War of Emotions PDF

C H A P T E R
Geometric Properties
of Plane Areas
2.1 Notation
2.2 Centroids
2.3 Moments of Inertia
Section Moduli
2.4 Polar Moment of Inertia
2.5 Principal Moments of Inertia
2.6 Mohrs Circle for Moments of Inertia
2.7 First Moment of Areas Associated with Shear Stresses in Beams
2.8 Shear Correction Factors
2.9 Torsional Constant
Thin-Walled Sections
2.10 Sectorial Properties
Sectorial Area
First Sectorial Moment
Sectorial Linear Moments
Warping Constant (Sectorial Moment of Inertia)
2.11 Shear Center for Thin-Walled Cross Sections
Open Cross Sections
2.12 Modulus-Weighted Properties for Composite Sections
References
Tables
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
28
29
31
31
36
36
37
37
37
38
39
41
44
45
The geometric properties of a cross-sectional area are essential in the study of beams
and bars. A brief discussion of these properties along with tables of formulas are
provided in this chapter. Computer programs (Ref. [2.1] or the web site for this book)
are available to compute these properties for cross sections of arbitrary shape.
2.1 NOTATION
The units for most of the definitions are given in parentheses, using L for length and
F for force.
17
GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS
18
A
A0
A
f = Z p /Z e
I , I y , Iz
Ix y
Iy
Iz
J
Jx
qi
Q y, Qz
Q
r S(c)
r y , rz
s
S
t
T
x, y, z
yc , z c
yS , z S
Ze
Zp
y , z
s

S(c)
Cross-sectional area (L 2 )
Area defined in Fig. 2-9
Centerline-enclosed area (L 2 )
Shape factor
Moments of inertia of a cross section (L 4 )
Product of inertia (L 4 )

Sectorial linear moment about y axis (L 5 ), = A z dA

Sectorial linear moment about z axis (L 5 ), = A y dA
Torsional constant (L 4 )
Polar moment of inertia (L 4 ), = I x
Normalized shear flow (L 2 )
First moment of area with respect to y and z axes, respectively (L 3 )

Sectorial static moment (L 4 ), = A0 dA
Perpendicular distance from the shear center (centroid) to the tangent of the centerline of the wall profile (L)
Radii of gyration (L)
Coordinate along centerline of wall thickness (L)
Designation of shear center; elastic section modulus
Wall thickness (L)
Torque, twisting moment (F L)
Right-handed coordinate system
Centroids of a cross section in yz plane (L)
Shear center coordinates (L)
Elastic section modulus (L 3 ), = S
Plastic section modulus (L 3 ), = Z
Shear correction factors in z, y directions
Shear correction factor
Warpingconstant (sectorial moment of inertia) of a cross section
(L 6 ), = A 2 dA
Poissons ratio
Angle of twist (rad)
Sectorial area, principal sectorial coordinate
Sectorial area or sectorial
coordinate with respect to shear center
s
(centroid) (L 2 ), = 0 r S(c) ds
2.2 CENTROIDS
Coordinates and notation are given in Fig. 2-1, which displays continuous and
composite shapes. The composite shape is formed of two or more standard shapes,
The cross-sectional properties of this chapter are discussed in detail in Ref. [2.1].
2.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA
19
Figure 2-1: Coordinates and notation: (a) continuous shape; (b) composite shape.
such as rectangles, triangles, and circles, for which the geometric properties are readily available.
The centroid of a plane area is that point in the plane about which the area is
equally distributed. It is often called the center of gravity of the area. For the area of
Fig. 2-1a the centroid is defined as

y dA
y dA
A
,
yc =
= A
A
A dA

z dA
z dA
A
zc =
= A
A
A dA
(2.1)

where A = A dA.
For a composite area formed of two standard shapes, such as the one in Fig. 2-1b,
the centroid is obtained using
yc =
A1 y 1 + A2 y 2
,
A1 + A2
zc =
A1 z 1 + A2 z 2
A1 + A2
(2.2)
In general, for n standard shapes, the equations become

n
Ai y i
yc = i=1
,
n
i=1 Ai
n
Ai z i
z c = i=1
n
i=1 Ai
(2.3)
where Ai (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) are the areas of identifiable simple areas and y i , z i are

the coordinates of the centroid of area Ai .
2.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA

The moment of inertia of an area (second moment of an area) with respect to an axis
is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each element of the area dA by
the square of its distance from the axis. For a section in the yz plane (Fig. 2-1a), the
moment of inertia is defined to be
20

Iy =
z 2 dA about the y axis
(2.4a)
y 2 dA about the z axis
(2.4b)
Iz =
A
Section Moduli
For bending about the y axis, the elastic section modulus S = Z e is defined by
Iy
=
S = Ze =
c

A
z 2 dA
c
(2.5)
where c is the z distance from the centroidal (neutral) axis y to the outermost fiber.
The plastic section modulus Z = Z p is defined as the sum of statical moments of
the areas above and below the centroidal (neutral) axis y (Fig. 2-2),
Zp =
z dA +
A1
z dA
(2.6)
A2
where A1 and A2 are the areas above and below, respectively, the neutral axis.
For a given shape, the ratio of the plastic section modulus to the elastic section
modulus is called the shape factor f (i.e., f = Z p /Z e ).
The product of inertia is defined as

Izy =
zy dA
(2.7)
In contrast to the moment of inertia, the product of inertia is not always positive. With
respect to rectangular axes, it is zero if either of the axes is an axis of symmetry.
For moments and products of inertia of composite shapes the parallel-axis formulas are useful. These formulas relate the inertia properties of the areas about their
Figure 2-2: Notation for section moduli.
2.4 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA
21
Figure 2-3: Geometry for transformation of axes; c is centroid of cross section.
own centroidal axes to parallel axes. For the three moments of inertia, the formulas
are
I y = I y + Adz2 ,
Iz = Iz + Ad y2 ,
I yz = I y z + Ad y dz
(2.8)
It is important that the signs of the terms d y and dz be correct. Positive values are
shown in Fig. 2-3, where d y and dz are the coordinates of the centroid of the cross
section in the yz coordinates.
A complicated area can often be subdivided into component areas whose moments
of inertia are known. The moments of inertia of the original area are obtained by
adding the individual moments of inertia, each taken about the same reference axis.
If an area is completely irregular, the moment and product of inertia can be obtained by evaluating the integrals numerically or by using a graphical technique.
However, most computer programs rely on the technique of subdividing a section
into standard shapes (e.g., rectangles), the more irregular the section, the finer the
subdivision network required.
The radius of gyration is the distance from a reference axis to a point at which the
entire area of a section may be considered to be concentrated and still have the same
moment of inertia as the original distributed area. Thus for the y and z axes, the radii
of gyration are given by

r y = I y /A,
r z = Iz /A
(2.9)
It is customary to express the instability criterion for a beam with an axial load in
terms of one of the radii of gyration of the cross-sectional area.
2.4 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

By definition, a polar axis is normal to the plane of reference (e.g., the x axis in
Fig. 2-4).
22
Figure 2-4: Polar moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia of an area (Fig. 2-4) about a point 0 in its plane is termed
the polar moment of inertia of the area with respect to the point. It is designated by
the symbol Jx and defined by the integral

Jx =
r 2 dA = I x
(2.10)
where r is the distance of the area element dA from the point 0. Since r 2 = z 2 + y 2 ,
it follows from Eqs. (2.4) that

Jx =
(z 2 + y 2 ) dA = I y + Iz
(2.11)
With respect to a parallel axis, the polar moment of inertia is (Fig. 2-3)
Jx0 = Jxc + Ar 2
(2.12)
where Jx0 and Jxc are the polar moments of inertia with respect to point 0 and the
centroid c, respectively.
2.5 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Moments of inertia are tensor quantities that possess properties that vary with the
orientation (Fig. 2-5) of the reference axes. The angle is the angle of rotation
of the centroidal reference axes and expresses the change of reference axes from the
yz system to the y z system. The y , z coordinates expressed in terms of the y, z
coordinates are
2.5 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA
23
Figure 2-5: Geometry for rotation of axes.
y = y cos + z sin
(2.13)
z = y sin + z cos
Then the area moments of inertia in the rotated coordinate system are

I y =

I =
z

I y z =
z dA = Iz sin2 + I y cos2 2I yz sin cos

2
y dA = Iz cos2 + I y sin2 + 2I yz sin cos

2
(2.14)
y z dA = I yz (cos2 sin2 ) + (I y Iz ) sin cos
Trigonometric identities 2 cos2 = 1 + cos 2, 2 sin2 = 1 cos 2, and

2 sin cos = sin 2 lead to an alternative form:
I y = 12 (I y + Iz ) + 12 (I y Iz ) cos 2 I yz sin 2
Iz = 12 (I y + Iz ) 12 (I y Iz ) cos 2 + I yz sin 2
(2.15)
I y z = 12 (I y Iz ) sin 2 + I yz cos 2
To identify the angle at which the moment of inertia I y assumes its extreme value,
use Eq. (2.15) and set I y / equal to zero.
(I y Iz )( sin 2) 2I yz cos 2 = 0 or
tan 2 p =
2I yz
Iz I y
(2.16)
The angle p identifies the centroidal principal bending axes. Also, the angle p of
Eq. (2.16) corresponds to the rotation for which the product of inertia I y z is zero.
This can be shown by substituting Eq. (2.16) into I y z of Eq. (2.15). Equation (2.16)
determines two values of 2 that are 180 apart, that is, two values of that are 90
apart. At these values, the moments of inertia I y and Iz assume their maximum or
minimum possible values, that is, the principal moments of inertia I1 and I2 . The
magnitudes of I1 and I2 can be obtained by substituting of Eq. (2.16) into the first
two of Eqs. (2.15).
24
In summary:
1. The value of = p defines the principal axes of inertia. At this orientation, I y

and Iz will assume maximum and minimum values. Also, at = p , I y z = 0.
2. The principal moments of inertia have the values
Imax =
1
2 (I z
Imin =
1
2 (I z
+ Iy ) +
+ Iy )

1
2 (I y
Iz )
1
2 (I y
Iz )
2
2
2 = I
+ I yz
1
(2.17a)
2 = I
+ I yz
2
(2.17b)
An axis of symmetry will be a principal axis and an axis of a zero product of

inertia.
A useful relationship is
p = tan1
I y I1
I yz
(2.18)
which defines the angle between the y axis and the axis belonging to the larger
principal moment of inertia. Since the angle between the smaller principal moment
of inertia and the y axis is p + 90 , the specification of p of Eq. (2.18) is sufficient
to identify both principal axes.
2.6 MOHRS CIRCLE FOR MOMENTS OF INERTIA

The effect of a rotation of axes on the moments and product of inertia can be represented graphically using a Mohrs circle (Fig. 2-6) constructed in a manner similar
to that for Mohrs circle of stress (Chapter 3).
The coordinates of a point on Mohrs circle (Fig. 2-6) are to be interpreted as
representing the moment and the product of inertia of a plane area with respect to
the y axis (Fig. 2-5). The y axis is along the circle radius passing through the plotted
point I y , I yz . The angle is measured counterclockwise from the y axis. However,
the magnitudes of the angles on Mohrs circle are double those in the physical plane.
Example 2.1 Centroid Determine the centroid of the area shown in Fig. 2-7.
This area is bounded by the y axis, the line y = b, and the parabola z 2 = (h 2 /b)y.
To use Eq. (2.1), choose the element of areadA = z dy as shown in Fig. 2-7.
Along the parabola, y and z are related by z = h y/b. Then

yc =
Ay(z dy)
A
dA
b
= 0b
0
y 3/2 dy
y 1/2 dy
3
b
5
(1)
25
Figure 2-6: Mohrs circle for moment of inertia of an area. This provides the moments of
inertia with respect to the yz system of Fig. 2-5 for an orientation of .
b
y
y
dy
h
zc=
yc =
3
5
z2=
dA
3
8
0
h
b
h2
y
b
Figure 2-7: Example 2.1.

The formula z c = A z dA/ A dA cannot be applied here because it is based on an
element dA whose centroid is at a distance z from the y axis (Fig. 2-1a). For the dA
employed here, the centroidal distance of dA from the y axis is z/2. Thus,

zc =
1
z dA
A
2
A
dA
b
=
1
0 2 z(z dy)
b
0 z dy
3
h
8
(2)
Other choices can be made for dA. For example, suppose that dA = dz dy; then

b z
b 2
z dA
z dz dy
3
z
3
3
A
dy = h
=
z dz dy =
zc =
= A2
2bh
2bh
2
8
dA
bh
0
0
0
A
3
(3)
26
Figure 2-8: Example 2.2: (a) angle cross section; (b) centroids.
Example 2.2 Moments of Inertia Compute the moments of inertia about the
centroid, the angle of inclination of the principal axis, for the angle of Fig. 2-8a.
The centroid for the angle was computed and is shown in Fig. 2-8b. To compute
the moments of inertia, use the parallel-axis theorem to transfer the individual shape
inertias to the common reference axis of the angles centroidal axes (Fig. 2-8b).
Begin with the product of inertia. For shape D.

dzD = 34 + 12 = 54 in.,
d yD = 34 in.
(1)
The negative sign occurs, since with respect to the reference axes yz, the z-directed
coordinate of c D is on the negative side of the z axis:

D
= I y D z D + dzD d yD A D = 0 + 54 34 (4) = 3.75 in4
I yz
For shape B,
dzB = 2
3
4
B = I
I yz
yBzB
= + 54 in.,
d yB = 34 in.

+ dzB d yB A B = 0 + 54 34 (4) = 3.75 in4
(2)
The product of inertia for the complete angle is then

D
B
I yz = I yz
+ I yz
= 3.75 3.75 = 7.50 in4
(3)
The moments of inertia are computed in a similar fashion:

I yD = I y D + (dzD )2 A D =

1
12
2
(4)(13 ) + 54 (4) = 6.583 in4
(4)
27
IzD = Iz D + (dzD )2 A D = 7.583 in4

2
1
(1)(43 ) + 54 (4) = 11.583 in4
I yB = I y B + (dzB )2 A B = 12
(5)
IzB = Iz B + (d yB )2 A B = 2.583 in4
(7)
(6)
For the entire angle,

I y = I yD + I yB = 18.167 in4
(8)
Iz = IzD + IzB = 10.167 in4
(9)
The angle of inclination with respect to the centroidal axis is given by

tan 2 p =
2I yz
2(7.50)
= 1.875
=
Iz I y
10.167 18.167
so that
2 p = 61.93
or p = 30.96
Some properties of plane sections for commonly occurring shapes are listed in
Table 2-1.
Example 2.3 Section Moduli Find the elastic and plastic section moduli and
shape factor of a rectangular shape of width b and height h with respect to its horizontal centroidal axis.
For a rectangle c = 12 h and (Table 2-1)
I =
3
1
12 bh
so that the elastic section modulus becomes

S = Ze =
= 16 bh 2
I
c
(1)
From Eq. (2.6), the plastic section modulus is given by

Zp =
z dA +
A1
0
h/2
z dA
A2
zb dz +
0
h/2
zb dz =
1 2
bh
4
(2)
28
The shape factor becomes
f =
Zp
=
Ze
1
2
4 bh
1
2
6 bh
= 1.5
(3)
The section moduli for some selected cross sections are listed in Table 2-2.
2.7 FIRST MOMENT OF AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH

SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS
In calculating the shear stress in a beam caused by transverse loading, a first moment
Q with respect to the centroidal (neutral) axis of the beam is used. This first moment
is defined by

Q = Qy =
z dA = A0 z c
(2.19a)
A0
where A0 (Fig. 2-9a) is the area of that part of the section between the position z 1
at which the shear stress is to be calculated and the outer fiber and z c is the distance
Figure 2-9: First moment of area: (a) y axis is a centroidal axis; (b) z axis is a centroidal
axis.
2.8 SHEAR CORRECTION FACTORS
29
from the y centroidal axis of the section to the centroid of A0 . The formulas for Q
for some sections are provided in Table 2-3.
Similarly, for loading in the y direction, the corresponding first moment of area is
given by (Fig. 2-9b)

Qz =
y dA = A0 y c
(2.19b)
A0
where y c is the distance from the z centroidal axis of the cross section to the centroid
of A0 .
2.8 SHEAR CORRECTION FACTORS
Shear effects on deflection are often significant in the bending of short beams. These
effects can be described in terms of shear correction factors, which are rather difficult
to calculate. Accurate shear deformation coefficients depend on material properties
and on the dimensions of the cross section. For software to calculate the accurate
coefficients, see the web site for this book. This software is based on the theory
described in Ref. [2.1]. The shear deformation coefficient formulas in this book are
approximate and should be used with caution.
A common formula for shear correction factors is

Qy 2
A
y = 2
dA = s
(2.20a)
Iy A b
for loading in the z direction (Fig. 2-9a), where A is the cross-sectional area. The
quantities I y and Q y are defined in Eqs. (2.4a) and (2.19a), respectively. Also, b is
as shown in Fig. 2-9a. In general, b may vary over the cross section.
In the same fashion, for a cross section loaded in the y direction (Fig. 2-9b) the
shear correction factor z is defined as
A
z = 2
Iz
Qz
b
2
dA
(2.20b)
The quantities Iz and Q z are given by Eqs. (2.4b) and (2.19b), respectively, and b is
shown in Fig. 2-9b.
The shear correction factor may be viewed as the ratio of the actual beam crosssectional area to the effective area resisting shear deformation. It can be seen from
Eqs. (2.20) that the shear correction factors are always greater than or equal to zero.
As mentioned, the relations [Eqs. (2.20)] for y and z are approximate. Somewhat more accurate determinations of shear correction factors can be made using the
theory of elasticity. For solid rectangular and circular cross sections this leads to
rect =
12 + 11
,
10(1 + )
circ =
7 + 6
6(1 + )
(2.21)
30
In case of = 0.3, these equations give rect = 1.18 and circ = 1.13. If Eqs. (2.20)
are used, the corresponding shear correction factors are rect = 1.2 and circ = 1.11,
which differ little from the more precise values.
Approximate formulas for s for various beam cross sections are listed in
Table 2-4. The computer programs available with this book (see the web site) can
calculate shear correction factors for shapes of arbitrary geometry. The inverse of the
shear correction factor, called the shear deflection constant, is often required as an
input in general-purpose finite-element analysis software. References [2.1] and [2.2]
discuss problems encountered in calculating and using shear correction factors.
Example 2.4 Shear Correction Factors Determine the shear correction factors
of the rectangular cross section of Fig. 2-10.
From Table 2-3, Q y = 12 b( 14 h 2 z 2 ), where z 1 is replaced by z, as shown in
1
bh 3 . Substitution of these values into Eq. (2.20a)
Fig. 2-10. From Table 2-1, I y = 12
leads to
y = s =
bh

1
3 2
12 bh
2
1 1 2
6
2
h z
b dz =
2
4
5
h/2
h/2
(1)
By the same reasoning, it can be shown that the shear correction factor for loading
in the y direction is
z =
6
5
(2)
h
y
z
dz
A0
z
2.9 TORSIONAL CONSTANT
31

For a bar with circular cross section the torsional constant is the polar moment of
inertia of the section. For cross sections of arbitrary shapes, the torsional constant J
can be defined by the torsion formula,
J = T /G
(2.22)
where = d/d x with the angle of twist, T the torque, and G the shear modulus.
Accurate values of the torsional constant often require computational solutions. Constants for cross sections of any shape can be obtained using the software available
with this book (see the web site).
Thin-Walled Sections
Thin-walled sections may be either open or closed. Such common structural shapes
as channels, angles, I-beams, and wide-flange sections are open thin-walled sections,
since the centerline of the wall does not form a closed curve. Closed sections have at
least one closed curve.
Although there is no clearly defined line of demarcation between thin-walled and
thick-walled sections, it is suggested that thin-walled theory may be applied with
reasonable accuracy to sections if
tmax /b 0.1
(2.23)
where tmax is the maximum thickness of the section and b is a typical cross-sectional
dimension.
The torsional constant for a thin-walled open section (Fig. 2-11) is J , approximated by

1
t 3 ds
(2.24a)
J=
3 section
Figure 2-11: Thin-walled open section.
32
Figure 2-12: Thin-walled closed section.
or for a section formed of M straight or curved segments of thickness ti and length bi :

J=
M

bi t 3
3 i=1 i
(2.24b)
where is a shape factor. Use = 1 if no information on is available.

For closed, thin-walled sections (one cell only), as shown in Fig. 2-12, the torsional constant of the cross section is given by
4A2
J = ds
(2.25)

where (1/t) ds is the contour integral along the centerline s of a wall of thickness
t = t (s) and A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall.
If the hollow cross section is composed of M parts, each with the constant wall
thickness ti and the length bi of the centerline, the integral leads to
M

ds
bi
=
t
t
i=1 i
(2.26a)
For the case of a constant wall thickness t of a section with a circumference of length
S, the integral becomes

ds
S
=
(2.26b)
t
t
A combination of the formulas for open and closed cross sections can be used to
approximate the torsional constant for a hollow tube with fins (Fig. 2-13). Thus,
33
Figure 2-13: Fins on a hollow section.
J=
M
1
4A2
bi ti3 +
3 i=1
(1/t) ds
(2.27)
for M fins.
Figure 2-14 shows a thin-walled cross section with multiple cells. In general,
these cells may be interconnected in any manner, and a cross section may consist of
M cells. It can be shown that the torsional constant of this type of cross section is
obtained by
J =4
M

Ai q i
(2.28a)
i=1
qM-1
q3
M-1
q2
3
q1
qM
2
1
Figure 2-14: Multicell wing section.
34
where Ai is the centerline-enclosed area of cell i and q i is a normalized shear flow

(with units of area) that can be determined from the following set of equations:

qi
ds
qk
t
k

ik
ds
= Ai
t (s)
(2.28b)
where i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , M and k refers to cells adjacent to the ith cell. The quantity
d
q i is the shear flow of Chapter 3 divided by 2G d
d x , where G and d x are defined in
Chapter 12.
Table 2-5 provides torsional constants for some cross sections, including the hollow sections discussed above.
Example 2.5 Torsional Constant of a Thin-Walled Section with Four Cells A
thin-walled section with four cells is shown in Fig. 2-15. Determine the torsional
constant using Eqs. (2.28).
t = 0.2 in
2 in.
3 in.
Figure 2-15: Example 2.5: thin-walled cross section of uniform wall thickness t = 0.2 in.
Use case 6 of Table 2-5, or Eqs. (2.28). From Fig. 2-15, the enclosed areas of the
cells are
A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = 2(3) = 6 in2
(1)
For cell 1, i = 1.

qi
ds
= q1
t (s)
2(3) 2(2)
+
0.2
0.2
10
q
0.2 1
(2)

qk
ik
35
ds
= q2
t (s)

12
ds
+ q3
t

13
ds
t
(3)
S12
S13
2
3
+ q3
= q2
+ q3
= q2
t
t
0.2
0.2
where S12 is the length of the common segments between cells 1 and 2. The length
S13 is between cells 1 and 3. Therefore, for i = 1, Eq. (2.28b) leads to

10
2
3
q2
+ q3
=6
(4)
q1
0.2
0.2
0.2
Similarly, for cells 2, 3, and 4, i = 2, 3, 4, Eq. (2.28b) yields

10
2
3
q1
+ q4
=6
q2
0.2
0.2
0.2

10
3
2
q1
+ q4
=6
q3
0.2
0.2
0.2

10
3
2
q2
+ q3
=6
q4
0.2
0.2
0.2
respectively. Rearranging (4), (5), (6), and (7) into matrix format gives us

10 2 3
0
1.2
q1
2 10

0 3
q 2 = 1.2
0 10 2
1.2
q3
0 3 2 10
1.2
q4
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
The solution of (8) is

q 1 = q 2 = q 3 = q 4 = 0.24 in2
(9)
Thus, the torsional constant of the cross section is, by Eq. (2.28a),
J =4
4

Ai q i = 4(A1 q 1 + A2 q 2 + A3 q 3 + A4 q 4 )
i=1
= 4(6)(0.24 + 0.24 + 0.24 + 0.24) = 23.04 in4
(10)
36
2.10 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES
Sectorial properties of a cross section are useful in the study of restrained warping
torsion, although they tend to be difficult to compute (Chapter 15). Some of the
sectorial formulas for thin-walled cross sections are summarized below.
Sectorial Area
The sectorial area is given by

P =
r P ds
(2.29)
which is two times the shaded region in Fig. 2-16a. Point I is chosen as the origin
of variable s, which lies along the centerline of the cross section, point P is the pole
with respect to which P is defined, and r P is the distance between segment ds
and P. Point P can be chosen arbitrarily.
Sectorial area P is twice the area swept by P0 as point 0 moves a distance
s along the centerline of the cross section from initial point I (Fig. 2-16a). Consequently, the integration of Eq. (2.29) is reduced to the problem of finding the
double-shaded area, which is referred to as direct integration. Define increment d as
positive when P0 rotates in the counterclockwise direction. If the pole is at the centroid or the shear center, the corresponding sectorial area is, respectively,
s
c =
rc ds
(2.30a)
0

S =
r S ds
(2.30b)
Figure 2-16: Sectorial properties: (a) sectorial area (sectorial coordinate); (b) first sectorial
moment.
2.10 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES
37
First Sectorial Moment

The first sectorial moment is defined by

Q =
dA =
A0
t ds
(2.31a)
A0
where A0 is shown in Fig. 2-16b and

= S 0

1
0 =
S dA
A A
(2.31b)
(2.31c)
The quantity S is defined with the shear center as the pole [Eq. (2.30b)] and with
arbitrary initial point I . Note that 0 is a constant that depends on S . This definition
of makes

dA = 0
(2.31d)
A
This follows since

dA = (s 0 ) dA =
S dA 0 A = 0
A
Sectorial area as defined by Eq. (2.31b) is called the principal sectorial coordinate
or the principal sectorial area.
Sectorial Linear Moments
Define the sectorial linear moments

Iy =
P z dA,

Iz =
P y dA
(2.32)
where the integration is taken over the entire cross section A.

Warping Constant (Sectorial Moment of Inertia)
The warping constant is defined as

=
2 dA
(2.33)
with the integration taken over the entire cross section A. See the web site for software to calculate various constants, including the warping constant, for cross sections
of any shape.
38
If the coordinates are set at the centroid, then

Iy =
c z dA,
Iz =
c y dA
A
(2.34)
The choice of initial point for the sectorial coordinates is arbitrary. A different choice
changes by a constant but leaves Iz and Iy unchanged.
For thin-walled sections consisting of straight elements, integration in the formulas above can be performed in a piecewise manner, leading to the summation
formulas of Tables 2-6 and 2-7 and some parts of Table 2-5. These formulas give
the values of c , S , and Q at each junction point (node), and the values along an
element between any two junction points can be found by linear interpolation. This
method is called piecewise integration. It reduces the task of performing the direct
integration to one of finding the length of the elements and perpendicular distance
r P from the pole to that element.
2.11 SHEAR CENTER FOR THIN-WALLED CROSS SECTIONS

To bend a beam without twisting, the plane of the applied forces must pass through
the shear center of every cross section of the beam. Thus, if the resultant shear force
on a cross section passes through the shear center, no torsion will occur. For a cross
section possessing two or more axes of symmetry (e.g., an I section) or antisymmetry
(e.g., a Z section), the shear center and the centroid coincide. However, for cross
sections with only one axis of symmetry, the shear center and the centroid do not
coincide, but the shear center falls on the axis of symmetry. For a cross section with
two intersecting flanges, the shear center is at the location of the intersection. The
location of the shear center is of great importance for a thin-walled open cross section
because of its lower torsional stiffness than that for a closed section. See Fig. 2-17
for examples of shear center locations.
S
z
c
S
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2-17: Locations of shear centers: (a) one axis of symmetry; (b) two axes of symmetry; (c) angle section. The centroid and shear center are denoted by c and S, respectively.
2.11 SHEAR CENTER FOR THIN-WALLED CROSS SECTIONS
39
Open Cross Sections

If the material of the cross section remains linearly elastic and the flexure formula
(Chapter 3) is valid, the shear center for thin-walled cross sections can be obtained
using [2.1, 2.3]
1
(Iz Iy I yz Iz )
D
1
z S = (I y Iz + I yz Iy )
D
yS =
(2.35a)
(2.35b)
with
2
D = I y Iz I yz
(2.36)
This definition of a shear center, which depends solely on the geometry of the
cross section, is referred to as Trefftzs definition. Reference [2.1] provides a theory
of elasticity based definition that depends on the material properties.
In Eqs. (2.35), the origin of the yz coordinate system is at the centroid of the
cross section, y S and z S are distances from point P (pole) (Fig. 2-18). Point P can
be located arbitrarily for convenience of calculation. Normally, P is located at the
centroid of the cross section.
When the yz axes are principal axes (I yz = 0), Eqs. (2.35) can be simplified as
yS =
1
Iy
Iy
zS =
1
Iz
Iz
(2.37a)
(2.37b)
If the cross section has one axis of symmetry (Fig. 2-19) and if the load (Pz ) is parallel to the z axis and passes through the shear center S, Eqs. (2.31) can be simplified
Figure 2-18: Shear center for an open thin-walled section.
40
Figure 2-19: Thin-walled open section with one axis (y) of symmetry.
further as
yS =
1
Iy
Iy
(2.38a)
zS = 0
(2.38b)
The shear centers for some common sections are given in Table 2-6.
For the shear center of closed sections, refer to Refs. [2.1] and [2.3].
Example 2.6 Shear Center Calculation Determine the shear center of the cross
section shown in Fig. 2-20a.
To simplify the calculation, choose pole P at one corner and initial point I at
another, as shown in Fig. 2-20b. This configuration makes r P = 0 for legs I P and
Pk, so that P = 0. For leg I J , r P = 2a. Then

2as (leg I J )
P =
(1)
0
(legs I P and Pk)
From Eqs. (2.32)

P z dA =
Iy =
=
P z dA +
AI J

P y dA =

P z dA +
AI P
P z dA
A Pk
(2as)at ds + 0 + 0 = a 4 t
Iz =
5
1
2as s a t ds + 0 + 0 = + a 4 t
4
12
(2)
(3)
2.12 MODULUS-WEIGHTED PROPERTIES FOR COMPOSITE SECTIONS
41
s
I
1
4a
P = 2as
Iy = 8_3 a3 t
Iz = _215_a3 t
Iyz =( )
t
k
P
a
3a
8
z
(a)
z
(b)
From Eqs. (2.35) with I yz = 0,

yS =
Iy
+a 4 t
3
= 8
=+ a
3
Iy
8
3a t
zS =
5 4
a t
Iz
= 12
= a
5
3
Iz
12 a t
(4)
(5)
This shear center S is indicated in Fig. 2-20b.
2.12 MODULUS-WEIGHTED PROPERTIES FOR

COMPOSITE SECTIONS
For members of nonhomogeneous material it is useful to introduce the concept of
modulus-weighted section properties. Define an increment of area as
dA =
E
dA
Er
(2.39)
where Er is an arbitrary reference modulus that can be chosen to control the magnitude of the numbers involved in the computation of modulus-weighted properties
and E assumes the value of the modulus of elasticity for the point of interest on the
42
cross section. For a homogeneous member set Er = E so that this modulus-weighted

property will reduce to the ordinary geometric property of the section. The definition
of Eq. (2.39) leads to the other modulus-weighted definitions:
A =
Area:
dA
A
yc =
Centroid:
Moments of inertia:
I y =
I yz
=
1
A

y dA ,
A
z 2 dA ,
z c =
Iz =
1
A
z dA
A
y 2 dA
A
yz dA
(2.40)
For the case of a composite section E can be piecewise constant, as shown in

Fig. 2-21. Then for this section formed of n materials:
n
n

Ei
Ei
Ai ,
A =
Ai =
Ai
Er
E
i=1
i=1 r
n Ei
n
1
i=1 E
A y0i dAi
yc = n rE i
=
y 0i Ai
i
A
dA
i
i=1
i=1 Er Ai
n Ei
n
1
i=1 E
A z 0i dAi
z c = n rE i
=
z 0i Ai
i
A
dA
i
i=1
i=1
A
Ai =
Area:
Centroid:
Er
Figure 2-21: Cross section of a composite beam.
(2.41a)
(2.41b)
2.12 MODULUS-WEIGHTED PROPERTIES FOR COMPOSITE SECTIONS
43
where y 0i , z 0i are the coordinates in the y0 z 0 system of the geometric centroid of the
area Ai of the ith element. The moments of inertia are calculated as follows:
I y = I y0 z c 2 A ,
Iz = Iz0 yc 2 A ,
I yz
= I y0 z 0 yc z c A
(2.42)
are the modulus-weighted moments of inertia about the moduluswhere I y , Iz , I yz

weighted centroidal axes y, z and I y0 , Iz0 , I y0 z 0 are the modulus-weighted moments
of inertia about the reference y0 z 0 axes:
n

Ei
(I yi + z 20i Ai ),
E
r
i=1
I y0 =
I y0 z 0
Iz0 =
n

Ei
(I zi + y 20i Ai )
E
r
i=1
n

Ei
=
(I yi zi + y 0i z 0i Ai )
E
i=1 r
(2.43)
where I yi , I zi , I yi zi are the moments of inertia of area Ai about its own centroidal
axis. Also,
I y =
I yz
n

Ei
(I yi + z i2 Ai ),
E
i=1 r
Iz =
n

Ei
(I zi + y i2 Ai )
E
i=1 r
n

Ei
=
(I yi zi + y i z i Ai )
E
i=1 r
(2.44)
where y i , z i are the coordinates in the centroidal yz system of the geometric centroid
of the area Ai of the ith element (Fig. 2-21).
The first moment is calculated as
Q y
z dA =
A0
Q z =
A0
y dA =
A0

A0
n0

E
z dA =
z i Ai
Er
i=1
n0

E
y dA =
y i Ai
Er
i=1
(2.45)
where the summations using index n 0 extend over the area A0 (Fig. 2-16b). The
warping constant is derived from
=
2 dA =
no

E 2
Ei
dA =
Er
E
i=1 r

2 dA
(2.46)
dA
(2.47)
Ai
and the first sectorial moment from

Q =
dA =
A0

A0
n0

E
Ei
dA =
Er
E
i=1 r

Ai
44
where A0 is defined in Fig. 2-16b. The shear center is calculated as

yS = y P +
I I
Iz Iy
yz z
2
I y Iz I yz
zS = z P
=
where y S , z S are indicated in Fig. 2-18 and Iy
I I
I y Iz
yz y
(2.48)
2
I y Iz I yz

A P z dA , Iz

A
P y dA .
REFERENCES
2.1. Pilkey, W. D., Analysis and Design of Elastic Beams: Computational Methods, Wiley, New York,
2002.
2.2. Schramm, U., Kitis, L., Kang, W., and Pilkey, W. D., On the Shear Deformation Coefficient in
Beam Theory, J. Finite Elem. Anal. Des., Vol. 16, 1994, pp. 141162.
2.3. Cook, R. D., and Young, W. C., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Macmillan, New York, 1985.
2.4. Cowper, G. R., The Shear Coefficient in Timoshenkos Beam Theory, J. Appl. Mech. (ASME),
Vol. 33, 1966, pp. 335340.
2.5. Isakower, R. I., The Shaft Book, U.S. Army ARRADCOM MISD Users Manual 80-5, March 1980.
2.6. Boresi, A. P., Schmidt, R. J., and Sidebottom, O. M., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 5th ed.,
Wiley, New York, 1985.
2.7. Reissner, E., and Tsai, W. T., On the Determination of the Centers of Twist of Shear Cylindrical
Shell Beams, ASME Paper 72-APM-XX, 1972.
2.8. Column Research Committee of Japan, Handbook of Structural Stability, Corona Publishing,
Tokyo, 1971.
2.9. Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M., Mechanics of Materials, Van Nostrand, New York, 1972.
2.10. Galambos, T. V., Structural Members and Frames, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1968.
2.11. Oden, J. T., and Ripperger, E. A., Mechanics of Elastic Structures, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1970.
2
Tables
2-1 Areas, Centroids, Moments of Inertia, and Radii of Gyration of Common
Cross Sections
2-2 Section Moduli about the Centroidal Axes
2-3 First Moment Q Associated with Shear Stress in Beams
2-4 Approximate Shear Correction Factors
2-5 Torsional Constant J
2-6 Shear Centers and Warping Constants
2-7 Some Warping Properties
46
54
59
60
63
77
85
45
46
TABLE 2-1 Areas, Centroids, Moments of Inertia, Radii
TABLE 2-1 AREAS, CENTROIDS, MOMENTS OF INERTIA, AND RADII OF GYRATION OF COMMON CROSS
SECTIONS
Shape of Section
1.
Rectangle
Area, Location
of Centroid (yc , z c )
A = bh
yc = 12 b
zc =
2.
Triangle
1
2h
Moments of Inertia and the Polar Moment

of Inertia (Jx = I y + Iz ) with
Respect to Centroidal Axial Axis
I = Iy =
1
3
12 bh
1
3
12 hb
Iz =
Iy z = 0
Jx =
1
2
12 bh(b
A = 12 bh
I = Iy =
yc = 13 (a + b)
Iz =
zc =
1
3h
Iy z =
Jx =
+ h2)
1
3
36 bh
1
2
2
36 bh(b ab + a )
1
2
72 bh (2a b)
1
2
2
2
36 bh(h + b ab + a )
Transverse Radii of Gyration and

the Polar Radius of Gyration r p = r x
r y = h/ 12
r z = b/ 12

1
r p = 12
(b2 + h 2 )
r y = h/ 18
1 2
1/2
r z = 18
(b ab + a 2 )

1
r p = 18
(b2 + h 2 ab + a 2 )
3.
Trapezoid
A = 12 h(a + b)
yc = 12 a
h a + 2b
zc =
3 a+b
4.
Circle
A = 14 d 2
yc = 12 d
z c = 12 d
5.
Annulus
A = 14 (do2 di2 )
yc = 12 do
z c = 12 do
h 3 a 2 + 4ab + b2
36
a+b
1
h(a + b)(a 2 + b2 )
Iz = 48
Iy z = 0
Jx = I y + Iz
h(a 2 + 4ab + b2 )1/2
18(a + b)

1/2
1
r z = 24 (a 2 + b2 )
r p = Jx /A
I = I y = Iz =
Iy z = 0
r y = r z = 14 d
r p = d/ 8
I = Iy =
Jx =
1
4
64 d
1
4
32 d
I = I y = Iz = 14 (ro4 ri4 )
Iy z = 0
Jx =
ry =
1
4
32 (do
di4 )
r y = r z = 14 (do2 + di2 )1/2

r p = 18 (do2 + di2 )
47
48
TABLE 2-1 (continued) AREAS, CENTROIDS, MOMENTS OF INERTIA, AND RADII OF GYRATION OF COMMON CROSS SECTIONS
Shape of Section
6.
Ellipse
Area, Location
A = ab
yc = a
zc = b

I = I y = 14 ab3
Iz = 14 ba 3
Iy z = 0
Jx = 14 ab(b2 + a 2 )
7.
Semicircle
A = 12 r 2
yc = r
z c = 4r/3
I = I y = 0.11r 4
Iz = 0.393r 4
Iy z = 0
Jx = 0.296r 4

r y = 12 b
r z = 12 a

r p = 14 (a 2 + b2 )
r y = 0.264r
r z = 12 r
r p = 0.565r
8.
Parallelogram
A = bd
yc =
zc =
9.
Diamond
1
2 (b
1
2d
Iy =
+ a)
Iz =
Iy z =
A = 12 bd
Iy =
yc =
Iz =
zc =
1
2b
1
2d
1
3
12 bd
1
2
2
12 bd(b + a )
1
12
abd 2
1
3
48 bd
1
3
48 db
r y = 0.2887d
r z = 0.2887 b2 + a 2
r y = 0.2041d
r z = 0.2041b
49
50
Shape of Section
10.
Sector of solid circle
Area, Location
A = R2
yc = R sin

zc = R 1
11.
Angle
2 sin
3


16 sin2
R4
+ sin cos
Iy =
4
9
Iz =
R4
( sin cos )
4
B1 = b1 + 12 t
I y = 13 [t (B2 z)3 + B1 z 3 c1 (z t)3 ]
B2 = b2 + 12 t
Iz = 13 [t (B1 y)3 + B2 y 3 c2 (y t)3 ]
c1 = b1 12 t
I y z = 12 t[b1 z(b1 2y) + b2 y(b2 2z)]
c2 = b2 12 t
A = t (b1 + b2 )
B12 + c2 t
2(b1 + b2 )
B 2 + c1 t
zc = 2
2(b1 + b2 )
yc =


R
sin cos 16 sin2
ry =
1+
2
9 2

R
sin cos
rz =
1
2

r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A
12.
I section
H1 = h + t f
H2 = h t f
A = 2bt f + H2 tw
Iy =
1
3
3
12 [bH1 (b tw )H2 ]
1
3
3
12 (H2 tw + 2t f b )
Iz =
I y z = 0, Jx = I y + Iz

r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A
yc = 12 b
z c = 12 H1
13.
Z section
H1 = h + t
B = b + 12 t
C = b 12 t
A = t (h + 2b)
yc = b, z c = 12 (h + t)
Iy =
Iz =
1
3
3
12 [B H1 C(H1 2t) ]
1
3
3
2
12 [H1 (B + C) 2hC 6B hC]
12 htb2
Iy z =
Jx = I y + Iz

r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A
51
52
Shape of Section
14.
Cross
Area, Location
A = ht1 + (b t1 )t2
yc = 12 b
z c = 12 h
15.
Channel
B = b + 12 tw
C = b 12 tw
H1 = h + t f
D = h tf
A = htw + 2bt f
2B 2 t f + Dtw2
2B H1 2DC
z c = 12 (h + t f )
yc =

Iy =
1
3
12 [t1 h
1
3
12 [t2 b
+ (b t1 )t23 ]
+ (h t2 )t13 ]
Iz =
I y z = 0, Jx = I y + Iz
Iy =
1
3
3
12 (B H1 C D )
1
3
3
3 (2t f B + Dtw )
Iz =
I y z = 0, Jx = I y + Iz
A(B yc )2


r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A

r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A
16.
T section
H1 = h + 12 t f
C = b tw
A = bt f + tw D
yc = 12 b, D = h 12 t f
zc =
H12 tw + Ct 2f
2(bt f + Dtw )
I y = 13 [tw (H1 z c )3 + bz c3 C(z c t f )3 ]

1
Iz = 12
(b3 t f + Dtw3 )
I y z = 0, Jx = I y + Iz

r y = I y /A
r z = Iz /A
r p = Jx /A
53
54
TABLE 2-2 Section Moduli about the Centroidal Axes
TABLE 2-2 SECTION MODULI ABOUT THE CENTROIDAL AXES

Case
Elastic Section Modulus S = Z e
1.
Rectangle
Z ey = 16 bh 2
Z py = 14 bh 2
Z ez =
Z pz =
2.
Hollow rectangle
Z ey =
Z ez
1
2
6 hb
1 bh 3 bi h i3
6
h
1 hb3 h i bi3
=
6
b
Plastic Section Modulus Z = Z p
Shape Factor f = Z p /Z e
f y = f z = 1.5
1
2
4 hb
Z py = 14 (bh 2 bi h i2 )
f y = 1.5
Z pz = 14 (hb2 h i bi2 )
f z = 1.5
h(bh 2 bi h i2 )
bh 3 bi h i3
b(hb2 h i bi2 )
hb3 h i bi3
3. Triangle
Z ey =
Z ez =
1
2
24 bh
1
2
24 hb
Z py = 0.097bh 2
Z pz =
1
2
12 hb
1
2
24 bh
1
2
24 hb
Z py =
1
2
12 bh
1
2
12 hb
4.
Diamond
Z ey =
5.
Circle
Z ey = Z ez = 14 r 3
Z ez =
Z pz =
Z py = Z pz = 43 r 3
f y = 2.33
f z = 2.0
f y = f z = 2.0
f y = f z = 1.698
55
56
TABLE 2-2 (continued) SECTION MODULI ABOUT THE CENTROIDAL AXES
6.
Hollow circle
Z ey = Z ez =
ro4 ri4
4 ro
7.
Ellipse
Z ey = 14 ba 2
8.
Semicircle
Z ey = 0.1908r 3
Z ez =
Z ez =
1
2
4 ab
1
3
8 r
Z py = Z pz = 43 (ro3 ri3 )
f y = f z = 1.698
Z py = 43 ba 2
f y = f z = 1.698
Z pz =
4
2
3 ab
Z py = 0.3540r 3
Z pz =
2 3
3r
f y = 1.856
f z = 1.698
ro (ro3 ri3 )
ro4 ri4
9.
T section
Z ey =
Z ez =
Iy
h + t f zc
Iz
1
2b
where I y , Iz = moments of
inertia of T section about
y, z axes (Table 2-1, case 16)
If tw h bt f , then
2 2
b tf
bt f (h + t f )
h 2 tw
4
4tw
2
Neutral axis y is distance 12 (bt f /tw + h)
from bottom
If tw h > bt f , then
Z py =
Z py (h + t f z c )
Iy
Z pz b
fz =
2Iz
fy =
Z py = 14 t 2f b + 12 tw h(t f + h tw h/2b)
Neutral axis y is 12 (tw h/b + t f ) from
the top
Z pz = 14 (b2 t f + tw2 h)
10.
Channel
Z ey =
2I y
h
Iz
b + tw yc
where I y , Iz , and yc are given
in case 15 of Table 2-1
Z ez =
Z py = 14 h 2 tw + t f b(h t f )
If 2t f b htw , then
Z pz =
b2 t f
h 2 tw2
htw (b + tw )
+
2
8t f
2
Neutral axis z is 12 (htw /2t f + b)

from left side
If 2t f b > htw , then
Z pz = 14 tw2 h + t f b(tw + b t f b/ h)
Neutral axis z is t f b/ h + 12 tw
from right side
Z py h
2I y
Z pz (b + tw yc )
fz =
Iz
fy =
57
58
TABLE 2-2 (continued) SECTION MODULI ABOUT THE CENTROIDAL AXES
Case
11.
I section
Elastic Section Modulus S = Z e

Iy
t f + h/2
2Iz
Z ez =
b
where I y , Iz are given
in case 12 of Table 2-1
Z ey =
Plastic Section Modulus Z = Z p

Z py = 14 tw h 2 + bt f (h + t f )
Z pz = 12 b2 t f + 14 tw2 h
Shape Factor f = Z p /Z e
Z py (t f + 12 h)
Iy
Z pz b
fz =
2Iz
fy =
TABLE 2-3 First Moment Q Associated with Shear Stress
TABLE 2-3 FIRST MOMENT Q ASSOCIATED WITH SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMSa

Q=
Case
A0
z dA = A0 z
z 12 )
1. Rectangular section
1 1 2
2 b( 4 h
2. Circular section
2 2
(r z 12 )3/2

3

b = 2 r 2 z 12
3. I-beam section
1 1 2
1 2
1
1 2
2 b( 4 h 4 h 1 ) + 2 tw ( 4 h 1
(z 1 12 h 1 )
59
a The shear stress is to be calculated at z = z .

1
Q max
1
2
8 bh
2 3
3r
z 12 )
when z 1 = 0
when z 1 = 0
1
2
8 bh
18 h 21 (b tw ) when z 1 = 0
60
TABLE 2-4 APPROXIMATE SHEAR CORRECTION FACTORSa

Correction Factor s
Case
TABLE 2-4 Approximate Shear Correction Factors
1.
12 + 11
10(1 + )
2.
7 + 6
6(1 + )
3.
(7 + 6)(1 + j 2 )2 + (20 + 12) j 2

ri
where j =
2
2
r
6(1 + )(1 + j )
o
4.
(40 + 37)b4 + (16 + 10)a 2 b2 + a 4

12(1 + )b2 (3b2 + a 2 )
5.
1.305 + 1.273
1+
6.
4 + 3
2(1 + )
7.
48 + 39
20(1 + )
61
62
TABLE 2-4 (continued) APPROXIMATE SHEAR CORRECTION FACTORSa
Case
Correction Factor s
8.
(12 + 72 j + 150 j 2 + 90 j 3 ) + (11 + 66 j + 135 j 2 + 90 j 3 ) + 30k 2 ( j + j 2 ) + 5k 2 (8 j + 9 j 2 )

10(1 + )(1 + 3 j)2
where j = 2bt f / htw , k = b/ h
9.
(12 + 72 j + 150 j 2 + 90 j 3 ) + (11 + 66 j + 135 j 2 + 90 j 3 ) + 10k 2 [(3 + ) j + 3 j 2 ]

10(1 + )(1 + 3 j)2
where j = bt1 / ht, k = b/ h
10.
(12 + 96 j + 276 j 2 + 192 j 3 ) + (11 + 88 j + 248 j 2 + 216 j 3 ) + 30k 2 ( j + j 2 ) + 10k 2 (4 j + 5 j 2 + j 3 )

10(1 + )(1 + 4 j)2
where j = bt f / htw , k = b/ h
a This table contains some traditional expressions for shear correction factors, following Cowper [2.4], with permission. More accurate values can be obtained using the
computational methods of Ref. [2.1]. For example, the more accurate shear correction factor for a rectangular section (case 1) varies with the thickness of the rectangle.
For software see the web site for this book.
TABLE 2-5 Torsional Constant J
TABLE 2-5 TORSIONAL CONSTANT J a

Shape
Torsional Constant J
Thick Noncircular Sections
a 3 b3
1.
Ellipse
J=
2.
Hollow ellipse
J=
3.
Equilateral triangle
a4 3
J=
80
16(a 2 + b2 )
a 3 b3
(1 k 4 )
16(a 2 + b2 )
63
64
TABLE 2-5 (continued) TORSIONAL CONSTANT J a
4.
Square
J = 0.1406a 4
5.
Rectangle
ab3
J=
3
b
b5
1 0.630 + 0.052 5
a
a
Hollow, Closed Thin-Walled Sections

6.
Single cell
J = S
0
t
s
4A2
[1/t (s)] ds
where
A = area enclosed by middle line of wall
S = entire length of middle line of wall
For constant t
J=
4A2 t
S
Fins on hollow section

t1
For M fins:
J=
b1
M
4A2
1
bi ti3 + S
3 i=1
0 (1/t) ds
S = entire length of middle wall of the hollow cell

tM
bM
Multicell
For M cells:
M

Ai q i
J =4
q1
t1
i=1
1
q2
q3
k=1
4
q4
t4
where q i (normalized shear flows) are calculated

from the M equations

m
ds
ds
= Ai
qi
qk
t
(s)
i t
ik
k = i
Ai is the centerline-enclosed area of cell i
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , M cells
k identifies cells adjacent to the ith cell
The ith cell is adjoined by m cells
See Example 2.5
65
66
Shape
Circular Cross Sections
1
4
2 ro
1
4
32 do
7.
Solid
J=
8.
Hollow
J = 12 (ro4 ri4 ) =
9.
Very thin
J = 2r 3 t
1
4
32 (do
di4 )
Thin-walled Open Sections

10.
Any open section
J=
M

bi t 3
3 i=1 i
where M is number of straight or curved segments of thickness ti and width or height

bi composing the section; set = 1 except as designated otherwise
11.
J = 13 bt 3
67
68
Shape
12.
J = 13 (b1 t13 + b2 t23 + htw3 )
Structural Shapes
13.
JI =
J =
D=
where
+ 13 (d 2t f )tw3 + 2 D 4 0.420t 4f
+ 13 (d t f )tw3 + D 4 0.210t 4f 0.105tw4
(t f + r)2 + tw (r + 14 tw )
2 3
3 bt f
1 3
3 bt f
2r + t f
0.5 tw /t f 1.0
= C1 + C2 (tw /t f ) + C3 (tw /t f )2
For 0.2 r/t f 1.0
C1
0.06971 + 0.13153(r/t f ) + 0.27000(r/t f )2 0.22813(r/t f )3
C2
0.27835 0.01878(r/t f ) 0.71207(r/t f )2 + 0.57542(r/t f )3
C3
0.09684 0.12082(r/t f ) + 0.54500(r/t f )2 0.40060(r/t f )3
14.
JI = 16 (b tw )(t1 + t2 )(t12 + t22 ) + 23 tw t23 + 13 (d 2t2 )tw3 + 2 D 4 4V t14

J =
1
12 (b
tw )(t1 + t2 )(t12 + t22 ) + 13 tw t23 + 13 (d t2 )tw3 + D 4 2V t14 0.105tw4
(F + t2 )2 + tw (r + 14 tw )
F + r + t2

1
tw
F = rs
+11
2r
s2
D=
V = 0.10504 + 0.10000s + 0.08480s 2 + 0.06746s 3 + 0.05153s 4

2(t2 t1 )
= slope of flange
b tw
where 0.5 tw /t2 1.0
s=
= C1 + C2 (tw /t2 ) + C3 (tw /t2 )2

For 0.2 r/t2 1.0
C1
0.1033 + 0.3466(r/t2 ) 0.3727(r/t2 )2 + 0.1694(r/t2 )3
C2
0.3062 0.7656(r/t2 ) + 1.3348(r/t2 )2 0.6897(r/t2 )3
C3
0.1074 + 0.4167(r/t2 ) 0.9049(r/t2 )2 + 0.5002(r/t2 )3
69
70
Shape
15.
J[ =
J =
J = 23 bt 3f + 13 (d 2t f )tw3 + 2 D 4 0.420t 4f
1 3
1
4
3
4
4
3 bt f + 3 (d t f )tw + D 0.210t f 0.105tw
D = 2[(3r + tw + t f )
where

2(2r + tw )(2r + t f )]
0.5 tw /t f 1.0,
= C1 + C2 (tw /t f ) + C3 (tw /t f )2
For 0.2 r/t f 1.0
C1
0.11641 + 0.26445(r/t f ) 0.24677(r/t f )2 + 0.12556(r/t f )3
C2
0.34597 0.53266(r/t f ) + 0.79741(r/t f )2 0.40271(r/t f )3
C3
0.15063 + 0.31916(r/t f ) 0.57695(r/t f )2 + 0.29625(r/t f )3
16.
J[ = 16 (b tw )(t1 + t2 )(t12 + t22 ) + 23 tw t23 + 13 (d 2t2 )tw3 + 2 D 4 2V t14 0.210t24

J =
1
12 (b
tw )(t1 + t2 )(t12 + t22 ) + 13 tw t23 + 13 (d t2 )tw3 + D 4 V t14 + 0.105t24 0.105tw4
D = 2[(3r + tw + M) 2(2r + tw )(2r + M)]
M = t2 r(s + 1 1 + s 2 )
V = 0.10504 + 0.10000s + 0.08480s 2 + 0.06746s 3 + 0.05153s 4
t2 t1
s=
= slope of flange
b tw
where 0.6 tw /t2 1.0,
= C1 + C2 (tw /t2 ) + C3 (tw /t2 )2
C1
For 0.2 < r/t2 < 1.0

0.10264 0.44045(r/t2 ) + 1.2413(r/t2 )2 0.68518(r/t2 )3
C2
0.24145 + 1.3046(r/t2 ) 3.0311(r/t2 )2 + 1.6659(r/t2 )3
C3
0.057158 0.89368(r/t2 ) + 1.8919(r/t2 )2 1.0281(r/t2 )3

Other Cross-Sectional Shapesb
17.
J = 2Hro4
where for 0.1 ri /ro 0.6,
H = C1 + C2 (ri /ro ) + C3 (ri /ro )2 + C4 (ri /ro )3
For 0.1 a/ri 1.0
C1
C2
C3
C4
0.4419 0.006649(a/ri ) 0.01237(a/ri )2 + 0.008159(a/ri )3

0.7992 0.3159(a/ri ) + 0.1041(a/ri )2 0.1180(a/ri )3
0.05440 + 0.8918(a/ri ) 0.2037(a/ri )2 + 0.2306(a/ri )3
0.4989 0.6441(a/ri ) + 0.1295(a/ri )2 0.1274(a/ri )3
71
72
Shape
18.
J = 2Hr 4
where for 0.1 b/r 0.5,
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3
For 0.2 a/b 2.0
C1
C2
C3
C4
19.
0.8022 0.05327(a/b) + 0.05212(a/b)2 0.01372(a/b)3

0.2248 + 0.6236(a/b) 0.6370(a/b)2 + 0.1612(a/b)3
0.08032 3.609(a/b) + 2.481(a/b)2 0.5339(a/b)3
0.2603 + 2.876(a/b) 1.630(a/b)2 + 0.3355(a/b)3
J = 2Hr 4
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3
For 0.2 a/b 2.0
C1
0.7856 0.01775(a/b) + 0.03284(a/b)2 0.009474(a/b)3
C2
0.1551 + 0.5930(a/b) 0.7858(a/b)2 + 0.2038(a/b)3
C3
1.124 5.639(a/b) + 3.938(a/b)2 0.8327(a/b)3
C4
0.5493 + 5.451(a/b) 3.143(a/b)2 + 0.6367(a/b)3
20.
J = 2Hr 4
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3
For 0.2 a/b 1.5
C1
21.
0.8934 0.2590(a/b) + 0.2014(a/b)2 0.0402(a/b)3
C2
0.8812 + 1.204(a/b) 0.1487(a/b)2 0.4083(a/b)3
C3
1.923 4.701(a/b) 5.888(a/b)2 + 4.573(a/b)3
C4
3.210 0.8764(a/b) + 18.73(a/b)2 9.72(a/b)3
J = 2Hr 4
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3
For 0.3 a/b 1.2
C1
0.806441 0.056737(a/b) + 0.043005(a/b)2 0.012622(a/b)3
C2
0.205211 + 0.474911(a/b) 0.335661(a/b)2 + 0.122002(a/b)3
C3
0.531966 1.049677(a/b) + 1.015579(a/b)2 0.481095(a/b)3
C4
0.483475 + 0.780521(a/b) + 0.025257(a/b)2 + 0.715039(a/b)3
73
74
Shape
22.
J=
2Hr 4
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3

For 0.2 a/b 2.0
23.
C1
0.820637 0.087139(a/b) + 0.061660(a/b)2 0.019378(a/b)3
C2
0.321396 + 0.650230(a/b) 0.391181(a/b)2 + 0.182355(a/b)3
C3
0.760392 1.061566(a/b) + 1.085027(a/b)2 0.799552(a/b)3
C4
0.661936 + 0.541752(a/b) + 0.872841(a/b)2 + 1.417918(a/b)3
J = 2Hr 4
H = C1 + C2 (b/r) + C3 (b/r)2 + C4 (b/r)3
For 0.2 a/b 2.0
C1
0.893973 0.313887(a/b) + 0.269713(a/b)2 0.084344(a/b)3
C2
0.943550 + 2.289479(a/b) 1.565538(a/b)2 + 0.525646(a/b)3
C3
2.432108 4.773638(a/b) + 3.659461(a/b)2 1.768291(a/b)3
C4
1.838383 + 1.733176(a/b) + 2.880622(a/b)2 + 2.464264(a/b)3
24.
J = 2Hr 4
where for 0 a/r 1.0,
H = 0.789153 0.286497(a/r) 1.000693(a/r)2 + 0.648931(a/r)3
25.
J = 2Hr 4
H = 0.786896 0.632562(a/r) 2.002225(a/r)2 + 1.998147(a/r)3
26.
J = 2Hr 4
H = 0.781100 0.620726(a/r) 8.234127(a/r)2 + 15.313776(a/r)3
27.
J = 2Hr 4
where for 0.1 a/r 0.5,
H = 0.785940 0.029096(a/r) 1.391780(a/r)2 + 0.891659(a/r)3
75
76
TABLE 2-5 (continued)
TORSIONAL CONSTANT J a
Shape
28.
J = 2Hr 4
H = 0.785300 0.013430(a/r) 3.069283(a/r)2 + 2.549998(a/r)3
29.
J = 2Hr 4
H = 0.798080 0.197025(a/r) 5.683568(a/r)2 + 6.666664(a/r)3
30.
J = 2Hr 4
where for 0.1 a/b 0.8,
H = 0.049447 + 0.043597(a/b) + 4.698128(a/b)2 3.899720(a/b)3
a See the web site for software to calculate accurately J of any cross-sectional shape.
b See Ref. [2.5].
TABLE 2-6 Shear Centers and Warping Constants
TABLE 2-6 SHEAR CENTERS AND WARPING CONSTANTSa

Shape
1.
Sector of thin circle
Location of Shear Center (S), e

2r
[( ) cos + sin ]
( ) + sin cos
tr 5
3
Warping Constant,
2( )3
12 [( ) cos + sin ]2
( ) + sin cos
For split tube ( = 0) use e = 2r

Ref. [2.6]
2.
Circle with different
properties

CG
2r 1 C G sin
1 + C G
CG

C
1 1 tan 1 C EE +

C
C
1 sin22 1 C EE + C EE
Use computer program
C E
CE
C E = Et, C G = Gt
Ref. [2.7]
3.
Semicircular section
8 3 + 4
r
15 1 +
77
78
TABLE 2-6 (continued) SHEAR CENTERS AND WARPING CONSTANTSa
Shape
4.

b2 A
IF
a 1 +
+ 2h
4Iz
Iz

where
+ 2h 2 I F 2bdh 2 A F + b2 ah A
A = total area
I F = moment of inertia of each
lower flange with respect
to web axis
Iz , I y = moments of inertia with
respect to z, y axes
zS = e
b12 ht
2 )
6(I y Iz I yz
yS = d +
b12 ht
2 )
6(I y Iz I yz
[I yz (2b1 3d) + 3Iz (h e)]

h 2 + 2b1 h
,
2h(b1 + b2 )
Ref. [2.9]
e=
A F = area of each lower flange

d = distance of centroid of lower flange
from the web axis
[3I yz (h e) + I y (2b1 3d)]
d=
b12 + b22
2(h + b1 + b2 )
I2
IF
4h 2 F
Iz
Iz
where
Ref. [2.8]
Ref. [2.8]
5.
Channel with unequal
flanges
Warping Constant,

"
!
b2
b2 A
2
Iy + a A 1
4
4Iz
6. Thin-walled lipped angle
b
(3 2) 2
2 1 + 3( 2 ) + 3
c
=
b
Ref. [2.6]
tb4 c3 (4b + 3c)

6(b3 + 3cb2 3c2 b + c3 )
7. Thin-walled lipped channel
t = const
b(3bh 2 + 6ah 2 8a 3 )
+ 6bh 2 + 6ah 2 + 8a 3 12a 2 h
Ref. [2.9]
h3
8. Channel
3t f b2
6bt f + htw
b3 h 2 t f 2htw + 3bt f
12 htw + 6bt f
79
80
Shape
9.
Thin-walled hat section
Warping Constant,

b(3bh 2
h3
+ 6bh 2
+ 6ah 2
+ 6ah 2
8a 3 )
+ 8a 3
+ 12a 2 h
Ref. [2.9]
10. I-beam
t1 b13 h
t1 b13 + t2 b23
If b1 = b2 and t1 = t2 , then e = 12 h
11.
I-beam with unsymmetric
flanges
3(b2 b12 )
, b1 < b
tw h/t f + 6(b + b1 )
Ref. [2.6]
t1 = t2 = t
h 2 t b13 b23
12 b13 + b23
If b1 = b2 , then =
1 3 2
24 b h t
12.
Thin-walled U section
4r 2 + 2b2 + 2br
4b + r
Ref. [2.9]
13.
Tee
S lies at intersection of
centerlines of flange and web
14.
Thin-walled fork section
3b2 (h 21 + h 22 )
h 32 + 6b(h 21 + h 22 )
Ref. [2.9]
t 3f b3
tw3 h 3
144
36
Secondary warping.
See Ref. [2.11]
2 =
81
82
Shape
15.
Thin-walled bowl section
16.
Unequal leg angle

2
3
b1
b1
b
1
D + 12 bb
+
3
4
2
r
r
r
r
r

2
b+b1
b1
b1
3+ r
3 + 12 r + 4 r
2
b
b + b1
+6
where D = 12 + 6
r
r
Ref. [2.6]
Warping Constant,
S lies at intersection of centerlines
2 =
1 3 3
36 t (b1
+ b23 )
If b1 = b2 = b, then 2 =
Secondary warping.
See Ref. [2.11]
17.
Zee section
1
2h
b3 h 2 t f bt f + 2htw
12 2bt f + htw
1 3 3
18 t b
18.
1
2h
h 2 Iz
4
Ref. [2.11]
19.
Thin-walled lipped section
1
2h
tb2 D + (6h 2 + 5bh)C + bh 2 + 0.5b2 h

6
h + 2b + 2c
where D = C 2 + 2(h + 2b)C 2
20.
t 3 b3
t13 h 3
r 4 h 2
+ 2 +
36
36
4
83
84
TABLE 2-6 (continued)
SHEAR CENTERS AND WARPING CONSTANTSa
Shape
21.
Cross section formed of M
straight thin elements
Iz Iy I yz Iz
2
I y Iz I yz
I y Iz I yz Iy
zS =
2
I y Iz I yz
s
c = 0 rc ds

Iy = A c z dA
M
1
=
(cp z p + cq z q )ti bi
3 i=1
yS =
+
rci is perpendicular distance
from centroid to tangent
of wall profile for the ith
element
p , q and cp , cq are the
principal sectorial coordinates
(warping functions) and
the sectorial coordinates
with respect to centroid c of
the p and q ends of element i
Ref. [2.10], printed with
permission.
Warping Constant,
Iz =
2 dA =
A
M
1
(2 + p q + q2 )ti bi
3 i=1 p
where j ( j = p or q)is taken from case 1

of Table 2-7
M
1
(cp z q + cq z p )ti bi
6 i=1
c y dA

1 M
=
(cp y p + cq yq )ti bi
3 i=1
A
M
1
(cp yq + cq y p )ti bi
6 i=1
a Warping constants are with respect to the shear center. See the web site for software to calculate accurately the shear center and warping constant for any cross-sectional
shape.
TABLE 2-7 Some Warping Properties
TABLE 2-7 SOME WARPING PROPERTIES

Shape
1.
Cross section formed
of M straight thin
elements
Ref. [2.10], printed with
permission
Principal Sectorial Coordinate

(at point j)
means the summation along a line of
i
= j = S !
elements. Begin at an outer element
j 0
"
M
and sum until reaching the point j,
1 1
0 =
( Sp + Sq )ti bi
where the values of S j or cj are
A 2 i=1
desired.
M

are the sectorial coordinates of the p
Sp and Sq
ti bi
A=
and q ends of element i.
i=1
0
is the average of sectorial coordinate

S j =
r Si bi
S for the whole section.
r
and
r
are the perpendicular distances from
i
Si
ci

the shear center and centroid to element
cj =
rci bi
i, respectively.
i
Linear distribution of
See Chapter 15 for examples in using these formulas.
85
86
TABLE 2-7 (continued) SOME WARPING PROPERTIES
Principal Sectorial Coordinate
Shape
2.
b1 h
1 =
2
b2 h
2 =
2
3.
1 =
1+
3
t1
t2
b1
b2
Q 1 =
b12 ht1
8
Q 2 =
b22 ht2
8
1+
bh 3 +
3
h
b
h
b
b2
b1
t2
t1
1+
1+
tw
tf
tw
tf
2 6+
1
bh
2 =

2 2 + 13 hb ttw
f
Q 1 =
b2 ht
4
1
3
b1
b2
1
3
3+
6+
b2
b1
h
b
h
b
tw
tf
tw
tf
t1
t2
t2
t1
1
b2 ht
4 1 + b tf
h tw
1
b2 ht
Q 3 =

8 1 + 6 b tf
h tw
b
a=

2 + 13 hb ttwf
Q 2 =
4.
tf
bh tw + b
1 =
2 2tf + h
2 =
tw
b
2
b ht f
2(2bt f + htw )
Q 1

2
tw
b
b2 ht f h + t f
=

2
4
2 hb + ttwf
Q 2 =
a=
1
bh 2 tw
4 2 + hb ttw
f
b
2+
h tw
b tf
87

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C H A P T E R

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

2.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA

In general, for n standard shapes, the equations become

where Ai (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) are the areas of identifiable simple areas and y i , z i are

2.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

z 2 dA about the y axis

y 2 dA about the z axis

Figure 2-2: Notation for section moduli.

2.4 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Figure 2-3: Geometry for transformation of axes; c is centroid of cross section.

2.4 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

Figure 2-4: Polar moment of inertia.

2.5 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA

2.5 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Figure 2-5: Geometry for rotation of axes.

z  dA = Iz sin2 + I y cos2 2I yz sin cos

y  dA = Iz cos2 + I y sin2 + 2I yz sin cos

y  z  dA = I yz (cos2 sin2 ) + (I y Iz ) sin cos

Trigonometric identities 2 cos2 = 1 + cos 2, 2 sin2 = 1 cos 2, and

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

1. The value of = p defines the principal axes of inertia. At this orientation, I y 

An axis of symmetry will be a principal axis and an axis of a zero product of

2.6 MOHRS CIRCLE FOR MOMENTS OF INERTIA

2.6 MOHRS CIRCLE FOR MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Figure 2-7: Example 2.1.

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

The product of inertia for the complete angle is then

The moments of inertia are computed in a similar fashion:

2.6 MOHRS CIRCLE FOR MOMENTS OF INERTIA

IzD = Iz D + (dzD )2 A D = 7.583 in4

IzB = Iz B + (d yB )2 A B = 2.583 in4

For the entire angle,

Iz = IzD + IzB = 10.167 in4

The angle of inclination with respect to the centroidal axis is given by

so that the elastic section modulus becomes

From Eq. (2.6), the plastic section modulus is given by

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

2.7 FIRST MOMENT OF AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH

2.8 SHEAR CORRECTION FACTORS

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

2.9 TORSIONAL CONSTANT

2.9 TORSIONAL CONSTANT

Figure 2-11: Thin-walled open section.

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

Figure 2-12: Thin-walled closed section.

or for a section formed of M straight or curved segments of thickness ti and length bi :

where is a shape factor. Use = 1 if no information on is available.

2.9 TORSIONAL CONSTANT

Figure 2-13: Fins on a hollow section.

Figure 2-14: Multicell wing section.

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

where Ai is the centerline-enclosed area of cell i and q i is a normalized shear flow

2.9 TORSIONAL CONSTANT

The solution of (8) is

= 4(6)(0.24 + 0.24 + 0.24 + 0.24) = 23.04 in4

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS

2.10 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES

First Sectorial Moment

where A0 is shown in Fig. 2-16b and

This follows since

z dA = Iz sin2 + I y cos2 2I yz sin cos

y dA = Iz cos2 + I y sin2 + 2I yz sin cos

y z dA = I yz (cos2 sin2 ) + (I y Iz ) sin cos

1. The value of = p defines the principal axes of inertia. At this orientation, I y