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Theories and Models of Supervision

AIPC April 11, 2011

Ultimately, clinical supervision is a process of individualised learning for

supervisees working with clients. The systematic manner in which this
individualised learning or supervision is applied is usually contained and
presented in the form of a model. Knowledge of supervision models is
considered fundamental to ethical supervision practice. There are three primary
models of supervision that are presented below. These are: (1) developmental
models, (2) integrated models, and (3) orientation-specific models.
Developmental Model
The underlying premise of developmental models of supervision is the notion
that individuals are continuously growing. In combining our experience with
hereditary predispositions we develop strengths and growth areas. The
objective of supervision from this perspective is to maximise and identify
growth needed for the future. Thus, it is typical to be continuously identifying
new areas of growth in a life-long learning process as a clinical practitioner.
Studies revealed that behaviour of supervisors changed as supervisees gained
experience, and the supervisory relationship also changed. There appeared to
be a scientific basis for developmental trends and patterns in supervision. In

general, the developmental model of supervision defines progressive stages of

supervisee development from beginner to expert, with each stage consisting of
discrete characteristics and skills.
For example, supervisees at the beginner stage would be expected to have
limited skills and lack confidence as counsellors, while middle stage supervisees
might have more skill and confidence and have conflicting feelings about
perceived independence/dependence on the supervisor. A supervisee at the
expert end of the developmental spectrum is likely to utilise good problemsolving skills and be deeply reflective and intuitive about the counselling and
supervisory process (Haynes, Corey, & Moulton, 2003, Jones, 2008).
Developmental supervision is based on the following two assumptions:
1.

In the process of becoming competent, the counsellor will progress

though a number of stages that are qualitatively different from each other;

2.

Each stage requires a qualitatively different environment for optimum

growth to occur.

Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) described a developmental model with three

levels of supervisees: beginning, intermediate, and advanced. Within each level
the authors noted a trend. The beginner supervisee would tend to function in a
rigid, shallow, imitative way and then over time move toward more
competence, self-assurance, and self-reliance.
Areas of focus in the observation of development includes the supervisees
development in (1) self-and-other awareness, (2) motivation, and (3) autonomy.
For example, a beginner psychotherapist who was beginning supervision for the
first time would tend to be relatively dependent on the supervisor for client
diagnoses and in establishing plans for therapy.
Intermediate supervisees would tend to have dependence on their supervisors
for only the more difficult clients. Resistance, avoidance, and/or conflict is
typical of the intermediate stage of supervisee development, because selfconcept is easily threatened. Advanced supervisees function far more
independently, seeking consultation when appropriate, and take responsibility
for their correct and incorrect decisions.
For supervisors employing a developmental approach to supervision, the key is
to accurately identify the supervisees current stage of development and
provide feedback and support appropriate to that developmental stage. While

doing this, it is also important to facilitate the supervisees progression to the

next stage (Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987).
To this end, a supervisor uses an interactive process, often referred to as
scaffolding which encourages the supervisee to use prior knowledge and skills
(the scaffold) to guide them on to the development of new knowledge and skills.
As the supervisee approaches mastery of each stage of development, the
supervisor gradually moves the scaffold to incorporate knowledge and skills
from the next stage. Throughout this process, not only is the supervisee
exposed to new information and counselling skills, the interaction between
supervisor and supervisee also fosters the development of advanced critical
thinking skills and effective reflective practice principles.
It is important to note that while the developmental process of the supervisee
appears linear, it is not. This is because in reality a supervisee may be in
different stages simultaneously. For example, the supervisee may be
predominately at an intermediate level overall, but experience the attributes of
a beginner when faced with a new, more complex and challenging client
situation. The table below offers an overview of the typical attributes found
within each of the three primary levels of development within the supervisee.
The Developmental Model for Supervision (Stoltenberg, McNeill, & Delworth,
1998)
Beginner

Intermediate

Motivation

Stable motivation

Doubts are still p

Focus on skill acquisition.
Very high motivation and high
anxiety.

Motivation wavers.
Increased complexity of cases exposed
to can result in shaken confidence.

Has confidence in
thus is developin
to ongoing profes

Professional iden

Autonomy
Needs high structure with minimal
challenge.
Dependent on supervisor.

Dependency-autonomy conflict.

Increased self-effi

Can be quite assertive and begin to

follow his/her own agenda.

Is clearer about w
supervision and c

Functions more independently and may

Knows his or her

only want requested specific help. Other

times can be evasive and dependent.

Retains responsib
Awareness
Focus is now more on the client.

Accepts own stre

Limited self-awareness.
Very high self focus with high
anxiety about grades and strengths.
Finds it difficult to pick up subtle
nuances of the psychotherapeutic
environment.
Unable to distinguish between the
more pertinent and the less relevant
factors in the therapeutic process,
the client and themselves.

Greater understanding of clients issues

and worldview becomes evident.

Has high empath

Can start to pick up on key factors in the

psychotherapeutic process with a sense
of knowing in a general sense what to
focus on and what is irrelevant.

An increasing aw
pertinent things
client, the psycho
and them selves

May be enmeshed or confused and lose

effectiveness.

Is far less sidetra

Balance is an issue.

Integrated model
Because up to 75% of psychotherapists view themselves as eclectic,
integrating several theories into a consistent practice, some models of
supervision have been designed to employ a multiple therapeutic orientation
while others aim to be used across any theoretical orientation. For example,
Bernards Discrimination Model purports to be a-theoretical (Bernard &
Goodyear, 1992).
The Discrimination model was originally developed as a conceptual framework
to assist new supervisors in organising their supervisory efforts. The
Discrimination model provides a tangible structure for the supervisor to use in
selecting a focus for supervision and in determining the most effective way to
deliver particular supervision interventions (Luke & Bernard, 2006).
Specifically, the Discrimination Model combines three supervisory roles of
teacher, counsellor and consultant with three key areas of process,
conceptualisation and personalisation. For example, supervisors might take on
the role of teacher when they directly lecture, instruct, and inform the
supervisee. They might then act as counsellors when assisting supervisees
through blind spots, countertransference, vicarious reactions and other personal
issues related to the psychotherapeutic process.

Uses themselves
sessions.

When supervisors relate as colleagues during supervision they might act in a

consultancy role. This model also emphasises the care supervisors must take
towards an unethical reliance on dual relationships. For example, the purpose of
adopting a counsellor role in supervision is to identify unresolved issues of a
personal nature that may cloud the supervisees judgements in their
therapeutic relationship. However, if these issues require ongoing counselling,
supervisees should be referred on to another therapist rather than work on
those personal issues with their supervisor.
The Discrimination Model also highlights three areas of focus the supervisor
should have with the supervisee to promote effective skill building: therapeutic
process, case conceptualisation, and personalisation. Process issues are the first
area of focus that aims to examine the process of supervision as well as the
process adopted by the supervisee in their practice.
For example: Is the supervisee reflecting the clients emotion? Did the
supervisee reframe the situation? Could the use of paradox help the client be
less resistant? Conceptualisation issues include how well supervisees
conceptualise their case in the context of relevant theory and the presenting
issues and problems of the client. It examines how well the supervisee can
move from the bigger picture of the case to specific issues in the therapeutic
process with the client. Such things clarify reasons supervisees have for the
approach taken and skills applied with the client and the approaches and skills
they may apply in the future.
Personalisation issues pertain to the supervisees use of themselves in therapy
to ensure all involved are congruent, open and present in the relationship. For
example, usual body language might be intimidating to some clients, or a
supervisee might not notice the client is physically attracted to them.
Ultimately, the Discrimination Model is primarily a training model. It assumes
that each of us will have habits of attending to one supervisory role over
another and to focus on one area of supervisory practice over another. Thus it
encourages a broader focus of approach from the supervisor than what they
might otherwise apply naturally.
Orientation Specific Models
Counsellors who adopt a particular brand of therapy (e.g. Adlerian, solutionfocused, behavioural, etc.) often believe that the best supervision is the

analysis of practice for true adherence to the therapy. Systemic therapists argue
that supervision should be therapy-based and theoretically consistent.
One advantage of the psychotherapy-based supervision model is found in the
context of the supervisee and supervisor sharing the same theoretical
orientation, thus allowing modelling to be maximised as the supervisor teaches
the supervisee on the specific theory and how it is integrated in to the practice
skills specifically (Bernard and Goodyear, 1992). Issues can arise between the
supervisor and supervisee in the context of an orientation specific approach to
supervision particularly if they do not share the same theoretical orientation.
Psychoanalytic: Psychoanalytic supervision is by far the oldest form of
psychotherapeutic supervision. This is because from its inception,
psychoanalysis has addressed the concept of supervision. A psychoanalytic
orientation to supervision encourages the supervisee to be open to the
experience of supervision that aims to mirror therapy whereby the supervisee
learns from the supervisor the analytic attitude that includes such attributes as
patience, trust in the process, interest in the client, and respect for the power
and tenacity of client resistance.
An assumption of the psychoanalytic supervision model is that the most
effective way a supervisee can learn these qualities is for them to experience
these qualities from their supervisor in the supervisory relationship. Ekstein and
Wallerstein (cited in Leddick & Bernard, 1980) described psychoanalytic
supervision as occurring in four stages; the opening stage, the mid-stage, the
working stage and the last stage. During the opening stage, the supervisee and
supervisor size each other up for signs of expertise and weakness. This leads to
each person attributing a degree of influence or authority to the other.
The mid-stage is characterised by conflict, defensiveness, avoiding, or
attacking. Resolution of the mid-stage issues leads to a working stage for
supervision. The last stage is characterised by a more silent supervisor
encouraging supervisees in their tendency toward independence.
Behavioural: Behavioural supervision views client problems as learning
problems. Therefore, supervision applies a process that requires two skills.
These skills are: 1) being able to identify the problem, and (2) being able to
select the appropriate learning techniques to train the client in how to deal with
the problem (Leddick & Bernard, 1980).
Supervisees are encouraged to participate as co-therapists with the supervisor
to maximise modelling and to increase the proximity of reinforcement when
gaining clarity on what the problem is for the client and what are the most

appropriate learning techniques to apply when teaching the client how to deal
with the problem. Supervisees are often encouraged to engage in behavioural
rehearsal prior to working with clients.
Interestingly, Carl Rogers (cited in Leddick & Bernard, 1980) drew from
behavioural principles when outlining a program of graduated experiences for
supervision in client-cantered therapy. While group therapy and a practicum
was at the core of the supervisees experiences, the most important aspect of
supervision Rogers suggested was in the supervisors modelling of the
necessary and sufficient conditions of empathy, genuineness, and unconditional
positive regard.
Client Centred: Carl Rogers was concerned with the concept of supervision for
trainee counsellors, as he observed from early recordings of therapy sessions
that the usual forms of learning were not effective in teaching student
counsellors the non-directive approach of person centred therapy. Supervisors
soon became aware of this.
The client centred therapeutic approach rests on the fundamental belief in a
phenomenological healing process activated by the core conditions or the
therapeutic relationship. Thus the issue of giving advice or instruction becomes
unessential. Therefore, client centred supervision is about stepping into the
experience of the supervisee who chooses to be influenced by the supervisory
relationship.
The successful client centred supervisor must therefore have a profound trust in
the supervisee, believing they have both the ability and motivation to grow and
explore the therapy and themselves. This trust given to the supervisee must
mirror the trust that the supervisee should have with their clients or where they
are then encouraged by the experience to do likewise. One challenge that can
occur with pure client centred supervision is when the supervisee does not
genuinely believe the client has the ability to move toward self-actualisation.
Cognitive Behavioural: Cognitive-behavioural supervision, proceeds on the
assumption that both adaptive and maladaptive behaviours are learned and
maintained through their consequences. As a result, supervision from a CBT
orientation will be more systematic in approach to supervision goals and
processes than some of the other supervisory perspectives. It consists of
building rapport, skill analysis and assessment of the supervisee, setting goals
(for the supervisee), implementation of strategies, follow-up and evaluation.

CBT supervisors accept part of the responsibility for supervisee learning, but
define the potential of the supervisee in the context of their ability to learn, and
therefore supervision is concerned with the extent to which the supervisee is
able to demonstrate technical competency.
Microskill focused: Most supervisees require instruction in the many counselling
strategies at some point in their supervision. During these instances the
supervisor will most likely use the four steps of micro-training: 1) teach one skill
at a time, 2) present the skill using modelling or demonstration, 3) practise the
skill; 4) allow for mastery using ongoing practise and feedback.
References:
1.

Bernard, J. M. and Goodyear, R.K. (1998). Fundamentals of clinical

supervision .Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.

2.

Leddick, G. R. & Bernard, J. M. (1980). The history of supervision: A

critical review. Counsellor Education and Supervision, 27, 186-196.

3.

Stoltenberg, C. D., & Delworth, U. (1987) Supervising counsellors and

therapists. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

4.

Stoltenberg, C., Mc Neil, B., & Delworth, U. (1998). IDM Supervision: An

integrated developmental model for supervising counsellors and therapists.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Source: www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au