Neurons & Nerve Impulses

Neurons are the major cell comprising nervous tissue. The other is an accessory cell – glial cells.
There are 3 major parts to a nerve cell:
-dendrite – conduct impulses to cell body
-cell body
-axon – conduct impulses away from cell bodies
a) sensory neurons – conduct impulses away from sensory cells to CNA (afferent neurons)
b) motor neurons – conduct impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles) (efferent neurons)
c) interneurons – found completely within CNS

The dendrites or axons (particularly those that are long) are covered by a myelin sheath, formed by
Schwann cells wrapped around the nerve fibre. The myelin acts as insulation for the fibre. Gaps in
the myelin, called nodes of ranvier, are important in speeding up conductance of impulses along the
length of a fibre.

Nerve Impulse – Action Potential

A potential difference across the neuron membrane is achieved by balance of K+ & Na+
High [K+] inside relative to outside
Low [Na+] inside relative to outside
Inside the cell are many large organic anions (negative ions)
Because of neg ions & K+/Na+ balance a polarity is created
The inside is negative (-60mV) relative to outside
Reversing the polarity results in an impulse. The impulse is an electrochemical charge.

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Synaptic transmission
The gap between two neurons (axon → dendrite) is called a synapse. This is an area where the
membrane of the axon (presynaptic mem.) lies very close to the membrane of an adjacent dendrite
(post-synaptic mem.). The gap between the two membranes is a synaptic cleft.

An action potential moves along an axon and reaches the synaptic ending.
1. Pre-synaptic membrane is modified allowing Ca2+ to flow into the axon ending. (Ca2+ gates open).
Ca2+ pumps will transport Ca2+ out of cell
2. Ca2+ facilitates the binding of synaptic vesicles (via contractile proteins) to the presynaptic
membrane (exocytosys)
3. Neurotransmitter substances contained within the vesicles now are discharged into the synaptic
cleft. They can now diffuse across the cleft and bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic
membrane of dendrite.
4. The Reception of neurotransmitters initiates a response in the dendrite, by altering the membrane
potential  initiating an impulse (all-or-none law)
5. Neurotransmitter can only exist in the cleft for a short time period. In some synapses the NT is
absorbed very quickly and destroyed.

Eg. (Noradrenaline – monoamine oxidase)

-in others an enzyme might destroy the NT in the cleft
Eg. (Acetylcholine – cholinesterase)
 -Ca2+ gradient is re-established by Ca2+ pump

Synaptic transmission is only one-way (axon → dendrite; obeys all or none law, it fires maximally or
not at all.

Reflex Arc
The spinal cord can handle some situations without interacting with the brain. A spinal reflex usually
involves several neurons but may require only two.

A reflex arc links a sensory receptor and an effectory, such as muscle.

eg. Touching a sharp thorn
a) A dendrite of a sensory neuron in the skin is specialized as a sensory receptor (stimulus)
b) An action potential is transmitted to the dorsal (back) side of the spinal cord.
c) The sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron within the cord.
d) Within the grey matter of the cord the interneuron synapses with a motor neuron.
e) The axon of the motor neuron exits the spinal cord on the ventral side, and its action potential
stimulates a skeletal muscle cell(s) to contract (response)

Other interneurons leading to the brain may synapse with the sensory neuron allowing the brain to
detect and respond to the stimulus, however the reflex arc is more direct and thus faster.

Nervous System
The structure of this system is by neurons, cells specialized to transmit impulses

Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain & spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – all cranial & spinal nerves

a) Somatic System related to skeletal muscles
b) Autonomic System related to smooth muscles
i) Sympathetic System – responses associated with flight or fight → noradrenalin
ii) Parasympathetic System – responses with rest → acetylcholine

Autonomic Nervous System

This system is made up of motor neurons that control internal organs. It is an “autonomic control
system in that it works without conscious control.
-sympathetic NS both innervate
-parasympathetic NS all organs
Both systems include 2 neurons & 1 ganglion. Ganglia are collections of cell bodies within the
peripheral nervous system.
1st neuron cell preganglionic fibre 2nd neuron cell bodypostganglionic fibreorgan
body w/i CNS w/I ganglion

Sympathetic Nervous System

-important during “flight or fight response”
-inhibits digestive tract
-dilation of pupils
-dilation of blood vessels to skeletal muscles
-acceleration of heart rate →↑cardiac output →↑BP
 -accelerates the resp. Rate
The preganglionic fibres originate in thoracic-lumbar vertebral egions of the spine. Preganglionic fibre
is short. The ganglia lie close to the spinal cord. The post-ganglionic fibre is long. The
neurotransmitter is noradrenalin.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

These fibres arise from the top part of the spinal cord (cranial) eg. vagus nerve or the bottom part of
the spinal cord ( sacral) eg. pelvic nerve.
Opposite to the sympathetic system, these nerves have a long preganglionic fibre & a short
postganglionic fibre. The ganglia lie away from the spinal cord. The neurotransmitter of these
neurons is acetylcholine.
The actions of this system are to relax organs
-causes eye pupil to contract
-slows heart rate
-slows breathing rate
-active during sexual stimulation
The actions of the parasympathetic nervous system oppose the actions of the sympathetic system.
We say the actions of the 2 systems are mutually antagonistic.

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Brain & CNS

The brain & spinal cord lie within the protective coverings of the skill & vertebrae. They are also
wrapped in 3 protective membranes called meninges; the spaces between these mem’s is filled with a
fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (cushioning). This fluid is also found within the cavities of the brain.

Functions of the brain can be divided into 2 groups

-conscious – thought & memry occurs in the cerebrum
-unconscious – control & coordination of muscle movement & balance occurs in the cerebellum
-reception of sensory stimulus from the body & organization of these signals occurs in the
thalamus before they pass to the cerebrum [relay centre to cerebrum]
-ARAS – Ascending Reticular Activating System – sorts incoming stimuli, alerting the
cerebrum to certain stimuli
-homeostasis is regulated by the hypothalamus [temp., BP, water balance]; it controls the
pituitary gland & so provides a link b/w the nervous system & the hormones of the endocrine
system.
-the automatic functions such as breathing, heartbeat, BP, reflex actions (cough)n are
controlled by the medulla oblongata(brain stem). It leads directly to spinal cord

Cerebrum – largest part of the brain, responsible for conscious thought

Division – 2 halves – right & left cerebral hemispheres
Each hemisphere contains 4 distinct lobes
-frontal – motor area & personality
-parietal – sensory, body position
-temporal – auditory, olfactory, speech (left)
-occipital – vision
w/i each lobe there are
-association areas – intellect, artistic & creative ability, learning & memory7
 -sensory areas – receive sensory information from sensory neurons & produce
sensations. The type of sensation is dependent on the area of the brain stimulated
since all nerve impulses are essentially the same
-motor area – initiates nerve impulses that stimulate muscle contractions
Outer cortex (grey matter) grows faster than the inner white matter → folding

The 2 cerebral hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. This allows communication b/w
the halves. The left hemisphere tends to be more verbally oriented, and the right hemisphere is more
visually orientated.

b/w the cerebral cortex are 2 areas referred to as extrapyramidal system & limbic system. These
areas allow feelings of emotion ie. rage, sorrow, pain, etc.

Spinal cord – consists of a central cerebrospinal fluid filled canal

-grey matter made up of cell bodies
-white matter made up of nerve fibres
Grey Matter – dorsal cell bodies receive sensory info
-ventral cell bodies send out motor info
White Matter – ascending nerve tracts in the dorsal portion of spinal cord conduct info to the brain

-descending nerve tracts in the ventral portion of the spinal cord take info away from brain to
effectors
Nerve tracts cross so that right half of brain controls left half of body & vice versa

Neurotransmitters in the Brain

There are many different neurotransmitters that transmit impulses across synapses. In the brain some
are excitory, while others are inhibitory. The synapses will differ by the nature of the transmitter.

Excitory NT Inhibitory NT
noradrenaline glycine
serotonin gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
dopamine
acetylcholine

these NTs are kept in a delicate balance in a healthy brain. Endorphins & enkephalins are NTs
involved in the perception of pain. These NTs have properties similar to opiates, like morphine, &
appear to act as the body’s natural painkillers.

Drugs – can interfere w/ normal brain fn by interfering w/ NTs or their receptor sites
-stimulants (amphetamines) – enhance excitory NTs or inhibit inhibitory NTs
-depressants (barbiturates) – inhibit excitory NTs or excite inhibitory NTs
-narcotics may bind to opiate receptors intended for endorphins

Hormonal Control
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland is located at the base of the brain. It has 2 distinct areas.
1) Posterior Pituitary – connected to the hypothalamus
Hormones - oxytocin – causes utrine contractions
-antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – formerly vasopressin – causes water retention by
kidneys
both are peptide hormones and are produced in cell bodies of hypothalamus & are stored for
release in the posterior pituitary
2) Anterior Pituitary – connected to the hypothalamus by a system of blood vessels.
Hormones called Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones (HRH’s) can be transported in the portal
blood vessls and direct the release of various hormones made by specific cells in the ant pit
Hormones – growth hormone (GH) – promotes cell division, protein synthesis, & bone growth
(formerly somatotropin)
-lactogenic hormone (LH) – (formerly prolactin) stimulates development of
mammary glands & milk production
-thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – regulates the output of the thyroid gland
(thyroxine)
-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) – not known what its role is in humans
-adrenal corticoropic hormone (ACTH) – regulates the output of adrenal cortex
(cortisol)
-gonadotropic hormones – follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & leutinizing hormone
(LH) stimulate production in testes (male)and ovaries (female) (interstitial cell-
stimulating hormone instead of LH)

Feedback Control
The anterior pituitary controls the secretions of several other endocrine glands. Secretions
from the ant pit regulate the release of hormones from the thyroid gland, testes, ovaries & the adrenal
cortex. The hormones released from the ant pit are in turn regulated by hormones (hypothalamic
releasing hormones) from the hypothalamus.
Three-tiered relationship of self regulation between these glands.
diagram
2→1: Hormones released by ant pit feedback & regulate release by hypothalamus (HRH’s)
3→2: Hormones released by endocrine glands feedback & regulate release by ant pit
3→1: Hormones released by endocrine glands feedback & regulate release by hypothalamus

Thyroid Gland
-located in the neck just below larynx
-composed of many follicles that contain thyroglobulin, a precursor form of the hormone thyroxin.
Iodine is an important component of this hormone & so is necessary in the diet. Goiter is a result of
iodine deficiency; the thyroid enlarges in its attempts to trap more iodine & produce more thyroxin (in
response to increasing levels of TSH from the hypothalamus/ant pit)
-thyroxin – causes an increase of metabolic rate of most cells
-calcitonin – another thyroid hormone not regulated by TSH. It causes a decrease in blood Ca2+
levels. It’s actions are opposed by parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid Glands
-located on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands
-releases parathyroid hormone which causes an increase in blood Ca2+ & a decrease in PO43-. Works
in opposition to calcitonin. Ca2+ increase can be achieved in 3 ways:
a) increased absorption of Ca in the small intestine (vit D)
b) Ca retention by the kidneys
c) removal of Ca from the bones
- PO43- removal by kidneys is stimulated by this hormone