GEOLOGY

Abnormal pressure: A subsurface condition in which the pore pressure of a geologic

formation exceeds or is less than the expected, or normal, formation pressure. When
impermeable rocks such as shales are compacted rapidly, their pore fluids cannot always
escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to abnormally high
formation pressures. Excess pressure, called overpressure or geopressure, can cause a well
to blowout or become uncontrollable during drilling. Severe underpressure can cause the
drillpipe to stick to the underpressured formation.
Absolute age: The measurement of age in years. The determination of the absolute age of
rocks, minerals and fossils, in years before the present, is the basis for the field of
geochronology. The measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes, especially uranium,
strontium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to more precisely determine
the age of rock formations. Tree rings and seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can
be counted to determine absolute age. Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages
typically have some amount of potential error and are inexact. Relative age, in contrast, is
the determination of whether a given material is younger or older than other surrounding
material on the basis of stratigraphic and structural relationships, such as superposition, or
by interpretation of fossil content.
Absolute permeability: The measurement of the permeability, or ability to flow or transmit
fluids through a rock, conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. The
symbol most commonly used for permeability is k, which is measured in units of darcies or
millidarcies.
Absolute pressure: The measurement of pressure relative to the pressure in a vacuum,
equal to the sum of the pressure shown on a pressure gauge and atmospheric pressure.
Abyss / Abyssal: Pertaining to the depositional environment of the deepest area of the
ocean basins, the abyss. The depositional energy is low, the abyssal plain is flat and nearly
horizontal, and fine-grained sediments are deposited slowly by waning turbidity currents or
from suspension in the water. The water is thousands of meters deep (> 2000 m) [6520 ft],
so the water is cold and sunlight is minimal.

Accomodation: Sequence stratigraphic term for the amount of space available for sediment
accumulation. Dominant influences on the amount of accommodation, or accommodation
space, include subsidence and eustasy.
Accumulation:
- The phase in the development of a petroleum system during which hydrocarbons migrate
into and remain trapped in a reservoir.
- An occurrence of trapped hydrocarbons, an oil field. (play)

Active margin: A boundary of colliding lithospheric plates. The present subduction zones of
the Pacific Rim, the older mountains of the Alps, and the Himalayas represent active
margins.
Aeolian/eolian: Pertaining to the environment of deposition of sediments by wind, such as
the sand dunes in a desert. Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are removed
easily from wind-blown deposits, eolian sandstones are typically clean and well-sorted.
Aerated layer / weathered layer: The surface or near-surface, unconsolidated sedimentary
layer that has been subject to weathering and whose pores are air-filled instead of liquidfilled. An aerated layer typically has a low seismic velocity.
Aggradation / aggradational: The accumulation of stratigraphic sequences by deposition
that stacks beds atop each other, building upwards during periods of balance between
sediment supply and accommodation.
Alidade: A telescopic surveying device used to construct surface topographic and geologic
maps in the field. The alidade is mounted on a plane table, which has a sheet of paper on
which to draw the map, and an object or location is sighted through the alidade. The edge of
the alidade is aligned in the azimuthal direction of the object or location. The vertical angle
from which elevation of the location can be calculated is measured using the calibrated arc
of the alidade.
Allochthon: A rock mass formed somewhere other than its present location, which was
transported by fault movements, large-scale gravity sliding, or similar processes.
Allochthonous: Pertaining to materials, particularly rock masses, that formed somewhere
other than their present location, and were transported by fault movements, large-scale
gravity sliding, or similar processes. Autochthonous material, in contrast, formed in its
present location. Landslides can result in large masses of allochthonous rock, which typically
can be distinguished from autochthonous rocks on the basis of their difference in
composition. Faults and folds can also separate allochthons from autochthons.
Allogenic: Pertaining to minerals or rock fragments that formed in one location but were
transported to another location and deposited. Clastic sediments in a rock such as
sandstone are allogenic, or formed elsewhere.
Alluvial: Pertaining to the subaerial (as opposed to submarine) environment, action and
products of a stream or river on its floodplain, usually consisting of detrital clastic
sediments, and distinct from subaqueous deposition such as in lakes or oceans and lower
energy fluvial deposition. Sediments deposited in an alluvial environment can be subject to
high depositional energy, such as fast-moving flood waters, and may be poorly sorted or
chaotic.
Alluvium: Material deposited in an alluvial environment, typically detrital sediments that are
poorly sorted.
Anaerobic:
- The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.
- A description of organisms that can survive in the absence of oxygen, particularly bacteria.
Angular unconformity: A surface that separates younger strata from eroded, dipping, older
strata and represents a gap in the geologic record.
Anhydrite: A member of the evaporite group of minerals and the soft rock comprising
anhydrite formed by precipitation of calcium sulfate from evaporation of seawater. Anhydrite
can also form through the dehydration of gypsum, another sulfate mineral found in
evaporites. Anhydrite may occur as a cap rock above salt domes.

Anisotropic / Anisotropy: Predictable variation of a property of a material with the direction

in which it is measured, which can occur at all scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in
physical properties observed in different directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in
seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces is a form of
anisotropy. Often found where platy minerals such as micas and clays align parallel to
depositional bedding as sediments are compacted, anisotropy is common in shales.
Anomaly / Anomalous: An entity or property that differs from what is typical or expected, or
which differs from that predicted by a theoretical model. May be the measurement of the
difference between an observed or measured value and the expected values of a physical
property. Anomalies can be of great interest in hydrocarbon and mineral exploration because
they often indicate hydrocarbon and mineral prospects and accumulations, such as geologic
structures like folds and faults. Geochemical anomalies at the surface of the Earth can also
indicate an accumulation of hydrocarbons at depth. Geophysical anomalies, such as
amplitude anomalies in seismic data and magnetic anomalies in the Earth's crust, can also
be associated with hydrocarbon accumulations.
Anoxic: The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is lacking or absent.
Anticlinal trap: A type of structural hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled by the
presence of an anticline.
Anticline / Anticlinal: An arch-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are upwardly convex.
The oldest rock layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the core progressively
younger rocks occur. Anticlines form many excellent hydrocarbon traps, particularly in folds
with reservoir-quality rocks in their core and impermeable seals in the outer layers of the
fold. A syncline is the opposite type of fold, having downwardly convex layers with young
rocks in the core.
Antithetic fault: A minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set, whose sense of displacement
is opposite to its associated major and synthetic faults. Antithetic-synthetic fault sets are
typical in areas of normal faulting.
Apparent dip: The angle that a plane makes with the horizontal measured in any randomly
oriented section rather than perpendicular to strike.
Appraisal: The phase of petroleum operations that immediately follows successful
exploratory drilling. During appraisal, delineation wells might be drilled to determine the size
of the oil or gas field and how to develop it most efficiently.
Aquifer:
- A body of rock whose fluid saturation, porosity and permeability permit production of
groundwater.
- A water bearing portion of a petroleum reservoir with a waterdrive.
Arenaceous: Describing sandy-textured rock or sediment. Arenaceous does not necessarily
imply silica-rich, but rather particles of sand size, 0.625 to 2 mm, according to the UddenWentworth scale.
Argillaceous: Describing rocks or sediments containing particles that are silt- or clay-sized,
less than 0.625 mm in size. Most have a high clay-mineral content, and many contain a
sufficient percentage of organic material to be considered a source rock for hydrocarbon.
Asphalt: A solid or nearly solid form of bitumen that can melt upon heating and contains
impurities such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. Asphalt forms naturally when the light
components or volatiles of petroleumhave been removed or evaporated.
Asthenoshpere: The relatively plastic layer of the upper mantle of the Earth on which the
tectonic plates of the lithosphere move. The asthenosphere is approximately 200 km [124
miles] thick and, owing to its depth below the Earth's surface, warm (~ 1400 oC) [2640 oF]

but not molten. Here the mantle deforms by plastic flow in response to applied pressures
above 100 MPa [14,500 psi]. This zone is considered coincidental, at least below oceanic
crust, with the low-velocity zone of the upper mantle.
Attitude: The orientation of a planar or linear feature in three-dimensional space. Planar
features that are not horizontal, such as tilted strata, are described by their strike, or
the azimuth of the intersection of the plane with a horizontal surface, and the dip, or the
magnitude of its inclination from a horizontal reference. The trend and plunge of linear
features, such as the axis of a fold, describe the azimuth of the line and its deviation from
horizontal.
Aulacogen: In plate tectonics, a failed rift arm. At the junctions of tectonic plates, three
intersecting lithospheric plates typically are separated by "arms." Arms might be areas of
rifting, convergence or transform faults (similar to a strike-slip fault). The arm along which
the motion that spreads the plates apart ceases is termed the failed arm, or aulacogen.
Spreading or rifting along the other arms of the triple junction can form new oceanic basins,
whereas the aulacogen can become a sediment-filled graben.
Authigenic: Pertaining to minerals or materials that grow in place with a rock, rather than
having been transported and deposited. These include quartz, chlorite and other pore-filling
minerals or cements that grow during diagenesis. Evaporiteminerals are authigenic, or
formed in situ.
Autochthonous / authochthon: Materials, especially rock masses, that formed in their
present location and have not been transported. Fault surfaces can separate indigenous
rocks from allochthonous rocks, although some allochthonous rocks are clearly delineated by
their differing composition.
Axial surface: In folded rocks, the imaginary surface bisecting the limbs of the fold. The axial
surface is called the axial plane when the fold is symmetrical and the lines defined by the
points of maximum curvature of each folded layer, or hinge lines, are coplanar.
Barite: A dense sulfate mineral that can occur in a variety of rocks, including limestone and
sandstone, with a range of accessory minerals, such as quartz, chert, dolomite, calcite,
siderite and metal sulfides. Barite is commonly used to add weight to drilling fluid. Barite is
of significance to petrophysicists because excess barite can require a correction factor in
some well log measurements.
Base map: A map on which primary data and interpretations can be plotted. A base map
typically includes locations of lease or concession boundaries, wells, seismic survey points
and other cultural data such as buildings and roads, with a geographic reference such as
latitude and longitude or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid information. Geologists
use topographic maps as base maps for construction of surface geologic maps.
Geophysicists typically use shot point maps, which show the orientations of seismic lines and
the specific points at which seismic data were acquired, to display interpretations of seismic
data. In the field, geologists can use a plane table and alidade to construct a base map.
Basement: The rock layer below which economic hydrocarbon reservoirs are not expected to
be found, sometimes called economic basement. Basement is usually older, deformed
igneous or metamorphic rocks, which seldom develops the porosity and permeability
necessary to serve as a hydrocarbon reservoir, and below which sedimentary rocks are not
common. Basement rocks typically have different density, acoustic velocity, and magnetic
properties from overlying rocks.
Basin / sedimentary basin: A depression in the crust of the Earth, caused by plate tectonic
activity and subsidence, in which sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins vary from
bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. Basins can be bounded by faults. Rift basins are
commonly symmetrical; basins along continental margins tend to be asymmetrical. If rich
hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and duration of

burial, then a petroleum system can develop within the basin. Most basins contain some
amount of shale, thus providing opportunities for shale gas exploration and production
Bathyal: Pertaining to the environment of deposition and the organisms of the ocean
between depths of 200 m [656 ft], the edge of the continental shelf, and 2000 m [6560 ft].
The bathyal environment is intermediate between the neritic environment and the abyss.
Bed: A layer of sediment or sedimentary rock, or stratum. A bed is the smallest stratigraphic
unit, generally a centimeter or more in thickness. To be labeled a bed, the stratum must be
distinguishable from adjacent beds.
Bed thickness: The thickness of a layer or stratum of sedimentary rock measured
perpendicular to its lateral extent, presuming deposition on a horizontal surface. Because
sediment deposition can occur on inclined surfaces, apparent or measured bed thickness
might differ from true bed thickness. The thickness of a given bed often varies along its
extent.
Bedrock: Solid rock either exposed at the surface or situated below surface soil,
unconsolidated sediments and weathered rock.
Benioff zone / Wadati-Benioff zone: A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes
occur when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in honor of seismologists Kiyoo Wadati
and Hugo Benioff. The dip of the Wadati-Benioff zone coincides with the dip of the
subducting plate. The Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a depth of about 700 km [435 miles]
from the Earth's surface.
Benthic / Benthos: Pertaining to the environment and conditions of organisms living at the
water bottom, or benthos. Also called benthonic.
Bentonite: A material composed of clay minerals, predominantly montmorillonite with minor
amounts of other smectite group minerals, commonly used in drilling mud. Bentonite swells
considerably when exposed to water, making it ideal for protecting formations from invasion
by drilling fluids. Montmorillonite forms when basic rocks such as volcanic ash in marine
basins are altered.
Biostratigraphy / biostratigraphic: The application of plant and animal fossils to date and
correlate strata in order to elucidate Earth history, combining the principles of paleontology
and stratigraphy. In the petroleum industry, biostratigraphy often denotes the use of
terrestrial (pollen and spores) and marine (diatoms, foraminifera, nannofossils) microfossils
to determine the absolute or relative age and depositional environment of a particular
formation, source rock or reservoir of interest.
Bitumen: Naturally-occurring, inflammable organic matter formed from kerogen in the
process of petroleum generation that is soluble in carbon bisulfide. Bitumen includes
hydrocarbons such as asphalt and mineral wax. Typically solid or nearly so, brown or black,
bitumen has a distinctive petroliferous odor. Laboratory dissolution with organic solvents
allows determination of the amount of bitumen in samples, an assessment of source rock
richness.
Bouma sequence: A characteristic sequence of sedimentary structures occurring in
sedimentary rocks deposited in areas of deep water sedimentation by turbidity currents,
which form deposits called turbidites. In theory, a complete Bouma sequence comprises
sediments that fine upwards, consisting of a lowermost layer of coarse, chaotic clastic
sediments deposited under conditions of high depositional energy overlain by successively
finer grained and better stratified sediments like sands and muds deposited under calmer
conditions that are labeled as Units A though E. In practice, however, the chaotic, highenergy nature of turbidite deposition can alter or remove underlying sediments so that
incomplete sequences of sediments typically remain preserved.

Calcite: The crystalline form of calcium carbonate and chief constituent of limestone and
chalk. Calcite reacts readily with dilute hydrochloric acid [HCl], so the presence of calcite can
be tested by simply placing a drop of acid on a rock specimen.
Caliche:
- A crust of coarse sediments or weathered soil rich in calcium carbonate. It forms when limerich groundwater rises to the surface by capillary action and evaporates into a crumbly
powder, forming a tough, indurated sheet called calcrete. Caliche typically occurs in desert
or semi-arid areas. Of particular concern to geophysicists is the difficulty in acquiring good
seismic data when shooting through a layer of caliche.
- A deposit of sodium nitrate that is mined and used for fertilizer in parts of South America.
Cap rock / seal: A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms
a barrier or cap above and around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the
reservoir. A seal is a critical component of a complete petroleum system. The permeability of
a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.
Carbonate:
A class of sedimentary rock whose chief mineral constituents (95% or more) are calcite
and aragonite (both CaCo3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a mineral that can replace calcite
during the process of dolomitization. Limestone, dolostone or dolomite, and chalk are
carbonate rocks. Although carbonate rocks can be clastic in origin, they are more commonly
formed through processes of precipitation or the activity of organisms such as coral and
algae. Carbonates form in shallow and deep marine settings, evaporitic basins, lakes and
windy deserts. Carbonate rocks can serve as hydrocarbon reservoir rocks, particularly if their
porosity has been enhanced through dissolution. They rely on fractures for permeability.
A group of minerals found mostly in limestone and dolostone that includes aragonite,
calcite and dolomite. Calcite is the most abundant and important of the carbonate minerals.
Cataclastic / Cataclasite: Pertaining to a type of metamorphic rock with shearing and
granulation of minerals caused by high mechanical stress during faulting or dynamic
metamorphism, typically during episodes of plate tectonic activity.
Catagenesis: The physical and chemical alteration of sediments and pore fluids at
temperatures and pressures higher than those of diagenesis. Catagenesis involves heating in
the range of 50 to 150C [122 to 302F]. At these temperatures, chemical bonds break
down in kerogen and clays within shale, generating liquid hydrocarbons. At the high end of
this temperature range, secondary cracking of oil molecules can generate gas molecules.
Cement: The binding material in sedimentary rocks that precipitates between grains from
pore fluids. Calcite and quartz are common cement-forming minerals.
Cementation: The process of precipitation of cement between mineral or rock grains and
forming solid clastic sedimentary rock, one phase of lithification.
Chalk: A porous marine limestone composed of fine-grained remains of microorganisms with
calcite shells, coccolithophores, such as the White Cliffs of Dover (UK). The Austin Chalk of
the US Gulf coast is a prolific, fractured oil reservoir that spurred widespread horizontal
drilling activity.
Channel: A linear, commonly concave-based depression through which water and sediment
flow and into which sediment can be deposited in distinctive, often elongated bodies.
Channels can occur in a variety of morphologies, e.g., straight, meandering or braided. In
some areas, coarse sediments can fill channels of streams or rivers that cut through finer
grained sediments or rocks. The close proximity of coarse-grained and fine-grained
sediments can ultimately lead to the formation of stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps.
Chert / Cherty: A sedimentary rock and a variety of quartz made of extremely fine-grained,
or cryptocrystalline, silica, also called chalcedony. The silica might be of organic origin, such
as from the internal structures of sponges called spicules, or inorganic origin, such as

precipitation from solution. The latter results in the formation of flint. Chert can form beds,
but is more common as nodules in carbonate rocks.
Chlorite: A platy, pale green mineral of the mica group of sheet silicates, also considered to
be a type of clay mineral, found in sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks. Chlorite
is a common authigenic mineral lining the pores of sandstones. In some cases, the presence
of authigenic chlorite on sand grains can inhibit the growth of pore-filling cements during
diagenesis and preserve pore space for occupation by hydrocarbons.
Chronostratigraphic chart: A graphic display, with geologic time along the vertical axis and
distance along the horizontal axis, to demonstrate the relative ages and geographic extent
of strata or stratigraphic units in a given area, also known as a Wheeler diagram. In addition,
information from seismic data, well logs and rock samples, and biostratigraphic and
lithostratigraphic information can be shown within each chronostratigraphic unit. A
chronostratigraphic chart can concisely illustrate sequence stratigraphic interpretations.
Chronostratigraphy: The study of the ages of strata. The comparison, or correlation, of
separated strata can include study of their relative or absolute ages.
CI / contour interval: The value of the separation between two adjacent contours. A net pay
isopach map might have a contour interval of 10 feet [3 m], whereas a structure contour
map might have a contour interval of 1000 feet [300 m]. Contour intervals are chosen
according to the map scale and the amount and distribution of control points.
Clastic sediment: Sediment consisting of broken fragments derived from preexisting rocks
and transported elsewhere and redeposited before forming another rock. Examples of
common clastic sedimentary rocks include siliciclastic rocks such as conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone and shale. Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked to form
clastic sedimentary rocks.
Clay : Fine-grained sediments less than 0.0039 mm in size.
A group of rock-forming, hydrous aluminum silicate minerals that are platy in structure and
can form by the alteration of silicate minerals like feldspar and amphibole. Common
examples include chlorite, illite, kaolinite, montmorillonite and smectite. Some clays, such as
montmorillonite, have the tendency to swell when exposed to water, creating a potential
drilling hazard when clay-bearing rock formations are exposed to water-base fluids during
drilling, possibly reducing the permeability of a good reservoir rock. Some clays are used in
drilling fluids to form an impermeable mudcake to isolate a formation from the invasion of
drilling fluid.
The structural difference among clays (smectite, kaolinite, chlorite, illite) determines the
surface area exposed to reservoir fluids or stimulating fluids. Generally, higher surface area
indicates higher reactivity. However, not all the clay present in a rock is reactive. Clays can
be found in pore spaces, as part of the matrix or as grain-cementing material. Authigenic
clays, which grow in the pores from minerals in the connate water, can be pore-filling or
pore-lining. These clays have considerable surface area exposed in the pore and can be
reactive, while detrital clays that are part of the matrix are usually less reactive. Additionally,
clays as cementing, or grain-binding, materials may react with water or acid to disaggregate
the formation if they are not protected by quartz overgrowths.The most common clays that
create clay problems are kaolinite, smectite, illite and chlorite. These minerals can be
treated using hydrofluoric acid [HF].
Clean: Pertaining to a sedimentary rock, such as sandstone or limestone, that contains only
minimal amounts of clay minerals. Clean reservoir rocks typically have better porosity and
permeability than dirty rocks whose pores are clogged with fine clay particles. Clean and
dirty are qualitative, descriptive terms.
Closure:
- The vertical distance from the apex of a structure to the lowest structural contour that
contains the structure. Measurements of both the areal closure and the distance from the

apex to the lowest closing contour are typically incorporated in calculations of the estimated
hydrocarbon content of a trap.
- The area, or areal closure, included in the lowest closing contour of a trap. Measurements of
both the areal closure and the distance from the apex to the lowest closing contour are
typically incorporated in calculations of the estimated hydrocarbon content of a trap.
Coal: A carbon-rich sedimentary rock that forms from the remains of plants deposited as peat
in swampy environments. Burial and increase in temperature bring about physical and
chemical changes called coalification. Because of the organic origin of coal, it cannot be
classified as a mineral. The main types of coal, anthracite, bituminous coal and lignite, can
be distinguished by their hardness and energy content, which are affected by their organic
content as well as their conditions of formation. Natural gas associated with coal, called coal
gas or coalbed methane, can be produced economically from coal beds in some areas. In
some basins coals form source rocks.
Collision: An interaction of lithospheric plates that can result in the formation of mountain
belts and subduction zones. The collision of two plates of continental lithosphere, known as
an A-type collision, can produce high mountains as rocks are folded, faulted and uplifted to
accommodate the converging plates, as observed in the Alps and the Himalayas. B-type
collisions, in which oceanic lithospheric plates collide with continental lithospheric plates,
typically produce a subduction zone where the relatively denser oceanic plate descends
below the relatively lighter continental plate, as seen on the Pacific coast of South America.
Compaction: The physical process by which sediments are consolidated, resulting in the
reduction of pore space as grains are packed closer together. As layers of sediment
accumulate, the ever increasing overburden pressure during burial causes compaction of the
sediments, loss of pore fluids and formation of rock as grains are welded or cemented
together.
Competent: Describes a bed that maintains its original thickness during deformation. Often
pertains to relatively brittle, solid strata that deform by faulting, fracturing or folding, rather
than flowing under stress. Incompetent beds are more ductile and tend to flow under stress,
so their bed thickness changes more readily during deformation.
Concentric fold / Parallel fold: The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of
each layer, measured perpendicular to initial undeformed layering, is maintained after the
rock layers have been folded.
Condensate: A low-density, high-API gravity liquid hydrocarbon phase that generally occurs
in association with natural gas. Its presence as a liquid phase depends on temperature and
pressure conditions in the reservoir allowing condensation of liquid from vapor. The
production of condensate reservoirs can be complicated because of the pressure sensitivity
of some condensates: During production, there is a risk of the condensate changing from gas
to liquid if the reservoir pressure drops below the dew point during production. Reservoir
pressure can be maintained by fluid injection if gas production is preferable to liquid
production. Gas produced in association with condensate is called wet gas. The API gravity of
condensate is typically 50 degrees to 120 degrees.
Condensed section: In sequence stratigraphy, a section of fine-grained sedimentary rocks
that accumulated slowly, thereby representing a considerable span of time by only a thin
layer. In condensed sections, fossils and organic, phosphatic and glauconitic material tend to
be concentrated compared with rapidly deposited sections that contain few fossils.
Condensed sections are most commonly deposited during transgressions. In such cases they
are associated with "maximum flooding surfaces" and form important sequence stratigraphic
markers.
Conformable / conformity:
- Parallel strata that have undergone a similar geologic history, deposited in succession
without interruption.
- The nature of the contact between strata deposited in continuous succession

Conformity: A bedding surface separating younger from older strata, along which there is no
evidence of subaerial or submarine erosion or of nondeposition, and along which there is no
evidence of a significant hiatus. Unconformities (sequence boundaries) and flooding surfaces
(parasequence boundaries) pass laterally into correlative conformities, or correlative
surfaces.
Connate water: Water trapped in the pores of a rock during formation of the rock. The
chemistry of connate water can change in composition throughout the history of the rock.
Connate water can be dense and saline compared with seawater. Formation water, or
interstitial water, in contrast, is simply water found in the pore spaces of a rock, and might
not have been present when the rock was formed. Connate water is also described as fossil
water.
Consolidated / consolidation: Pertaining to sediments that have been compacted and
cemented to the degree that they become coherent, relatively solid rock. Typical
consequences of consolidation include an increase in density and acoustic velocity, and a
decrease in porosity.
Contour: A line on a map that represents a constant value of the parameter being mapped.
This line includes points of equal value and separates points of higher value from points of
lower value. Contours are commonly drawn on maps to portray the structural configuration
of the Earth's surface or formations in the subsurface. For example, structure maps contain
contours of constant elevation with respect to a datum (such as sea level). Contours are also
used to interpret subsurface configurations of rock bodies in areas of limited control, such as
drawing contours of the thickness of a common rock unit in several widely separated wells to
extrapolate its thickness in a nearby undrilled location. The act of drawing contours.
Contour map: A map displaying lines that include points of equal value and separate points
of higher value from points of lower value. Common types of contour maps include
topographic contour maps, which show the elevation of the Earth's surface; structure
contour maps, which show the elevation or depth of a formation; and gross or net sand or
pay maps, which show variations in the thickness of a stratigraphic unit, also called
isopachs.
Convection: The density- and heat-driven cycling, transfer or circulation of energy through
which material initially warms up and becomes relatively less dense, then rises, cools and
becomes relatively denser, and finally sinks. As a consequence of convection, material can
turn over repeatedly in a convection cell. Within the Earth, radiogenic heating results in
convection appearing in the mantle and might drive plate tectonic motions. Convection also
occurs in the ocean waters and in the Earth's atmosphere.
Conventional reservoir: A reservoir in which buoyant forces keep hydrocarbons in place
below a sealing caprock. Reservoir and fluid characteristics of conventional reservoirs
typically permit oil or natural gas to flow readily into wellbores. The term is used to make a
distinction from shale and other unconventional reservoirs, in which gas might be distributed
throughout the reservoir at the basin scale, and in which buoyant forces or the influence of a
water column on the location of hydrocarbons within the reservoir are not significant.
Convergence: The movement of tectonic plates toward each other, generating
compressional forces and ultimately resulting in collision, and in some cases subduction, of
tectonic plates. The boundary where tectonic plates converge is called a convergent margin.
Core: Innermost layer of the Earth. Studies of compressional and shear waves indicate that
the core makes up nearly 3500 km [2170 miles] of the Earth's radius of 6370 km [3950
miles]. Such studies also demonstrate that because shear waves do not pass through the
outer part of the core (2250 km [1400 miles] thick), it is liquid (only solids can shear). The
inner core is solid and 1220 km [750 miles] thick. The core's iron and nickel composition was
inferred through studies of the Earth's gravitational field and average density. The relatively
low density of the outer layers of the Earth suggests a dense inner layer.

Correlate / correlation:
- To seek a comparison or equivalence. Scientists attempt to compare or match up well log
signatures, chemical signatures, seismic signatures, fossils and rock samples across wide
areas to determine the equivalence, extent, thickness, quality, relative age or other
properties of stratigraphic units and rock bodies.
- A connection of points from well to well in which the data suggest that the points were
deposited at the same time (chronostratigraphic) or have similar and related characteristics.
Craton: A stable area of continental crust that has not undergone much plate tectonic or
orogenic activity for a long period. A craton includes a crystalline basement of commonly
Precambrian rock called a shield, and a platform in which flat-lying or nearly flat-lying
sediments or sedimentary rock surround the shield. A commonly cited example of a craton is
the Canadian Shield.
Crest / Peak: The highest point of a wave, mountain or geologic structure.
Critical moment: The time of maximum depth of burial of a hydrocarbon source rock. The
critical moment is the time of highest probability of entrapment and preservation of
hydrocarbons in a petroleum system-after traps form and hydrocarbons migrate into a
reservoir and accumulate-and mark the beginning of preservation in a viable petroleum
system.
Cross section / Cross-sectional: A diagram of a vertical section through a volume, as
opposed to the surface, "bird's eye," or plan view of a map. Cross sections are useful for
displaying the types and orientations of subsurface structures and formations.
Crude oil: A general term for unrefined petroleum or liquid petroleum.
Crust: The thin, outermost shell of the Earth that is typically 5 km to 75 km thick [3 to 46
miles]. The continental crust comprises rocks similar in composition to granite and basalt
(i.e., quartz, feldspar, biotite, amphibole and pyroxene) whereas the composition of oceanic
crust is basaltic (pyroxene and feldspar). The crust overlies the more dense rock of the
mantle, which consists of rocks composed of minerals like pyroxene and olivine, and the iron
and nickel core of the Earth. The Mohorovicic discontinuity abruptly separates the crust from
the mantle; the velocity of compressional waves is significantly higher below the
discontinuity. The crust, mantle and core of the Earth are distinguished from the lithosphere
and asthenosphere on the basis of their composition and not their mechanical behavior.
Cubic packing: The arrangement in space of uniform spheres (atoms and molecules in
mineral crystals or grains in clastic sedimentary rocks) that results in a cubic material
structure. Cubic packing is mechanically unstable, but it is the most porous packing
arrangement, with about 47% porosity in the ideal situation. Most sediments are not uniform
spheres of the same size, nor can they be arranged in a cubic structure naturally, so most
sediments have much less than 47% porosity.
Dead oil: Oil at sufficiently low pressure that it contains no dissolved gas or a relatively thick
oil or residue that has lost its volatile components.
Decollement: A fault surface parallel to a mechanically weak horizon or layer, or parallel to
bedding, that detaches or separates deformed rocks above from undeformed or differently
deformed rocks below. Decollements, or decollement surfaces, are typical of regions of
thrust faulting such as the Alps.
Deep-water play: Exploration activity located in offshore areas where water depths exceed
approximately 600 feet [200 m], the approximate water depth at the edge of the continental
shelf. While deep-water reservoir targets are geologically similar to reservoirs drilled both in
shallower present-day water depths as well as onshore, the logistics of producing
hydrocarbons from reservoirs located below such water depths presents a considerable
technical challenge.

10

Delta / deltaic: An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing sediment-laden

current as it enters an open or standing body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As
a river enters a body of water, its velocity drops and its ability to carry sediment diminishes,
leading to deposition. The term has origins in Greek because the shape of deltas in map view
can be similar to the Greek letter delta. The shapes of deltas are subsequently modified by
rivers, tides and waves. There is a characteristic coarsening upward of sediments in a delta.
The three main classes of deltas are river-dominated (Mississippi River), wave-dominated
(Nile River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient deltas contain some of the largest
and most productive petroleum systems.
Density: Mass per unit of volume. Density is typically reported in g/cm 3 (for example, rocks)
or pounds per barrel (drilling mud) in the oil field.
Depocenter: The area of thickest deposition in a basin.
Deposit: Sediments that have accumulated, usually after being moved by wind, water or ice
(n). The action of moving sediments and laying them down (vt)
Depositional energy: The relative kinetic energy of the environment. A high-energy
environment might consist of a rapidly flowing stream that is capable of carrying coarsegrained sediments, such as gravel and sand. Sedimentation in a low-energy environment,
such as an abyssal plain, usually involves very fine-grained clay or mud. Depositional energy
is not simply velocity. For example, although glaciers do not move quickly, they are capable
of carrying large boulders.
Depositional environment: The area in which and physical conditions under which
sediments are deposited, including sediment source; depositional processes such as
deposition by wind, water or ice; and location and climate, such as desert, swamp or river.
Depositional system: The three-dimensional array of sediments or lithofacies that fills a
basin. Depositional systems vary according to the types of sediments available for
deposition as well as the depositional processes and environments in which they are
deposited. The dominant depositional systems are alluvial, fluvial, deltaic, marine, lacustrine
and eolian systems.
Detrital / detritus: Pertaining to particles of rock derived from the mechanical breakdown of
preexisting rocks by weathering and erosion. Detrital fragments can be transported to
recombine and, through the process of lithification, become sedimentary rocks. Detrital is
usually used synonymously with clastic, although a few authors differentiate between
weathering of particles, which forms detrital sediments, and mechanical breakage, which
produces clastic sediments.
Development: The phase of petroleum operations that occurs after exploration has proven
successful, and before full-scale production. The newly discovered oil or gas field is assessed
during an appraisal phase, a plan to fully and efficiently exploit it is created, and additional
wells are usually drilled.
Dextral: Pertaining to a strike-slip fault or right-lateral fault in which the block across the fault
moves to the right. If it moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral. Clockwise
rotation or spiraling is also described as dextral.
Diagenesis:
- The physical, chemical or biological alteration of sediments into sedimentary rock at
relatively low temperatures and pressures that can result in changes to the rock's original
mineralogy and texture. After deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried
beneath successive layers of sediment and cemented by minerals that precipitate from
solution. Grains of sediment, rock fragments and fossils can be replaced by other minerals
during diagenesis. Porosity usually decreases during diagenesis, except in rare cases such as
dissolution of minerals and dolomitization. Diagenesis does not include weathering

11

processes. Hydrocarbon generation begins during diagenesis. There is not a clear, accepted
distinction between diagenesis and metamorphism, although metamorphism occurs at
pressures and temperatures higher than those of the outer crust, where diagenesis occurs
(diagenetic).
- The initial stage of alteration of sediments and maturation of kerogen that occurs at
temperatures less than 50C [122F]. The type of hydrocarbon generated depends on the
type of organic matter in the kerogen, the amount of time that passes, and the ambient
temperature and pressure. During early diagenesis, microbial activity is a key contributor to
the breakdown of organic matter and generally results in production of biogenic gas. Longer
exposure to higher temperatures during diagenesis, catagenesis, and metagenesis generally
results in transformation of the kerogen into liquid hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon gases
Diagenetic porosity : A type of secondary porosity created during diagenesis, commonly
through dissolution or dolomitization or both. Diagenesis usually destroys porosity, so
diagenetic porosity is rare.
Diapir : A relatively mobile mass that intrudes into preexisting rocks. Diapirs commonly
intrude vertically through more dense rocks because of buoyancy forces associated with
relatively low-density rock types, such as salt, shale and hot magma, which form diapirs. The
process is known as diapirism. By pushing upward and piercing overlying rock layers, diapirs
can form anticlines, salt domes and other structures capable of trapping hydrocarbons.
Igneous intrusions are typically too hot to allow the preservation of preexisting
hydrocarbons.
Diatom / diatomaceous : A microscopic, single-celled, freshwater or saltwater algae that
has a silica-rich cell wall called a frustule. Diatoms are so abundant that they can form thick
layers of sediment composed of the frustules of the organisms that died and sank to the
bottom. Frustules have been an important component of deep-sea deposits since Cretaceous
time. Diatomite is the sedimentary rock that forms from diatom frustules.
Diatomite : A soft, silica-rich sedimentary rock comprising diatom remains that forms most
commonly in lakes and deep marine areas. Diatomite can form an excellent reservoir rock.
The Belridge diatomite in the San Joaquin basin, California, USA, is a prolific oil-producing
formation.
Differential compaction : A phenomenon that occurs after the deposition of some
sediments such that different parts of the sedimentary accumulation develop different
degrees of porosity or settle unevenly during burial beneath successive layers of sediment.
This can result from location on an uneven surface, such as near and over a reef structure,
or near a growth fault, or from different susceptibility to compaction. The porosity in a
formation that has experienced differential compaction can vary considerably from one area
to another.
Dike / dyke : An intrusive rock that invades preexisting rocks, commonly in a tabular shape
that cuts vertically or nearly vertically across preexisting layers. Dikes form from igneous
and sedimentary rocks.
Dip : The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from horizontal. True, or maximum, dip is
measured perpendicular to strike. Apparent dip is measured in a direction other than
perpendicular to strike.
Dipping bed : A layer of rock or sediment that is not horizontal.
Dirty : Describing sedimentary rock that contains clay minerals. Even small amounts of clay
minerals in pores can drastically reduce porosity and permeability. Dirty and clean are
qualitative, descriptive terms to describe the relative amount of clay minerals in a rock.
Disconformity : A geologic surface that separates younger strata from older strata and
represents a time of nondeposition, possibly combined with erosion. Some disconformities

12

are highly irregular whereas others have no relief and can be difficult to distinguish within a
series of parallel strata.
Disharmonic : Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers differ or do not
conform to one another. Folds of rock layers that have different mechanical properties or
competence tend to be disharmonic, with a change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength
from one layer to the next.
Displacement : The offset of segments or points that were once continuous or adjacent.
Layers of rock that have been moved by the action of faults show displacement on either
side of the fault surface.
Dolomite :
- A widely-distributed carbonate mineral and chief constituent of dolostone
- The name given to dolomitized limestone.
Dolomitization : The geochemical process in supratidal sabkha areas where magnesium
[Mg] ions from the evaporation of seawater replace calcium [Ca] ions in calcite, forming the
mineral dolomite. The volume of dolomite is less than that of calcite, so the replacement of
calcite by dolomite in a rock increases the pore space in the rock by 13% and forms an
important reservoir rock. Dolomitization can occur during deep burial diagenesis.
Dolostone : A rock composed chiefly (> 90%) of dolomite. The rock is sometimes called
dolomite, but dolostone is preferable to avoid ambiguity between the mineral and rock
names. Replacement dolomite that forms soon after deposition is typically fine-grained and
preserves original sedimentary structures. Recrystallization late in diagenesis produces
coarser grained dolomite, destroys sedimentary structures and results in higher porosity.
Dome: A type of anticline that is circular or elliptical rather than elongate. The upward
migration of salt diapirs can form domes, called salt domes.
Downdip : Located down the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-lying)
hydrocarbon reservoir that contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact
is downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still farther downdip.
Downlap : The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata against a surface or
underlying strata that have lower apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular
geometry of reflections in seismic data in sequence stratigraphy.
Drape: A configuration of layers of rock that has the appearance of a fold, but might form
simply through sagging or differential compaction of layers around a preexisting structure
(such as a reef) or on an uneven surface
Dry gas: Natural gas that occurs in the absence of condensate or liquid hydrocarbons, or gas
that has had condensable hydrocarbons removed. Dry gas typically has a gas-to-oil ratio
exceeding 100,000 scf/STB.
Dry rock: A subsurface rock that lacks contact with aquifers or meteoric water within the
Earth.
Earthquake: The sudden release of accumulated stress in the Earth by movement or
shaking. Earthquakes are caused by tectonic activity, volcanoes and human activity (such as
explosions). Earthquakes occur in the outer 720 km [445 miles] of the Earth, where rocks
tend to break rather than flow under stress. The magnitude of earthquakes is determined
according to the logarithmic Richter scale. An earthquake of magnitude 4.5 can cause
damage, although humans can feel earthquakes as weak as magnitude 2.0. The San
Francisco earthquake of 1906 measured 8.25 on the Richter scale, and the largest ever
recorded were 8.9 magnitude earthquakes in Colombia and Ecuador (1906) and Japan
(1933), and 9.5 in Chile (1960).

13

Effective permeability: The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid when
other immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (e.g., effective permeability of gas in a
gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of the
reservoir affect the effective permeability. In contrast, absolute permeability is the
measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid or phase is present in the
rock.
Effective porosity: The interconnected pore volume or void space in a rock that contributes
to fluid flow or permeability in a reservoir. Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and pore
volume occupied by water adsorbed on clay minerals or other grains. Total porosity is the
total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Effective porosity is
typically less than total porosity.
Elastic / elasticity: Pertaining to a material that can undergo stress, deform, and then
recover and return to its original shape after the stress ceases. Once stress exceeds the yield
stress or elastic limit of a material, permanent deformation occurs and the material will not
return to its original shape once the stress is removed. In some materials, including rocks,
elastic behavior depends on the temperature and the duration of the stress as well as its
intensity.
Elastic deformation: The deformation that can be recovered when an applied stress has
been removed. When the elastic limit of a material has been exceeded, nonrecoverable,
permanent deformation occurs.
Elastic limit / yield point: The yield point, or the point at which a material can no longer
deform elastically. When the elastic limit is exceeded by an applied stress, permanent
deformation occurs.
En echelon: Describing parallel or subparallel, closely-spaced, overlapping or step-like minor
structural features in rock, such as faults and tension fractures, that are oblique to the
overall structural trend.
Erosion / erode:
- The process of denudation of rocks, including physical, chemical and biological breakdown
and transportation (erode)
- The process by which material weathered from rocks is transported by wind, water, ice, or
abrasive solid particles, or by mass-wasting, as in rock falls and landslides.
Estuarine / estuary: A semi-enclosed coastal environment of deposition in which a river
mouth permits freshwater to contact and mix with seawater.
Eustasy / eustatic: Global sea level and its variations. Changes in sea level can result from
movement of tectonic plates altering the volume of ocean basins, or when changes in
climate affect the volume of water stored in glaciers and in polar icecaps. Eustasy affects
positions of shorelines and processes of sedimentation, so interpretation of eustasy is an
important aspect of sequence stratigraphy.
Evaporite / evaporitic: A class of sedimentary minerals and sedimentary rocks that form by
precipitation from evaporating aqueous fluid. Common evaporite minerals are halite,
gypsum and anhydrite, which can form as seawater evaporates, and the rocks limestone and
dolostone. Certain evaporite minerals, particularly halite, can form excellent cap rocks or
seals for hydrocarbon traps because they have minimal porosity and they tend to deform
plastically (as opposed to brittle fracturing that would facilitate leakage).
Exploration / exploratory: The initial phase in petroleum operations that includes
generation of a prospect or play or both, and drilling of an exploration well. Appraisal,
development and production phases follow successful exploration.

14

Facies: The overall characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its origin and differentiate the
unit from others around it. Mineralogy and sedimentary source, fossil content, sedimentary
structures and texture distinguish one facies from another.
Fairway: The trend along which a particular geological feature is likely, such as a sand
fairway or a hydrocarbon fairway. Prediction of conceptual fairways helps explorationists
develop prospects. Along a sand fairway, for example, sand was transported and,
presumably, was deposited, allowing an interpretation of the presence of reservoir rock in
the fairway.
Fault: A break or planar surface in brittle rock across which there is observable displacement.
Depending on the relative direction of displacement between the rocks, or fault blocks, on
either side of the fault, its movement is described as normal, reverse or strike-slip. According
to terminology derived from the mining industry, the fault block above the fault surface is
called the hanging wall, while the fault block below the fault is the footwall. Given the
geological complexity of some faulted rocks and rocks that have undergone more than one
episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish between the various types of faults.
Also, areas deformed more than once or that have undergone continual deformation might
have fault surfaces that are rotated from their original orientations, so interpretation is not
straightforward. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall
along the dip of the fault surface, which is steep, from 45 o to 90o. A growth fault is a type of
normal fault that forms during sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the
downthrown hanging wall than the footwall. A reverse fault forms when the hanging wall
moves up relative to the footwall parallel to the dip of the fault surface. A thrust fault,
sometimes called an overthrust, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip,
typically much less than 45o.
Movement of normal and reverse faults can also be oblique as opposed to purely parallel
to the dip direction of the fault plane. The motion along a strike-slip fault, also known as a
transcurrent or wrench fault, is parallel to the strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks
move sideways past each other. The fault surfaces of strike-slip faults are usually nearly
vertical. A strike-slip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the right is described
as a dextral strike-slip fault. If it moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral. A
transform fault is a particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic
tectonic plate. The actual movement of a transform fault is opposite to its apparent
displacement.
The presence of a fault can be detected by observing characteristics of rocks such as
changes in lithology from one fault block to the next, breaks and offsets between strata or
seismic events, and changes in formation pressure in wells that penetrate both sides of a
fault. Some fault surfaces contain relatively coarse rubble that can act as a conduit for
migrating oil or gas, whereas the surfaces of other faults are smeared with impermeable
clays or broken grains that can act as a fault seal.
Fault trap: A type of structural hydrocarbon trap in which closure is controlled by the
presence of at least one fault surface.
Feldspar: A group of rock-forming silicate minerals that are essential constituents of igneous
rocks and are common in sandstones. Feldspar can weather to form clay minerals. Feldspar
can occur in all three major rock types and forms approximately 60% of the crust of the
Earth.
[alkali feldspar (K,Na)AlSi3O8],[plagioclase feldspar NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8]

Felsic: Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of minerals such as quartz and
feldspar that are relatively light in color and density. The word comes from the terms
feldspar and silica. Granite is a felsic igneous rock.
Fence diagram: A graphical display of three-dimensional data and interpretations in twodimensional perspective view. Geologic cross sections can be displayed in a network to form
a fence diagram. Stratigraphic changes can be displayed clearly in fence diagrams.
Field:

15

- An accumulation, pool, or group of pools of hydrocarbons or other mineral resources in the

subsurface. A hydrocarbon field consists of a reservoir in a shape that will trap hydrocarbons
and that is covered by an impermeable, sealing rock. Typically, the term implies an economic
size
- The surface area above a subsurface hydrocarbon accumulation
Flower structure: Folded structures associated with strike-slip faults. In areas where strikeslip faults occur in converging crust, or transpression, rocks are faulted upward in a positive
flower structure. In areas of strike-slip faulting in diverging crust, or transtension, rocks drop
down to form a negative flower structure. Flower structures can form hydrocarbon traps. The
term "flower structure" reflects the resemblance of the structure to the petals of a flower in
cross section.
Fluid contact: The interface that separates fluids of different densities in a reservoir.
Horizontal contacts are usually assumed, although tilted contacts occur in some reservoirs.
The contact between fluids is usually gradual rather than sharp, forming a transition zone of
mixed fluid. A mixed-fluid reservoir will stratify according to fluid density, with gas at the top,
oil in the middle, and water below. Production of fluids often perturbs the fluid contacts in a
reservoir.
Fluvial: Pertaining to an environment of deposition by a river or running water. Fluvial
deposits tend to be well sorted, especially in comparison with alluvial deposits, because of
the relatively steady transport provided by rivers.
Fold: A wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks deform by bending instead of
breaking under compressional stress. Anticlines are arch-shaped folds in which rock layers
are upwardly convex. The oldest rock layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the
core progressively younger rocks occur. A syncline is the opposite type of fold, having
downwardly convex layers with young rocks in the core. Folds typically occur in anticlinesyncline pairs. The hinge is the point of maximum curvature in a fold. The limbs occur on
either side of the fold hinge. The imaginary surface bisecting the limbs of the fold is called
the axial surface. The axial surface is called the axial plane in cases where the fold is
symmetrical and the lines containing the points of maximum curvature of the folded layers,
or hinge lines, are coplanar. Concentric folding preserves the thickness of each bed as
measured perpendicular to original bedding. Similar folds have the same wave shape, but
bed thickness changes throughout each layer, with thicker hinges and thinner limbs.
Formation:
- The fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A body of rock that is sufficiently distinctive and
continuous that it can be mapped. In stratigraphy, a formation is a body of strata of
predominantly one type or combination of types; multiple formations form groups, and
subdivisions of formations are members.
- A surface land form
Formation water / interstitial water: Water that occurs naturally within the pores of rock.
Water from fluids introduced to a formation through drilling or other interference, such as
mud and seawater, does not constitute formation water. Formation water, or interstitial
water, might not have been the water present when the rock originally formed. In contrast,
connate water is the water trapped in the pores of a rock during its formation, and may be
called fossil water.
Fossil: Preserved remnants of plants or animals, such as skeletons, shells, casts or molds,
tracks or borings, and feces.
Fracture / Natural fracture: A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to
foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along which there has been no movement. A
fracture along which there has been displacement is a fault. When walls of a fracture have
moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint. Fractures can enhance
permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores together, and for that reason, fractures are
induced mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost hydrocarbon flow.

16

Fractures may also be referred to as natural fractures to distinguish them from fractures
induced as part of a reservoir stimulation or drilling operation. In some shale reservoirs,
natural fractures improve production by enhancing effective permeability. In other cases,
natural fractures can complicate reservoir stimulation
Fracture gradient: The pressure required to induce fractures in rock at a given depth.
Fracture premerability: That portion of a dual-porosity reservoirs permeability that is
associated with the secondary porosity created by open, natural fractures. In many of these
reservoirs, fracture permeability can be the major controlling factor of the flow of fluids.
Fracture porosity: A type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic fracturing of rock.
Fractures themselves typically do not have much volume, but by joining preexisting pores,
they enhance permeability significantly. In exceedingly rare cases, nonreservoir rocks such
as granite can become reservoir rocks if sufficient fracturing occurs.
Free gas: The gaseous phase present in a reservoir or other contained area. Gas may be
found either dissolved in reservoir fluids or as free gas that tends to form a gas cap beneath
the top seal on the reservoir trap. Both free gas and dissolved gas play important roles in the
reservoir-drive mechanism.
Free water: Water that is mobile, available to flow, and not bound to surfaces of grains or
minerals in rock.
Fresh water: Water that is low in dissolved salt (< 2000 ppm).
Gas in solution: Gas that is dissolved in a liquid, such as water or oil.
Gas sand: A porous sand layer or sand body charged with natural gas.
Gas-oil contact: A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas occurs
and below which predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so the contact between
gas and oil is transitional, forming a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
Gas-prone: The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to generate gas than oil.
The nature of the organic matter or kerogen in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like
material commonly found in terrestrial source rocks to algal or other marine material that
makes up marine source rocks. Terrestrial source rocks are commonly gas-prone.
Gas-water contact: A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas
occurs and below which predominantly water occurs. Gas and water are somewhat miscible,
so the contact between gas and water is not necessarily sharp and there is typically a
transition zone between 100% gas and 100% water in reservoirs
Generation: The formation of hydrocarbons from a source rock as bitumen forms from
kerogen and accumulates as oil or gas. Generation depends on three main factors: the
presence of organic matter rich enough to yield hydrocarbons, adequate temperature, and
sufficient time to bring the source rock to maturity. Pressure and the presence of bacteria
and catalysts also affect generation. Generation is a critical phase in the development of a
petroleum system.
Geochemistry: The study of the chemistry of the Earth and within solid bodies of the solar
system, including the distribution, circulation and abundance of elements (and their ions and
isotopes), molecules, minerals, rocks and fluids. For geochemists in the petroleum industry,
source rock geochemistry is a major focus. Geochemical techniques can determine whether
a given source rock is rich enough in organic matter to generate hydrocarbons, whether the
source rock has generated hydrocarbons, and whether a particular oil sample was generated
by a given source rock.
Geochronology: The study of the relative or absolute age of rocks, minerals and fossils.
Absolute age is the measurement of age in years, but "absolute" ages typically have some

17

amount of error and are inexact. Relative age, in contrast, is the approximate age of rocks,
fossils or minerals made by determining the age of the material relative to other surrounding
material.
Geologic map: A map showing the type and spatial distribution of rocks at the surface of the
Earth. Rock formations are color-coded and symbols for geological structures are annotated,
so age relationships are evident. Topographic contours and cultural features can also appear
on geologic maps.
Geologic time scale: A chronological chart of the stages and ages of events in the history of
the Earth, from its initial formation to present, that has been constructed on the basis of the
rock record. As is the typical natural position of rocks, the oldest event is at the bottom of
the chart and the youngest is at the top. Both absolute and relative ages of rocks and fossils
supplement interpretations from rocks. The vastness of geologic time and the slowness of
geological processes are difficult to capture in a simple chart.
Geologist: A scientist trained in the study of the Earth. In the petroleum industry, geologists
perform a wide variety of functions, but typically generate prospects and interpret data such
as maps, well logs, outcrops, cuttings, core samples and seismic data.
Geology / geologic / geological: The study of the Earth-its history, structure, composition,
life forms and the processes that continue to change it.
Geomagnetic polarity reversal / magnetic reversal sequence (MRS): The periodic
switching of the magnetic north and south poles of the Earth throughout time, probably as a
result of movement of fluid within the Earth's core. The onset and duration of the many
episodes of reversed polarity have been documented by examining the polarity of magnetic
minerals within rocks of different ages from around the world, particularly in basalts or
igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Oceanic basalts record the Earth's magnetic field as they
solidify from molten lava symmetrically on each side of the midoceanic ridges. These data
have been compiled to create a time scale known as the geomagnetic polarity time scale
(GPTS). In the oil field, borehole recordings allow direct correlation to GPTS and well-to-well
correlations.
Geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS): A record of the onset and duration of the
multitude of episodes of reversal of the Earth's magnetic polarity, or geomagnetic polarity
reversals. The GPTS was developed by thorough study of rocks from around the world,
during which it was observed that rocks from specific time periods contained magnetic
minerals whose orientation was opposite to that of the current magnetic field. By comparing
the patterns of magnetic reversals with those of rocks of known age, the approximate ages
of rocks can be established. This is particularly useful for basalts of the oceanic crust, which
record the Earth's magnetic field as they solidify from molten lava symmetrically about the
midocean ridges. The time scale has been accurately extended back to the Upper Jurassic,
the age of oldest existing oceanic crust.
Geopressure: The pressure within the Earth, or formation pressure. The common oilfield
usage, however, is to indicate anomalous subsurface pore pressure that is higher or lower
than the normal, predicted hydrostatic pressure for a given depth, or the pressure exerted
per unit area by a column of fresh water from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally low
pore pressure might occur in areas where fluids have been drained, such as a depleted
hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pore pressure might occur in areas where burial of
water-filled sediments by an impermeable sediment such as clay was so rapid that fluids
could not escape and the pore pressure increased with deeper burial.
Geopressure gradient: The change in pore pressure per unit depth, typically in units of
pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft) or kilopascals per meter (kPa/m). The geopressure
gradient might be described as high or low if it deviates from the normal hydrostatic
pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft [9.8 kPa/m].

18

Geostatic pressure / lithostatic pressure: The pressure of the weight of overburden, or

overlying rock, on a formation.
Geothermal gradient / temperature gradient / thermal gradient: The rate of increase
in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the geothermal gradient varies from
place to place, it averages 25 to 30 oC/km [15 oF/1000 ft].
Halite (NaCl): A soft, soluble evaporite mineral commonly known as salt or rock salt. Because
salt is less dense than many sedimentary rocks, it is relatively buoyant and can form salt
domes, pillars or curtains by flowing and breaking through or piercing overlying sediments,
as seen in the Gulf of Mexico and the Zagros fold belt. Halite can be critical in forming
hydrocarbon traps and seals because it tends to flow rather than fracture during
deformation, thus preventing hydrocarbons from leaking out of a trap even during and after
some types of deformation.
Hard rock: A term applied to hard rocks, or igneous and metamorphic rocks that are
distinguished from sedimentary rocks because they are typically more difficult to
disaggregate. Well cemented sedimentary rocks are sometimes described as being hard, but
are usually called soft rock. The term can be used to differentiate between rocks of interest
to the petroleum industry (soft rocks) and rocks of interest to the mining industry (hard
rocks).
Hardground: A horizon cemented by precipitation of calcite just below the sea floor. Local
concretions form first in a hardground and can be surrounded by burrows of organisms until
the cement is well developed.
Harmonic: Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers resemble or
conform to one another. Folds of rock layers that have similar mechanical properties or
competence tend to be harmonic, with little change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength
from one layer to the next.
Hiatal / hiatus: A cessation in deposition of sediments during which no strata form or an
erosional surface forms on the underlying strata; a gap in the rock record. This period might
be marked by development of a lithified sediment (hardground) or burrowed surface
characteristic of periods when sea level was relatively low. A disconformity can result from a
hiatus.
Homogeneity / homogeneous: The quality of uniformity of a material. If irregularities are
distributed evenly in a mixture of material, the material is homogeneous.
Horizon: An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock, or a distinctive layer of rock
that might be represented by a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used incorrectly
to describe a zone from which hydrocarbons are produced.
Hydrate / clathrate / gas hydrate :
- An unusual occurrence of hydrocarbon in which molecules of natural gas, typically methane,
are trapped in ice molecules. More generally, hydrates are compounds in which gas
molecules are trapped within a crystal structure. Hydrates form in cold climates, such as
permafrost zones and in deep water. To date, economic liberation of hydrocarbon gases from
hydrates has not occurred, but hydrates contain quantities of hydrocarbons that could be of
great economic significance. Hydrates can affect seismic data by creating a reflection or
multiple.
- To cause the incorporation of water into the atomic structure of a mineral.
Hydration / hydrate: A chemical combination of water and another substance. Gypsum is a
hydrate mineral. Its anhydrous equivalent is anhydrite.
Horst: A relatively high-standing area formed by the movement of normal faults that dip
away from each other. Horsts occur between low-standing fault blocks called graben. Horsts

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can form in areas of rifting or extension, where normal faults are the most abundant variety
of fault.
Hydraulic head: The force per unit area exerted by a column of liquid at a height above a
depth (and pressure) of interest. Fluids flow down a hydraulic gradient, from points of higher
to lower hydraulic head. The term is sometimes used synonymously with hydrostatic head.
Hydrocarbon: A naturally occurring organic compound comprising hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocarbons can be as simple as methane [CH4], but many are highly complex molecules,
and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The molecules can have the shape of chains,
branching chains, rings or other structures. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
The most common hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
Hydrocarbon kitchen / oil kitchen: An area of the subsurface where source rock has
reached appropriate conditions of pressure and temperature to generate hydrocarbons; also
known as source kitchen, oil kitchen or gas kitchen.
Hydrostatic head: The height of a column of freshwater that exerts pressure at a given
depth. Some authors use the term synonymously with hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure: The normal, predicted pressure for a given depth, or the pressure
exerted per unit area by a column of freshwater from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally
low pressure might occur in areas where fluids have been drained, such as a depleted
hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pressure might occur in areas where burial of waterfilled sediments by an impermeable sediment such as clay was so rapid that fluids could not
escape and the pore pressure increased with deeper burial.
Hydrothermal: Pertaining to hot fluids, particularly hot water, or the activity of hot water, or
precipitates thereof. Hydrothermal alteration can change the mineralogy of rock, producing
different minerals, including quartz, calcite and chlorite. Hydrothermal activity is commonly
associated with hot water that accompanies, or is heated by, magma.
Hydrothermal alteration: A change of preexisting rocks or minerals caused by the activity
of hot solutions, such as fluids accompanying or heated by magma. Quartz, serpentine and
chlorite are minerals commonly associated with hydrothermal alteration. Ore deposits, such
as lead (as the mineral galena), zinc (sphalerite), and copper (malachite), can occur in areas
of hydrothermal alteration.
Igneous: Igneous rocks crystallize from molten rock, or magma, with interlocking mineral
crystals. Igneous rocks that crystallize slowly, typically below the surface of the Earth, are
plutonic igneous rocks and have large crystals (large enough to see with the naked eye).
Volcanic igneous rocks crystallize quickly at the Earth's surface and have small crystals
(usually too small to see without magnification). Common examples include granite
(plutonic) and rhyolite (volcanic), diorite (plutonic) and andesite (volcanic), and gabbro
(plutonic) and basalt (volcanic). Igneous rocks typically comprise the minerals quartz, mica,
feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine.
Illite [K1-1.5Al4(Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20)(OH)4]: A group of clay minerals formed during the alteration of
silicate minerals such as mica and feldspar and commonly found in marine shales.
Immature: Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has not fully entered optimal
conditions for generation.
Immiscible: Pertaining to a condition in which two fluids are incapable of forming molecularly
distributed mixtures or attaining homogeneity at that scale. The fluids separate into two
phases with an interface between them. For example, oil and water are immiscible.
Impermeable: Pertaining to a rock that is incapable of transmitting fluids because of low
permeability. Shale has a high porosity, but its pores are small and disconnected, so it is
relatively impermeable. Impermeable rocks are desirable sealing rocks or cap rocks for
reservoirs because hydrocarbons cannot pass through them readily.

20

In situ: In the original location or position, such as a large outcrop that has not been
disturbed by faults or landslides. Tests can be performed in situ in a reservoir to determine
its pressure and temperature.
Incompetent: Pertaining to strata that are relatively ductile and tend to flow under stress
rather than deform by brittle faulting or fracturing. The bed thickness of incompetent beds
tends to change during deformation.
Interstitial gas / pore gas: The gas stored in the pore space of a reservoir rock.
Measurement of interstitial gas and adsorbed gas, which is the gas accumulated on the
surface of another solid material, such as a grain of reservoir rock, allows calculation of gas
in place in a reservoir.
Inversion:
- The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For
example, a normal fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
- The atypical appearance of structural and topographic features, such as an anticline being
exposed in a valley instead of as a hill; also called inverted relief.
Isochore: A contour connecting points of equal true vertical thickness of strata, formations,
reservoirs or other rock units. A map that displays isochores is an isochore map. The terms
isopach and isopach map are incorrectly used interchangeably to describe isochores and
isochore maps. Isopachs and isochores are equivalent only if the rock layer is horizontal.
Isopach: A contour that connects points of equal thickness. Commonly, the isopachs, or
contours that make up an isopach map, display the stratigraphic thickness of a rock unit as
opposed to the true vertical thickness. Isopachs are true stratigraphic thicknesses; i.e.,
perpendicular to bedding surfaces.
Isostasy / isostatic: The state of gravitational equilibrium between the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere of the Earth such that lithospheric plates "float" at a given elevation
depending on their thickness. The balance between the elevation of the lithospheric plates
and the asthenosphere is achieved by the flowage of the denser asthenosphere. Various
hypotheses about isostasy take into account density (Pratt hypothesis), thickness (Airy
hypothesis), and pressure variations to explain topographic variations among lithospheric
plates. The current model consists of several layers of different density.
Isotropic / Isotropy: A quality of directional uniformity in material such that physical
properties do not vary in different directions. In rocks, changes in physical properties in
different directions, such as the alignment of mineral grains or the seismic velocity
measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces, are forms of anisotropy.
Joint: A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a rock along which there has been
no movement parallel to the defining plane. The usage by some authors can be more
specific: When walls of a fracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is
called a joint.
Kaolinite [Al4Si4O10(OH)8]: A type of clay mineral from the kaolin group that forms through the
weathering of feldspar and mica group minerals. Unlike some clay minerals like
montmorillonite, kaolinite is not prone to shrinking or swelling with changes in water
content.
Karst: A type of topography formed in areas of widespread carbonate rocks through
dissolution. Sink holes, caves and pock-marked surfaces are typical features of a karst
topography.
Kerogen: The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter that occurs in source rocks
and can yield oil upon heating. Kerogen is the portion of naturally occurring organic matter
that is nonextractable using organic solvents. Typical organic constituents of kerogen are
algae and woody plant material. Kerogens have a high molecular weight relative to bitumen,
or soluble organic matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen during petroleum generation.

21

Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting of mainly algal and amorphous (but presumably
algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II, mixed terrestrial and marine source
material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III, woody terrestrial source material that
typically generates gas.
Lacustrine: Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or an area having lakes.
Because deposition of sediment in lakes can occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions,
organic-rich source rocks can form in lacustrine environments.
Lamination: A fine layer (~ 1 mm thick) in strata, also called a lamina, common in finegrained sedimentary rocks such as shale, siltstone and fine sandstone. A sedimentary bed
comprises multiple laminations, or laminae.
Lease:
- An area of surface land on which exploration or production activity occurs.
- The act of acquiring acreage for exploration or production activity.
- The contract that conveys the rights to explore and produce from the owner of the mineral
rights (lessor) to a tenant (lessee), usually for a fee and with a specified duration. A lease
usually includes a provision for sharing production.
Limestone: A carbonate sedimentary rock predominantly composed of calcite of organic,
chemical or detrital origin. Minor amounts of dolomite, chert and clay are common in
limestones. Chalk is a form of fine-grained limestone.
Lithification: The process by which unconsolidated sediments become sedimentary rock.
Sediments typically are derived from preexisting rocks by weathering, transported and
redeposited, and then buried and compacted by overlying sediments. Cementation causes
the sediments to harden, or lithify, into rock.
Lithofacies: A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can be distinguished by its
facies or lithology-the texture, mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional environment that
produced it.
Lithologic contact: The surface that separates rock bodies of different lithologies, or rock
types. A contact can be conformable or unconformable depending upon the types of rock,
their relative ages and their attitudes. A fault surface can also serve as a contact.
Lithology: The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain size, texture and color of
rocks.
Lithosphere: The brittle outer layer of the Earth that includes the crust and uppermost
mantle. It is made up of six major and several minor tectonic plates that move around on the
softer asthenosphere. The lithosphere of the oceans tends to be thinner (in some oceanic
areas, less than 50 km [30 miles] thick) and more dense than that of the continents (more
than 120 km [70 miles] thick in places like the Himalayas) because of isostasy. The
movement of the plates of the lithosphere results in convergence, or collisions, that can form
mountain belts and subduction zones, and divergence of the plates and the creation of new
crust as material wells up from below separating plates. The lithosphere and asthenosphere
are distinguished from the crust, mantle and core of the Earth on the basis of their
mechanical behavior and not their composition.
Lithostratigraphy / Lithostratigraphic: The study and correlation of strata to elucidate
Earth history on the basis of their lithology, or the nature of the well log response, mineral
content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
Littoral: Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by tides, the area between high
tide and low tide. Given the variation of tides and land forms from place to place, geologists
describe littoral zones locally according to the fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure
and submersion.

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Ma: Mega annum. The abbreviation for million years that is most commonly used in the
geologic literature.
Mafic: Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of minerals that are rich in iron and
magnesium, dense, and typically dark in color. The term comes from the words magnesium
and ferric. Common mafic minerals are olivine and pyroxene. Basalt is a mafic igneous rock.
Magma: The molten rock in the Earth that can either rise to the surface as lava and form
extrusive igneous rock or cool within the Earth to form plutonic igneous rock.
Mantle: The intermediate layer of the Earth beneath the crust that is about 2900 km thick
[1820 miles] and overlies the core of the Earth. The mantle consists of dense igneous rocks
like pyroxenite and dunite, composed of the minerals pyroxene and olivine. The crust, mantle
and core of the Earth are distinguished from the lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis
of their composition and not their mechanical behavior. The Mohorovicic discontinuity
abruptly separates the crust from the mantle, where the velocity of compressional waves is
significantly higher.
Marine : Pertaining to sediments or environments in seas or ocean waters, between the
depth of low tide and the ocean bottom.
Marsh: An environment from which water rarely drains that supports primarily grassy
vegetation and does not form peat.
Massif: A block of rock that forms a structural or topographic feature, such as a block of
igneous of metamorphic rock within an area of mountain building, or orogeny. A massif can
be as large as a mountain and is typically more rigid than the rocks that surround it.
Matrix: The finer grained, interstitial particles that lie between larger particles or in which
larger particles are embedded in sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and conglomerates.
Maturity: The state of a source rock with respect to its ability to generate oil or gas. As a
source rock begins to mature, it generates gas. As an oil-prone source rock matures, the
generation of heavy oils is succeeded by medium and light oils. Above a temperature of
approximately 100 oC [212 oF], only dry gas is generated, and incipient metamorphism is
imminent. The maturity of a source rock reflects the ambient pressure and temperature as
well as the duration of conditions favorable for hydrocarbon generation.
Metamorphic: Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of preexisting rocks by changes in
ambient temperature, pressure, volatile content, or all of these. Such changes can occur
through the activity of fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or regional
tectonic activity. The texture of metamorphic rocks can vary from almost homogeneous, or
nonfoliated, to foliated rocks with a strong planar fabric or foliation produced by alignment of
minerals during recrystallization or by reorientation. Common foliated metamorphic rocks
include gneiss, schist and slate. Marble, or metamorphosed limestone, can be foliated or
non-foliated. Hornfels is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock. Graphite, chlorite, talc, mica,
garnet and staurolite are distinctive metamorphic minerals.
Metamorphism: The process by which the characteristics of rocks are altered or the rock is
recrystallized. Metamorphism of igneous, sedimentary, or preexisting metamorphic rock can
produce new metamorphic rock. Such alteration occurs as rocks respond to changes in
temperatures, pressures and fluids, commonly along the edges of colliding lithospheric
plates. The pressures and temperatures at which metamorphism occurs are higher than
those of diagenesis, but no clear boundary between the two has been established.
Methane: The lightest and most abundant of the hydrocarbon gases and the principal
component of natural gas. Methane is a colorless, odorless gas that is stable under a wide
range of pressure and temperature conditions in the absence of other compounds.

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Mica [Muscovite mica K2Al4(Si6Al2O20(OH,F)4]: A group of sheet silicates characterized by a

platy appearance and basal cleavage most common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Several clay minerals, such as chlorite and glauconite, are closely related to the mica group.
Micrite: Dense, fine-grained carbonate mud or rocks composed of mud that forms by erosion
of larger carbonate grains, organic precipitation (such as from algae), or inorganic
precipitation. The grains in micrite are generally less than 4 microns in size.
Micropaleontology: The study of microfossils too small to be seen without the use of a
microscope. Marine microfossils such as foraminifera are important for stratigraphic
correlation.
Midoceanic ridge: The mountainous, linear axis of ocean basins along which rifting occurs
and new oceanic crust forms as magma wells up and solidifies. The most prominent
midoceanic ridges are those of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The new crust is made of
mafic igneous rock called basalt, commonly referred to as midocean ridge basalt, or MORB,
whose composition reflects that of the deeper mantle of the Earth. The presence of the
spreading plate boundaries of the midoceanic ridges; their symmetrically spreading,
successively older crust outward from the ridge; and the lack of oceanic crust older than
approximately 200 Ma support the theory of plate tectonics and the recycling of oceanic
crust through the process of subduction.
Migration / migrate: The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks.
The movement of newly generated hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary
migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the hydrocarbons into reservoir
rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration. Migration
typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the relative
buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or
can occur along distances of hundreds of kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is
critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
Milankovitch cycles: The variation of the Earth's exposure to the sun's rays, or insolation,
that results from variations in the orbit of the Earth and the tilt of its axis, and that might
affect climate, sea level and sedimentation. Such variations are thought to occur in distinct
time periods on the order of thousands of years. Ice ages might be a consequence of
Milankovitch cycles. Milutin Milankovitch (1879 to 1958) was a Yugoslavian mathematician
and physicist who specialized in studies of solar radiation and the orbit of the Earth.
Mineral: A crystalline substance that is naturally occurring, inorganic, and has a unique or
limited range of chemical compositions. Minerals are homogeneous, having a definite atomic
structure. Rocks are composed of minerals, except for rare exceptions like coal, which is a
rock but not a mineral because of its organic origin. Minerals are distinguished from one
another by careful observation or measurement of physical properties such as density,
crystal form, cleavage (tendency to break along specific surfaces because of atomic
structure), fracture (appearance of broken surfaces), hardness, luster and color. Magnetism,
taste and smell are useful ways to identify only a few minerals.
Miscible: Pertaining to a condition in which two or more fluids can mix in all proportions and
form a single homogeneous phase.
Moho / Mohorovicic discontinuity: The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the
Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3 miles] under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km
[46 miles] deep under the continents. This boundary, commonly called "the Moho," was
recognized in 1909 by Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on the basis of its abruptly
higher compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
Moldic porosity: A type of secondary porosity created through the dissolution of a
preexisting constituent of a rock, such as a shell, rock fragment or grain. The pore space
preserves the shape, or mold, of the dissolved material.

24

Montmorillonite [(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)47nH20]: A type of smectite clay

mineral that tends to swell when exposed to water. Montmorillonite forms through the
alteration of silicate minerals in alkaline conditions in basic igneous rocks, such as volcanic
ash that can accumulate in the oceans. Montmorillonite is a component of bentonite
commonly used in drilling fluids.
My: Abbreviation for million years. The preferred abbreviation is Ma.
MYBP: Abbreviation for millions of years before present. The preferred abbreviation is Ma
Natural gas: A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases that is highly compressible
and expansible. Methane [CH4] is the chief constituent of most natural gas (constituting as
much as 85% of some natural gases), with lesser amounts of ethane [C 2H6], propane [C3H8],
butane [C4H10] and pentane [C5H12]. Impurities can also be present in large proportions,
including carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide.
Neritic: Describing the environment and conditions of the marine zone between low tide and
the edge of the continental shelf, a depth of roughly 200 m [656 ft]. A neritic environment
supports marine organisms, also described as neritic, that are capable of surviving in shallow
water with moderate exposure to sunlight.
Nonconformity: A geological surface that separates younger overlying sedimentary strata
from eroded igneous or metamorphic rocks and represents a large gap in the geologic
record.
Normal fault: A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall,
and the fault surface dips steeply, commonly from 50o to 90o. Groups of normal faults can
produce horst and graben topography, or a series of relatively high- and low-standing fault
blocks, as seen in areas where the crust is rifting or being pulled apart by plate tectonic
activity. A growth fault is a type of normal fault that forms during sedimentation and typically
has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.
Normal pressure: The pore pressure of rocks that is considered normal in areas in which the
change in pressure per unit of depth is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure. The normal
hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft),
or 9.792 kilopascals per meter (kPa/m), and 0.465 psi/ft for water with
100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m.
Offset / offset well: The horizontal displacement between points on either side of a fault,
which can range from millimeters to kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of
offset are features such as fences or roads that have been displaced by strike-slip faults,
such as the San Andreas fault of California, USA.
Oil field / oilfield:
- An accumulation, pool or group of pools of oil in the subsurface. An oil field consists of a
reservoir in a shape that will trap hydrocarbons and that is covered by an impermeable or
sealing rock. Typically, industry professionals use the term with an implied assumption of
economic size
- The surface area above a subsurface oil accumulation is called an oil field.
Oil pool / accumulation / field / oil field: A subsurface oil accumulation. An oil field can
consist of one or more oil pools or distinct reservoirs within a single large trap. The term
"pool" can create the erroneous impression that oil fields are immense caverns filled with oil,
instead of rock filled with small oil-filled pores.
Oil sand: A porous sand layer or sand body filled with oil.
Oil-prone: The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to generate oil than gas. The
nature of the organic matter (kerogen) in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like material
commonly found in terrestrial source rocks to algal or other marine material that makes up
marine source rocks. Marine source rocks are commonly oil-prone.

25

Oil-water contact: A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly oil occurs
and below which predominantly water occurs. Although oil and water are immiscible, the
contact between oil and water is commonly a transition zone and there is usually irreducible
water adsorbed by the grains in the rock and immovable oil that cannot be produced. The
oil-water contact is not always a flat horizontal surface, but instead might be tilted or
irregular.
Onlap: The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply dipping,
older strata, or the termination of low-angle reflections in seismic data against steeper
reflections. Onlap is a particular pattern of reflections in seismic data that, according to
principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs during periods of transgression.
Orogeny / orogenic: A major episode of plate tectonic activity in which lithospheric plates
collide and produce mountain belts, in some cases including the formation of subduction
zones and igneous activity. Thrust faults and folds are typical geological structures seen in
areas of orogeny.
Outcrop / crop out: A body of rock exposed at the surface of the Earth. Construction of
highways and other man-made facilities and resultant removal of soil and rock has created
spectacular outcrops in some regions.
Overburden :
- Rock overlying an area or point of interest in the subsurface.
- The weight of overlying rock.
Overmature / post-mature: Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has generated as
much hydrocarbon as possible and is becoming thermally altered.
Overpressure: Subsurface pressure that is abnormally high, exceeding hydrostatic pressure
at a given depth. The term geopressure is commonly, and incorrectly, used synonymously.
Abnormally high pore pressure can occur in areas where burial of fluid-filled sediments is so
rapid that pore fluids cannot escape, so the pressure of the pore fluids increases as
overburden increases. Drilling into overpressured strata can be hazardous because
overpressured fluids escape rapidly, so careful preparation is made in areas of known
overpressure.
Overthrust: A thrust fault having a relatively large lateral displacement.
Paleontology: The study of fossilized, or preserved, remnants of plant and animal life.
Changes in the Earth through time can be documented by observing changes in the fossils in
successive strata and the environments in which they formed or were preserved. Fossils can
also be compared with their extant relatives to assess evolutionary changes. Correlations of
strata can be aided by studying their fossil content, a discipline called biostratigraphy.
Paludal: Pertaining to a depositional environment or organisms from a marsh. It also refers to
the type of environment in which palustrine sediments can accumulate.
Palustrine: Describing material deposited in or growing in a marsh.
Palynology: The study of fossilized remnants of microscopic entities having organic walls,
such as pollen, spores and cysts from algae. Changes in the Earth through time can be
documented by studying the distribution of spores and pollen. Well log and other correlations
are enhanced by incorporating palynology. Palynology also has utility in forensics.
Parasequence: Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by surfaces of marine
flooding, surfaces that separate older strata from younger and show an increase in water
depth in successively younger strata. Parasequences are usually too thin to discern on
seismic data, but when added together, they form sets called parasequence sets that are
visible on seismic data.

26

Passive margin: The margin of a continent and ocean that does not coincide with the
boundary of a lithospheric plate and along which collision is not occurring. Passive margins
are characterized by rifted, rotated fault blocks of thick sediment, such as the present-day
Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic margins of North America.
Pay: A reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains economically producible hydrocarbons.
The term derives from the fact that it is capable of "paying" an income. Pay is also called pay
sand or pay zone. The overall interval in which pay sections occur is the gross pay; the
smaller portions of the gross pay that meet local criteria for pay (such as minimum porosity,
permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay.
Permeability / permeable: The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids,
typically measured in darcies or millidarcies. The term was basically defined by Henry Darcy,
who showed that the common mathematics of heat transfer could be modified to adequately
describe fluid flow in porous media. Formations that transmit fluids readily, such as
sandstones, are described as permeable and tend to have many large, well-connected pores.
Impermeable formations, such as shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a
mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores. Absolute permeability is
the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in
the rock. Effective permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular
fluid through a rock when other immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example,
effective permeability of gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids
as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the effective permeability. Relative permeability
is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute
permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative
permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows for comparison of the different
abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of more than one
fluid generally inhibits flow.
Petrographic / petrography: The examination of rocks in thin section. Rock samples can be
glued to a glass slide and the rock ground to 0.03-mm thickness in order to observe
mineralogy and texture using a microscope. (A petrographic microscope is a transmittedlight polarizing microscope.) Samples of sedimentary rock can be impregnated with blue
epoxy to highlight porosity.
Petroleum: A complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon compounds found in rock.
Petroleum can range from solid to gas, but the term is generally used to refer to liquid crude
oil. Impurities such as sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are common in petroleum. There is
considerable variation in color, gravity, odor, sulfur content and viscosity in petroleum from
different areas.
Petroleum system: Geologic components and processes necessary to generate and store
hydrocarbons, including a mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and
seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the processes of
generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and
be preserved. The components and critical timing relationships of a petroleum system can
be displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along the horizontal axis and the petroleum
system elements along the vertical axis. Exploration plays and prospects are typically
developed in basins or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of
existing.
Petrologic / petrology : The study of macroscopic features of rocks, such as their
occurrence, origin and history, and structure (usually by examining outcrops in the field) and
their texture and composition (by studying smaller samples more closely).
Pinch out : To taper to a zero edge.
Pinch-out :

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- A type of stratigraphic trap. The termination by thinning or tapering out ("pinching out") of a
reservoir against a nonporous sealing rock creates a favorable geometry to trap
hydrocarbons, particularly if the adjacent sealing rock is a source rock such as a shale.
- A reduction in bed thickness resulting from onlapping stratigraphic sequences.
Plane table: A flat drawing board mounted on a tripod used in combination with an alidade
to construct topographic or geologic maps in the field. A sheet of paper or mylar covering
the plane table is annotated during map construction.
Plankton: Minute organisms that float or drift passively near the surface of oceans and seas.
Plant-like plankton, or phytoplankton, include diatoms. Zooplankton are animals that have a
limited ability to move themselves. The changes in plankton over time are useful for
estimation of relative ages of rocks that contain the fossilized remains of plankton.
Plastic : Pertaining to a material that can deform permanently without rupturing.
Plateau: A topographic feature consisting of a large flat area at a relatively high elevation
with steep sides.
Plastic deformation: Permanent mechanical or physical alteration that does not include
rupture. Plastic deformation of rocks typically occurs at high temperatures and pressures,
conditions under which rocks become relatively viscous.
Platform: A relatively flat, nearly level area of sedimentary rocks in a continent that overlies
or abuts the basement rocks of a craton.
Play / exploration play:
- An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur.
- For example the shale gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle Ford,
Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others. Outside North
America, shale gas potential is being pursued in many parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and
South America
- A conceptual model for a style of hydrocarbon accumulation used by explorationists to
develop prospects in a basin, region or trend and used by development personnel to
continue exploiting a given trend. A play (or a group of interrelated plays) generally occurs in
a single petroleum system.
- To pursue hydrocarbon accumulations of a given type.
Plunge : The angle between a linear feature and a horizontal line in a vertical plane
containing both lines.
Point bar : An arcuate deposit of sediment, usually sand, that occurs along the convex inner
edges of the meanders of channels and builds outward as the stream channel migrates.
Pore : A discrete void within a rock, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or other
fluids. In a body of rock, the percentage of pore space is the porosity.
Porosity / porous: The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock
that can contain fluids. Porosity can be a relic of deposition (primary porosity, such as space
between grains that were not compacted together completely) or can develop through
alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as when feldspar grains or fossils are
preferentially dissolved from sandstones).
Porosity can be generated by the development of fractures, in which case it is called
fracture porosity. Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume in a rock that
contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the total
void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus, effective porosity is
typically less than total porosity.
Shale gas reservoirs tend to have relatively high porosity, but the alignment of platy
grains such as clays makes their permeability very low.

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Preservation: The phase of a petroleum system after hydrocarbons accumulate in a trap and
are subject to degradation, remigration, tectonism or other unfavorable or destructive
processes.
Pressure gradient: The change in pressure per unit of depth, typically in units of psi/ft or
kPa/m. Pressure increases predictably with depth in areas of normal pressure. The normal
hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 psi/ft, or 9.792 kPa/m, and 0.465 psi/ft
for water with 100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516
kPa/m. Deviations from normal pressure are described as high or low pressure.
Primary migration: The expulsion of newly generated hydrocarbons from a source rock. The
further movement of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other
area of accumulation is secondary migration.
Primary porosity: The porosity preserved from deposition through lithification.
Production : The phase that occurs after successful exploration and development and during
which hydrocarbons are drained from an oil or gas field.
Progradation: The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited
successively basinward because sediment supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the
position of the shoreline migrates into the basin during episodes of progradation, a process
called regression.
Prospect: An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in
economic quantity. A prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a
seismic amplitude anomaly, that is recommended by explorationists for drilling a well.
Justification for drilling a prospect is made by assembling evidence for an active petroleum
system, or reasonable probability of encountering reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient
size, adequate sealing rock, and appropriate conditions for generation and migration of
hydrocarbons to fill the trap. A single drilling location is also called a prospect, but the term
is more properly used in the context of exploration. A group of prospects of a similar nature
constitutes a play.
Pyrolysis: A type of geochemical analysis in which a rock sample is subject to controlled
heating in an inert gas to or past the point of generating hydrocarbons in order to assess its
quality as a source rock, the abundance of organic material in it, its thermal maturity, and
the quality of hydrocarbons it might generate or have generated. Pyrolysis breaks large
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules. This process is used to determine the quality
of shale as a source rock and is instrumental in evaluating shale gas plays.
Quartz [SiO2]: An abundant rock-forming mineral composed of silicon and oxygen, also called
silica. Quartz sand grains are a major constituent of sandstone and other clastic sedimentary
rocks.
Reef / reefal : A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary rock, most commonly
produced by organisms that secrete shells such as corals. Reefs are typically taller than the
sediment that surrounds them, resistant to weathering and wave action, and preserved
within sediment of a different composition. Carbonate reefs form in a limited range of
temperatures, water depths, salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence can be used
to interpret past environmental conditions. Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ
in composition and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbons.
Porosity of reefal limestones depends on post-depositional diagenetic changes.
Regression / regressive: The migration of shoreline into a basin during progradation due to
a fall in relative sea level. Deposition during a regression can juxtapose shallow-water
sediments atop deep-water sediments.
Relative age: The approximate age determination of rocks, fossils or minerals made by
comparing whether the material is younger or older than other surrounding material.

29

Relative age is estimated according to stratigraphic and structural relationships, such as

superposition, and by fossil content, since the relative ages and successions of fossils have
been established by paleontologists. The measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes,
especially uranium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to more precisely
determine the age in years of rock formations, known as the absolute age. Tree rings and
seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can be counted to determine absolute age.
Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages typically have some amount of
potential error and are inexact.
Relative permeability: A dimensionless term devised to adapt the Darcy equation to
multiphase flow conditions. Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a
particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total
saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of
relative permeability allows comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the
presence of each other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.
Reservoir : A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and
transmit fluids. Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have
more porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature
conditions at which hydrocarbons can be preserved. A reservoir is a critical component of a
complete petroleum system.
Reservoir pressure/ formation pressure / hydrostatic pressure / pore pressure : The
pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the
pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation's depth to sea level. Because
reservoir pressure changes as fluids are produced from a reservoir, the pressure should be
described as measured at a specific time, such as initial reservoir pressure.
Retrogradation: The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited
successively landward because sediment supply is limited and cannot fill the available
accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline migrates backward onto land, a process
called transgression, during episodes of retrogradation.
Reverse fault: A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block moves up along a
fault surface relative to the footwall. Such movement can occur in areas where the
Earth's crust is compressed. A thrust fault, sometimes called an overthrust if
the displacement is particularly great, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a
shallow dip, typically much less than 45o.
Rheology / rheologic / rheological: Generally, the study of how matter deforms and flows,
including its elasticity, plasticity and viscosity. In geology, rheology is particularly important
in studies of moving ice, water, salt and magma, as well as in studies of deforming rocks.
Rhombohedral packing: The most compact arrangement in space of uniform spheres
(atoms and molecules in mineral crystals, or grains in sedimentary rocks) that results in a
structure having no more than 26% porosity. Rhombohedral packing is more stable
mechanically than cubic packing. Cubic packing is the most porous packing arrangement,
with about 47% porosity in the ideal situation. Most sediments, however, are not uniform
spheres of the same size, nor can they be arranged in a cubic structure naturally, so most
sediments have much less than 47% porosity of ideal cubic packing and commonly less than
the 26% porosity of ideal rhombohedral packing.
Rift :
- Region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and creating normal faults and downdropped areas or subsidence.
- To pull apart the Earth's crust.
Rock: An aggregate of minerals or organic matter (in the case of coal, which is not composed
of minerals because of its organic origin), or volcanic glass (obsidian, which forms a rock but
is not considered a mineral because of its amorphous, noncrystalline nature). Rocks can
contain a single mineral, such as rock salt (halite) and certain limestones (calcite), or many

30

minerals, such as granite (quartz, feldspar, mica and other minerals). There are three main
types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks like sandstone and limestone form at the Earth's surface
through deposition of sediments derived from weathered rocks, biogenic activity or
precipitation from solution. Igneous rocks originate deeper within the Earth, where the
temperature is high enough to melt rocks, to form magma that can crystallize within the
Earth or at the surface by volcanic activity. Metamorphic rocks form from other preexisting
rocks during episodes of deformation of the Earth at temperatures and pressures high
enough to alter minerals but inadequate to melt them. Such changes can occur by the
activity of fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or regional tectonic activity.
Rocks are recycled from one type to another by the constant changes in the Earth.
Sabkha: An environment of coastal sedimentation characterized by arid or semiarid
conditions above the level of high tide and by the absence of vegetation. Evaporites, eolian
deposits and tidal-flood deposits are common in sabkhas.
Salt dome: A mushroom-shaped or plug-shaped diapir made of salt, commonly having an
overlying cap rock. Salt domes form as a consequence of the relative buoyancy of salt when
buried beneath other types of sediment. The salt flows upward to form salt domes, sheets,
pillars and other structures. Hydrocarbons are commonly found around salt domes because
of the abundance and variety of traps created by salt movement and the association with
evaporite minerals that can provide excellent sealing capabilities.
Sand: A detrital grain between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Sand is larger than silt but
smaller than a granule according to the Udden-Wentworth scale. Sand is also a term used for
quartz grains or for sandstone.
Sandstone: A clastic sedimentary rock whose grains are predominantly sand-sized. The term
is commonly used to imply consolidated sand or a rock made of predominantly quartz sand,
although sandstones often contain feldspar, rock fragments, mica and numerous additional
mineral grains held together with silica or another type of cement. The relatively high
porosity and permeability of sandstones make them good reservoir rocks.
Saturation: The relative amount of water, oil and gas in the pores of a rock, usually as a
percentage of volume.
Scout:
- A petroleum industry worker who tracks competitive exploration and production activity,
either for a company or on a free-lance basis. Scouts can facilitate trading of technical data
such as well logs among companies before such data enter the public domain unless the
operations or data are held "tight."
- To inspect an area or to monitor activity.
Scout ticket: A brief report about a well from the time it is permitted through drilling and
completion. A scout ticket typically includes the location, total depth, logs run, production
status and formation tops.
Secondary migration: The movement of generated hydrocarbons into a reservoir after their
expulsion, or primary migration, from a source rock.
Secondary porosity: The porosity created through alteration of rock, commonly by
processes such as dolomitization, dissolution and fracturing.
Sediment: The unconsolidated grains of minerals, organic matter or preexisting rocks, that
can be transported by water, ice or wind, and deposited. The processes by which sediment
forms and is transported occur at or near the surface of the Earth and at relatively low
pressures and temperatures. Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation and lithification
of sediment. Sediments are classified according to size by the Udden-Wentworth scale.
Sedimentary: Sedimentary rocks are formed at the Earth's surface through deposition of
sediments derived from weathered rocks, biogenic activity or precipitation from solution.

31

Clastic sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and shales form as
older rocks weather and erode, and their particles accumulate and lithify, or harden, as they
are compacted and cemented. Biogenic sedimentary rocks form as a result of activity by
organisms, including coral reefs that become limestone. Precipitates, such as the evaporite
minerals halite (salt) and gypsum can form vast thicknesses of rock as seawater evaporates.
Sedimentary rocks can include a wide variety of minerals, but quartz, feldspar, calcite,
dolomite and evaporite group and clay group minerals are most common because of their
greater stability at the Earth's surface than many minerals that comprise igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, can
contain fossils because they form at temperatures and pressures that do not obliterate fossil
remnants.
Sedimentation: The process of creation, transportation and deposition of sediments.
Sequence: A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and
is bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental
unit of interpretation in sequence stratigraphy. Sequences comprise systems tracts.
Sequence boundary: A surface that separates older sequences from younger ones,
commonly an unconformity (indicating subaerial exposure), but in limited cases a correlative
conformable surface. A sequence boundary is an erosional surface that separates cycles of
deposition.
Sequence stratigraphy / seismic stratigraphy: A field of study in which basin-filling
sedimentary deposits, called sequences, are interpreted in a framework of eustasy,
sedimentation and subsidence through time in order to correlate strata and predict the
stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas. Sequences tend to show cyclicity of changes in
relative sea level and widespread unconformities, processes of sedimentation and sources of
sediments, climate and tectonic activity over time. Sequence stratigraphic study promotes
thorough understanding of the evolution of basins, but also allows for interpretations of
potential source rocks and reservoir rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but
little well data) and in more mature hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity
is currently a key question in mature hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is
being applied.
The field originated during the 1960s with the study of the stratigraphy of the
continental USA, where numerous unconformities could be correlated widely, and led to the
proposal that major unconformities might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through
sequence stratigraphy, widely-separated sediments that occur between correlatable
unconformities could be compared with each other. Studies of outcrops and seismic lines
bore out these concepts, which initially were called "Seismic Stratigraphy" and first
published widely in 1977. Further study of seismic lines led to the interpretation of the
geometry or architecture of seismic events as representing particular styles of sedimentation
and depositional environments, and the integration of such interpretations with well log and
core data. Because of the simultaneous, competitive nature of the research, numerous oil
companies and academic groups use the terminology of sequence stratigraphy differently,
and new terms are added continually.
Shale / shaly: A fine-grained, fissile, detrital sedimentary rock formed by consolidation of
clay- and silt-sized particles into thin, relatively impermeable layers. It is the most abundant
sedimentary rock. Shale can include relatively large amounts of organic material compared
with other rock types and thus has potential to become a rich hydrocarbon source rock, even
though a typical shale contains just 1% organic matter. Its typical fine grain size and lack of
permeability, a consequence of the alignment of its platy or flaky grains, allow shale to form
a good cap rock for hydrocarbon traps.
Gas shows from shales during drilling have led some shales to be targeted as potential
gas reservoirs. Various clay types and volumes influence the quality of the reservoir from a
petrophysical and geomechanical perspective. The quality of shale reservoirs depends on
their thickness and extent, organic content, thermal maturity, depth and pressure, fluid
saturations, and permeability, among other factors.

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Shear strain: The amount of deformation by shearing, in which parallel lines slide past each
other in differing amounts. The measurement is expressed as the tangent of the change in
angle between lines that were initially perpendicular.
Shelf / continental shelf: Continental shelf, or the area at the edges of a continent from the
shoreline to a depth of 200 m [660 ft], where the continental slope begins. The shelf is
commonly a wide, flat area with a slight seaward slope. The term is sometimes used as a for
platform.
Silica [SiO2]: A chemically resistant dioxide of silicon that occurs in crystalline (quartz),
amorphous (opal) and cryptocrystalline (chert) forms.
Silicate mineral: A group of rock-forming minerals in which SiO 4 tetrahedra combine with
cations. Silicate minerals are the most abundant type of mineral. Olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, mica, quartz and feldspar are types of silicate minerals.
Siliciclastic sediment: Silica-based, noncarbonaceous sediments that are broken from
preexisting rocks, transported elsewhere, and redeposited before forming another rock.
Examples of common siliciclastic sedimentary rocks include conglomerate, sandstone,
siltstone and shale. Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked to form other types of
clastic sedimentary rocks.
Similar fold: A type of fold in which the thickness of the layers remains constant when
measured parallel to the axial surface and the layers have the same wave shape, but the
thickness along each layer varies. The folded layers tend to be thicker in the hinge of the
fold and thinner along the limbs of the fold.
Sinistral: Pertaining to a strike-slip or left-lateral fault in which the block across the fault
moves to the left; also called a sinistral strike-slip fault. If it moves to the right, the relative
motion is described as dextral. Counterclockwise rotation or spiraling is also described as
sinistral.
Smectite [(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)47nH2O)] : A group of clay minerals
that includes montmorillonite. This type of mineral tends to swell when exposed to water.
Bentonite includes minerals of the smectite group.
Soft rock: A general term for sedimentary rocks, although it can imply a distinction between
rocks of interest to the petroleum industry and rocks of interest to the mining industry.
Sorting: The range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in sediment or sedimentary rock.
The term also refers to the process by which sediments of similar size are naturally
segregated during transport and deposition according to the velocity and transporting
medium. Well-sorted sediments are of similar size (such as desert sand), while poorly-sorted
sediments have a wide range of grain sizes (as in a glacial till). A well-sorted sandstone
tends to have greater porosity than a poorly sorted sandstone because of the lack of grains
small enough to fill its pores. Conglomerates tend to be poorly sorted rocks, with particles
ranging from boulder size to clay size.
Sour: Contaminated with sulfur or sulfur compounds, especially hydrogen sulfide. Crude oil
and gas that are sour typically have an odor of rotten eggs if the concentration of sulfur is
low. At high concentrations, sulfur is odorless and deadly.
Source rock: A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or
gas. Typical source rocks, usually shales or limestones, contain about 1% organic matter and
at least 0.5% total organic carbon (TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much as
10% organic matter. Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source
rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-prone. Preservation of organic matter without
degradation is critical to creating a good source rock, and necessary for a complete
petroleum system. Under the right conditions, source rocks may also be reservoir rocks, as in
the case of shale gas reservoirs.

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Specific gravity (s.g.): The dimensionless ratio of the weight of a material to that of the
same volume of water. Most common minerals have specific gravities between 2 and 7.
Spill point: The structurally lowest point in a hydrocarbon trap that can retain hydrocarbons.
Once a trap has been filled to its spill point, further storage or retention of hydrocarbons will
not occur for lack of reservoir space within that trap. The hydrocarbons spill or leak out, and
they continue to migrate until they are trapped elsewhere.
Strain: The permanent deformation evident in rocks and other solid bodies that have
experienced a sufficiently high applied stress. A change in shape, such as folding, faulting,
fracturing, or change, generally a reduction, in volume are common examples of strain seen
in rocks. Strain can be described in terms of normal and shear components, and is the ratio
of the change in length or volume to the initial length or volume.
Strata: plural name of stratum
Stratigraphic trap: A variety of sealed geologic container capable of retaining hydrocarbons,
formed by changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentary features such
as reefs. Structural traps, in contrast, consist of geologic structures in deformed strata such
as faults and folds whose geometries permit retention of hydrocarbons.
Stratigraphy: The study of the history, composition, relative ages and distribution of strata,
and the interpretation of strata to elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation, of
separated strata can include study of their lithology, fossil content, and relative or absolute
age, or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and chronostratigraphy.
Stratum: Layers of sedimentary rock that form beds.
Stress: The force applied to a body that can result in deformation, or strain, usually described
in terms of magnitude per unit of area, or intensity.
Strike: The azimuth of the intersection of a plane, such as a dipping bed, with a horizontal
surface.
Strike-slip fault: A type of fault whose surface is typically vertical or nearly so. The motion
along a strike-slip fault is parallel to the strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks move
sideways past each other. A strike-slip fault in which the block across the fault moves to the
right is described as a dextral strike-slip fault. If it moves left, the relative motion is
described as sinistral. Local deformation near bends in strike-slip faults can produce pullapart basins and grabens. Flower structures are another by-product of strike-slip faults. A
wrench fault is a type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is nearly vertical.
Structural trap: A variety of sealed geologic structure capable of retaining hydrocarbons,
such as a fault or a fold. Stratigraphic traps form where changes in rock type can retain
hydrocarbons.
Structure / structural: A geological feature produced by deformation of the Earth's crust,
such as a fold or a fault; a feature within a rock, such as a fracture or bedding surface; or,
more generally, the spatial arrangement of rocks.
Structure map: A type of subsurface map whose contours represent the elevation of a
particular formation, reservoir or geologic marker in space, such that folds, faults and other
geologic structures are clearly displayed. Its appearance is similar to that of a topographic
map, but a topographic map displays elevations of the Earth's surface and a structure map
displays the elevation of a particular rock layer, generally beneath the surface.
Stylolite: Wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking surfaces most commonly seen in
carbonate and quartz-rich rocks that contain concentrated insoluble residue such as clay

34

minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are thought to form by pressure solution, a dissolution
process that reduces pore space under pressure during diagenesis.
Subduction: A plate tectonic process in which one lithospheric plate descends beneath
another into the asthenosphere during a collision at a convergent plate margin. Because of
the relatively higher density of oceanic lithosphere, it will typically descend beneath the
lighter continental lithosphere during a collision. In a collision of plates of continental
lithosphere, the density of the two plates is so similar that neither tends to be subducted and
mountains form. As a subducted plate descends into the asthenosphere, Earthquakes can
occur, especially in the Wadati-Benioff zone, but, if the plate descends deeply into the
mantle, it will eventually be heated to the point of melting. Volcanoes can form above a
descending plate.
Subsalt: An exploration and production play type in which prospects exist below salt layers.
Until relatively recently, many explorationists did not seek prospects below salt because
seismic data had been of poor quality below salt (i.e., it was not possible to map traps
accurately) or because they believed that reservoir-quality rock or hydrocarbons did not exist
below salt layers. Advances in seismic processing and compelling drilling results from
exploration wells encouraged companies to generate and drill prospects below salt layers,
salt sheets and other previously disregarded potential traps. The offshore Gulf of Mexico
contains numerous subsalt-producing fields, and similar areas are being explored
internationally.
Subsidence: The relative sinking of the Earth's surface. Plate tectonic activity (particularly
extension of the crust, which promotes thinning and sinking), sediment loading and removal
of fluid from reservoirs are processes by which the crust can be depressed. Subsidence can
produce areas in which sediments accumulate and, ultimately, form sedimentary basins.
Superposition: The stratigraphic principle that, in the case of undeformed, flat-lying strata,
younger layers are deposited atop older ones, such that the top layer is youngest and
underlying layers increase in age with depth. Nicolaus Steno articulated the law of
superposition of strata in the 17th century.
Swamp: A wetland depositional environment in which water is present either permanently or
intermittently and in which trees and large woody plants can grow but peat does not form.
Swamps can contain considerable quantities of organic matter.
Sweet: Pertaining to crude oil or natural gas lacking appreciable amounts of sulfur or sulfur
compounds.
Syncline: Basin- or trough-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are downwardly convex.
The youngest rock layers form the core of the fold and outward from the core progressively
older rocks occur. Synclines typically do not trap hydrocarbons because fluids tend to leak up
the limbs of the fold. An anticline is the opposite type of fold, having upwardly-convex layers
with old rocks in the core.
Synthetic fault: A type of minor fault whose sense of displacement is similar to its
associated major fault. Antithetic-synthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.
Systems tract: Subdivisions of sequences that consist of discrete depositional units that
differ in geometry from other systems tracts and have distinct boundaries on seismic data.
Different systems tracts are considered to represent different phases of eustatic changes. A
lowstand systems tract develops during times of relatively low sea level; a highstand
systems tract at times of high sea level; and a transgressive systems tract at times of
changing sea level.
Tectonic environment: Location relative to the boundary of a tectonic plate, particularly a
boundary along which plate tectonic activity is occurring or has occurred.

35

Tectonics / Plate tectonics: The unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations
that interactions of the brittle plates of the lithosphere with each other and with the softer
underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale changes in the Earth. The theory of plate
tectonics initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of the continents, particularly
South America and Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have similar
rocks and fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat up
or cool down depending on their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to each
other and to warmer areas deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or less
dense than the asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma or sink in cold, brittle
slabs or slide past each other. Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an orogeny;
diverging plates or rifts can create new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one another
create transform fault zones (such as the San Andreas fault); and zones of subduction occur
where one lithospheric plate moves beneath another. Plate tectonic theory can explain such
phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic or other igneous activity, midoceanic ridges and the
relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of sedimentary basins on the basis of
their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries. Convection of the mantle is postulated to
be the driving mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates. Measurements of the
continents using the Global Positioning System confirm the relative motions of plates. Age
determinations of the oceanic crust confirm that such crust is much younger than that of the
continents and has been recycled by the process of subduction and regenerated at
midoceanic ridges.
Tectonism: plate tectonic activity.
Terrestrial: Pertaining to sediments or depositional environments on land or above the level
of high tide.
Thrust fault: A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a very shallow dip, typically
much less than 45o. The hanging wall fault block moves up the fault surface relative to the
footwall. In cases of considerablelateral movement, the fault is described as an overthrust
fault. Thrust faults can occur in areas of compression of the Earth's crust.
Tight:
- Describing a relatively impermeable reservoir rock from which hydrocarbon production is
difficult. Reservoirs can be tight because of smaller grains or matrix between larger grains,
or they might be tight because they consist predominantly of silt- or clay-sized grains, as is
the case for shale reservoirs.
Stimulation of tight formations can result in increased production from formations that
previously would have been abandoned or produced uneconomically..
- Secrecy or confidentiality of information. Operators typically try to prevent disclosure of
results from exploration wells and will hold any such information "tight". A tight hole is a well
whose status and data are not widely disseminated by the operator. (tight hole)
Total organic carbon (TOC): The concentration of organic material in source rocks as
represented by the weight percent of organic carbon. A value of approximately 0.5% total
organic carbon by weight percent is considered the minimum for an effective source rock,
although values of 2% are considered the minimum for shale gas reservoirs; values
exceeding 10% exist, although some geoscientists assert that high total organic carbon
values indicate the possibility of kerogen filling pore space rather than other forms of
hydrocarbons. Total organic carbon is measured from 1-g samples of pulverized rock that are
combusted and converted to CO or CO2. If a sample appears to contain sufficient total
organic carbon to generate hydrocarbons, it may be subjected to pyrolysis
Topographic map: A contour map that displays the elevation of the Earth's surface. A
topographic map is commonly used as the base map for surface geological mapping.
Transform fault: A particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic
tectonic plate. The actual movement of a transform fault is opposite to its apparent
displacement because of the interplay of spreading and faulting between tectonic plates.

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Transgression / transgressive: The migration of shoreline out of a basin and onto land
during retrogradation. A transgression can result in sediments characteristic of shallow water
being overlain by deeper water sediments.
Transpression: The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and compression, or
convergence, of the Earth's crust. In areas of transpression, rocks can be faulted upward to
form a positive flower structure. Areas of strike-slip faulting in rifting or diverging crust are
experiencing transtension, in which rocks can drop down to form a negative flower structure.
Transtension: The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and extension, rifting, or
divergence of the Earth's crust. In areas of transtension, rocks can be faulted downward to
form a negative flower structure. Areas of strike-slip faulting in converging crust are
experiencing transpression, in which rocks can be faulted upwards to form a positive flower
structure.
Trap: A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively
impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate. Traps are described as
structural traps (in deformed strata such as folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in areas
where rock types change, such as unconformities, pinch-outs and reefs). A trap is an
essential component of a petroleum system.
Trend:
- The azimuth or orientation of a linear feature, such as the axis of a fold, normally expressed
as a compass bearing.
- Used synonymously with the term play to describe an area in which hydrocarbons occur,
such as the Wilcox trend of the Gulf Coast.
True stratigraphic thickness: The thickness of a bed or rock body after correcting for the
dip of the bed or body and the deviation of the well that penetrates it. The values of true
stratigraphic thickness in an area can be plotted and contours drawn to create an isopach
map.
True vertical thickness: The thickness of a bed or rock body measured vertically at a point.
The values of true vertical thickness in an area can be plotted and contours drawn to create
an isochore map.
Tuff / tuffaceaous: Lithified volcanic ash.
Turbidite: Sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity currents in deep water at the base of the
continental slope and on the abyssal plain. Turbidites commonly show predictable changes in
bedding from coarse layers at the bottom to finer laminations at the top, known as Bouma
sequences, that result from different settling velocities of the particle sizes present. The high
energy associated with turbidite deposition can result in destruction of earlier deposited
layers by subsequent turbidity currents.
Turbidity current / Density current: An influx of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water
down a slope into a larger body of water; also called a density current because the
suspended sediment results in the current having a higher density than the clearer water
into which it flows. Such currents can occur in lakes and oceans, in some cases as byproducts of earthquakes or mass movements such as slumps. The sedimentary deposits that
form as the current loses energy are called turbidites and can be preserved as Bouma
sequences. Turbidity currents are characteristic of trench slopes of convergent plate margins
and continental slopes of passive margins.
Udden-Wentworth scale: A grade scale for classifying the diameters of sediments. Particles
larger than 64 mm in diameter are classified as cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles,
granules, sand and silt. Those smaller than 0.0039 mm are clay. Several other grain size
scales are in use, but the Udden-Wentworth scale (commonly called the Wentworth scale) is
the one that is most frequently used in geology.

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Unconformity: A geological surface separating older from younger rocks and representing a
gap in the geologic record. Such a surface might result from a hiatus in deposition of
sediments, possibly in combination with erosion, or deformation such as faulting. An angular
unconformity separates younger strata from eroded, dipping older strata. A disconformity
represents a time of nondeposition, possibly combined with erosion, and can be difficult to
distinguish within a series of parallel strata. A nonconformity separates overlying strata from
eroded, older igneous or metamorphic rocks. The study and interpretation of unconformities
locally, regionally and globally is the basis of sequence stratigraphy.
Unconformity trap: A type of hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled by the presence
of an unconformity. There is disagreement about whether unconformity traps are structural
or stratigraphic traps.
Underpressure: Pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure. Underpressure, or a
zone of underpressure, is common in areas or formations that have had hydrocarbon
production.
Uniformitarianism: The geological principle formulated by James Hutton in 1795 and
publicized by Charles Lyell in 1830 that geological processes occurring today have occurred
similarly in the past, often articulated as, "The present is the key to the past.".
Universal
Transverse
Mercator
grid
(UTM):
A
worldwide grid system
of
rectangular map coordinates that uses metric (SI) units. A location is specified on the basis
of its location within one of 60 zones worldwide of 6 o of longitude and 8o of latitude each that
are subdivided into subzones that are 100,000 m [330,000 ft] on each side. Locations consist
of a series of numbers and letters that can be accurate to within an area of one square
meter. The headquarters of the Geological Society of America are at 13TDQ8743172 (Merrill,
1986). Information about the UTM grid, including grid ticks on quadrangle maps, can be
found on most maps produced by the US Geological Survey. Latitude and longitude
coordinates, or geographic coordinates, are another means of locating a point at the Earth's
surface, but the accuracy, computer compatibility and uniqueness of UTM have resulted in
its finding acceptance within the scientific community.
Updip: Located up the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-lying)
hydrocarbon reservoir that contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact
is downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still farther downdip.
Varve: A rhythmic sequence of sediments deposited in annual cycles in glacial lakes. Lightcolored, coarse summer grains are deposited by rapid melting of the glacier. The summer
layers grade upward to layers of finer, dark winter grains of clay minerals or organic material
that are deposited slowly from suspension in quiet water while streams and lakes are
icebound. Varves are useful to the study of geochronology because they can be counted to
determine the absolute age of some Pleistocene rocks of glacial origin.
Vesicle / vesicular: Bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic rock formed by expansion of gas
dissolved in the precursor magma.
Vesicular porosity: A type of porosity resulting from the presence of vesicles, or gas
bubbles, in igneous rock.
Virgin pressure: The original, undisturbed pressure of a reservoir prior to fluid production.
Vitrinite: A type of woody kerogen that is relatively uniform in composition. Since vitrinite
changes predictably and consistently upon heating, its reflectance is a useful measurement
of source rock maturity. Strictly speaking, the plant material that forms vitrinite did not occur
prior to Ordovician time. Also, because vitrinite originated in wood, its occurrence in marine
rocks might be limited by the depositional processes that act in a given depositional
environment.

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Vitrinite reflectance: A measurement of the maturity of organic matter with respect to

whether it has generated hydrocarbons or could be an effective source rock.
Volcano / volcanic: A surface feature of the Earth that allows magma, ash and gas to erupt.
The vent can be a fissure or a conical structure.
Vug / vuggy / vugular: A cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly lined with
mineral precipitates.
Vugular porosity: Pore space consisting of cavities or vugs. Vugular porosity can occur in
rocks prone to dissolution, such as limestone, in which case it is secondary porosity.
Wadati-Benioff zone: Benioff zone
Weathered layer: A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The
base of the weathered layer commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase
in seismic velocity. The weathered layer typically has air-filled pores.
Weathering: The physical, chemical and biological processes that decompose rock at and
below the surface of the Earth through low pressures and temperatures and the presence of
air and water. Weathering includes processes such as dissolution, chemical weathering,
disintegration and hydration.
Wet gas: Natural gas that contains less methane (typically less than 85% methane) and more
ethane and other more complex hydrocarbons.
Wrench fault: A type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is vertical, and the fault
blocks move sideways past each other. Given the geological complexity of some deformed
rocks, including rocks that have experienced more than one episode of deformation, it can
be difficult to distinguish a wrench fault from a strike-slip fault. Also, areas can be deformed
more than once or experience ongoing structuring such that fault surfaces can be rotated
from their original orientations.
Yield Point (YP): A parameter of the Bingham plastic model.
Zone / zonal: An interval or unit of rock differentiated from surrounding rocks on the basis of
its fossil content or other features, such as faults or fractures. For example, a fracture zone
contains numerous fractures. A biostratigraphic zone contains a particular fossil or fossils.

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