247.

of

square
a^

of half their

the square
and

"

their

h represent
any two
difference
a
by will

the

Therefore
a^

value
the

-\-h^\

of

be

must

"

h be

exceed

product

cannot

positivein its

ther
value, whe-

negative.(" 164.)

positive or

tive
exceed the affirmanegative part lah cannot
and
exceed
adding 2ah to both, 4"^ cannot

a'--\'1ah-\-h''
; that is, four
cannot

representedby

be

"

2a5-[-6^ ; ^which

"

numbers;

the square

exceed

times

of their
the

the
sum

fourth

product of
:

part

and

therefore

of the

and

their

square

of

their

ttieirsum,

the

or

128

of half

square
smaller

their siim.

Otherwise,

"

of two

numbers
and d for their
put a for the
difference, a-\'d will represent the greater. But the product
is 2a -{-di
of a and
a-\-d is a'' -{-ad: and their sum

if

we

half

Therefore

their

of

square

a^-\'ad is less than

But
*

"

the
_,

which

is

d^

d^

a*+""?+

is a+

sum

d^

fl^^-f-flrcZ-f
by

_^

"

is, the

that

of half their

square
If the

product

the
or

be

may

be

second

The

248.

the

in

A'

of
that

the

is plus

term

second

affected

the

"\v

no

case

"

equation

7ninus

quadraticequation

"v*

=3/*

phis half the

or

according
Let

0"

the

as

tmd

"

"

axz=aTj

a^

and^*-l-"^

^=3/"

"

"

^'

0,

3/*=

or

+ b, is

"

=t="y/-J- 4- ^"

quadratic,which

pure

And

since

=r

=tr

W^
"

we

supposed

we

that

=7/

it follows that

lues that

arrive

givenequationbe
we

But

0.

"

A*,

a^

-,

"

"

a^

"

"

gives^

There*

"

ft

substitute j/

us

fcre A?*-f fl:A-=j/*

sign of
given the

be

we

suppose

efficient
co-

a^

ay-^-

"

therelbre

may

a^

Then

fbr;^.

the

can

quadratic,by substituting

pure

term,
Thus

minus.

or

quadraticA'

affected

given equation
in the

in

latter.

and

of

form

the

But

of any

term

exterminated,

brought to

for

number*

either

of

quantity exceed

former

the

by the square of their difference.

be equal, that is, if d vanishes, then
equal to the square of half their sum,

becomes

the square

to

less than

is

numbers

two

any

sum

numbers

two

of

product

have J/*
"

a'*

at
"

V=0,

-f 6

"

the

by completing
3a

"

or

j/ =

0, then

the

very

square.

same

If

substituting
3/ +

=t:V^/}

and

va-

our

1 for

=="=Vy

4-1*

CHAP.

CHAP.
Reduction

of

two

or

XXV.

Equations^ involvingseveral

more

unknowJi

IF

249.

have

given two
for
quantities,

we

unknown

two

2|,

we

its

us

may

value, and

For

1st.

value

of the

for

expression

equations an

of

we

then

and
quantities,

value

the

state

other

from
of

unknown
which

each

this
of

known
un-

equalityof those

pressions
ex-

new

.V

"

-y

from

x=z2j -\-y. Therefore

the latter

equation reduced
ing 2-f for
of

value

which

X,

givesy

2y

"

-"I

Now

the

may
for that unknown

involvingonly

of

value

of the

one

of

one

which

substitutfind the

.v

-f-2

unknown

7,

tities,
quan-

expressionin the other equation

derive
and
so
an
equation
quantity,
Thus
unknown
other
from
quantity.

the

and

"

"

"

affords

Or, 3rdly.when

w^ith the

from
or

same

the

of

also the value

us

one

we

we

coefficient,we
other

by adding

each
may

the

to

those

terms

be

the

(ifthe signs be
quantity, and derive

other.

Thus

x-^y-zzl and iV-^j/=:2y,subtractingx

K

tity
quan-

the other

unknown
the

ij

"

equation, and affected

by subtractingone equa-^

signs of

that
contrary) exterminate
an
equation involvingonly

unknown

same

(if the
one

"

and y^2\i

4f ,

before.

as

the

have
of

term

substituting

have

appearing in

same)

given equations

the

equation ;"-f?/=7, we have x-=.1

y.
for
the
in
7
Pi
2y,
equation x y
y
2j/= 7" 2|
(i.e. 7"23/) 2-f Therefore

tion

and

4|.

the

251.

and

substitute that

we

which

by

known
un-

-y

2y -^y

"

2y.

"

Or, 2ndly. findingfrom

expressionfor

an

"

y in either of the given equations,we

Thus
since x -^y = 7, it follows that

givesx-=z^

250.

the

of the

one

equation, involvingonly the other

quantity. Thus, given the equations;v -f-j/ 7
7
equationwe find x
2y, from the former
;
in

"

will afford

which

find

may
the

a'

but
equation involving

an

always three methods, by

are

efTected.

be

=
7, and
.x'-f-j/

reduction

the

thence

There

sdmple equations,involving
instance

them

quantity, the

quantity.
may

from

derive

unknown

one

Quantities*

in the
"

from

tions
equa-

x-\-y
the

130

quantityx disappears,and
obtained
equal to the remainder
the

of

Or, adding
the

and

7, the

from

y,

"

remainder

be
2y must
the
by subtracting
lue
va2|,
of x-\-y\ that is, 2?/= 4^.

value

tp x-^-y, the quantityy will disappear,

of 7 and 2\
miist be equal to the sum
y that

"

2x

sum

the

--^-ir
this method, as being the most
With
252.
peditious
generallyexand convenient, the student
self
himought to make
expert at the preparatory operavery familiar, and
tions,

is '2a^ =

94.

'

*-

-'^

which

often

are

equations2X'\-2"yzzlBand
X,

and

by giving x

might evidentlybe
the

latter

the former

done

equationby

would

in both

be

Or

1.

it

the

to

of

one

the

minate
exter-

tion
equa-

coefficient in both.

same

for

might

would

in both

want

by dividingthe

3, and

equationby

coefficient of

_:i= 12, and

"

have

we

for the subtraction

prepare

the other

from

This

must

we

3.v

if

Thus,

necessary.

then
be

the

be 6.

by multiplying

by

But

by 2,

coefficient of

done

the latter

former

for then

it may

at

the
be

once

done

by multiplyingthe

former

equationby

the latter

or

-,

ji

by

the

By

-.

one

the coefficient of

process

in both

wiH

be 3, since 2a'X|

2, since
in

one

3^

of the
the

by the other process will be

again, if the coefficient of .v
T
tiplying
given equationsbe 5 and in the other 7, mul=

3^; and
2'*'' Thus
=

former

equation by

-,

the latter

or

equation

by

-,

will

give the

coefficient of

in

coefficient

same

one

or

both

equally easy to determine

either equationwill make
as

in the other.

what

The

number

number

For

the

Or,

which

number,

multiplying
in it the

it resolves itself into this

must

will

be

if the

equationsbe fractional, it is

the coefficient of

multiplying^
required

both.

in

give

"

ad

the

for

(or _-^_),
\

same

question
"

product ?
since

any

0/

pinDductdivided by either factor givesthe other factor for

the quotient. Or thus, since any number
multipliedby ita
reciprocal

131

reciprocalgives 1

product, i

for the

equal
^

must

bad

rx'-, that is must

d

.^

If

253.

equal-..

then

we

by the first method

"

"

"v =

(For

^"^

"

And

described

"

b^

volves

Xy

this may

l-

only the

by reduction; namely

sides by

equatingthe

-^,-which

an,

which

3/=^ 74^"^

reduction

second, method
the

gives

described

in

--ZI
250.

"

we

substituting
its

the

this
;

value

of.*, Wamely

expressionfor

whence

we

have

t"c

them,

expres-

of the

equationi_"

the

same

unknown
value

the^third method

for

an

and

tute
substi-

given equations

^zt^,
-!^-f
b

a^

volvingonly the

^,

x^b^

in the second

the

quantityx^

either of

b^

sion fo

value, wo

derive from

fi-pm the first of

equations,
suppose

va-

Or, pursuing the

"

_^.

"

two

equation in^

^"^

'

given equations,this
.^equation
inyolyingonly the unknown

by

xzzb^

value is found

for ?/, in either of the

have

-,

given equations,

quantity?/, whose

tiffkhown

~Ji. (For

x-.'o

:^=1

have i"^

we

the

whence, multiplyin oj both

/.) Therefore

"

?/:

elfected

From

"

"

be

thus.

249.

of the

"
~

and

derive from

to

find that K-=zh*

Ei

by-,

lue3 of

in

second

the

from

And

iv

equation involvingonlv

quantities

sides

another

whence, multiplying both

^.j

the values of

givenequations,we

=zab"^

"d

equation

two

given equations

first of the

the

us

that the first object is

of the unknown

one

given

^p

remember

to

are

the two

have

Jl^^-ri^^ to
^

"

'

d
,

we

5f -f-J^=t?^^
and
o

;^

j^,.,.-

,.

in-

duction
quantity?/, and affordingby reOr lastly,
y as before.
pursuing
"

described
K

in

"

252.

we

may

multiplv
botU

132

)
7

sides of the first given equationby

both
X

have

we

affected with

be

may

"{
"

"

='-*

in order

coefficient in both

same

froi^i which

"

that
when

subtracting the second

^

a^

of the

the

"

given equations

-r-^

have

we

^z=i"

And

"

_.

a^

baa

this reduced
both

value of 3/ as before.
tiplying
For, mulgivesthe same
sides by a^Z",
have b'^y a^y=.a^b^
a^b^ :
we
"

h^

whence,

dividing by

If in the

given equationswe

^^J^dyzna^d,

and

c?^ +

a^^

"

have

we

they will

-,

and

6/ 5

?/ =

^ for

put

-,

"

become

shall have

we

"

;v =

a^d^'-^d''

d^-^a^'d''
and
"

^v=

^4___i
for dby
'
thus

"

.^
II

^r

and

/v=

"

numbers

"
^

yzs.^JLZZ^^^ After
"

-^

^4_l

literal equations,let the

reducingthe

and

-w

^4_i

any
truth of

^.c^
d tdr
put
^

we

^4_i

shall have

we

^
"

whatsoever

for
for

the literal formulae

b^ and

and

student

the values

of

yi

tute
substi-

the
prove
and 3/, by

values accordingto them.

It is
their numeral
calculating
1
the values of x and y must
coincide, and
plainthat if a
=

d^

become

And

-~

if

^, the value of

flf=

vanishes, or

'a*-|"l
is =0.
If three

three unknown
equationsbe givenus, involving
quantities,we may by rtiethods very similar sucbe
if we
Thus,
cesssivelyascertain the value of each.
8 ;
+ ;:;=: 7, and ?/ -f-2;
given the equations x + j/ 5, and
equatingthe expressionsfor x afforded by the two first of
which
and
these
equations, we have 5-^yz^l
z*, from
find z-=.5y.
the third of the given equations3/-fs
8, we
and
therefore
3 : and
2.
Or, if we be given the
J/
254.

at

"

equations A;-f?/-f-2;=:6, and

second,

have

we

them

from

from

the

as

^-j-2y+32;=

subtractingthe first of these

;2=12;

"

before

three
two

j/-|-22:=:4;and
times

the

2;=!, and

3/ =

2.

And

have
and

?"x-\-^2y

equationsfrom

subtractingthe

first,we

equations3/-]-22r

10, and

3/4-4^ =

4:^
3/-}-

third
6.

6, we
these
substituting
=

the
of

But
find
num-

bers

134

CHAP.

XXVI.

aj'Algebra to
Application

The

the

Solution

of Arithnetkal

Pwhlems,
WHEN

256.

solved

be

arithmetical

ail

questionis proposed, to

first

the
algebraically,

be

thing to

done, after

ditions
clearlyunderstanding its terms, is to express the conof it in the symbolic language of Algebra. And
or
here, in the first place,v/e represent the number
bers
numof the final letters
want
to discover by some
which we
of the alphabet; and then we
of an
express in the form
Algebraicequationw^hat we are told in the questionabout
"

unknown

of these

each

After

numbers,

thus

have

(See "

and

148.

149.)

the

accurately translated

proposed
Algebra, no more
difficulty
the student
who
remain
is acquainted with
to
the
can
last Chapters; since by merely redoctrine
of the two
ducing
the given equations the value of the unknown
Thus, let it be requiredto find
quantitiesis discovered.
that multiplying
such a number,
it by 3, and dividing
it
by 3, the former product shall exceed the latter quotient
we

questioninto

the

languageof

"

by

in other

or

":

for the number

and

is less than

equation.

an

3a'

that

"

what
the

we

sum

or

-,

want

is

3 from

three

But

the

equation1

j for

the
Sx

leaves

^
a

"
-

-f 3

3,

first expresses
the second

remainder

Now

is to be

3^,

us

its third

the number.
which

Let

3.

expresses

--

by 3,

equationSx

equal to
3a?

Then

by

third

whose

number,

the numbei*

times
3.v

the

find

to

sought.

2)X expresses

told

words)

three times

partis less than

we

put

part

are

expressed by
tlie

or

equation

accurately
expressesthat

adding 3

to.

--

ing
that subtract-

expresses
*

; and

equal to

the third

expresses

that

subtracting from
~

ox

leaves

remainder

equal

135

equal to

all which

with each
equivalent
propositions
with
the conditions
of the question. It now
to reduce
any of these equations,according
alreadygiven. Thus, from the equation 3x

other, and

only remains
the rules

to

"

3,

are

both
dividing

both
tiplying

sides

by

y,

sides

(thatis,mulby -f-

or

"

by 4-)we find Ar 3 X-| |; that is, we

discover th.atthe number
requiredis |. And accordingly
three times f or W
exceeds the third part of |, or |, by
[If we
a
Yj that is by 3.
question perfectly
propose
similar to the last, only substituting
the number
4 for the
=

number

3,

sliallfind the

we

generalformula
by putting a for

obtain

for the

what

number

divided

by ",
quotientby a
a

is

have

we

'

xzz

Again, if

put

may

the less.
are

-^

it be

the

Then

afforded

"

what

we

quiring
in-

I
J

find

numbers, whose

two

7/=z5 expresses

"

and

the

we

3/ for
what
we

equation

told of their sum,

that its

here let it be recollected that, where

there

numbers,

7, by
"J"-^

and

it is 5

are

by the terms
(See " 255.)

us

them.

y=-o,

requiredto

equation

third part is 7.
And
there are two unknown
ascertain

difference,that

7 expresses

and

the third part of their sum

is 5, and
is 7
for the greater of the numbers
soughtand

told of their

""

whatsoever,

"

a*"

difference

may

that, which

257.

we

all suqh. questions,

to

answer

number

any

And

44*

multipliedby cr, and

givesthe former productexceedingthe latter
? For then by the terms
of the questionax

whence

to be

answer

of the
Now

must

tions
equa-

question,in order to
reducing the equations

of the three

any

be two

methods

scribed
de-

sought.
may find the numbers
that
infer
of those equations
we
may

in the last chapter,we

Thus, from
;v-f2/ =

21

the second
and

from

fin4 that 22/= 16, and

first
So

equation, we

that the numbers

the first,
we
equationsubtracting
therefore j/
8 ; or
adding to it the

this

find that

2^

sought are

therefore

26, and

1 3 and

and

^=13.

accordingly

is 7.
part of their sum
such
In like manner,
if we
be requiredto find two
258.
shall be equalto six
numbers, that two thirds of their sum

their difference

times

their

is 5, and

the third

and
difference,

two

thirds of their

product shall
be

136

equal to six times the quotientof the greater divided by

less : puttingx for the greater and y for the less,their

be
the

is

sum

and

x^y^

thirds of this

two

ZllZ.

is

sum

"

Their

is x

difference

and

by

the

-j/, and

"

of the

terms

this difference

six times

IL^

question

Qx

"

product is a-j/, and

their

xy

thirds of it is tl-il

two

6y

"

Again,

6y,

"

"

is 6*-

the quo-

greater divided by the

tient of the

quotientis

this

Nothing

==~

and

~^

by

the

of

question-1^

the

reduce

to

six times

and

-,

terms

but

remains

now

less is

the

two

equa-

"^"^"^ -^=6^

tions

?
which, dividingboth

-i?=-

and

Then

16^

"^

2^

Gat

18

"

soughtto

a?,

(see" 227.)

18, and

and

two

2x

that

So

second
two

cerned

in

be 5 J, and

thirds of their

of the

is

J:,is

by 3,
the

two

3.

54,

"

V, and
is

-""=

"

"

6 times

6 times

|ths.

equal to

seem

six

less, :^ths.

[Although
firstto

at

and

the disappearance
y, yet from
that
of X, we
infer
may
y alone is reallycon-,
And
it, and is equal to 3.
accordingly,i^
numbers

whatsoever
tliirds of

quotientj

_6a

j/ =

1 8x

equal to

product, V"

given equations,

unknown

number

any

and

we

involve

infer that

given equations

times the quotientof the greater divided by the

for ^rds. of V is V"j -'ind 6 times Jths.isV""
the

latter of

find the greater

the less to be 3. And

of their sum,
diflerence,|ths.for -^rdsof V

we

3/*= 9,

whence

thirds

accordinglytwo
their

the

-^

for j/ in the firstof the

xz^^=y.

60, and

of the numbers

is

by

from

-i- 6

Qx

and

sides
that

thence

3
substituting

it will stand

and:l^=r_!;

6v,

"

suice

the
two

be

multipliedby 3, and
be equal to
product must
thirds of 3 times

divided
6

times

is 2a, and

2a

""

J
259.

But

137

(
it often

But

259.

involving

as

of

one

and

may

is

that their

having derived

now,

from

of the

one

circumstance
the

less

the

derive

difference

sought)
and

21,

or

need

we

not

And

greater, A'-f7,
the

question about

expressiontor

an

analogy (" 76.)

w^hence

the

have

we

unknown

two

to designate,
originally

convenient

generalit is more
the

to

thence

smaller of the two, and

the
designating

it for

of

the letter

but in

=5^*

Which

is often indifferent

derive

^-|-7

and

3.

employ

to

ratio

x-{-l (or the greater of

V -f-7= V.
Accordingly,the
V is 7 ; and their ratio (" 93.)

x-=.

shall

we
quantities

employ

the

this

equation,3.v-f21

between

is that of 35

from

But

3.

therefore

numbers

two

in the

us

find

requiredto

designatethe greater.

thingstold

: A"

2xz=.2\^ and
the

aid of this letter

we

(" 70.) x-^1

may

letters of the alphabet,

that

so

expressionfor

this

after designating

the other
proceed to express algebraically
told us, namely that the ratio of the greater
But
this is expressed thus
is that of 5 to 3.

numbers,

two

we

for

letter to

another

For

vantageousl
ad-

most

is 7, and their
difference
the less, it is plainthat

just expression for the greater;

treated

if it be

Thus,

puttingx

3 5

to

introduce

to

such,

numbers

that of

questionapparently

be
quantities
may
if it involved
only one.
of
them
the final
one
by
express the other by the

given number.

some

two

happens,that

unknown

two

we

greater.

requiredwhat tw^o numbers

the difference
is 5, and
of their
they are, whose difference
45:
putting x for the less, x-\'5 expresses the
squares
if it be

In like manner,

260.

Now

square is ;v*-fIOa'4-25.
this and x^
that the difference between

greater; whose

less)is
=

That

45.

20, and

A- =

5th of the

"

such

and

2;

25

45;

therefore

whence

A'-f5

of the

(the square
=

have

we

10a;

(See also the

7.

the
Questionsfor Exercise.) Accordingly,

4) is 45.

If

we

ference
dif-

of their squares
for all
a generalsolution
investigate
the difference

2 is 5 ; and

of 7 and

(49

is, 10a' +

told

are

we

ference
last, by puttinga for the given difof the numbers,
and 6 for the given difference of

questionsas

the

their squares, then x

x-\-a expresses

designatingthe

less of the

two

bers,
num-

square, a*
greater; from whose
have
2ax-\'a^ "=zh: whence
A-^ we
-i-2aA:4-a*,subtracting

2ax^h

"

a*

and

the

a'=-ZI
"

[As long

as

and

are

any

2a

numbers,
positive

it is plainthat b must

exceed

a*, else the

value

value of

would

"

"^

138

negative:that k,

be

it

tlic difference of the squares of any two numbers

from
the square of their diffference, And
2axz=:b

ceed
exmust
the equation

difference

the

that

a', it appears

"

tliat

appears

of

the

the square of their

of any
exceeds
numbers
two
difference by twice the product of the less and difference.
squares

"

*rhe Geometrical

with
may
Algebraicresults with the

such

many

Student

of Euclid's

book

advantage compare
in the second
principles

Elements.]

whose sinn is
requiredto find two numbers
10, and the diffh'ence
of their squares 40 : putting for the
the greater by 10
less,we
Xy accordingto
may
express
then the second
the first of the given conditions
dition
con; and
If it be

261.

"

is

is,

100

expressedby
20^^

"

the

Therefore
the

and

have

a^

H"

And

"

x\

"

"

givendifference

z=ih^ and

from

"

we

10

or

b for the

2ax

"

40, that
have
20.v = 60, and ^ = 3.
Or putting a for
x\ is 7.

equation,10

whence

40:

greater,

given sum,

we

the

thence

;v'^=

of the squares,

^ax-=za^

this literal notation

we

6, and

"

furnished

are

la

square of the sum

numbers
exceeds
the difference of their squares
any two
of
the smaller and the sum.
Or
if
twice the product
the

with

put
2ax

for the
a^

"

that

general theorem,

greater and
;

and

thence

for the

"

^ax

of

the

Jess, then

"* -|-^, and

by
we

have

we

ZL.

"

2a

equationsafford the generaltheorem, that twice the

and their sum
product of the greater of any two numbers
of their sum
is equal to the square
plus the difference of
which

their squares.
Thus
let the numbers
be 8 and 5 ; their sum
is 13, its square, is 169 ^ the difference of the squares
of 8
and

5 is 39

and

8z=i5!"52,
and 5=i~Z"?.
26

we

have

given these

better and

readier

of solution, there

methods

solution

ButJtho'

26

of this

is

much

the
problem, by dividing

difference of the squares by the sum

of the numbers
the quotientis the difference of the numbers.
" 163.
262.

Let

us

now

whose

what
investigate

is 12, and
sum
either of the numbers,

and therefore their

their

two

product 33|.

the other is

productis

numbers

12

"

or

Putting

12.v

"

for

they are,

representedby

xXx^

12

"

for
x

x^y whose
amount

amount
x^

we

1 '2x

"

told is 33|.

are

33

"

ibrm; which

This

J.

is

induced, by

sections,givesA*
following
6=fc:lf,that is, 7t

-f-6=

t^olve the

that is 33Ji

12^-

3S|,

^-"

"

or

quadraticequationof the third

given in

rt:V

33^+36

4t

their

"

which

and

=!=;^-

the numbers

are

is 12,

sum

the 231st.

and

their

that

product

universally
puttings for the sum of
for either of them
numbers, p for their product,and
x^ ;
other is expressed by 5"
vV, their product by sx

^"
,

tv/o

And

"

the

"

tlie

and

equation
T +

"
"

the square,

4-|-.
j We

--

"

(" 243.)

seen

exceed

"

root

x-=:.z"i^

"

these values

will

"

that

both

and

accordinglyit

is im-

whose

numbers,

product
If

(See " 247.)

sum.

each

equal,and

sought are

completing

extractingthe

whence

be any two
of half their

the square

the numbers

"^;

"

"

and

p;

"
"

gives x

p j and

there should

exceeds
^"=.

s":

"

"

impossibleif p

possiblethat

a*

z=:z"Zj^/

have

reduced,

a'^=^, when

"

sx-\

"

"

sx

(For then

-"

/v*

side,x

of each

be

Therefore

the rules

or

; for

problem

139

of them

exercise himself in
The student may
given sum.
observing the varieties in the solution of this problem,
both of
w^hen the given sum,
or
or
product, is riegativey

half the

them.
But

263.

have

equation. For,

the

introduction

subtract

we

the

times

problem
of a quadratic
given product
same

be
the remainder
must
square of the given sum,
the numbers
between
equal to the square of the difference

from
,

if

that the

remark

to

now

solved, without

be

ma-y

w"

the

sought. (For let

square

of

from
is a^

"

"

and

+ ", their

this

^ah, or
2ab-{-h^, But

times

this

proposed problem we

to the square

is a^

sum,

of the numbers.
the

b stand

for any

"\'2ah-\-b^; and

their

product,the

is the
See

square of
163.) Hence

"
know, that

of the difference between

12-

"

the

numbers,

two

4 X

ing
subtract-

remainder
ference
Z",the dif-

"

therefore

in

33^ is equal

the numbers

sought;
that

1*0

tliatis, that the square

therefore

and

9;
the

of their clifFerence is 144"135,

their difference
is \/9, or 3.
So

resolves

problem

bei*s,whose

is 12, and
for the

sum

putting s
product, and d for
s^

the

of two

sum

=~H

"

Let

be

it now

will

less, ^4-4y

rally,
gene-

given

the

numbers

^2)z=.d, But

given 5
greater
e

the lessr:-

and

",

"
"

expressionswhich

same

of

the

numbers,

Putting

p7-oduct25^.
the

we

rived
ar-

quadratic.

find two

required

express

Or
the

to

their

and

is 4|,
difference

3.

for

the

num-

the
d tlieirdifference,

("262.) by the reduction

at

264.

between
"

--f^/

"

J)

"

'2~2~'V

sum,

=1:1 v^.s'^

and

d_s

given

that

finding two

difference

difference

numbers,

the numbers

of

the

that of

their

therefore

4fpz=.d^,and

"

itself into

or

and

greater:

their

whose
for the

product

1 3.V

is Af-f-4|XA-,

therefore

the

the first form

quadraticof
of

of

adding the square

are

7-f and

xz=

square

169

1089

121

36

''36

this
and

by

^ ^

20

IS

33
=

^_

"
"

"

So

^4.4|=7|.

3^:

the

of ^,

of

36

their

the value

of

sides, we
".y

13

therefore

reduction

terms

have.

/^^^

11

And

both

the

=""/ -^--^

.v-f

and

the

by

completing

"

13

Therefore

Now

169

rrr,

But

w^ill give us

to

13^
,

"

Thus:

+ '^T'

-y

-1.

-]

25|^.

questionA-^-f-7"=

therefore

x^

or

that

_,

34

"

6^
the

numbei*s

sought

difference
accordingly is 4|, and
If we
adopt the negativevalue for the

whose

product 25|.

will be the same,

numbers
resulting
vious
obbut negative. But though w^e have exhibited the most
solution
of this question,as producing a quadratic
in the last
equation, yet it appears from the observations
and
section, that it may be more
elegantly
expeditiously
solved, by adding 4 times the given product to the square
of the given difference : which
affords us the square of the
square

sum,

root

and

of

~,

therefore

the

the

sum.

Thus,

the

square

of the

given

1*2

let a be tlie given sum

universally
then
of their squares:
given sum
of the numbers

of the difference.

is the square

a~

therefore

and

of

the
h

"

a^

is twice

2a

"

h the

numbers,
^

26,

"

the product
26

or

cr*,

"

that the greater of the

So

is

numbers

^-f-^26

loss is

the

and

a%

"

^26

-"
"

it appears
that the square of the sum
of any two
exceed
of the squares;
twice the sum
cannot

And

V26

a"- would

"

bers
num-

(else

bean

hnpossiblequantity." 164.) and that

be equal;
must
quantitiesbe equal,the numbers

if tiiese two

V^Imi^

for then

a'^.

"

::rO.]

of two
number^
*2Q6, In like maimer,
given the difference
vestigate
of their sq2ia7^es 29, we may proceed to in3, and the sum
the sum
of the numbers,
instead of solvingthe

questionby
of the

square

V49,

a^

is their

sum.

and

"

Let

is 24

"product

the

square

it

now

subtractingtwice
73

"

48

numbers

the

3.

and

fore
there-

of their sum;

the

which

the

of the

sum

and

sought

is therefore

are

from

73-f48

have

we

121.

the
And

the

of the sum,
square
difference ; which
is therefore
have the sum
ference
11, and the dif-

product

squares,

that the numbers

are

i"

and

requiredto find two numbers, whose

the sum
of their squares 73.
Adding

so

product

of the
the square
Whence
25.
we

have

we

their

given sum

be

and

sum

and

v-2^-"'-'^.-]

product to

of the

7 4-3

h for the

and

Whence

267.

is

sum

sought "7"

c^, is the square

twice

is twice

"

of the

3^=20;

"

which

sum;

the numbers

numbers,
*

26

a*,

"

"

29

which

[And universally
puttinga for the

2.

or

h-\'b

and

of the

of their squares

of the

square

7:

c5r

given difference

V'26

the

49,

that is, 5 and

product of the numbers

squares givesus the square

c'-+6* -{-2flr6
=
fi-f 6|\ Thus

29 + 20

therefore

subtractingthe
of the
given sum

the

of the

sum

since

sum:

twice

For

the

difference from

given

have

squares, we
added to the

and

quadratic equation.

and

"

^^,

or

[And universally,
puttinga for the givenproduct,
and

b for the

and

the

of

and

sum,

Whence

of the

given sum

the

numbers

numbers
two
any
be
and cannot
;

squares

bers

themselves

though

But

268.

himself

of

diiference.

the

and

that twice

j^ appears

exceed

cannot

student

putting

ought

duct
pro-

of

their

the

nujn-

to

as

the

exercise

question by

for

the

solution,

solvingthe

of

quadratic equation. Thus,

sum

wlien

this

given

ntethod

the

to it except

have

we

other

the

in

the square

square

scientific,the

and

facile

most

h-\-2ah

~-

equal
equal.]

are

-,

are

^^^
\^b-\-2a^Vb"2a^
of

squares

the

2a

"

1*3

either

of

the

24

will

other

the

numbers,

representedby ^,

be

The

sum

576

therefore

of their squares
of the

is

question

which

is *"* +

equal to

by

_",

Let

73.

us

the term?

reduce

now

the

equation
+

.-

73

^*

Therefore

^^^"7

and

(See " 237,)

^^4^576-73;^*
3

A-

^=--576
7S

Therefore

^c^"

73^;^ +

73

--

"576

"

5329
,

that

IS

^
a;4

^"
"

+,

-""=,

'73
rvx.

V
1 hereiore

=t:^ /

269.

the

sum

the other

"

To

US

find

of their
is

V64

xz=.

let

But

problem

64or

V9

or

in

now

two

Therefore

^^=Z"=fci^

and

="=--

.Sc"

/3025

a
*

3025

5329
-^^

-="576

,
73^*4--^"

like

that

expressedby

b.

whose

Putting
Then

-.

or

3.

solve the

manner

numbers

squares

is,

product
x

for either

general

is a., and
of them,

144

v,*y^.Now

in

" 267.

the

found

we

flr=

"

that tlie

218.

binomial

-r"=^^/
of the

is

Therefore,
of that

irrational

as

is

we

is

binomial

of the

in

"

^^

equal to

and

in the

rational

the

root

square

'^

ztz/^V

part

whose

218.

be,

^"^^

also " 238.]

See

is

duct

requiredto find two munbers, whose jt?rc"the diffh'ence

8 J, and
of their squares 6 : puttingagreater, the less will be expressedby S-^-^-Xythat is
If it be

270.

for the
35

by^

4;v'

=6x^1

f
ihereiore

a*

1225

and 1

x^^

TT

Hence

6x^zz~

"

16
x"^

square,

the root,

"

"

and^rr

that the numbers

pursue

the

same

+ 9

7
=

"

-;

sought are

3i

1369

-^

/
V

a;

/49

"

49
^
-f3=

com-

1995

37

r=6; ^

"

:;

16"*

16

pletingthe

"

16^='

1225
.

x'^

r^.

is

square
^

1225

1225

whose

"

and J

"

" 217.

irom

equal to "^,

shewn

have

to

equivalent. For

a*, the square

"

"

square

a.

It appears

expressionsare

two

minus

root

13 ut

"

generalexpressionfor

and

"

2\.

"

tracting
ex-

x^zz

35

35
4a:

and

Therefore

"

; and

=r

^^

2t,

^.^
So

14

[But

let

generally,
puttinga
investigation

us

now

for the

given

C
for the

given product,b

U5

given difference

for the greater of the numbers

the less.

of the squares,

sought, and therefore

for

Then

Therefore

x^

and

a^=zbx*

"

x'^"-bx^=d''

Therefore

+tlz=z^^a^

x^^-bx^

4j

4,

and'

^""

^rrdtV^H-rt*

x^=z

-dtz.

therefore

-j-a

"

^=^^1-^1:+"^

and

be simplified
expressionfor the value of x cannot
in the last problem ; for if we
shall be
as
attempt it, we
involved
in the impossiblequantityV
a*.]
271.
If it be requiredto find two
numbers, whose sum
the
is
and
eiice
sitm
or
or
differ
difference
of their square
",
for
the
of the numis
b
and
roots
bers
; putting
square roots
y
numbers
will
be
**
the
and j/*.
sought,
representedby
that
the
of
that
resolves
itself
into
So
problem
findingtvv'o
But

this

"

numbers,

whose

sum

difference

of their

have

in

seen

product

roots

must

(" 201.) and

be

is

squares
261.

265,

numbers,

equal to

the

If

266.

equal to
since
the

the

square

conditions

the

the solution

c,

we

and

equal b^ the conditions

roots

the

difference is ^, and

numbers

of two

their square
ascertain

^260.

or

are

sum

of which
be

the

given

we

the

product

of

insufficient

to

product of their
root

or

of their

square

product,

therefore

pendent.
indenot
givenare
See " 255.
If we
be given the sum
or
differejice
and
the
their
"product
of two numbers
of
=a,
square roots
resolves
itself
this
into
the
of
z=b;
problem
findingtwo
whose
difference
is
and
their pronumbers
or
sum
given,
duct
the
262.
263.
since
264.)
:
given product of
(see"
two

their square roots is the square root of their product, and

its square
is therefore the product of the numbers
sought.

If

(146)
given tlieproditctof two numbers, and the sum or
mer
of their sgiiare roots ; tbe square root of the fordifference
being the product of their square roots, this also is
the same
difference
or
given the sum
thing as if we were
and
their
numbers
fmd
of two
the numbers.
product, to
If

be

we

And
or

in Hke

find two

we

may
and
the
is
difference given
manner

Hitherto

numbers

product of

have

exemphfied
Algebra to questionspurely numerical,
Algebraicexpressionof their conditions
272;

when

But
the

we

abstract

than

more

problem,

will often

the

exercise

sum

their squares,
th^

apphcation of

and

in which

the

is very
obvious.
concerned
in
are

numbers

the translation of

whose

it into the

ingenuityof

languageof

gebra
Al-

the student.

For

followingquestion be proposed A gentleman,

asked by a schoolmaster,
mounting his horse, was
?
He
what o'clock it was
replied,/ 7nust be at a friend's
house in the country against 5 o'clock
7iow
if I ride at the
rate
of 1 0 miles an hour, I shall have 5 minutes to spare ;
hut if at the rate of 9 miles an
houry I shall he 8 minutes too
let the

instance

"

What

late.

it would

the time
of 10

rate

miles

it would

miles
nor

the

ber

of

"

or

but

be

the

not

Let

us

put

at

the

ride.

to

the

time

rate

of

of these

for the distance

the

at

num-*

or

Now

if

(Thus,

the rate

of

If he

10

at

the rate
has

will not

of

and

10

of

he

miles

ride 50

miles, and ride

hour, he will ride it in 5 hours,

man

miles

ride

at

times,

for the times, in which

just expressions
^

ride that distance

~.

less, than

distance

had

man

fact, that

distance

told either

are

in

**

hour

certain

same

we

the

told

are

minutes

is 13

ride

to

we

ride

to

hour

an

distance.

1-

and

would

at

hour

take

miles, which

10

^n

take

an

? Here

the hour

was

an

the

to

of

rate

miles

an

hour, he will

10

ride

it in

of

"

an

hour, that is, in

J hours.) Biit

we

are

told that

time,

"

is less than

the

latter,

]3

"V

1, by^
9"

the former

by
minutes^ that is,
'

13

.V

eq -^11 ationc
"*

hour

And

which

is

ex-

13

^
"

an

60

pressed by this

of

"

10

"

this

reduced

bO

give?

(
gives

he would

90

"

to ride

had

117

13
*' =

us

1*7

-"

194 miles:

was

So that the distance he

19|.

or

-,

and",

ride this distance

the

or

at the

of

rate

time

in which

10 miles

hour,

an

is '-i^^
of

hour,

an

minutes.

this rate

he

9 miles

5.

past

same

and

"

take

his destination

at

him

and

4^ of

at

nutes
mi-

hour,

an

settingoff 2

must

be

minutes

as

or

fore
be-

miles

minutes, of

two

hour

an

10;v

that
directly

more

till 8

take to ride the

Therefore

9:10.

and

hours

of 9

and

10

his destination

at

he would

times

of

find

we

arrive

the

are

times

set

that

accordinglyriding 1 91 mile^

we

the rate

two

told

are

nutes)
put x for the interval (inmimay
of his settingout
and
5 o'clock :

-f 8

thus

we

of

minutes

57

Or,

at

-f-72. And
minutes, or

an

and

not

distance

which

he

a'

since

hour

would

the time

between
then

minutes

10

3 o'clock he

minutes

And

or

wanted

arrive

hour, it would

and

hours

have

would

5 o'clock.

an

minutes,

settingout,

was

ridinghe

of

before

two

therefore

It must

o'clock when

at

that is 117

it wanted
3

50=:9a;'

"

I2S?

o'clock,when

out.

of this

questionthe student may

observe, that a problem apparentlyvery complicated,and
at first view
seeming to present inextricable difhcuities,
may
273.

the solution

From

the

yet admit

shortest

afforded

to

."

cilities
easy solution from the faBut let him also
Algebraicnotation.

and

most

attention

in forming Algerequisite
braic
the
concerned
for
in
the
quantities
expressions
blem,
proits conditions
the equationswhich
and stating
afford.
here must
affect all our
error
subsequentopeslightest
rations,

observe

The

by

us

and

the

care

and

lead

express
is less

by
by

us

equation, that

an

13

Thus,

astray.

minutes

than

for

the

the time

time

representedby

representedby
X

we

attempted

should

be

to

do

involved

and

express

time

that

in

by

the

completelyfalse

in the denomination
expresses time

-.

If

equation

in the denomination

wanted

instance, we

^z=.

result.

of hours

13,

we

For
y-.

while

13

oi'mintites. This error

therefore

therefore

denomination

same

avoided

be

must

part of

fractional

that

148

by bringing them both to

is, by expressing1 3 minutes

hour,

an

^,

by bringing

or

minutes, that is, multiplyingthem

to

equation

-^

10

the

expresses

A^irain let it be observed

"

"

"

13

=r

"

both

by

and

thmg

that, instead

the
as

of

the thing which

ceeding immediately to investigate

"

pro^

60

as

For

60.

same

the

the problem

and oftener
requiresus to find, it is often necessary,
convenient, to pi'oceedto the investigationof some
other
of that thing depends.
quantity, upon which the determination

Thus
the

when

man

find

required to
settingout : but

were

we
was

what

o'clock it was,
the nature
of the

from

that this must

depend upon the distance
appears
distance therefore
ride ; which
(in the first method)

questionit
he had

to

proceed to investigate. Lastly let it be observed,

utmost
precisionis necessary at the commencement

we

"

that the
in

of

fixing the import

must

reduced

have

v/c

lettei*s x,

3/, ";c. or determining

designed to stand : and that

quantitiesthey are
recollected
be distinctly

for what

this

the

conclusion, when
expedient,

It is therefore

equation

our

the

at

for some
time
mark
in
Algebraist should
writing the designed import of each letter,and of each
he employs. The
following
Algebraicexpression,which
the
of
this
will
rule.
importance
exemplify
question
askdd
his age, replied Ten
A
274.
being
man,
years
the

that

young

"

times
ago I Xi:"as eight
till he be twice as old
old

as

What

he.

old

as

ages ten
shall be

connected
of

ago

twice

as

by

the

any

first

"

concerned

of

he

as

of

terms

of them

one

and

should
to

in the

which
which

if

we

fix

we
we

the

question,

will detetmine
do
on

is

"

not

to

are

question.

son

all

that

the

look

for

"

let

son

are

so

nation
determi-

rest.
an

their

the

these

all the

expressions for
Thus

as

six different

might proceed to
ought to have expressions

But

now.

live,

twice

hereafter,when

ages

is

both

be

of the father and

ages
their

and

old

thing we
prematurely but
the

one

present

years

of

each

for

the

"

so?i

he is now,
I shall then
their present age's ? Here

quantities,
any
:

my

as

are

investigate,and

as

Now

equation

all the

tities
quan-

150

adding
i??

to

then

have

we

of
quotie?it

the

y shall he

by

divided

quotientof x-^a,

tlie

^d X

)
,-

hut

by y-\-SLshaUbe

divided

:x.

equations

the

"-^^

'*"

y+a
the firstof which

From
and

zz

77?^
"

-^

the second

from

Ihereiore

" "

:i-J

a;="

jwt/

"

and

mny"an

and

mny

and J

yrr"

4^

ma

Therefore

(or

.v

"

required therefore

is

by

J"

4-

m^

11

4- m

And
"

"

mn

both

dividing them

-^"i

" "

xi

"

which

reduced

dividend

by a)

and

divisor

becomes

m-\-l

IS a

"

lor ^\
the

general expression

m-\-n

value of

And

-.

the
accordingly
^^

two

equations
^

"r^^^-r
"

m-iru

and

zzmy

="

"

"

mn

Thus

m*

"

that

adding

"qual

assuming for

and

5, the fraction

any

7x4

namely

"

numbers

III",or
74-5

7 ; but

to

value for

same

71

7 and

suppose
^^

give the

m-^-ii-^-a
a =

f"

Ihefra^-

"

"

"

"

this

"

"

rp,

"

both
(multiplying

terms

1, and

"

ma-\-a
fzr:

"

"

to its lowest

7n

"

tion

an

"

a)=^

"

an

"

7na-\-an

my

wa

my

"

7"/2

tr"^

?"i/ + w^"z

(or 28)

adding 28

to
to

the

the

numerator,

denominator,

"

soever,
what,

issuch

12

it becomes
it becomes

equal to f.]
276.

cash.

A
The

merchanfs
value

bills ajid cash

twice the amount

of

property consists of goods^ hills^and

his

goods is equal to the amoimt

of Ms
together: the amount
of his cash is equal to
of his bills and half his goods together: and

if

if he

had. not

amount

of

the

lost the third part of his goods hy a

his property "would have been j^ 12,000.
of his goodsy of his bills,and of his

value

for his bills and

PuttingA?
the

present

of the

being4

tions
^

the

by

of the

second

(aswe

therefore ^4-?/+

a:

goods,

will

"

"

4- 3?/

-L-i^=

conditions

press
ex-

be their amount
the third of the condi-^

by fire. By

that

So

12000.

"

first

the

would

what

or

"

told that he had

are

amount,

is

cash ?

of his

amount

or
goods by fire) -\-yX -1-,

.;,,

What

goods, accordingto

amount,

for the loss

it not

fire^the

cash, ^+3/ will express

-f-?/, the present

of their former

their former
were

and

""^"But

lost y of his

y for his

of his

amount

conditions

2^ 4-

j/=

-^^^dhlSSS^

151

have

we

:...

By the
y.
first of them y=:5x ; and this value substituted for y in the
Therefore
"** =
second, gives us 15^=12000.
800, the
of his

amount

his cash;

bills,and 3/, or

and

.v

+3/

he had

But

goods.

that is

+ 2400,
A

Iwne

volume

afid

left. How
number

them

and

been

of his
it

were

800

+ 4000

was

asked

he

had

that

for

not

+ 4800
45.

volumes

with

4x'

But

3.

"

at

3^. M,

6s.

for the

at 4^.

and

volume,

4^d,

diiferent

two

For

3^.

35. Sd,

Putting x

"

furnished

are

we

there ?

were

vo-^

by

not

which
the money,
he had.
of the books would
be 4^,

the cost
w^as

amount

present

oj books

set

volumes,

for
expressions

therefore

the

of

amount

enough of money
to
at that price, he cheapened them
he
had
afterpaying for them found

many

of

the

have

buyinga

finding

for

to pay

would

5x, =4000,

fire 2400

by

and

finding^

^12,000.

person

but

4800,

lost

this, his property

277.

for

equationsgiven us

two

now

lume,
vo-

his money
the cost of

1 \x

the books

is 3y X ^,

for his money

or

is

and

+ 6y.

another

therefore
expression

(See " 273.)

Therefore

equating these
4.V--

3=ii^

two

+ 6|: whence

Accordingly28
money
cost

was

of the

expressionsfor

35.
28

volumes
less than

volumes

12a--9
at

45.

this sum,
at 35. M.

his

11;v+19

would

cost

volume

and

1125.

that is 1095.
was

have

we

money,

;^ =

and
Now
1025.

28.

his
the
8"^.

and

(
and nfter paying for them
But

"^"

we

by observingthat
difference
volume

of

cost

the difierencc

and

therefore

expressed by |
28,

we

of the

at

this

price,he

of which
the

a*,

volumes

278.

having txo

grocer^
ifi 85. and 7s. per

Therefore

\s. per

or

is

cost

9y

8^.

35.

at

difference of

kinds

lume;
vo-

justly

and

of the

lb. desires to mix

in the whole

them

"

^.

But

by

costs

Sx,

Therefore

43a'

8*- +

+ 4Sj/; and

and

in

so

ivhat

=z

for

the part

have

the

com-

pi'oportion
of lbs.

the number
the

number

75. 2d.

at

/lim

of ^^5. of the

num.ber

of lbs.

-^-5.

or

lb.

per

compound

sented
repre-

representedby

7j/=li^i"i2^;
whence

analogy (" 77.)

pound of the dearer
and

In

stand

that

so,

part of the

y costs

48^

42j/

Resolvingthis equationinto

Sxzzy,

vi^e

inixed;

which

the

"

lb.

4-3/ expresses

compound,

costs-

then

cheaper;

which

of tea,

pound may stand him in Is. 2d. per

must
they be mixed P Put x tor the
dearer tea in the compound,
and y

45. and

at

the

9-js, as

or

before.

as

7y.

the value of *',

pricesis 4^.

whole

^.

or

left 6s. ^d,

had

arrive at
expeditiously
are
given"S5. + 65. 4^.

more

may

152

x:

that

1:5;

::

5lbs. of the

tea

for

proportion

is, with

cheaper
greater

any

are

an

every
be

to

smaller

or

quantities.Accordingly mixing lib. of the dearer with

3lbs. of the cheaper,the cost of the whole 6lbs. is 85. + 355.
435. : and
this divided by 6 gives'
7|, or 75.'2d. for the
or
of the mixture

cost

Arithmetical

common

in

two
or

result appears from

mixed
principles.If the teas were
lb.- The

same

"

it is plainthat
equalquantities,
be

would
be

per

73. 6d,

per

lb.

or

the

of the

the cost

cost

compound

of the

compound would
of the prices)into

by dividingIs. (the difference

equal parts, and adding the half to the smaller price,
subtractingit from the greater/ If a smaller proportion
of the dearer tea be in the compound, the cost of tht?
found

mixture

lb. will be

per

less, and

smaller
proportionally

adding a
the cheaper

pbmpound
of the

tea.

we

are

part of
told

75. 2d. per lb. that

in the ratio
is divided

is to be

prices

Now

would

be

ascertained

Is.

to

that

the

the

by

price of

cost

of the

is, Is. the difference

of 2

10,

or

1:5^

'

'

"

which

(
which
the

therefore

dearer

of 7

5 5

dearer

with every

or

the

the

quantityof
the cheaper.

quantityof

7^.

prices

would

should

cost

be

8s,

were

be

7s. 7d. per

How

at
spirits
sellingthe

much

If the

Sd. and
and

10^.

to that of the

279.

5lbs. of the

mixedf.

be

must

85. and

to

the ratio in which

is less than

tea

in like manner,
if the cost
of the compound
to
was
7s. 7d, per lb, the quantityof the dearer tea in the mixture
exceed
the quantityof the cheaper in the ratio
must

And
be

30

be

must

153

cheapertea 7lbs, of the

pricesof the teas instead of
order

in

lb. the

the

5d.

7^.

that

quantityof

cheaper tea as 2
brandy at 8s.

difference of the

8,

compound

the dearer
1

or

the

should

4.

gallon, and British

per gallon, Jtiust be mixed together,so that in
compound at 9s. per gallon,the distiller may clear
per

3j.

per cent. ? Here, in the first place,the student ought

form a distinct conception of the meaning of the expression,

clearing30

And

cent.

per

accuratelyunderstandingthis, he
in
for ^100

he

is to have

sell for ^100

wiiat

proportionon
proceedingto

would

set

probably be

that

what

profitof "2"K),or

that

mean,

him

but

volved
insells

he
he

but it means,
he is to sell for ^130;
and

^100

"7^

without

out

on

not
a

w^hat costs
him

costs

in what

It does

error.

if he

is to

that

so

in

therefore of
any other quantities.Instead
calculate the quantityof brandy and spirits

shall cost

.^100, and

sold for .j^l30

be

calculate
advantageously

at

9^. per

in
quantities
what
shall cost
for
be sold at the rate specified
IO5. and
Now
1 3^.
of gallonsof brandy
puttingX for the number
in the compound, their cost is 8a; ; and
puttingy for the
number
of gallonsof spirits
in the coiBpound, their cost
is Sy: and
But
have
the equation8^v-|-3?/=10.
we
x-^i/
is the number
of gallons
in the whole compGund, and their
have the
and we
selling
priceat 9s. per gallonis 9^ + %
equation 9^ -f-9j/=13" Reducing these two equationswe
find ^
if and ?/ tt.
(For multiplyingboth sides of
the first givenequationby 3, w^e have 24-^4-9^30 ; from
have
which
subtractingthe second given equation we

gallon;

we

may

the

"

and

15a'=17,
for

A'

These

in either

of the

numbers

afford

which
spirits

and
sold

therefore

for

if?

51

44

which

number

substituted

given equations affords us y = ^f.)

of the brandy
precisequantities

the

would

Mixing

135.
or

A' =

14, the

cost

them

10^.

and

at

therefore

per gallonbe
the ratio of
in

9s.

requiredprofitwill

be had

at

that

selling

154^

arrive

at

(
We

price.
selling
"

might

the

Arithmetic, from

common

analogy

by

130

100

95.

::

gallonof

^Sy

by

conclusion

same

principlesstated

section ; first findingthe cost of

the

the

the

in the last

compound
ference
dif-

The

6445.

or

of the cost
pricesis 5s. and the excess
price of the brandy above the cost price of the compound
of the cost price of the compound
is i4^" t"ut the excess
is {\s, : from
which
above
the cost price of the spirits
we

of the

collect

that

before

as

ions of

cost

to be added.

are
spirits

Two

280.

gallonsof brandy 1 4 gal-

5 1

to every

couriers set out

at the

miles asunder.

The

525
rectioiis,

time in contrary di^

same

travels

one

miles

40

the

Jlrstdayy and every mcceeding day goes 4 miles fartherthan

the preceding. The other travels 50 miles the Jirstday, and
5 miles less than
the precedirigday.
every succeedingday
of
mil
When
they meet P It is plain that the principles
Arithmetical
progressionare applicableto this questionj
of miles that each

the number

as

is the

they meet

of the

the terms

the

4, and
of

days at

which

and the last

of the

travelled when

1,

"

The

first term

50

5 Y.X

"

series

of that

sum

"

in
36

or

series is 40,

one

Therefore

4-4^.

is 40 4-36-f

76;^' +

4;vX7;"

of the other series is 50, and

1,

55

or

Therefore

5x.

"

105-*'

the

is

5^-^-55

bx

"

for the
w^hen

they meet

distances

is 525

^"

or

and

we

-^y

distance, which
miles, which

its last term

of this

sum

each

We

givesus

now

courier

told that the

are

4*

or

is
se-

5a:*

"

ries

the

the number

the

ference
dif-

common

also be

first term

is 40 + 4 Xx

sion,
progres-

decreasingby

this will

The

the

therefore for the number

series.

term

other

Putting

they meet,

in each

of terms

increasingby

one

5.

has

series in Arithmetical

terms

difference

common

of

simi

courier

this

have

pressions
ex-

has travelled
sum

of those

equation:

181^"*-*
-o=:52a

Therefore
and

a-*"

181^:

1050

="

.^-.181;c+!!!^=-1050-f2!2"l=:?"""
4

^81
r
Thereiore

Ti

/28561

_.

:"

=":^ /
V

.^169

==t:

But

of the

value

the

question marks

cannot

afford the

negative,
value,
^

courier has gone in

distances 525 miles.

But

we

shall

Adopting

x^

="-"

"

may

distance

find the

arrive

that each
of the

sum

expeditiously

more

the
by considering

=525,

equation

positive

days, we

"

at the

have

we

that the

answer.

the
calculating
accordingly

And

6.

root

the

therefore
=

of

the nature

But

155

com^i.

at the
pletionof 525 miles by the two couriers, travelling
as
rates
equivalentwith the completion of the
specified,
distance
at a rate
pounded
comcourier, travelling
by one
same
of the two rates, that is, going 90 miles the first
day, and one mile less every successive day. So that we
metical
of terms
in a decreasingArithhave to find the number

first term

series,whose
1, and the
91

or

and

^i

"

+ 911=^

90

of

sum

last

the

of terms,
the

X^,

the

of the series 525.

sum

for the number

is 90,

the

ference
dif-

common

Puttingx
term

terms

is

is 90

fore
therex

"

1,

"

expressed by

iH^=f!.

or

to make
x"oanting
up a confrihufioyi of
company
"\.
than
each pay
65. 8c?. more^
"S0" Jind that they must
What
contributors.
is the number
if there "were three mm^e

281.

in company

Putting

for the

number

in company,

the

80

quota of each
three

be

must

by
represented
the number

in company,

more

If

"

would

there

be

a:

were

+ 3, and

SO

the
mer

quota of each
quota exceeds

the latter

80
,

Therefore
and

^ow

-*

we

that the for-

by Ij^B. that is,

;^__50

i^L"i!f

240

A-^ + S^vzrlSO

Therefore

^* +

3a' +

'

180+_="

4?

27

and

told

are

4*

24

^ =

4
,^

^-^-

-^=12
Accordingly

156

twelfth part of ^80

Accordingly the

the fifteenth part of ^80

is "5,

[If we
by j^l. 6s. 8d.
puttinga for the total sum
supposed additional number
of the quotas
the

that

appears

problem

aby and unless

measure

number

What

is

=r

be

divided

hy

Here

sought is written
be

is less than

collected

100; as may
let the student
And

condition.
the

meaning

27

and

of that

condition

number

the

soughtis

form

the "product

if '2.1 be

and

added

it is to be

or

it

number.]

square

is tJiat^"mhick

that the number

and

4"

its

the

"

digitsgives2 for the quotient;

mil
the digits
be inverted
number

of

mer
the for-

impossiblein fact, unless

"

282.

less than

contributed, b for the

of contributors, and c for the

f-

"

4^'. but

be

to

then

Sd.

6s.

135.

generalizethe problem, by

"

difference

is "6.

with

two

from

clear

to
derstood
un-

digits,

the

latter

conceptionof

nainely,that

number

the

written

of

sum

with

the

Now
digits,but in an inverted order.
putting for
and y for the righthand
the left hand digitof the number
soughtwill be
digit,we have seen (" 59.) that the number
expressedby 10^ +3/ j as the number written with the same
digitsinverted will be expressed by ZOy-f at, gut we are
told that 10A;-f ?/ divided by xi/ gives2 for the quotient;
x

same

that the

and

of

sum

10.v-fj/ and

^7

is

lO^-f ^

that is

10^-f.y^o
1 0^

-fj/-f-ar

thjelatter of these

From

for
substituting
11^
,

have

+ 3

1 oj/4- ^

equationswe have i/=zx-\-3; and

former
equationthis its value, we
/49

whence

2:

"

^ in the

a-

=
^

x''+3x
Therefore
is 36.
the

And

3/

(or A'-f 3)

"

5
,

=r

"

16

2 ; and

generalequation1 0^*4-2/-}-"

36 -f 27

"

So that the number

=6.

^^
accordingly

5
,
=
^--.

3.

required
63.-.From

derive
may
infer the neral
gemay
with two
written

10^4-'*')we

equationa
9j/ 9^? ; from which we
principlethat if to any number
the left hand
digitis less than the right
digits,of which
be added, the
hand digit,
9 times the difference of the digits
the

"

sum

Sold

284.

cent,

per

is 24
profit

for

price of

this

being

what

would

^^00"
as

1 00

gain

24

: :

equalto

is

cent,

per

the

the

iv

^_2400--100^.^^,
^^ ^

costs

(or the gain

per

followinganalogy;
we

are

have

we

told that this

the

Therefore

2400.

100a"

what

profiton

the

that

so

much

the

^100

by

gained as

price of the
cloth, the absolute

^OQ-^^gut

;f :

"

and

was

cost

is determined

" 279.)

see

What

me

tlic

Now

a*.

"

profiton

the

Cent*

the cloth cost

Putting X

cloth ?

"x

pieceof cloth for "^^",

as

158

equation
;c^ +

IOOa*

and

+ 2500^:4900;

profiton
A

285.

of

which

5^54,
he

"

he

20

50

of 20

rate

Accordingly,"^^

20.

cent,

per

grazierbought as inany sheep as cost him' "Q0^ out

the remainder
he reserved 1 5 sheep; and selling
for
2s,
How
head
them.
a
gained
sheep did
by
many

Putting

buy?

for

the number

presses the

the

head.

selling
priceper

the latter

60

head

by

10

2^.

and

"-

expresses

"

presses
ex-

ex-

the

told that the former

are

Therefore

"'^,

or

15

therefore

But

we

"

we

have

54

J__

bought, x

number

sold for j^54, and

purchasingpriceper
exceeds

70"

;v =

is at the

x"15
540.V

afsr\
600

+
^

A? =

15

AT"

+ ;v*"

585^

9000

540a?

9000
=
flr"-}-45^'

-,.2025

a -i_ 4.
Pi^
4" ^^^

-i

onnn_i2025
9000
+

4
X

38025
=

_._/

--

Accordingly 60 sheep (75 15) sold for "o^ give the

price of 18^. p^r head: and 75 sheep bought for
selling
^60
give the purchasingpriceof I65. per head.
"

286.
sum

of

which

What

two

their cubes

numbers
152

are

they whose

Here

might probablyfirst occur

if

we

to

su7n

is 8, and

the

the notation,
shall
the student, we

employ

put

(
put

and y for tlienumbers

.V

sought;

equations^-f-?/= 8, and x^
be to reduce
the cubic
now
therefore

Cubing
have

-f-//^
=

and

1 52

equation to

both

have

we

and

of

first

two

objectmust

our

one

sides of the

the
lower

der.
or-

equation,

we

8^ = 512;
and from
AT
this tion
=
+ "^x^y
-f-j/^
-|_'^xy^
equasecond
of
the
the
given equations,we have
subtracting

+ 3^y
3";*3/
this

159

512

152

"

Now

360.

the

and
Sa'-I-Sj/,

equationby

dividingone
other

side

side of
its

by

equal

or
8x3,
24, we have xy=.\5 \ and the problem therefore
numbers
resolves itself into that of findingtwo
whose
sum

their

and

is 8

numbers

But

287.

(See "

product 15*
requiredare 3 and

5.

may
for

sought a
sum

greater of any two numbers

'plus half their difference, and

their

sum

is

that the

Let

^ 142.)

us

We

greater will be
cube

The

"

equal

is

A'^ =

and

4-1

by puttinga
of the

But

5 and

for half the

numbers, and

the numbers
cubes

1,

or

sought are

24^^^

the

of

sum

2"^ -f 6^z.v*

the

less

by

x.

"

"

sum

152"128

x^.

And

we

the
told

are

24

and

sought therefore are

[Generalizingthis solution

3.

"

givensum, x for half the difference

of their cubesj
for the given sum
v, whose
expressedby a-\-x and a
"

a^

"

Sa^x-\-3ax^

Gax'' =zb

"

2a^

and

"

a'-\

Therefore

is ^a^ + Gax^,

cubes

these
and

difference,the

numbers

-\-x^ and
a^'\-Sa^x-\-Sax'^

are

their

48A^-f 12.v^

"

Therefore
The

of the numbers

sum

4-24?'^*; which

is 128

x-=z\.
"

"

;v, and

4 +

less is 64

152.

to

is 64-f-48;^^-{-12A*-f-vV^,
4-[-A?p,

greater, or

cubes

and

1 J

of the

of these

sum

of the

cube

for half

putting
expressedby

half

from
appears
5. See also
3/ =
of the last problem.

solution

told that 4 is half the

are

Therefore

sought.
The

the

resume

now

their

(This

and

equationsxJf-yzza^

equal to half
less equal to

the

their difference.

half

minus
the

The

263.)

facile and
frequentlyobtain a more
a
problem, by employing for the numbers
from
the principle,
designationborrowed

we

elegantsolution

reducing

and

262.

.v*

'~^

ha

Therefore

What

288.
sum

^^-^
two

iiumhers

5 or
are

^ ^~-]
they, whose

sum

is 6

aiid the

their ^th powers 272 ? Putting x (as in the last

for half their difference, the numbers
nought are

of

tion)

pressed by S-f-^ and

S"x,

But

3"
3+^|'^-f
Af

sec"

ex"

162

160

(
+ 2^^

lOSx*

-f

the square
Therefore
^r^ = 1
and

3+1

half the
a

and

or

a^ 5 and

-"

and

"

b for

^^ + 6a^r*

+ 2^^

+ 9^^* =

and

pleting
com-

^'* + 27

numbers

28.

soughtare

^": whence

jr'^+ 6a*a:*

Therefore

+ 8a^.

a:

+ 3a^

"y/+ 8a4;

the aid of

By

and

the

55

Universallyputting a for
the sum
of the biquadrates,

2.]

1 2a* jc-

=784

and

1 ;

and

given sum,
=

=r

2^^^
a\^4- flr._j-|4

x"^+ 54^*

jc'^+54^:^4- 729

1,

"

Therefore

272.

and

a/

similar notation

/^-f-Sa^"

3a'+

"

find two

can

we

numbers,

of their fifth powers.

For
of a-j-x is a^ -{-5a'^a: -{-lOa^a;^ -{- lOa^a^^
the 5th. power
of a
and
the 5th power
is a^
Sa'^x
x
:
"^5ai'^-\-x^

whose

given and

is

sum

the

sum

"

the

a:^. But
-f-10a ^07* 10a\r^4- 5a^'*
2a^ -f-20a ^x^ -{-1 Oax"^ z=b ;
powers is
"

"

which

of that form

^nd four

To

289.

the
'whereof
the

the

and
and

3/= 5;

equationx^

-f ^^n/ =

bers

of this

54,

we

15

21

"

that when

the

difference

extremes
:

as,

by

if three

Given

18.

54

in the

wliich

that ^^1the

gives

^1

feo

We

"

num-

in th" solution

see

numbers

four

twice

the

are

be

numbers

in

metical
Arith-

exceeds

means

the square

of the mean
square
by the square of the
the smn
of three ?mmbeis
a7id

is

the
progression,
of the extremes

3.

-f?/,

ference
dif-

for ^

H,

"

for

common

number

jt* -f-1 5^' =

the product of
progression

290.

and

equation, we

the

have

problem,

product of

2^'"'ogressiony
that of the

J7*-f3jn/+ 2j/*

is

former

this
substituting

3, 8, 13, and

soughtare

means

Therefore

3/*=25.

the

the
subtracting

/441

15
^

us

Arithmetical

extremes

product of

which

from

23/*=50;

have

biquadratic
equation
a
quadratic.]

as

in

these 5th.

difference,the series is expressed by .r,

product of the extremes
^-f 3j/. The

common

104:

of

sum

is 54, and
for the smaller extreme,

Putting x

x-\-^y^ and
^* 4-3^3/= 54
=

?mmbers

product of the

104

means

reduce

can

we

"

in

exceeds

of the

the
mon
com-

Arithmetical
the

product

difference.

common

in Arithmetical

gression
pro-

the

S2fm
24,
of their squares =210, to find
notation
in the last
the numbers ? Employing the same
as
are
section, the numbers
expressed by x^ cc-\-y^ and
=

;r4-23/:and

4-4"^+^J/*'

their

The

squares
sum

by ^*, ^*-f 2:ry-f3^*"and

of the

numbers

is

x^

3.r-f33/=24:
the

161

of their squares is Sjt* + 6xy -f %* = 210.

Squaring
the first of these equations,
and multiplying
the second
by
the

sum

3,

have

we

+ 9j/*=576, and
18a?j/

Subtractingthe

630.

9^^ +

the latter

have

we

T/ in the first of

and

a; =

the

have

we

both
=

number

3^-f-9

soughtare

giventhe
and

and

In

like

16a;"
manner

Whence
4-48^ + 5%* =46.
if there he Jive terms
in

in the series

shall find

we

1963/^
=

let it be remembered

of the terms,

sum

h the

difference

common

76

that

the

series,we
in

but the coefficients of

3/*are

[We

might

proceed

now

y
find that

we

to be

to

in the

continuation

able to calculate

the coefficient of

y^

j/^,Avhen

of tei*ms

so

the

law

as

to

number

in the series is 10, or

terms
assignednumber
any other
and this without
being at the trouble of discoveringit

the

operation, by

same

But

terms.

which

the

we

have

ascertained

lies
investigation

I shall content
some

of

of
be
of
;

by

the first

rather

beyond
tailed,
treatise,and,
minutelydefrom our present object;
lead us too far away
dent
myself with pointingout to the curious stuthe steps and the ultimate result. Observing
as

if

of this
elementarysubject
would

ries
se-

successively

the
investigate

in the series of coefficients of

given

squares,'and

1^ 6, 20, 50, 105, 196, according

as the number
in the series is 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7.
291.

ries,
se-

terms

the

of terms

found

the

seven

denotes
And

terms.

4Z"""*.

In all this investigation

"

of their

given sum
of the

"*.

"

coefficient of b is always the number

;

seven

of

sum

20j/"=

"

the

24! ;

progression,

"

the

4^*

If there be six terms

shall find 50y" = 56
a*.
If there be
a*.
shall find 105j/"=66
we

the

for

5, 8, and
and

sum,

Arithmetical

in

the

a%

"

have

the

14k/*
equations4Af-f 6y ",
+ 12a;2/-{both
of
sides
and
the
former,
Squaring
multiplying
sides of the latter by 4, we
have
16^*-|-48a"?/4-36?/

b.

be

"

Therefore

this
substituting

that the numbers

In like manner,
if we
the
squares, o? four numbers
11.

9.

given equations,we

So

=5.

__

and

3 ;

18^-3/4.
15j/*
from
equations

of these

6y^ = 54"; and,y^=

difference 3/=

common

former

9^-^

find the differences

the series 1, 6, 20, 50, 105, 196, we
of the successive terms
to be 5, 14, 30, 55, 91.
Observing
find the differences
this series,wc
of its successive
terms

(calledthe

second

of
differences

the

terms

of the

former

be 9, 16, 25, 36, or the squares of the numbers

3, 4, 5, 6 : so that in the series of the first differences 5"

series)to

14,

162

(
14, 30, 55^ 91, the firstterm
U = 3^+2^4-l'
second term
and

-{-2^ + 1*;
we

2*

the thh'd term

lead

may

2'

three times

S*

three

Its third

i\

times 2*

four

law of continuation

20

4*

and

its second

3"

50

term

1*

tunes

30r=:4*-|-3*

unity :

term

Its fourth

1\

is

the

the constitution

to

us

whose

twice

of 2* + P

sum

6, 20, 50, "c.

,
investigate.Its first term
series

of the

term

so

5 is the

This

on.

so

twice

-}- twice
Now
on.

of that series,is the coefficient of 3/*

50, the fourthterm
in the Arithmetical series is Jive.
of terms
the number
when
of terms
in the
(" 284.) Suppose then that the number
series

Arithmetical

equation IO6-"
numbers

a:^

9M-'^

-f.7x3*-f

is

wiUbe

=^5^%

X8*-f3

1* j

takingany series of
difference

or

ten

4X6*

terms

times

10

of the

6X4^

And

825.

accordingly
in Arithmetical
gression,
pro-

times

the

5'' +

By.

will be

that 825

it will be found
common

7" +

8X2*+9X

coefficient of ^*, in the

of the following
the sum

The

10.

sum

the square of the

of the squares of

of the terms.]
the calculation of the
292.
[But we stillneed to simplify
coefficientof 3/*^ Suppose then that the Arithmetical series

the

minu$

terms

of

consists
that

the square

terms

and

the coefficient of 2/* will be

terms,
is, the

?;"

1|^+2 X n"2\^-f
of the

sum

3 X

sum

let nz=.5.
the

n^Y

We

have

of the

sum

4 X

seen

following

n"^\''j

that

followingterms,
n"-

"

2w*"
3?i*

27^4-1
8;j + 8

"

18?? +

27

4"^-_32;i-f.64
10?i*"

In this
is the

10?z*-- ^0/?+100,
expression^

of

The

sum

is

term
2.

1*^2

Now

the coefficient of

last term

4-2 4-3 4-4,

coefficient
The
1^4-2^4-3^4-4 ^

of

60?i4-100

of

100
n

in

is the

the

rr-

sum

second

4-2^^

4-3^ X2 4- 4^ X 2 = 1^4-2^4-3^4-4*
fi'om the doctrine of Arithmetical
progression

easilycalculate the sum of any of the natural numbers

We
from
therefore
want
to
ascending
unity.
only
oiP calculatingthe sum
facile method
know
of their
a
of their cubes.
the sum
The
latter is easily
squares, and
we

can

calculated firom the

followingcurjous property

"

thai the
sum
V

163

of the ctihesof any of the

sum

'with

natural

7iiimhersC07nmenci7ig

unityis equalto

the square of their sum : as in the

ceding
preinstance 1-1-2+ 3 + 4=: 10 5 and 10* = 100 = 13 + 25
of the squares of the terms
+ 3^ + 4'^ And the sum
of
such a series is equal to the 6th. part of the sum
of the

highestterm

+ three times its square

+ twice its cube*
Therefore twice the sum
of the squares is equalto the third
part of the latter sum.
Accordinglyin the preceding

instance

+ 2- +3^

+ 4"X2

^+^+^"^=^

60.]

recollected that in the

it be

[Let

293.

trinomial,10;^*

the coefficient of j/* when

the
-^60w+100,
(expressing
in the Arithmetical
of terms
number
series isfve) the
from unity,of which
series of natural numbers
10
is the
of
and
the cubes,
100 the sum
twice the sum
60
of
sum,
the squares, is 1, 2, 3, 4; its highestterm
less
beingone
of terms
in the series w^hose common
than the number
ference
difis y.
Whatever
of terms
therefore be the number
in this

series,represented
by
which

from

tlie terms

is 1, 2, 3,,.w"

determined,

to be

is ("185.)n

=^-

is

bers,
num-

trinomial

formula are
the sum
of this

Now

1.

Therefore

formula

the trinomial

the series of natural

n,

of the

the

first term

universally
expressedby

of

2
X 72* =

third

The

"

1, is

is

^Zn-+3

by

the

"^|'

of their

formula

last

2 X

to
^

subtract

is to be

tracted
sub-

third)the coefficient

^^l^^n^-^n-^n

.^

which

mul-

gives

of the second

sum.

of 1, 2, 3.."
In the second

expressed by
universally

section

tiplied
by

have remarked

we

(which term

of the first and

sum

the

for

pressed
exuniversally

of the cubes

sum

the square

equalto

from

"

"

of the trinomial

term

of

that the

in the last section

n

"^

by

also is

term

for the universal expression

"

term

in the trinomial

this from

the

sum

formula.

of the

two

In

der
or-

former, let
us

'{

become

former

two

surn

IS

^^

"

"

"

-"

."

It

~^

y?

"

b the

290.

"

find

to

of

But

tlieir squares.

whose

have

we

the number

series,
squares.]

the sum

where

left

j/

"

Arithmetical

any

7i

series in

having given us

from

[This investigation
originatedin

294.

subtractmg

-Xj/*

"

"

of the

of their

sum

difference

sum

The

of j/^
of the coefficient^
expression

"^=wj/^

common

the

which

(the value of the other term)^

"

the
and

Irom
f

".^^,^j^^ universal

12.

-__J

and

"

equation7^6

in the

denominator

common

"

12.
n

the

all to

bring them

us

1^4"

the

presents
re-

gression,
pro-

of terms,

problem

Arithmetical

posed
pro-

progression

of its terms, and the sum

of
the problem, and
now
reverse

we

may
of the squares of the terms
of any given
Arithmetical'
prpgsession. For from the last equation we

find the
"?asily

sum

J^^lz^,

at, ,ib-a^

arrived

4-^.

Therefore

for the

putting5

"ndb='j!"=J!^

we

of

sum

Arithmetical

any

difference,and

scries, d for thcGommon

of

the

terms,

of the

sum

for the number

ii

of the terms

squares

is

equal 19

__

Xn^

Thus, if the Arithmetical

n-\-^-

"

"

"c.

be continued

to

sum

of the terms

is 120

fore

il

But

1 440.

1 ^

terms,
;

i^

the

10th.

its square

and

is 21

term

is 14400

7^^"

;i =

and

the

there^

Therefore

990.

12

.__X?^^

ten

series 3, 5, 7*

"

"

And

330.

the

of the

sum

of

squares

%j

"

the terms, 3^ + 5^ + 7^.

+ 21 %
in
295.
To jiyidfour nwnhcrs
..

sum
of U'hose squares
productof the numbers 880

the

smaller

extreme,

and

of Arithmetical

difference
5 and

the

.v

=330+1440=1770.]
Arithmetical

shall be
F

214,

Here

+ 3?/ for the

greater, from

progression
means

iwogression
the

continued

putting x-r-^^
2v

two

a7id

will be

will be the

for the
the

ture
na-

common

expressed by

a-

"

and

"

166

(when they are

alphabet. Thus

numbers
to substitute for the given
of the initial letters of the
some

large)
given
generally,
so

the

be stated
the last problem may
".
If instead of
=
and x"^
10/v^7/^4-9j/'^
=",
4.a;*+20j/"
the sum
of the squares and continued product, there be

equations in

"

"

given

the

easily.

more

progression,the

in Arithmetical

numbers

continued

and
difference

common

For

series is found

for the

putting 2a

the four numbers

product offour

given common
expressedas in

be

may

still

ference,
difthe

last

the continued
^a, x
a, A'-f-a, and ^ + 3a:
by ^
product of which terms is x"^ 1 Oa^x* +9a'^z=ib. Whence,
25a^ =Z" + 16a^:
completingthe square, we have^^^-lOa^^^-f-

section

"

"

"

x^

therefore

and

5a*

"

if the

Now

z"z\/b-{' I6a^,

="=

I6a^

VZ" +

and

.r*

5a*

difference be 3,

given common

therefore

and

v'QSl

r:--=i=

"

And

root)

if ^

and

a=-^^

=t:31

880, then 5a^z"zVb+l6a'^

the positive
value
(taking

therefore

.v=:^

before.

as

=~,

'4

of the

the

positivevalue of the root, because it affords

positive
square number, for the value of x^ : whereas the

We
a

fix

on

value

negative

of V961

which
we

eive

^^44'

"

is impossible. It is to be

can

the data

a^* =

.-.

"

31="-

"

remarked, that although

"

in Arithmetical

find fozirnumbers

79

45

would

from
progression

assignedin either of the

three such

numbers

last sections,yet to find

similar data would
volve
innecessarily

from

of which
equation; the management
w^ithin
of
does not come
the subject
the present treatise.
297.
To find three numbers
in geometricalprogression
whose
shall be 26, a?id the sum
mm
of their squares 364 ?
PuttingX and 3/ for the two firstterms, the third will be
us

in

cubic

expressed by "!-; and

have

we

given us

the

equations

and

*'+^+~="f

.v*+^*+-^ ^.
=

equationstransposing
j/,

ing both

sides of this
'"

we

have

equationwe
'

In

the first of these

x-\-^zza"7^
; "
have

sqiiar-

A-^+^y^-f-^rra*
X

^2ay

167

2^i/+j/*. Therefore

"

of the

second

52

the

is

the

3/=

^j^

Therefore

"

and

20;

their

^^^

"

the

of

sum

product is 3/*
and product of

36:

given us the sum

which
they are found

from

18; and

be 2 and

to

the

the series

required is 2, 6, 18.
To Jind four riumhers

298.

such that the

difference
of the

difference
of

the

the means,
from

Then
extreme

for xz"ia

the

shall be 52, and

for half the sum

of

given difference,the

two

x + a,
expressedby x
(See" 287.)
a, and
of geometrical
the smaller
nature
progression

be

"

the

be ^!^m^' , and

must

geometricalprogression^

extremes

their

for half

ill

Putting

12

means

and

will

means

^^^^^ ^^^^^

^^^

have

now

we

extremes

Therefore

of the series is 6.

term

extremes

that

so

^^^^^

g^

(by

"

52

second

or

=r
-^^^-{--L^zza*
2^3/

x*

given equations)b.

676--36^_.312

: xzxza

::

the

^rlrS

""==:":

' =52

multiply^

x^a

ing both

sides of this

the difference

^: and

l~t^'

extreme

Therefore

is -X-'

"f tlie extremes

greater

'^

equation by

and

by

x+a^

wft

from

x^

3;v-a-f3^"*a^ (or x a^)

is
the remainder
-\'a^ (or x-\'ct^)
"\-2"x'^a-\'^xa^

2^3

"

have
5

x^a\
But

"

"

a[^zzbX

bx^

x"^
subtracting

.^

?^1"^

6"

12.

16

the

we

6x^a

"

t??"ll!2=!"2f

52"36

6a

that the

So

2a^

and

^x'^a.

a'b.
^=t

16

two

means

are

6 and

1 8,

4.
2

extremes

and

54.

product of any two num-s

ofthmrmay thence derive expressionsfor the sum
and
For
"c.
cubes, biquadrates^
puttingx
^ foy

[299. If

bers,

a'b.

"

bx^

Therefore

bx^^d'b.

"

"

"

Whence

and

x-^a"

squares^
the numbers

have

we

the

and

sum

for their

in the first place^*-f?/^=

sum

and

for their

jf^-^2^,since

the

product."

square

of tho
sum

In

the

second

5^

2p

by

"

"

the

equal to

is

sum

"

=zs^
'\-yx'^

the

the

equation a'-|-3/=.S ^^'^

"

+3/

"

equation by
x'^ 4-3/-^
^''^
=
+ xi/^
4-3/-^^

have

x^

+3/* XX7/ = s'

+ 5^j9 2p^=5^--.3s"i
^v^-f-3/'*

Therefore

2p

"

s^p"^p

and

"

like

"

sides of the last

we

5,

X2/-\-yx5

But

"35^-

a'

product.
equation x^-k-^^
have
^^+3/^+ ^3/*

fore
There=
"* +3/ X
XT/'^
+3/'*'^
^3/ =sXp,
25j9; and ";^-f3/^=5^ Ssp. In the

/v^-|-3/3
+ 5j9 5^
place, multiplyingboth
equation

-f-twice the

place,multiplyingthe

third

of the squares

sum

2sp. But

"

168

3.

s*
=
;v'^+3/'*

proceed to calculate
the value
by multiplyingthe
value of x^-\'y^by 5, and
subtractingfrom the product
x^ -{-7/^5^
of x^-\-y^multipliedby p ; whence
the value
And
again multiplying this value of x^
55^/"^-5.9/"^
+3/^ by s, and subtractingfrom the product the value of
multipliedby p^ we have the value of x^-^-i/^zzs^
x'^-\-y'^
-^45'j"4-2jD^.In
"

if

manner

of ^^+.^^" it will

we

found

be

"

Ss'^p-f 95^^* 2p^. We

for the

terms

the

the index

the first term

of the pow^r,
of the expression
wdll
be
value
and
in every
for the
ing
succeed/v" 4-3/"
s",
the index of s decreases bp 2, and the index of p
term

for the index

and

by
if

?i

also is

term

4thly.the

1.

be
71

but

5thly.the

the natural

odd

an

if

71

be

an

numbers

of the third

the literal part p

fourth
terms

to

fi

third

"

^2, or
is the

term

of the

07ie

of

coefficients

of their

expressionfor the

the coefficient
with

the

is the

term

71''

is

index

yZ

6thly.

of all the

preceding powers

fourth

of

sum

sum

the coefficient of the fifth

the last but

from

number,

even

is

term

coefficient of the last

the

coefficient of the

the coefficient of the

all the

coefficient of the second

number,

is 2, and

of the last term

-

of the power

(for instance, the expression

for
/v"
will
for the value ;v'" -{-3/*",
or
sist
con4-3/*%
of
a-^*
for
7
but
-f3/^*
terms). 3rdly.Putting
terms,

increases
71

of the powers,

sums

affirmative and negative: 2ndly.that

alternately
is always half of the even
of terms
number
number

of 6
71

these sions
expresthat
the
1st.
signsof the
on

are

above

next

remark

now

may

"

"

term

terms:

is the
and

efficients
co-

from

so

sum
on.

12th. powers
of
will be 10 4- 9 4- 8
AT and
3/, the coefficient of the third term
of the coefficients of the second
the sum
or
4-74-34-2,
Thus

in the

terhis in all the

r-s^-

expressionsof

sum

the

of the

precedingpowers

from
the

(
the tenth

and

of the

sum

169

the coefficient of the 6th. term

coefficients of the
from

powers

the

5th.

will be the

of all the
preceding
that is,of the tenth,,ninth,

tenth;

terms

and

of the 8th.
eighth powers, as it is in the sum
powers
first appears.
of X and 1/ that a Jift/i
1 lence we
term
may
derive the followingexpressions
for the coefficients of the
in the

terms

"?fficientof the third

is

term

value

the

expression for

7i

of A;"-fz/".

The

of the fourth

is

co-

term

2
X

IS w

ot the

iJ

thus

And

"c.

"c.
it is found

their

find
hij11,

sum
X

as

wx

the

sum

;r"" 2a"

58

ll-j-10

?/=

numbers

"

22

will be

and

shall be

their

::

"

and

ascertained

7.

find that

we

the

(" 263.)

numbers

in

and

the

geometricalprogression
suin
of their squares {h)

for the two

and ^L-,

"

+ 1 = 10; and
of the
the sum

puttings

the

means,

(For

for the

x\

\\

extremes

y\^-^\and

of the

sum

means

2/

and p for their

extremes)

Now

a'=V81

product =21,

(a) 80,
and

expressedby
x^

y:

thus

Having

21.

"

Therefore

80.

Putting x

r'

last section

of the

"

requiredare 3
[301, To find four

3280

exceed

:
so
beginning
and
k'^
two
.v =11,
^y-zzb^^
equationsy
the former
equation to the latter, we have

=10,

sum

-f-?/^*

"whose squai^es shall he 58 ?

and y for the product of the tw^o
sum
of their squares is expressedby v'' 2j/j

numbers
whose

^^*

of

sum.

the

twice

Adding

value of

the
calculating

in the

seen

have

we

the

and

the

have

X
3

mimlers, "whose jproductshall

txiio

for

numbers,
that

s'''"l2s"'j)i-54^s^p'''-ll2s^j)^
+ lOBs'^^*

be

to

To

Putting

X
2

300.

fifth term

have

we

also the

product, (which is
the

product of

of tlie extremes,

sura

or

the

-f-^

"

.V

y
=?flr

-ner

But

s.

"

the

equal to
"that

sum

by " 299. A-^+y

ot the squares

the square

is,.=a

"

^1
"

of their

2p,

=s^

of the
sum

Hence,

"

2p

and

extremes,

in like
or

^
"

7ninus tw^ice their

adding

the

sum

man-

is
~,

product,
of

the

squares

170

(
the
squares of

the

Affain, from

"

the

have

we

the

to

means

equation

whence

Ssp^ap

25 +

of its value

equation s*+a

^=5;

5*+a^f-"
'
^

25 +

sides

Thus

two

is 24.

we

-f

have

Ss

L-

=r

1560

ascertained
have

we

cr,

have

we

-i"L=5;

rZ_

"

2s*

"

have

we

420i-~20i=!?-.

that the

before

of

sum

found

the

jp=2s +

the

Therefore

of the
product
^

means

Hence

108.

the

therefore
In

the

the

means

extremes

into the

or

have

the

be

to

128
;

and

54.]

of

student,

where

exhibited

language
that

has

and

+ 80
6 and
18

followingquestionsfor exercise, lest

cultyshould remain to
to a preceding section
solved,

found

are

48
=

compl eting

Whence

have

we

"

-j

But

by

fJZL

il^~

20i;=24.
means

5,

25 +

+ L. -|

y"zi-^+

. =

^gf"4p

"

"

'^a^;:z2sh-\-ab. Therefore
the square

this expression

thatis,2s*" .25^+tr*"

multiplyingboth

whence,

"

"

the

in

j/^--^?
by " 299. -y^-f
s^=:ap+ 2spi
sp^ and

substitutingfor

Now

p=

^.

wehaveA'^-f-t/^

5,

"

3280

tremes,
ex-

But

sp.

"

"

~"

"

-{-"z^zza

"

of the

s\^ 4^

"

"

"

of the squares

sum

equation s*-{-a

sXp^ap
sX^?/="
s^
Therefore
35??.

zza

the

Algebra.

he should

question has

translation
Yet

of

I would
to

the

been

question

commend,
strongly re-

these aids, until he

apply
questionswithout

not

attempted to solve the

I have

similar

any diffieither referred

them,

Qjiestionsfor Exercise*
1. What

two

numbers

difference 2\ ? (" 287.)

iB20
2. Divide
between
lOs.

6d.

more

than

B. ?

they,whose

are

A.

and

B.

so

sum

is 7 and

their

that A. shall have

(J287.)
"

s#

171

(
S.

8d. ?

"

have

we

yrds.of A.'s share shall exceed |thsof B/s

Puttingx for A.'s share and 20 x for B/s,

that

so

by 6s.

"

180"9*^

fraction

"

"

4, but

B/s

share

But let

9^^",

of that tion.
equasides by 12, it will stand
180 + 9^ = 4.
For in the
"

8x

"

of

the mark

"

A/s

in the reduction

caution

which

and

multiplyingboth

After
"

from

=~

"

1 0^".

receive

the student
Sx

HI"

the equation
^

share will be found

not

line

division,or

separating

and

the numerator
of the

terms

numerator

by 12,
is, to add

two

18 ?

subtract

or

"

squares

the difference of their

difference of the squares

of
the quotientis the sum

is 3, and

of

difference

the

their

Therefore

the

This

is 2.

of the
frequently

whose

by

of their squares is expressedby

sum
ference
gives a?* = 1 : and therefore the dif-

numbers

is

numbers
8.

the less

greater is expressedby 4-|-^, and

of the

squares

difference is 5 ?

sum

%-\-2x^-=z6i; which
two

is that of

is 3, and the sum

of their squares
bers,
Putting"*" for half the difference of the num-

("265.)

X,

ratio

Dividingthe

sum

whose
the

"

that

Sx,

5|? ("261.)

7.

6i ?

whose

"

cation
multipli-

from

9x

"

the

on

(" 163.)
whose

6.

after the

they, whose

are

vinculum

as

180

difference is 3, and

("260.)

the numbers.

acts

therefore

the difference of the numbers

by

and

is 7 ?

sum

v/hose

squares

to

+ 9a\
numbers

7:5, and whose

(" 259.)
5.

have

we

180

"

Wliat

4.

denominator,

difference

of

method

denoting
greatest advantage.

is 2,

and

the

of

sum

their

13^? ("266.)
whose

9.

is 15, and their

sum

product31|

("262.

263.)
10.

whose

difference is 10, and their

product31 J

(" 264.)
whose

11.

squares
squares
13.

is 8|, and

whose
27 ?

product is 18,

of their

sum

and the difference of their

(" 270.)
whose

sum

is

4-5?^(or difference ^i) ^"^

of their square roots 2| ?

square roots | ? ("271.)

sum

the

17|-|? ("267.)

12.

'

product

or

"

^^^

the difference of their

*"""""

whose

172

(
-vvlioscsum

14.

product of

the

their square

2 ?

roots

-f^)and

their difference

(or

("271.)

of their square
product is 4-,and the sum
the difference of their square roots ^ ("271.)
the product of their
whose
is 5, and
sum

whose

15.

2| ?

roots

or

16.

36?

squares

("271.)
difference is

whose

1 7.

and the

1
,

product of

their

2^ ?

squares

whose

18.

product

(x:l ::7

7:4?

find

To

19.

their ratio

of

that

4^.\

fraction

7, and

is

such, that if you

it shall become

add

thp

8 to

th^

but if you add

equal
it shall become
to the denominator
equalto f ?

numerator

numerator

(Putting
=

is ^yV

for

fraction,we

the

2 ;

to

have

and

=2,

"

h)
To

20.
4

as

f"^

;v4-3

4^^4.12

shall be

denominator

-^

have

(We

fraction which

whose

9, and

3 ?

find

exceeds
4

: :

its

and

its

to

reciprocal
numerator
by

-^

therefore

.V

.v

")

21.

at

the

rate

at

the rate

riding from

man

of

7i miles

an

of 6i miles

an

the road.

on

A.'s

22.
was

as

23.

is to

age

they

the number

was

There

24.

The

first cup

with

the

cover

What

are

and

would

are

3 ;

the

have

cover

therefore 7

"

14

came

longer

three

ago it

years

(" 274.)
to

be

died

equallydivided
ther,
their fa-

before

a-piece
What

(" 281.)
and

one

cover

for both.

The second cup

first cup
without
the
the
first cup.
weighs i of
?
for
the
(Puttingx
weight

weighs 1 4^oz.

cover

weightsof each
we

he

got ^750
consequence
lived.
have got, if all had
?

went

(" 272.)

and

in

weighs ^rds.

the

of them

silver cups

two

with the

without

of the cover,
cup,

Three

of children

cover

but

as

Dublin

8 minutes

was

the distance

are

the survivors

than

hour, and

B/s

to

Returning home

their ages ?
left in his will ^10,000

What

2.

man

and

house

own

hour.

was

his children.

among
more

What

his

"

of the

"

for the

for the

weight

weightof

of the

the second

first

cup.

Adding

17*

is the number

guineas,100"^

"f

former,

of the
500

5x:

"

21

at

that

so

21^+500

5^^=14?

"

The

crowns.

amount

of the latter at

and

is 21^;

5.

of

is

5s,

the number

12,

of

in j^70. 12s.)
shillings

person bought
The
horse came

30.

"60,
and

the chaise

What

did he

harness,

2x

A"

31.

priceof the
? (Puttingx

give for each

is the priceof

the

Gx-^^x+x^z

income

spends yearly"50

(Puttingx

penditure,and

and

for the

harness.

priceof
the

6x

the

price of

60.)

of 4 years finds himself

end

horse

horse, and

fth. of his income

saves

income

same

to

chaise,horse, and harness, for

the price of the harness,
twice

the

to twice

But

chaise.

the

than

more

income,

therefore

with
and

What

is A.'s

"

is B.'s

+ 50

"

A.

in debt.

:^100

for the

B.

yearly.

the

at the

is their

yearlyex-

yearlyexpendi-

5
tare

,"

which

in 4 years

amounts

to

"

200

and

this

exceeds

4a?

To

32.

by 100.)
divide

parts, that i of the

be all equal
of the third, may
^j-

into

36

three such

first,4 of the second, and

to

other,

each

part is 2.V, the second

A

9^

part Sxy and

or

of what

service.

which
34.

the third part

Wliat

he
he

should

end

for

leapsbefore

is 50

But

year and

months,

for

and

a
ceived
re-

its

was

livery,8+;v

7 months

::

received

4- a;

of

of the

have

receives

of S8

livery. What

his

therefore is to
hare

4:x,

turned
at the
was
liver}',
away
only "2, 135. 4"Z. and
value ^ (Puttingx for the value
amount

of the first part, that

36.)
footman, hired at the wages

2Ar-f.3;c+ 4A',
33.

for half

(Putting x

12

is the
months

service is 2\-\'Xy

12.)
a

takes
gi'ey hound, and
of the greyhound's
two

leapsto the greyhound's3 : but

How
leaps
leapsare as much as three of the hare's.
many
the grej^liound
take to catch the hare ? (Puttinga? for
must
the number
of leaps taken by the hare before she is overtaken,
the
it is plain that
greyhound must go over a space
of ground equal to x-{-50 of the hare's leaps : and this he
will do
in a smaller number
of leaps than
x-\-50y and
4

smaller in the

ratio of 3:2,

that is in

it

of his

own

leaps.

175

(
the

But

leaps.

the number
4

taken

i^

the

or

"

hound

by

Therefore

3.

and

number

greyhound

?^'"^^^^:

number

in

3 j

the hare is to

the

time

same

whence

leapstaken by

of

as

400

the grey-

the

hare, =300.) t
play lost ^ of his money,

overtake

to

leaps taken by

of

the

and then won

person in
he then had, and then
he lost -fof what
35. after which
he lost 4 of what he then had, and found he
2s, lastly
won
A

35.

had
9*

but

which
shillings

of

for the number

had

What

remaining.

I2s,

he at first ?

he had

at

(Putting

first,

[-3

he had

what

expresses

after his firstloss and

|rds.of this,or ^+2

expresses

therefore

cond loss,and

what

firstwinning;
after his

he had

Tths. of ~-|-4? expresses

what

se-

he

after his third loss, or when

he had I2s, left.)
B. has already:
much
36. A. givesto B. as
as
money
A. has left : A. returns
much
B. returns
to B.
to A.
as
as

had

much

as

much

as

as

B. has

as

A. has then

How

165.

much

number

of

number

which

"

whence
37.

their

the

had

B.

6y

What

38.

(Putting

for

times

lly

j/

successive

2y and 2"y

"

So

and

llj/
"

they, whose sum

product is 12 times

the

is it

that
-5^

w^e

=16;

is twice

are

the

x^

"

5x,

"

y for the

1 1 .)

less, 3x

must

3a?*

=24^,

(written with

ference
their difthe

express

2j/ 2x) and

and x=z8.)

equationj/ 4-^

Therefore

number

2?/, %\'

10j/=16,

"

whose
from

product.

What

y and
lOj/and

numbers

two

greater (as appears

3;v* their

"

2 1 and

a? =

difference,and
?

"

equations

find

we

6x

6Ar

two

after the

had, their numbers

2x,

"

and
originally,

had

A.

expressedby

and

5y

have

lastlyB. returningto A.
left,it is found that they have each
? (Putting"v for the
each originally

which
shillings

changesare
2x

left ; and

then

"

digits)which
if 1 8

is

equal to

be

will be inverted ? (" 282.)

added, the digits
39. To find four numbers
such, that the first with half

the

sum

the rest, the second

with
the rest, and the fourth

them

equal 10

of its

digits
; and

to

which

| of the rest, the third with ^ of

with

(Platting
v,

-f of the
.v, j/,

each
may
for the numbers
rest

of
we

have

176

"
have

t? 4-

;:

and

"

^-^J

x+

and

/^

-f ^X-Jt^, all equalto each other:

I/+LZLJL:,

and
,

i"

Therefore subtract-

the first of those

ing twice
times

Vy and

2a'

"

3?/

" =

for A-, y, Zy in the

from

from

v, and

"

3/=-,

^=-,

and

third,

the

4^;

5 times
v,

"

3 times

each

Hence,

-.

the second, from

the

fourth,we

equal to

have

0 ; and

fore
there-

these
substituting

jf

equation^+'

10,

values

have t;+-

we

divide the number

To

90 into 4 such parts, that if

tlie
second
diminislied by 2,
by 2,
the
and
fourth
the third multiplied
divided by 2 ; the
by 2,
40.

the first be increased

difference, product, and quotient shall be all equal

each other? (Puttingx for the first part, a-|-4will express

sum,
to

the second part,

(for
3/

part, (for2;y=A'-[-2)and
A'-|-2.And

the

+
*^

2=:x-{-2)and

"

2a

fourth

the

+4

the third

part, since

of these four

expressions=90)
togethercan perform a piece of work
in 9 days ; and
B. and
C.
in 8 days ; A. and C. together
will
how
eacli
it take
\\\ 10 days ;
to
da3\s
many
person
?
alone
work
for
the time in
(Puttinga^
perform tlte same
which A. would performit alone,the times in which B. and
=

perform it alone

would

B.

If A. and

41.

sum

the

accordingto

two

first conditions.

'"

"

"

(For

"

"

: : x

9**

Sa"

;
A""

expressedby

are

and

"

: : x

questions

on

X""^

19'. and

20.

66,) But

page
the

to
accoi-ding

third

(For
2x

80"

See remarks

"

condition

10,

is also

or

a;"

being -^i

B.'s time

is

to

C'stime

expressed by
10

: :

"

x-^S

80
"

*80-

.2x

=:I4if,

Inereiore

80"

-^
A'

2a'

wiience

nave

we

a-_9

17ii,and-^23-rr.)
=

22.

person

177

(
A

43.

bought a
bought 4 more
less for

for the

; and

he would
money,
itiany did he buy ?

same

How

each.

for jf 80

oxen

80

for the

(PuttingX

of

number

person

if he had
have paid "1

number,

we

told that

are

exceeds

"

A"

by 1.)
What

43.

numbers

two

they w^hose

are

product,

sum,

all equalto each other ?

and difference of their squares are
(Since their sum is equalto the difference of their squares,

dividingthe

latter

is therefore

which

" 163.
greater, 2^+1

former

the

by

the tient,
quothe difference of the numbers.

equalto
putting

Therefore

and

less,^+1 is the
their product. Sq

for the

their sum,

a* -f x

^5

whence
that ii^"\-xz=.^x-\'\\
To

44.

be

may
and

the

to

parts, that their

such

two

1 \

-+^*)

"

of their squares

sum

as

to

product

(Putting;*"

6
x for the
a?*, and the
parts, their product is Qx
x"^ : 2a;*
12^ + 36 : so that Qx
of their squares is 2^*
"

"

sum
"

divide 6 into

a;=

1 for

give

must

"

"

12;^

4- 36 :: 2 :
45. To find two

5.)

difference of their cubes

is x^
quotient

the

find

To

46.

difference is 3, and the

whose

numbers

117.

(Dividing;r5 y^ \y^x
"

w^hose

numbers

two

sides

both

47.

and

to
depressed

number
was

numbers,

have

we

quadratic
by dividing

by x,)

bought a

person

sheep for 5^18. l55.

gain
a-piece,gained by the barof

number

seihngthem
as

sale

is

which
"=:;y^,

difference is 15, and

of the smaller number

x-^-XS for the

;PuttingA? and

'

^,

.)
-^-xy-^if

half their product is equalto the cube

?

"

againat 305.
much
3
as
sheep had cost him.
? (Putting x for the number,
30a^, and

sheepwas-^,

the

profit30^"375.

therefore of 3

and

What

their

was

of the

the amount

The

sheep was

cost

,-.

of each
^

30;^

"375.)
divided
and

number

What

48.

by

the

if 5 times

of

sum

the

sum

which
with two
digits)
(written
its digits
gives8 for the quotient,
be subtracted from it,
of the digits

is it

the dicritswill be inverted ? ($

282.)

"

N
) W'

49.

To

ns

(
To

; 49.

fttinrberwritten

firid ^

with

AritH*

in
digits

59 ; and

quotientis
digitswill be

the
of its digits

it, the

from

conditions

the last.

above
first digit
that
the

and

whose

will be
digits
is Sx

sum

Therefore
^Vliat

50.

the

by

greater

by

the last of the

the

x,

number

100^+10^

of the

excess

2, and

"

written
20 +

"

4? ;

"

with

those

l-v" 24'"

4?=11

.r"

and

77,

to

12 ?

equal

the less is

they,whose

are

equal

is

subtracted

latter part of " 282.

fore
Thereseries is 2,

the

numbers

two

sum

=59.)^

"

3a"

times

representedby

digitsis expressedby

be

(By

the

by

the difference of the

6, and

"

is 99

See

is 4, and

excess

if 396

inverted.

that 396

know

we

that if divided

such

ftnd
progression,

Thctical

to

multiplied

sum

whose

difference multiplied

=
77,
(x*-|-ac?/

and

xy-^^

12.)

To

51.

10, and

number
such, that if you subtract it from
the
itself,
multiplythe remainder by the number
find

product shall
To

52.

"

having100

at different prices,received
B
If A. had sold as many
as

if B. had

sold

only Sd,

How

number
if A.

"

been

have
the

100"

many

number
the

at

18c/.:

have

received

each ?

have

i8d,

x for
(Putting

price he

"

In like

the

Now

;v.

got, the
100

as

received.

eggs.

received

will be 100"

therefore
A.

for his

amount

: x

: :

18

the

manner

"

800

analogy,

as

for the
I8x

100

B's

sum

would

he

A.

eggs

which

sum

he would
had

them, and selling

eggs between
each the same

than

more

no

of A.^s eggs,
had sold 100

would

21.)

such parts, that their product

tlieir difference? (24- xxx

times

35

to

.vX^

"

35.)

A. and B.

53.

(10

into two

divide 24

2a? X

24"

be 21 ?

equal

be

may

"

54.

One

ginger,and

l/^/^
100

"

equal sum

_800"
x"^

: ;

o
8

"

Sx

which

B.

gives

received..

just expression
Therefore

A?\

bought 120 pounds of

had

one

pound

of

pepper,

gingermore

and

as

for

many
a

of

crown

of pepper
the whole
price of the pepper exceeded
; and
that of the gingerby 6 crowns.
How
pounds
many
of pepper had he for a crown,
and how many
of ginger?
than

(Putting

179

(
for the number

(PuttingX
had
Pf

for

-f 1

crown,

former of which

exceeds

SS,

To

whose

sum

SQ*

A.

and

find

what

time

the

number

B/s

number.

.y

the

will be

cost

ginger cost by

but

Dublin.

A.

arrives

the

progression,

in which

performed in

-f 5

: A".

at

formly
travels uni-

Belfast

hours

they have met.

journey ? (Puttingic

In
for

A.

performed it, x-\-S

part which B. performsin

the

had

Each

after

his

perform

Therefore

is
9

shorter time, and that in the

Therefore A. had performed that part

and

to

B. 9 hours

of hours

hours

met,
each

did

A.

Belfast

road

they have

in

4?

same

after

9^

which

the pepper

the latter by 6.)

in Arithmetical
numbers

off from

sets

ratio of

which

is 18, and the sum

of their squares 86 ? ("290.)
Dublin to Belfast at the same
time
sets off from

the

hours

pounds of pepper vvliichhe

of pounds of ginger will be

the number
the number
of crowns
a

expressedby

that B.

of

in 4? hours

he arrived

more

at

Belfast.

A'-f 5
Hence
57.

the

have

we

Wliat

"

powers

h 4?.)

numbers

two

of their cubes

3um

58.

9^
x

whose

87 ?

powers
whereof

the

61.

To

whose

sum

continued

means

find

the

sum

of their 5th.

To

the
4

To

the product

progression,

(" 295.)
difference is 3, and

their

tinued
con-

? (" 296.)
in

whose
progression,
geometrical

of their squares 91 ? (" 297.)

numbers
in
geometricalprogression,
sum

the difference of the

difference of the

progression,

is 25, and

of their squares 27|- ? ("290.)

squares shall be 84, and their

sum

common

find 3 numbers
find

extremes

of whose

product 105

is 13, and

whereof

sum

of their 4th*

in Arithmetical

of the

the

sum

product 308
To

^^,

sum

494 ? ("289.)
in Arithmetical
numbers

is 9, and

whose

63.

65.

3|, and

is

sum

product

the

62.

sum

287.)
the

("288.)

find four numbers

of the

64.

is 5, and

is 4^, and

sum

39-fl ?
To

60.

33| ? (" 286.

sum

whose

59.

they whose

are

find 4 numbers

shall be 15, and

18

means

the

in
sum

extremes

shall be 78, and the

(" 298.)

whose
progression,
geometrical
of their squares
2

85

? (^ 301.)

CHAP.

18(3

XXVII.

CHAP.

THE

302.

teaches

of

doctrine

permiitaiion,or

alternation^

order, in which

of

find all the varieties

to

us

aiid Comhinations*

Pennutations

On

any

thingsinay be arranged. Thus, tbe

be arfive first letters of the alphabet,{a^ b, c, "/,e) may
ranged
For it is plainthat any two
in 1 20 different ways.
be arranged in two Avays, either
of them, as a and b, may
of different

number

I say that any three of them, as cr, by

and Cf may be arrangedin six (2X3) ways ; for beginning
of the three, the other two
the arrangement with any one
ab

Therefore

ba.

or

follow

may

in

different orders

two

bcaj cab and

and

them,

of

four

In

cba.

as

^,

",

like

acb, bac

it appears

that any
arranged in 24"

be

rf, may

for

different ways :
beginning With ", the other
follow in 6 different orders ; and we shall equally

(2X3X4)

three may
have six different arrangements
different
d ; therefore in all 24
letters.

and

thus, abc

manner

and

c,

just in the

And

beginning wath b, or
arrangements

same

way
admit
^,

five letters,ff, by c, dy and

c, or

of the

four

it is manifest

that the

five

different

24

tunes

permutations. And thus we see that the

of permutationsof 5 different things is the connumber
tinued
and
of
of
120:
6
different
2; or
5, 4, 3,
product
that the
720
is
6X5X4X3X2
: and
universally
things
arrangements

or

"

number
y^n

permutationsof

of

2, "c.

"

on

12

permutationswe

require 252

are

of the terms
many

three 2.'s and

the

before

what

not

it will be

be

number

fbund

3,628800

rung

that

found

be

all the

in 91

of

the number

alike

different orders

232234,
two

3.'s.

for

us

now

instance,let

may arrange
which
six digits

among
Here the rule for
:

taining
ascer-

calculate

permutationswould
*

whose

we

permutationsis this
of

"

changes to be rung in
all the
days to rilig

be rung

are

?z

all the

have

digitsof the number

there

it will

But

product of

may

ten

years.
the
all
we
supposed
terms,
be
let
different.
to
But
enquire,

suppose that any

us
enquirein how
the

thingsis

thus

And

n.

suppose

bells could

Hitherto

303.

we

bells.

10

to

bells there

it would

minute,

changes on
changes on

10

if

And

changes.
one

of

set

different

is the continued

or

from

numbers

natural
that

X2

ag

be if all
the

that this number

of
the number
of the

three

kind.

And

"

where

by

permutationswhich

terms
we

4 X

2, that is, by

3 X

letters admit.
different

establish the rule, where

alike ; and in every case

are

infer the

hence

may

different

have

we

be divided

must

reasoningwill

A similar

"

1"2

of like

sets

truth

terms

all but
of this

of the rule,
if we
have
as

For on account
of the three
three a's, tv/o 6's,and one
c.
a\
being like terms, we have seen that the total number
letters would
six different
admit
of permutations which
be divided

must

d's

being

on

both

by

like

2 ; and

3 X

that

divided

be

it must

terms,

togetherit

these accounts

of the two

account

on

by

divided

be

must

therefore

by

SX2X2.

We

305.

hitherto

have

But let
given terms.
permutationsmay be formed,
each
in sets consisting
terms,

all the

instance, how
form

may

number

many
of the

out

to

three

to

of

out

be taken

Let

terms.

And

at

time

each
consisting
thingsis m X m

there

first suppose

terms

1 X

"

be 8 different

is to consist of 2 letters.

sally,
univer-

thingsgiven,and

in each

of

And

terms.

set, the
which

^, "c.

"

establish the truth

now

us

for

alphabet. The
product of the natural

of different

the number

be

given

number

first letters of the

decreasingfrom
m

many

of

number

lower

some

is the

of different sets

of

or

the number

to

of any

out

of 3 letters variously
arrangedwe

sets

enquire how

now

let

formed

us

permutation included

336

is 8 X 7 X 6

numbers

each

in

number

be
may
continued

of this rule.

letters,and each

mutation
per-

Any permutation may

lowed
begin with any one of the 8 letters,and this may be folthe
of
letters.
Therefore
remaining 7
by any one
the number
of permutationsin all is 8 X 7, or mXm
1.
"

Then

that each

suppose

is to

set

consist

of

3 letters.

It

begin,as before, with any one of the 8 letters,and

may
this may
be followed by as many
different sets of 2 letters
be formed
of the remaining 7 letters. But the
out
as
can
latter number

we

of sets of
formed
X

"

out

And

2.

the

number

out

of 8

of

have

seen

3 letters
8

variouslyarranged

different letters is 8

justin

the

same

of sets of 4 letters

different

product of

Therefore

is 7 X 6.

the terms

it may

way

each,

be

which

letters,is 8X7X6X5
of the series

which

7 X 6,

"

or

ber
num-

be

can
m

X m

be formed

1680,

or

continued

"

proved, that

may
=

the

terms

the
to
:

(
4f terms

be formed

can

of the S

one

any

out

as

If the number
is, by the last case, 7 X 6 X 5,
of
is to be only 1 less than the total number

in each

"

the

of

number

sets

will

be

the

of

of

each
consisting
of m things,is
formed
out
permutationsof m things,
sets

the

As

306.

binations
which

can

the

the

or

be

ber
num-

ferent
the difthe

arranged, so

com"

Here
but

things;

same

sets

two

no

do

we

consider

not

be

different letters may

first 6 letters of the alphabet- Each
of 4

24"

(4

3 X

of combinations

total number

the total number

formed

of

be

must

permutationsof

of them

number
mutations

is

"

"

of

divided

which

continued

to

by 2X3X4...
thingsadmit)

combinations

Xw

the

terms:

the

part of
caa
ber
num-

number

the

and

(the number
quotientwill

of

universally

thingsgiven, n

combination,

in each

And

15.

24th.

the

number

the

of pcr^

be formed
may
of the series w,

each of n thingswhich
consisting
thingsis the product of the terms

1, "c,

"

"

of different

be the total number

out

sought

abcd^

as

this latter

out

combinations

binations
com-

letters which

4?

But
of 6 different letters.
Therefore
is 6X5X4X3.
(" 305.)

be formed

com,'

Therefore

the

ferent
dif-

of the

out

combination,

2) permutations.("302.)

of

consist

to

are

thingsas a distinct
arrangement of the same
hination.
Thus, let it be requiredto find how many

let

he
of

may

the different collections

of any given thingsare
be formed
of them, without
out
regardingthe

preciselythe

admits

of

the number

with

same

they may

of arrangement.

order

"

things:

of any given thingsare

permtitations
in which

orders

giventhings,

things,which

set

with the number

same

permutationsof the total number

of

letters,it

different sets of 3 letters as

many
of the remaining 7 ; and this number

by

followed

be

jnay

beginningwith

for

product be
permutations

if this

of
be

the number

of

sought.
Qtiestions
for Exercise^^

1.

the

How

many

different numbers

may

be written with ^U

figures?
significant

2.

How

at dinner

club of 7 persons
often may
a
in a different order ?

place themselves
3.

How

different numbers
Hqw
many
units, three 2.'s, four 3 's, and

S,
two

How

4.

different

many

are

changes

may

written with

five 4.'s ?

there

each
consisting

of four

digits?

How

5.

numbers

be

may

many

be

with

rung

3 bells out

of

10?
6.

Out

of the letters

different

products may
two, of three, and

of

",

b,

be

obtained

the Binomial

c?,e,

x, y^

by

the

Zy

how

many

multiplication

of four factors ?

XXVIII.

CHAP.
On

c,

Extractioii

Theorem.

of

the Cube

and

Hoots^
highei'
507.

WE

have

that

seen

the

and
is x^z"=.2xa-{-a''
that
:
this
4-3.\:a*zt:a^ If we multiply

of the binomial

square

its cube

xdtza

is x^z"iSx^a

by xdtzuy

we

shall have

and

shall find it to
the 4th. power
pf that binomial root,
he x'^z"z4:x^a'{'6x^a^z:^4!xa^-^a'^.
Multiplying this again

hy

x:"zay

"="z 1 Ox^a^

of

xz"za

find the

we

5th. power
to be x^z"z5x^a-^lOx^a^
in like manner
And
the 6th. power

4- 5xa'^="za^.
is found to be

x^zti6x^a'\'l5x^a^zi=20x^a^
+ ISx^a'^zizGxa^ J^a^.
To

higher powers by this process of continued

would
be very tedious ; and in the powers
multiplication
alreadyascertained there are obvious circumstances
ing,
appearwhich
the
law
of
their
to
us
investigate
encourage
indeed
that I cannot
but wonder
so
generation: so much
earlier made.
the discoverywas
serve
obFor 1st. we
not
may
find

the

"

that the number

than
X

"

the index

1/ the

only in

terms

in each

series is

more

of
: 2ndly. that in the powers
alternately
plus and 77tijws; while it is

circumstance

they differ

x-\-2/:Srdly.that the first and last

terms

from

of

and

the

powers
of each series

correspondentpowers
;
of
combinations
terms, consisting
the powers
of x continually
decrease, and
increase,by unity; so that in each term
the

one

of the power

signs are
this

of

and

that in

of
are

termediate
the in-

of a's and

"z's,

the powers of a
of the
the sum
indices

indices of

and

is

185

equal

the index

to

of the power

of

the coefficient
: 4thly.that in all the powers
is 1, and the coefficient of the
of the first and last terms
the binomial

penultimateis the same

5thly.^at the series of
power:
from left to rightand irom rightto
6thly.it may be remarked that the
and

second

with

the index

coefficients
left is the

of the

proceeding
And

same.

of the coefficients

sum

is equalto the corresponding

of the powers
power
of x-\-ay the sum
Thus
of the three
in the square
coefficients is 4 = 2^ : in the cube of ^-|-^" the sum
of the

in any
of 2.

four coefficients is
be determined

"

second

the

between

and

penultimate. Returningnow

of x-\-a^ the

the 6th. power

of

the index

of

index

in that

in the second

coefficient of the third

term

third term.

For

of the 4th.

ent

"

"

is

term

multiplyingthe

multiplied
divided
by the

in like manner,
is the

product

multipliedby the
divided by the index
And

15,

equal ^o

"

term

and

Now,
1 Sx^a^

is

or

y,

coefficient of the 3rd.

of

of

term

in the

is obtained

or

of the

the coeffici-

again, 20
^~"

the

index

term

and

term,

or

to

k^ + Q"x^a"

are

first

first term,

term.

coefficient of the second

in that second

6,

term,

the coefficient of the

product of

the

first terms

two

coefficientof the second

The

by

2^, "c.

that the only thingremaining to

it appears
the coefficients of the intermediate terms
is

Thus

308.

by

the index
index of a iu

by

it, and dividingthe product by the

And
this rule we
shall find hold good in
the 4th. term.
of

in

other

every

instance.

raise x-\-a to the 7th. power,

according
which
have noticed.
The literalparts
to the principles
we
309.

of the

The
iterm

Let

us

now

eightterms

must

be

coefficient of the

1st. term

must

1^

3rd.

Z-^

^er.m?l^
=

a5

of the

term

of the 5th.

term

be

^i^

1 j
21

of the 2nd.

of

the

4th.

35; of the 6th.

4
term

186

"1^=21

term

V-^=.1;

; of the 7th, term

term

But

1,

..-,^;:;=

we

need

that the coefficients of the

seen

the

with

same

And

this result will be found

we

obtained
In like

the

in

manner

terms, but the

of

be

must

order.

of ^-fa

is

with that, which

same

have

we

inverted

an

of

6th. power

7th. power

as

dis-

"

iV

signsof the 2nd.

of

consists

is

by ^-f-^"
precisely

4th. 6th. and

8th.

negative.

terms

We

310.

employ a generalformula, puttingn

now

may

for the index

of the power
The
wth.
Xr\-a,

binomial

n-^l

the

by multiplyingthe

same

term

ascertain that the 7 th. power

thus

the

prosecutedthe

latter terms

four

those of the first four

And

The

have

not

of the coefficientsbeyond the 4th.

coveiy

of the 8th.

terms

numeral

of which

which

to

of

power

the

raise

to

want

we

of

will consist

the literal parts will be

coefficients,
or

called)the unci^

(as they are

1X2X3X4

binomial

by

Sir

numeral

theorein discovered
Isaac

Newton

continued

from
that

numbers

or

Thus

for

will be

jplm^ accordingas
in the 10th. power

of

an

"**
"

by
creasing
de-

"

to

or

a;"-''"+' X

sign of
is

or

viding
terms, and diral
product of the natum

"

the

uncia^

numbers

natural

product by the continued

1 to 2,
decreasingfrom m

literal part of the m\\\. term

the binomial
be a^" ",
root
7)mius

the

continued

the

will be ascertained

term

product of

and

which

according to

coefficient of the ?wth.

takingthe

be

(or first brought to perfection)

unity.
"'""'

the m\ki,

even

an

or

The

and

texm

odd

if

will
ber.
num-

ff, the literal part of

.

^.10X9X8X7

4
CR
and ,.^ its coefficient
^"^5

is

4X3X2
=

210.

187

(
Tlierefore the 5th.

=210.

but its 6th.

After

311.

its truth in

of

term

a-

259..v^a^,

"

sufficient number
; let

us

why things

of instances

endeavour

now

be

must

as

have

we

exhibited

establish it

to

the
investigate

to

son,
rea-

Now

they are.

seen

multiplytogetherthe 5 binomial

we

"f* is +210*'*^^ j

"

havingthus explainedthe rule,and

induction

by

is

term

if

factors,-*'+", x-^-b^

A'-f-c, x-i-d,^-fe,

I say that the terms

of the productmust
cornbrnation of 5 letters out of those 10, and

include
other

no

every
combinations

combinations,
is

plain that

of letters.

xxbde,

o^

appear
of it would

one

that in the

bde ; or
a^a:bde is a
that no combination
than

5,

the

product, it

can

produced by

as

plying
multi-

it is
is

plain
sary
neces-

latter factors

product of
have the product of jca; multiplied
dent
It is equallyevinecessary term.

term

tlierefore in

of fewer
in the

appear

second

omitted

be

4- c

necessary
the five factors we
muBt

more

not

of those

one

by x-j-b X x^d X a- -f^; and

product of the two former factors xa:
and that in the product of the three

xJ^aX

term,
bde is

if any
in the

necessary term
productmay be considered

for the

by

did

For

than

letters

Let

product.

of each

term

the

5,
now

us

factor

binomial

nor

of
pose
sup-

be

to

the

that is,that each of the 5 factors isx-i-a; it is plain

same,
be
that all the possiblecombinations
of 5 letters which can
formed

of these

out

2. of four

jT.'s;

a.'s ; 4. of

sij^^ viz.

are

^.'s and
jr.'s and

two

one

three aJ's ; 5. of

And
a.'s ; 6. of five a.'s.
of ^-f a, the number
power

thus

^.'s and

3. of three

and

.r

one

it appears

of terms

of five

combination

1. the

tv\T"

four

that in the

5th-

6, and

that

be

must

in " 307,
their literal parts proceed as we
have
described
the indices of a: decreasing
by unity from the index. 5, and

the indices
binomial

"

.v

"

a,

(insteadof x-^-a) then

second, fourth, and

in these terms

since

odd

power

The

"

similarly
increasing. Further,

factor be

of the

any

of

which

student

of

sixth

the index
a

will

of

negativeroot
observe

that

must

terms

is
is

an

odd

be

if each

the

sign

7ni?7us :

number,

and

necessarily
negative.
same
reasoning,
j^A power of zrdtra,

all the

employ for determiningthe

other power.
is equallyapplicable
to any
we

312.

of the
*

We

see

Let
5

us

now

binomial

return

to

the

continued

multiplication

factors x-^-a., ^+b,

j: +
a^H-c, a' -{-"/,
that the first term
of the productwill consist of
combination

^.
a

(
of 5

combination

the 5 letters a, b, c,
of these combinations

all the

h^

a^

10

for

tions of 2 that

shall

d,

of

But

e.

be formed

have all the

next

the number

will be
with

of

of those

out

of these 5 beino^

possiblecombinations

'

10, the

letters.
of

We
with

xJs

the

But

ber
num-

be formed
be the

must

same

these is

of combina-

three of the five letters a^ Z",c, i1,e^

of combinations
of 3 letters which
can

some

by

of the

two

some

number

the

of

one

followed

this is the number

(by " 306.)

can

plainthat

3 x\

But

c/, e"

c,

some

is

of

will be followed

4 ^,'s with

is Jive, These

possiblecombinations

letters

wilJ be a:^. This

jr.'s,
or

combinations
possible

all the

by

188

out
num-

^3X2
her

of those

are

combined

of the

terms

with

three

will be followed
with

from

all the

by

is

other

And

5.

of the 5 letters ahcde.

nation
in each

of the binomial

.r/s

two

in like

These

letters

ner
man-

of

one

and

it appears
of these
tliat the number

lastly
we
'^

4X3X2

only

combinations
possible

of " 306.
principles

same

in which

letters.

other

four of the

some

the

product

shall have

Now

when

factors is the

one

combi-

the second
or

same,

term

where

all the

factors

in which
4 a:.'s apare
x-\-a^ the Jive combinations
pear
each of them x^a : and therefore 5x^a
become
must

be

the

second
in which

terms

jind therefore the third

lOx^a^y Bxa'^y and

a^.

the

second
For

consist
n

with

or

-to

two

third

the number
of

wc

have

of
the

ff.'s; and

the numeral

out

for

term,

combination

71 X

this

the

sum

J2

term

of

.r"--^^*,"c.

instance, the literal part

a

by "

of these

term,
of /w-o which
306.

must

of a-.'sless by 2 than

number

number

of combinations

that

are

of the power,
it appears
of a; -fa is a"* j the
power

coefficient of the third

things. But
seen

in like

followingterms
similar process
perfectly

third

the
Jix^'^^a-y

term

of

By

"

And

three

of the wth.

first term

in the

the

lOx^a^.

be

must

for the index

reasoning,putting7i
that

term

that

it appears

jnanner

of 2r-{-". The
ten
x^a^ :
each of them

in the 5th. power

3 jr.'s appear
become

term

is

combinations,
must
can

be

equal

be formed

^^^^^~~^
Lastly,

of the coefficientsof the 5th.

power

J^

Therefore

or

"

coefficient of the 4"th. term

and

of the

fifth term

of a^ and

be tVx

must

"

and

(=

i) and

"

-^"

or

="

"

-|

term

is

on.

It is

of

the farther

approximate

1,

"

t)

"

fifth term

is

the fourth

"

"

""

terminate,

never

be

must

and

so

as

the

continuallyincrease:
series the more
nearlywe

2, "c.

"

the

value

is,

Therefore

can

be the ducts
prowhose
indices

that

the series

the

to

the

continue

we

(=

must

of

powers

4-

"

and

and

plain that

negativevalues
but

"

r-

4-^-4

"

is

term

fifth terms

those

a'^ into

be

must

literal parts of the fourth and

^

third

the

The

are

ISO

of

the

of

root

square

-fa.

been led astray by any fanciful

not
Further, that we
analogy in consideringthat square root as the power whose
have

is i, and
to
expand
applying the binomial theorem
of
be
form
convinced
a
that poAver into the
series,we may

index

by proceedingto extract the square root, accordingto the

For continuingthat process, we shall
rule given in " 209.
the
precisely

find

"r,

^^

if

be

'^2Vx

8v^

ax^x

a^ V

Vxz=2

square

tw^o

10

512

128X256

square

exceeds

greater number

change

our

numeral

number

2^ {thetwo

of the

terms

"c.

series will

then

x-]-a=z5;

Therefore

Now

the

tliat,

VS

square
^

of the

by ^V hut the square of the three

is less than
But
5 only by the fraction ^^^.
seekinggreater accuracy in our root by summing

first terms

instead of

of the series

;v =

128

first terms

up

all the

number,

-H
8

^
""^-

4, and a=l:
all the powers
of a=l.

2
-4

Ba'^s/x

the latter form

from

Suppose

and

a^V

^'

r28vV7'

^--^^+16^-128^'

rational.

be

T6v^
,

It appears

314.

series

same

nearer

first terms

"

of

terms

in the

substitutions for
to

than

4 is.

series,it is better
.v

and

Now

of the last series)or

a,

by takinga

the

|J

to

square

of

is only T^th.

greater

161

(
greater tlian

5 therefore
Resolving

5.

expandingthe
the binomial

of this binomial

root

square

theorem,

into

formula

the

or

"

into

series

the

at

and
-^-^^

|J

the
last section,

traction

this

Now

-=-=

72

of the series

firstterms

two

so

is

72

by

of the

end

are

or

the

near

square
^

72

is
of 5, that its square exceeds 5 only by ^-^^
or
And
if we
wish for
to the fifth placeof decimals.
true
5 into
greater accuracy, it may be attained by resolving
root

leir

25921

"--

72

or

*,

square
of
it

two

parts,

plainthat

it is

of any

root

as

5184

5184^

be divided into

K
And

5184"

number,

I
"

one

u
number

any^

shall be

of which

may ^

square
approximate to the
may
whatsoever : tho' the facility
thus

we

number

of extraction decimallymakesf
binomial theorem in practiceto

continuingthe process
to apply the
superfluous

this purpose.
315.

let

But

us

by

now

similar process

the
investigate

cube

of ^+^"

root

or

{x-J^ay,

Here

the firstterm

of the

series is ^^ ; and the coefficient of the

is \
The index of x in the second term

itidexof

is 1.

Therefore

second
"

the second

"

term

is

term

and

"2

is

"

-f.

the
or

The

coefficientof the third

term

is-fx

"

|^-7-2r=

3^
"

of

J 5 and its literalpart is the productof "* into that power

2 =
ihdex is \
f( whose
|. Therefore the third term is
"

"* X

"

Vx

Qy^z^' The coefficientof the fourth

-j-3=:-/r
J and
power

of

fourth term

"v

is

"

-JX -"4

productof a} into
S
|. Therefore

its literalpart is the

whose
is

term

^^

index

is i

...f And
.

"

so

"

on.

Now

from

that
the

this

formula

(in

1^^

(
all the

which
(111

ber)

may
whatsoever.

5,

and

the cube

Now

5.

the cube

want

we

divide it into

number,

cube

if

Thus

must

we

will be rational ir

terms

approximate to

we

two

parts,

near

as

of

root

of which

one

shall be

between
lyiiig
evidently

2, and
.

r.
therefore

5rr

than

to

nearer

"

aXVx

"

rp,

and

,.

the ^2nd,

Then
1000

87x17

4913X3__
1000

10

ot4^*u
the two
*

sum

and

493

X
1000

A^i.

the

_17

87

Sx
A
And

87
==

to

17

put V.v=

may

1000

-=

"

we

-.-

JC

term

1,

to

1^1^ 5000"4913
"

nlim-'

obtain it in value

can

we

as

cube

of any number
the cube root of

root

extract

to

be

""

\c

3X49130

17,

4.^
first
terms

493

835214-493

"

49130'
JL
49130

10

49130

rr^

the

exceeds

which

by less than

ti'ue root

49130

"

;00006.

(;;.

We

stillnearer

might approximate

the
calculating
3

or

in this

manner

of the

any

for this

we

316.

may

higher roots

approximation
The

binomial

(x -f-")"^=r

Chap.

"
"

we

17.

For
The

5th.
But

much

3 1 9.

Sec. this beinnf the series

sion.
actual divi-

the

have

shall

we

of the

same

very

^)""'by
(/v-f

of

the

mial
bino-

of the series

then the first term

coefficient

and

expanded by

is

But

another

root

assignedin "

calculate the value

theorem.
A?-' =-.

-I

the fraction

See

be

whose

"

by

be appliedto
ma}^ similarly
indices are negative.Thus

theorem

into which

series, if

approximate to the 4th.

of any
assignednumber.

will be

the calculation of powers

series,or

by

fraction |^|.
nearlyequivalent

the cube

to

formula

convenient

more

the

or

"

of the

terms

more

84014

puttingVx
And

of

value

either
pleasure,

at

second

term

must

must

be

1 ; and

-"

"

its literal part the

Therefore

the second

product of

term

The

be

must

fl?*

into x"'^

or

into

coeffi-

x^

"
.

rient of the third term

must

be

_"

1 j and itsliteral

part

."f^-**^^
(

193

"""Mill

f
part tke productof u^ into w**^,or

into

"

Hierefoi'e

"2,

the third term

is H

The coefEclent
of the fourth term

j.

1 b^

must

"

be

And

!"

"

on.

so

finite scries

by

The coefficientof the second

A-'^'ir
"

if we expand{xJ^^ay^
into an in-^
the binomial theorem, the first term
is

In like manner

317.

is

term

"

AT*

productof

its literal part the

Therefore the second

third term

is

and fifthterms
And

by
*

ai*e

found

"

In like manner

be

to

theorem

and

--?"

we

an

and

-,

infiniteseries

'

2x3;f"+J

or

VA' +

fraction

be the

or

"
.

The

V{xJira)^

be thus established. Since any

its reciprocal
gives1 for the product,

may

multiplied
by

unitymust

g^

calculate the value of any

may

Jx+af

truth of this formula

on.

so

such fi'actiotis
as

"

the fourth

y?Xy?4-l Xy?4-2xa^

2^"+^

formula

"

find the series

we

na
j.ny.n-^1 Xa*
_1__^

by this

into

its literal part is

and

and

coefficientof the

universally
expanding(x^a)--^into
the binomial

AT""^^
And

is -f

term

The

5.

=3;

that the third

so

is

term

into ;"-*',or

2 j

productof

The
(^r+a)".

"

latter

AlgebraVol. I. p. 179 (2nd.Ed. Lond. 1810) there isa material

stead
of the
In the numerators
in the delivery
of this formula.
error
terras^inneither
which
of "+l, "+2, "c. they are
2, "c.
1,
given
cular
correspondswkti the result of the bin^n^altheorem, nor with the parti*

In Elder's

cases

before

"

"

exhibited.

"

by

iU

(
h^

the^binomial theorem

is

equal to

..'+"".-'+^!f!=^x"'-^
"c.
if

Now

by

the

find

multiplythe

we

product of the two

productsof the other

the

several

for

(*'+")"

for its reciprocal,

shall
we
first terms
be 1, and the
to

formula

of the

terms

of this formula

terms

successively
destroying

terms

la,
each other. Let us exhibit this in a trinomial of each formuit will afford a useful praxisto the student : and let him
as

recollect that

root

same

their
by adding or subtracting

divided

1
T.,

of the

powers

by

-r

7iax'^

"

4-

x""

indices.

n^a^

na

Multiply

multipliedor

are

"

"

+
4^^

all the

Thus

product

of the

would

which

if

terms,
318.

took
rule

another

commonly

to

It

make

no
a

the

of each

given in the

of the cube
and

root

the

depends upon
a-\-x, namely a'^-^Sa^
x-^

of the first term

of this is the

following-

directs to

an
ration
opethat it is of

cube

however

operation.

mial
of the bino-

ax^-^-x^. The

first term

metic
systems of Arith-

troublesome,

of the

the

formida.

practical
utility,It may be needful
few remarks
the grounds of tlie
on
the constitution

and

factors

trinomial

destroyedby

term

extremelytedious

so

of

be

manner

for the extraction

littleor

disappearedexcept 1,

last terms

two

in like

we

The

have

terms

of the

cube
root

root
;

and

3 times

the

second

cube

tei'm, Sa^x^ give^

If there

root.

be

if

for instance

in the root,
of
root

terms

two

the

of tlie

term

second

dividingthe

time^ its square

195

we

thari

terms

more

have

to

extract

determining the first term of the root x^, we divide

second
The
terrii 6x^d
cond
by Sx^,
quotient2xa is the seNow
of the root.
term
terms
consideringthe two

"after
the

found,

x^

subtract

-{-^xa;

the

as

of

cube

the

ascertained

part of the

root,

we

binomial, x^ -{"6x^a'{-l2x'^a^

that

The
-{"Sx^a^y from the given cube.
of which
+ {2x^a^y Sec, the firstterm

remainder

is Sx'^a^

divide

we

by Sx"^^

And
the
quotienta"^ is the third term of the root.
of x'''\-2xa-\-a''
extraction is complete, since the cube
is
found to be justequal to the assignedcube.
By a similar
we
proceed in the extraction of the 4th. root
may
process
of
assigned quantity, (arranged according to the
any
of some
one
letter)by taking the 4th. root of its
powers
for the first term
of the root, and
first term
dividing the
second term
by 4 times the cube of this, for finding tlie
of the root.
second term
Subtractingthen the 4th. power
of the two parts of the root found from the given quantity,
and

the

cube

of the first term

term

of the

decimal

tedious

and

we

by

^"

Then

the cube

perfectcube
nearer

we

^,

as

near

as

process

we

be

to

as

near

to

in

our

we

lyingbetween
approximationsto
O

and

less.

to

find

we

assume
-,

2,

or

and
5
be to
may
for r^
substitution

its root
2

want

placeto

the result of the formula.

of 5

r^

Assume

either greater

a,

Suppose

as

tracting
ex-

little tive
comparabe any number,
a

extract.

in the first

are

approximate
will be

to

nearly.

=::Va
:

may

third

of 5, for instance, to
be insufferably
would

root

desire

we

number

accurate

root

root

of 5

root

the

times

proceed similarlyin

may

cube

determiningthe

objectwith
may
the following
formula.
Let

as

=-X

"

for

root

by

effect the

cube

perfectcube,

and

we

such

placesby

w^hose

cube

And

root.

trouble

more

of the

any higher roots*

But to extract
the

319.
6

of the remainder

first term

divide the

we

Now

the
the
the

might try |, 4"

but of these i is the

nearest*

196

(For the

nearest.

^ubeof

of 4=y,

than

l^s

4" VtS
than 5

more

cube

)
less than

by V

the cube

by -14j

by i|.) Assuming then

of

have

; we

is the
the

exceeds

true

1006

root

true

put |# for

than

would

afford

us

"

less than

(whichis -^

greater than 5) the

-.^^^^H?!

"

If in-

5 oooo

be gtill somewhat

its cube

'

placeof decimals, and

"'

stead of :J,we

1.709990,

by little more

root

4024

5th

the

to

64?

X-=^

+ 2r^

which

-Xrrr-

"

64

i= VV"

r^=:

r=-,

tKe

formula

same

1.709976

though

^,

which

is

ac-

39080721
at least to the

curatelytrue
to

extract

root

2624-125^~L

iv-e have
,

cube

the

131 -f 250
the

cube

And
r=z

we

="

the number

assumed
originally

5^

us

given number,
repeatedoperation. Thus
=

125, which

assume

r=^,

"

to

ceeds 131,'

therefore

and

of

"

formula

5.0.78753, which

Having
pleasureto the
320.

perfectcube
much

only
by^
-^

"

"

which

ex-

in

is true

one

shall

and

we

operationto

to at least the 7th.

thus shewn
cube

shall find the

1000

how

be

v'lSlrr

place of

cimals.
de-

approximate at
of any
root
assignednumber not a
only add that the roots of perfect
we

up to one billion^may
in the following
manner.
facility

numbers,

"^

1000

or

the

ficiently
suf-

necessity
assuming r^
givennumber, let

the

r'^=

taken

of

instead

is less by 6 than

1000

cube

that

the

prevent

10

result

recommend

for r^ should be

the

near

cimals.
de-

by putting

nearer

I would

But

"

placeof

5th.

the

to

nearly
^

100

38

of

381

approximate
"

^ n^Q",.
5.07874

beingtrue

may

rather

or

"^

"

1935
5

381

of 131,

root

"

387^.

"

7th, placeof decimals.

Again,
of 131, putting7-^= 125, r=z5f

may

be

ascertained
We

at once

with
know

in the root, by pointingoff the number

digits
the right hand, and
in periodsof 3 figuresfrom
reckoning as a periodthe left hand digitsthus cut off,
whether
they be one, two, or three. Thus, if the cube
its cube
consist of
consist of 4, 5, or 6 digits,
root
must
its root
2 digits
; if the cube consist of 7, 8, or 9 digits,
the number

of

must

I
)

198

TABLES
L

Of EnglishMoney,

1 Groat.
1 2 Pence
Farthings 1 Penny. 4 Pence
Crown.
1
20 Shillings 1 Pound
1 Shilling.55.
x=.
1 Noble.
{6s. 8d.
Sterling.21 Shillings 1 Guinea.
In Ireland the va1 Marl?.
105.
lue
1 Angel. 13s. 4^.
Scots
of the Penny is le"s in the ratio of 13 : 12.
the
but
in
has
as
same
manner
English;
Money is divided

"

"

twelfth of its value.

one

Thus

Denominations

II, So7?ie Foreign Coins, or

rediiced to
Florin

(=
=

20
45.

4fid,

Ruble

Pistole

(=

Livres)=
(= 10 Rials)=

l".

French

(=24

9d.

1 Qs.

9^,

Sd.

(=

50

Copecs)

Milre

:::^

(=
l\d.

Rupee

reduced

=
=

j"3.

45.

j^l93.

Id.

155.

I65.

to

Gold

(=

100

Attic Talent (=

or

common,

of Money

English.

l^d. aMina

Oboli)

Drachmae)
60 minae)

the Mina and Talent are properly

Golden Stater (= 25 Drachmae)
w^/V/z^.)-a

l\d. A Denarius

Ounce

"

of

IV.

Rials)

(=36

(Note

"

denominations
=

d'Or
lar
SpanishDol-

25. 6d.

III. So7ne ancient Coins, or Denominations

(=

10c?.

Louis

Sol

jBJ, 15s.

Rupee (=4 Pagodas)

Drachma

Stivers)

Sols)=

20

85. 4c?.
5s.

Guilder

45. 6d,

SpanishPistole

75. 6d.

Livres)=

10

of Money

Rix-dollar

Livre Tournois

45. 6d.

Sequin

(=100

id.

8d.

English,

Ducat

Is. 9d.

Stivers) =

(=12Deniers^
a

6d,

Is.

Scots =15.

Pound

(=

Asses

10

=
Sestertii)
7-J:(^.

EnglishWeights Avoirdupois.
"

16 Drams.

Quartci'.112lbs.(=

16

Qrs.)=

Pound.
28 lbs. =
Hundred.
20 Ovt. = lTon.

oz.

V.

Troy

Trot^ Weight

V.

Gold, K^ilver,
Jexvels,
for "weighing

-used

"

199

Silk,

all

a?id

Liquors*

Penny-weight (dwt.) 20dwts. ^l Ouncfe.

The
1 Pound.
12 oz.
followingalso used by Apothecaries
20
Grains
medicines,
in compounding their
8 Drams
1 Ounce.
1 Dram.
1 Scruple. 3 Scruples
is to the Avoirdupois Pound
the troy Pound
Note,
dupois
is to the AvoirThe
Troy Ounce
nearlyas 88 : 107.
Ounce
nearly as 80 : 73.
15 dwts. Troy.
1 lb. 3 oz.
Paris Pound
The
dwts.
=19
The
Paris Ounce
16i:gr. Troy.
Grains

24

"

"

"

The
14

Libra

Roman

Unciae)

(=12

10

dwts.

18

oz.

Troy, nearly.

gr.

Roman

The

Attic

Uncia

The
The

Drachma

dwts.

10

(=100

gr.

Attic Talent

The

English Avoirdupois Ounce.

17
gr. nearly.
1 lb. 1 oz.
10
Drachmae)

dwts.

Mina

Attic

the

Minae)

(=60

1b.

67

5 dwts.

oz.

Troy.
VI.
Inches

12
1

Foot.'

B\ Yards

Fathom.

of Length:,

Measures

Feet

\ Pole.

Yard.

40

Poles

(=
Yards)

Furlong. 8 Furlongs (= 1760

2240
I League." The
3 Miles
Irish Mile
therefore is to the English as 14 : 11,
The
Roman
Foot
llf Inches nearly.
=

Yards)

220

Yards

Yards

Mile.
5

arid

Roman

5
8

Stadia

the

Grecian

Inch.

Foot

The

"

Persian

French

Toise

German

In

measuring Cloth,

League
6

Nails

Flemish.
1

1 Milliare:

967

as

exceeded

Mile

English

Passus

125

which

1056

or

Stadium.
fore
there-

was

nearly as

25.

The
an

1 Passus.

Passus)

1000

(=

to
23

Feet

French

Mile

the

English by nearly -j^ of

30 Stadia.
Parasang
2^^ English Miles nearly.
Feet, or 6f English Feet nearly.
English. A Russian Verst
^ Do.
=

"

"c.

2^ Inches

1 Nail

; and

fore
there-

1 Ell
3 Quarters =
Quarter of a Yard.
Quarters = 1 Ell English.4 Quarters, 1} Inch.
=

Ell Scots.
Ill

Land-measurinff,

In

of which

Acre

Statute

Poles

Square
English by

160

rr

the

Beery
=

Quart.

Gallons

36

Gallons

2 Tierces

Pipes

cubic Inches
The

the

The

7 Pints

r=

Pints

Cyathus

:;=

8
=r

Gallon.

Bushels
1

Last.

Cubic

"

In Ale

"

Gallons)

54

(=

and

Hogsheads

the

282

Sextarius
3

Measure

Gallons

Pint

Pints

the

4t

1 Pint.

-/^ Pint

contains

Pint, Wine

the Urna

Gallon

231.

Pint

the

f Pint.

Pottle.

1 Peck.

Quarters

Cotyle =

Measure.

Quarts

Quarter.

the Winchester

Note"

Gallon.

Barrel

Ale

-rV

=:

Gallons

Winey

the

"

Quart.

=:

French

1 Puncheon.

yill. Ihy
2

The

"

7 Gallons

==

Attic

exceeds

nearly.

Gallon

Wine

Cyathi)

Congius
Amphora

the

Note

"

Cyathus

(=

Irish Acre

Spirits^"c. 42
Gallons) = 1 hogsIt Tierce (=63
head.
2
1
Puncheon,
Hogsheads =
Pipe.

the

Roman

Hemina

The

"

an

Square Yards

4840

Tun."In

Tun.

Feet

Barrel.

Tierce.

make

9| Perches

2 Barrels

Butts

=r

Breadth

Quarts

4
1

Hogshead.
Butt.

4? in

Length :
English

in

for Liquids,
of Capacity-"

Measures

=:

Feet

1^ English Acre.

VIL
Pints

16i

Roods.

Roods

arj^ent contains

and

Square

43560

Perch

Length

in

40

200

Pecks
1

Wey,

Bushel

Pottles

Bushel.

Weys

contains

2250

Inches.
,

The

Roman

The

Attic

Modius
Choenix

Peck,

z=z

Pint

or

Gallons.

the Medimnos

Bush.

Quarts.
IX.
Seconds

60

Hours

Juliiin Year
Year

365

Day.
"

52

Days,

Time.

Minute.
7

Days

Weeks,
5

Minutes

60
1

Hours,

FINIS.

Week.

Day,
4

365^
Flours

minutes,

48

"

hour.

24

Days
The

Seconds.

Solar

CONTENTS.

Page
I.

Chap.

Nature

Notation,

meral

of
Princi-ples

Its

Advantages above

Notation,

Duodecimal

hers*

II.

ceeding from

Right

to

Left,

III.

Chap.

Sign

for
Chap.
-f-.

Exercise
IV.

*Chap.

and

Division

of

of Proof,

V.

Methods

proving Division^
hers 3, 9,

Chap.
and

VI.

Division,

of Proof
=.

Questions

Powers.

JO

Number

hy

Sign

greater

Qtiestioiis
for Exercise
abbreviated

continued.

Practical

of jpro*

Pi^inciples
of Division,

smaller

of

11, ^c.

"

Nature

Num^

of Midtiplicatio7i"
Princijples

of Proof

Methods

Methods

and

Nature

Reason

Methods

Signs -^-^

Examples for Practice.

a?id

"

Subtraction,

and

Addition

Nu^

the Greek

to the Magnitude of high

Insensibility

Roman,

Chap.

the Arabic

and

1^

Operation^ and

Propertiesof

of

the Num^
23

Application of Multiplication

Qiiestioiis
far Exercise

30

Chap,

262

"ibNTENTS^.

Page
Chap.

VII.

Doctrine

compound.

Method

Abbreviations..

Ratio

of

"

direct

inverse

"

ofjtndinga fourth Proportional.

Qiicstiojis
for ILxerxise

Chap.

VIII.

Chap.

IX.

Chap.

X.

Chap.

XI.

Chap.

XII.

Arithmetical

Chap.

XIII.

Practical

On

the Nature

Addition and

SubtMction

the Nature

41

Fractions

of

of Decimal

32

of Fractions

and Division of
Midtiplication
On

"

45

Fractions

Fractions

47

Decimals

on
Ojferations

the

Application of

51

53

Ride

of

Proportion to Interest,Discount, Exchange, Fellow-

ship,Eqiiationof Payments, %c
Examples for Practice

-56

Chap.

XIV.

and

Origin

AlgebraicNotation.,
Chap.

gehraicAddition
Chap.

XVI.

Chap.

XVII.

Fractions

Chap.

into

Series
infinite

XX.

Chap.

XXI.

Chap.

Arithmetical

Geometrical

XXII.

XXIII.

Resolution

Simpleand Qiuidratic

81

the

Fractional

on

least

common

89

93

"

of the Squoi^eRoot

99

NegativeIndices.
-

Progression

of

Fractional and

Reduction

78

Progression

Extraction

72

of fnding

of Surds
Chap.

Algebraic Operations

Multiple

Chap.

Sid)traction

Method

6^

-"

Negative Qiiantities. Al-

Algebraic Division.

Quantities.

XIX.

AlgebraicMultiplication

XVIII.

Chap.

and

Advantages of Algebra.

Definitions

Positive and

XV.

65

"*

culation
Cal105

of AlgebraicEquations^
-

110

*Chap.

205

CONTENTS*

Page
XXIV.

*ChAP.

involving

XXVII.

*Chap.

XXVIII.

two

or

EquationSf

more

Algebra

of

the

to

134"

On

170

Cube

the

Chapters
Student,

included

Permutations

On

the

"

passages

Solutio?i

Exercise

for

TABLES

by

129

Problems

of

the

12^
.

Quantities

Application

*Chap.

omitted

se*

Qjuestions

The

the

exterminating

CCj"

Qim*

of

of

unknown

Arithmetical

of

Roots

Reduction

XXVI.

Chap.

of

several

and

Forms

Method

Term

XXV.

Chap.

the

Eqtmtions.

dratic
cond

On

the

and

and

Binomial

higher

"

in

between

180

traction
Ex-

Roots

134"
"

with
the

Combinations

Tlieorem.

first

Crotchets

198

marked

an

Asterisk

reading
[

may
;

],

a*

be

well
as

The
the

followingWorks,

Publishers

The

by

tlie same

Author,

sold

are

by

First, Second,

Sixth

Books

general

Terms

and

demonstrated

in

of Euclid's
with

ments,
Ele-

Notes

and

Observations.
A

Commentary

under-graduates

into

the

in

College :

of

Compendium
University

Address

An

subjoined

are

the

on

to

and

of

Dublin

Student

young

full and

Logic

plain

on

Account

used

by

which

to

his

trance
En-

of

the

Metres.

Horatian

Also, speedilywill be published

An
the

Essay

Royal

twation

obstruct

Cjf

Edition

Irish

of
each

The

of

on

the

following Prize-question,proposed by

Academy,

Science

and

that

WJiether

of

and

Polite

Jicm

far

Literature

the

CuU

assist

other.

seventh^
Livy

and

lasty Volume^

is in the Press,

of

Mr.

Walkf"r's

or