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Catena 104 (2013) 251256

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Soil genesis and classication

Alfred E. Hartemink , J.G. Bockheim
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Soil Science, FD Hole Soils Lab, 1525 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706 USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 19 June 2012
Received in revised form 16 October 2012
Accepted 4 December 2012
Keywords:
Pedology
Soil genesis
Soil history
Soil taxonomy
Soil science in the USA

a b s t r a c t
The formation and classication of soils have been a key area of research in the soil science discipline. Major
breakthroughs have been brought about since the mid 1800s and it has evolved from conceptual frameworks,
to descriptive studies to more quantitative approaches. Some 50 years ago the American soil scientists Stan Buol
and Francis Hole hatched idea for the book Soil Genesis and Classication. Now six editions of the book have been
published and it has become a standard text book in teaching soil science and pedology in the USA. Over 50,000
copies have been sold and this paper reviews how the book evolved over time, and relates the text to trends and
developments in soil formation and soil classication.
Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction
The formation and classication of soils have been a key area of research since the soil science discipline emerged in the 19th century.
Most things beneath the feet of scientists in that time were largely
unknown and there were wild speculations on the origin of many
soil features. For example, there were theories that stones developed
in soils by chemical precipitation and that peat was formed by algae.
Initial soil studies in the 19th century focused on geology and parent
material on one hand, and agricultural chemistry on the other hand.
The chemical school of thought had several followers (Baxter, 1832;
Lawes et al., 1883; Rufn, 1832) but was led by J. von Liebig who
was one of the most inuential scientists of his time (Blume, 2002;
Brock, 1997). An early example that viewed soils from a geological
point of view was by J. Morton (1843). Morton discusses alluvial
and diluvial soils a distinction made between ne sediments deposited by water (alluvium), and coarse sediments deposited by oods
(diluvium). That geological distinction had a religious origin, and for
Morton soils and geology were one. Also Fallou (1862) distinguished
between soils formed in-situ and washed-in or alluvial soils and as
he was trained as a mineralogist he attributed variations in soils primarily to differences in soil forming rocks. Senft (1857) and Fallou
(1862) prepared the way for V.V. Dokuchaev (Blume, 2002) who
brought the study of soils out of the chaos and confusion of the geologic, chemical, and agronomic points of view and established it as independent science (Marbut, 1936).
Whereas soil science in the beginning was driven by the idea that
geology and parent material are the main forming factors, the Russian
school emphasized the effects of climate and introduced the zonal
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 608 263 4947.
E-mail address: hartemink@wisc.edu (A.E. Hartemink).
0341-8162/$ see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.12.001

theory of soil distribution. Sibirtsev (1900) considered climate as

the key soil forming factor although he also paid attention to soil ecology. Glinka (1914) dened the fundamental law of pedology as the
law of the adaptability of soil types of the globe to denite natural
(primarily climatic) conditions. In the USA it took a while before the
Russian ideas on soil genesis were digested (Helms et al., 2002) and
the zonal theory had supporters (Joffe, 1936) as well as critics
(Marbut, 1936).
Hand in hand with the theories on soil formation developed the
subdiscipline of soil classication. Initially that was largely based for tax
purposes (e.g. Fallou, 1862) and was more a form of dissection than taxonomic classication (Krasilnikov et al., 2009). Most classications are
based on the ideas of discreteness of entities, and in soil science there
has been fairly rapid developments in classication following increased
understanding of properties and processes. In the past 100 years the
focus and backbone of soil classication went from properties to processes and back to properties (Bockheim and Gennadiyev, 2000). Currently,
both Soil Taxonomy and World Reference Base for Soil resources rely
largely for their diagnostics on soil properties.
As the body of knowledge on soil formation and soil classication
evolved so did the textbooks that aimed to summarize and synthesize
the newly acquired information and insights. Early examples are for
example Hilgard (1906), Merrill (1906) and Joffe (1936), and these
were widely used in the USA prior to Hans Jenny's book (Jenny,
1941). There were other less pedology and more edaphology text
books used in the USA like, for example, Lyon and Buckman (1948)
and Weir (1949). In Europe and Russia text books that had a strong
focus on soil formation were by Robinson (1932) in the UK, by
Duchaufour (1977) in France , by Ramann (1911) in Germany, by
van Baren (1920) in the Netherlands by Rode (1962) and Vilenskii
(1963) in Russia and earlier works by Glinka (1914), and Sibirtsev
(1900) just to name a few.

252

A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251256

Plate 1. The founding authors of Soil Genesis and Classication, L to R: Stan Buol, Francis Hole, and Ralph McCracken.

In 1973 the text Soil Genesis and Classication was published (Buol
et al., 1973) with the intention to summarize the body of knowledge
called pedology, to encourage students to learn directly from the soil
in its natural setting, and to serve as stepping stones across the
seeming morass of terminology and information. Recently, the
sixth edition of this standard text was published. Here we review
how that book has changed and how that changes reect developments in the subdiscipline of soil formation and soil classication.
The book is widely used and represents the synthesis of a substantial
period of almost 40 years. This sort of analysis has been done for
other soil science books like Russell's Soil Condition and Plant Growth
(Greenland, 1997), general soil science books (McDonald, 1994a) and
the seven soil encyclopedia and reference books that have been published in the past between 2000 and 2012 (Hartemink, 2012).
Although there are several other excellent soil science text books
(e.g. Fanning and Fanning, 1989; Singer and Munns, 1987; Wilding
et al., 1983) none of these textbooks have 6 editions that cover almost
40 years and could be used to investigate trends in the subdiscipline
of soil formation and classication. The aim of this paper is to contribute to the limited number of historical and interpretative studies of
the soil science discipline.
2. The beginning
The ideas and start of the text book Soil Genesis and Classication
were summarized by Stan Buol of NC State University in the USA
(2010). It began one summer afternoon in 1963 or 1964 when Stan

Buol met again with his major professor Francis Hole in Madison,
USA. Both used Hans Jenny's book (1941) but several new developments urged for a new textbook. These included the ideas laid out
in Outline of a Generalized Theory of Soil Genesis (Simonson,
1959), several papers translated from Russian relating in the several
elds of soil science, the adoption of the 7th Approximation (Soil
Survey Staff, 1960), and the fact that soil survey had greatly increased
the interpretation for land use and productivity studies, especially for
nonfarm land use problems. An emphasis was put on classifying soils
on the basis of soil properties that could be measured within the soil
body. Existing concepts of soil genesis and classication related to external factors of soil formation were replaced by discussions of specific soil properties, such as mollic epipedons, argillic horizons, or aquic
conditions. Terms related to climatic conditions such as warm, cold,
arid, and humid conditions were replaced by more quantitative
terms of soil temperature and moisture regimes. According to Buol
(2010), it was becoming apparent that the system of soil classication
presented in the 7th Approximation was to become the ofcial soil
classication system in the United States and that there was a need
to teach the system to soil science students. Both Hole and Buol lamented that teaching the 7th Approximation was cumbersome
when the complete text was used, and there was no available text
that presented the processes of soil formation. Buol, Hole and
McCracken got together in the summer of 1972 at the University of
Wisconsin and prepared the rst draft. Both Hole and McCracken
came from Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, USA, whereas
Buol was a graduate student of Hole (Brevik, 2010).

Table 1
Summary of six editions of Soil Genesis and Classication.
1st edition

2nd edition

3rd edition

4th edition

5th edition

6th edition

Year
Authors

1973
S.W. Buol
F.D. Hole
R.J. McCracken

1980
S.W. Buol
F.D. Hole
R.J. McCracken

1989
S.W. Buol
F.D. Hole
R.J. McCracken

No. of pages
No. of chapters

360
26

406
26

446
24

1997
S.W. Buol
F.D. Hole
R.J. McCraken
R.J. Southard
528
23

2003
S.W. Buol
R.J. Southard
R.C. Graham
P.A. McDaniel
494
21

2011
S.W. Buol
R.J. Southard
R.C. Graham
P.A. McDaniel
543
21

Table 2
Chapters in six editions of Soil Genesis and Classication.
First edition

Second edition

Third edition

Fourth edition

Fifth edition

Sixth edition

Introduction

Introduction

Introduction

Introduction

Introduction

Introduction

Morphology of Soils

Morphology of Soils

Morphology of Soils

Morphology and Composition of Soils

Morphology and Composition of Soils

Soil Micromorphology

Soil Micromorphology

Soil Composition and Characterization

Soil Composition and Characterization

Soil Composition and Characterization

Weathering and Soil Formation

Biogeochemical Processes in
Soil Formation
Soil as a Component of the Ecosystem

Weathering and Soil Formation

Weathering and Soil Formation

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation

Pedogenic Processes: Internal,

Soil-Building Processes

Pedogenic Processes: Internal,

Soil-Building Processes

Pedogenic Processes: Internal,

Soil-Building Processes
Soil as a Component of the Ecosystem

Biogeochemical Processes in
Soil Formation
Soil as a Component of the
Ecosystem
Space and Time in Soil Formation

Morphology and Composition

of Soils
Soil-forming Factors: Soil as a
Component of Ecosystems
Soil Materials and Weathering

Modern Soil Classication Systems

Modern Soil Classication Systems

Modern Soil Classication Systems

Soil Environment: External Factors

of Soil Formation

Soil Environment: External Factors of

Soil Formation

Site Factors: State Factors, Initial

Material, and Relief

U.S. Soil Taxonomy

U.S. Soil Taxonomy

U.S. Soil Taxonomy

Parent Material: Initial Material of the

Solum

Parent Material: Initial Material of the

Solum

Flux Factors: State Factors, Climate,

and Organisms

Alsols: High Base Status Soils with

Argillic Horizons

Relief and Landscape Factors of the Soil

and its Environment

Relief and Landscape Factors of the Soil

and its Environment

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation

Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil

Properties

Alsols: High Base Status Forest

Soils with Finer-Textured Subsoil
Horizons
Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil
Properties

Alsols: High Base Status Forest

Soils with Finer-textured Subsoil
Horizons
Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil
Properties

Contributions of Climate to the Total

Soil Environment

Contributions of Climate to the Total Soil

Environment

Soil Systems

Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions

Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions

Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions

Organisms: Biological Portion of the Soil

and its Environment

Organisms: Biological Portion of the Soil

and its Environment

Modern Soil Classication Systems

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation

Histosols: Organic Soils

Gelisols: Very Cold Soils

Gelisols: Very Cold Soils

Gelisols: Very Cold Soils

Principles and Historical Development

of Soil Classication

Principles and Historical Development

of Soil Classication

Histosols: Organic Soils

Histosols: Organic Soils

Histosols: Organic Soils

Modern Soil Classcation Systems

Modern Soil Classcation Systems

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with

Few Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils

with Few Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with

Few Diagnostic Features

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling Dark

Clay Soils

Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling Dark

Clay Soils

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil

Accumulations of Humus and
Sesquioxides
Oxisols: Sesquioxide-Rich, Highly
Weathered Soils of the Intertropical
Regions
Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling
Dark Clay Soils
Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes

and Prairies
Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of

Steppes and Prairies
Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of

Steppes and Prairies
Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with

Few Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with Few

Diagnostic Features

Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils

Aridisols: Soils of Arid Regions

Aridisols: Soils of Arid Regions

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes

and Prairies

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil

Accumulations of Humus and
Sesquioxides
Ultisols: Low Base Status Soils

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes

and Prairies

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes and

Prairies

Alsols: High Base Status Forest

Soils with Argillic Horizons

Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling

Dark Clay Soils

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil

Accumulations of Humus and
Sesquioxides
Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest
Soils with Finer-Textured Subsoil
Horizons
Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling
Dark Clay Soils

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil

Accumulations of Humus and
Sesquioxides
Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest
Soils with Finer-Textured Subsoil
Horizons
Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling
Dark Clay Soils

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil

Accumulations of Sesquioxide and Humus

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil Accumulations

of Sesquioxide and Humus

Andisols

Soil Families and Soil Series

Spatial Arrangement of Soils:

Soilscapes and Map Units

Spatial Arrangement of Soils:

Soilscapes and Map Units

Alsols: High Base Status Forest Soils

Alsols: High Base Status Forest Soils

Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils

Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with

Few Diagnostic Features
Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Nature of Soil Cover: Polypedons,

Soilscapes, and Mapping Units
Interpretations of Soil Surveys: Soil
Classications and Soil Maps

Interpretations of Soil Surveys

and Technical Soil Classication
Bibliography

Interpretations of Soil Surveys

and Technical Soil Classication
Bibliography

Soil-forming Processes

A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251256

(continued on next page)

253

254

A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251256

Index

Bibliography

Index

Interpretaions of Soil Classications

and Maps

Author Index

Subject Index

Index

Polypedons, Soilscapes, and Soil Mapping

Units
Interpretaions of Soil Surveys: Soil
Classications and Maps
Natural Soil Bodies and Soilscapes

Index

Interpretations of Soil Surveys:

Soil Classications and Soil Maps
Bibliography
Histosols: Organic Soils
Histosols: Organic Soils

Bibliography

Fifth edition

Index

Third edition

Nature of Soil Cover: Polypedons,

Soilscapes, and Mapping Units

Second edition

Oxisols: Sesquioxide-Rich, Highly

Weathered Soils of the Intertropical Regions
Oxisols: Sesquioxide-Rich, Highly
Weathered Soils of the Intertropical
Regions

Fourth edition

The book Soil Genesis and Classication has run through six editions. The rst three were authored by the founding authors
(Plate 1) and the last three editions have been authored by four
authors all from the USA. The rst edition was reprinted seven
times and translated into Russian, Japanese, and Spanish.
The book increased in size from 360 to 543 pages between 1973
and 2011 whereas the number of chapters slightly decreased
(Table 1). The second edition underwent four printings and a translation into Chinese (Buol, 2010). After three printings of the third edition the fourth edition was published in 1997. At that time both
Francis Hole and Ralph McCracken were retired and Randall Southard
was recruited. For the fth edition Robert Graham and Paul McDaniel
joined as authors.
In the rst three editions the ve soil forming factors each had a
separate chapter but from the fourth edition these chapters were
merged (Table 2). In the rst two editions there were chapters entitled "Contributions of climate to the total soil environment", whereas
some years later the rst books appeared on the soil contributions to
the climate (Bouwman, 1990; Scharpenseel et al., 1990). Soil micromorphology was treated separately in the rst two editions and
then merged with the morphology chapter. Except from adding two
extra soil orders and some relabeling, the book chapters and its
main focus changed little over time.
Fig. 1 shows how the number of pages per topic changed over the
six editions. Although the size of the book changed a bit over the
years so these gures the graph shows that the number of pages devoted to the Soil Taxonomy soil orders almost doubled between 1973
and 2011. This obviously reects the additions of the two extra orders
(Andisols, Gelisols) and an increased amount of new information on
all soil orders. As the number of pages also increased (Table 1) the relative portion that deals with the soil orders only increased from 25%
to 30%. The number of pages dealing with soil formation dropped
over time and so did the section on soil survey interpretations.
About 40 to 50 pages dealt with soil classication in each edition of
which about half was devoted to the US Soil Taxonomy. The last edition has 94 pages bibliography (17% of the book) and 13-page index.
Some reference statistics was performed for the rst and sixth editions. The rst edition had 772 references and the sixth edition included 1581 references. About 80% of the references in the rst
edition were from the previous two decades (e.g. 1950s and 1960s)
whereas only 27% of the references in the sixth edition were from
the 1990s and 2000s (Fig. 2). The sixth edition kept about 35% of
the references listed in the rst edition and appears to have a reference distribution pattern with peak references from the 1960s and
from the 1980s. The number of references to Soil Science Society of
America Proceedings/Journals was 140 (19% of all references) in
1973 and 272 (17% of all references) in 2011.

First edition

Table 2 (continued)

Pedotechnology

Sixth edition

3. Trends in soil genesis and classication

4. Discussion
The literature of soil science is rich and diverse. It consists of half a
million articles published in peer reviewed journals, and thousands of
books, monographs, and reports (Hartemink, 2012). Initially, most of
the exchange of ndings took place through letters followed by books
and reports. In the beginning of the twentieth century the journals
that solely devoted to soil research were started (Hartemink, 2009).
Various books in the nineteenth century focused on the origin and
formation of soils. With increasing knowledge and over time soil science books were published that digested and synthesized large
amounts of information. These books served as reference works but
also had an important role in teaching and education.
Here we have analyzed how the text book Soil Genesis and Classication evolved over time. Although the amount of statistics is limited
from these types of analyses, the book covers almost 40 years and

A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251256

255

Fig. 1. Changes in subject treatment in six editions of Soil Genesis and Classication (19732011).

reveals some of the trends and developments in soil science.

According to Stan Buol (pers. communic., May 2012) about 50,000
copies of the books have been sold. Thus, several generations of mostly American soil science students have been educated and brought up
with this book although Nature and Properties of Soils (in its 14th edition now) is probably more widely taught and more generic. Soil Genesis and Classication has mostly been favorably reviewed by the soil
science community (e.g. Gillot, 1981; Rice, 2003). In the mid 1990s,
Soil Genesis and Classication was listed among the 930 titles considered core monographs in soil science that were published between
the mid 1950s and 1990s. It was ranked First by soil scientists from
developed countries and Second by soil scientists from the third
world (McDonald, 1994b). First means here that it was highly cited
in the literature and was considered by reviewers of great importance; Second rank means that it generally received fewer citations
but which many reviewers still thought important.
The major developments in our thinking on soil formation are well
summarized in these books. The factors of soil formation have received less attention with time and also emerging subjects like

No. of references
450
400

First edition

350

Sixth edition

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Fig. 2. References per decade in the rst edition (1973) and sixth edition (2011) of Soil
Genesis and Classication.

pedometrics, digital soil mapping, hydropedology or ethnopedology

(to name a few) have not made it in these books despite being thriving
subdisciplines of pedology. Also quantitative aspects of pedogenesis
(Stockmann et al., 2011) have not gained much attention whereas
such aspects will continue to push the knowledge barriers.
One of the key challenges in teaching pedology is the richness of
its language. Soil science has always been rich in semantics (Wilde,
1953) (one needs to read Brewer or Soil Taxonomy 11th edition
(Soil Survey Staff, 2010) to see this conrmed). It seems that the addition of new words is proportional to the activity in a scientic discipline. Very few new words have been added in the 6 editions
between 1973 and 2011; in fact some words and metaphors like
syntographs and pedotechnology have been lost. And who speaks
Brewerese nowadays?
In a sense it appears that the 1973 book was much more an actual
synthesis of the soil genesis and classication literature than the last
edition from 2011. In part that is due that 40 years have lapsed and
soil science and pedology have suffered in the last two decades
(Basher, 1997), particularly in the USA (Baveye et al., 2006). In
many departments around the world the pure study of soils in the
eld has diminished considerably over time (Ruellan, 1997). The
books have become slightly more international and various national
soil classication systems are discussed but the emphasis is on Soil
Taxonomy and most examples are from the USA. More emphasis
has been put on the soil orders perhaps as new developments and
grand ideas on soil genesis are limited in the past decades. Soil Taxonomy, now in its 11th edition has become useful for framing research
on soil formation. However, the days of the Soil Taxonomy international commissions are over and apart from some efforts to establish
a soil order strongly inuenced by humans (e.g. the Anthrosols and
Technosols in WRB) the amount of work on expanding Soil Taxonomy
is quite limited compared to the 1970s or 1980s. The IUSS' work on
Universal Soil Classication (since 2010) is to ascertain that the discipline remains thinking and active in developing classication systems
that reect our current abilities to collect and analyze soil data
coupled to sound understanding of soils in the eld.
In 1973 Buol et al. (1973) wrote that it was exciting times to be in
pedology because of the information explosion. That is as applicable
today as it was then and there are many new projects, research allies
and developments in soil science (Hartemink and McBratney, 2008).
We have several new ways to collect data through remote and proximal soil sensing (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011) but the need to make

256

A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251256

interpretations and distil some solid soil knowledge out of that new
information is highly essential. The new data can greatly help us in
better understanding how soils are formed, how they differ across
the landscape and how they can be classied. With time the urge
for new standard text books on these subdisciplines becomes
imperative.
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