Formation and Evolution of the Solar

System
The formation of the Solar System began 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational
collapse of a small part of a giantmolecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the
center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into aprotoplanetary disk out of which
the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed.
This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century
by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent
development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines
includingastronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the space
age in the 1950s and the discovery ofextrasolar planets in the 1990s, the model has been both
challenged and refined to account for new observations.
The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have
formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are
thought to have formed independently and later been captured by their planets. Still others,
such as Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have
occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar
System. The positions of the planets often shifted due to gravitational interactions.
In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward many times its current
diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebulaand
leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the far distant future, the gravity of
passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed,
others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is
likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.

History
Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings;
however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence
of a "Solar System", simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the
sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation
and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre
of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This conception had gestated for millennia
(Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until
the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term "Solar System" dates from 1704.
The current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has
fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant,
and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century. The most significant criticism of the hypothesis
was its apparent inability to explain the Sun's relative lack of angular momentum when
compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown
them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis
predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance.
Understanding of how the Sun will continue to evolve required an understanding of the
source of its power. Arthur Stanley Eddington's confirmation of Albert Einstein's theory of

relativity led to his realisation that the Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its
core, fusing hydrogen into helium. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other
elements also might form within stars. Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that
evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in
their cores. When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers, these elements would then be
recycled to form other star systems.

The Nebular Hypothesis

The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field
of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System. It
suggests that the Solar System formed from nebulous material. The theory was
developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und
Theorie des Himmels ("Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens"),
published in 1755. Originally applied to the Solar System, this process of planetary
system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the Universe.[1] The
widely accepted modern variant of the nebular hypothesis is the solar nebular
disk model (SNDM) or simply solar nebular model. This nebular hypothesis
offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System, including the
nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets, and their motion in the same
direction as the Sun's rotation. Some elements of the nebular hypothesis are echoed
in modern theories of planetary formation, but most elements have been
superseded.
According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds
of molecular hydrogengiant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are
gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser
clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex
process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk around the young
star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well
known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of
star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form,
with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10100
million years.

The Inner Solar System

The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and
the asteroid belt. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner
Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less
than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within
the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun.

Inner Planets
The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or
no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals,
such as the silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such
as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus,
Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all
have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift

valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior
planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e.
Mercury and Venus).
Mercury
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar
System (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites; besides impact
craters, its only known geological features are lobed ridges or rupes that were
probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's very
tenuous atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind.
Venus
Venus is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and, like Earth, has a thick
silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of
internal geological activity. It is much drier than Earth, and its atmosphere is ninety
times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface
temperatures over 400 C (752F), most likely due to the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
Earth
Earth is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have
current geological activity, and the only place where life is known to exist. Its
liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is the only planet
where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different
from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to
contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large
satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.
Mars
Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus. It has an atmosphere of mostly carbon
dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6% of that of Earth). Its
surface, peppered with vast volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons, and rift valleys, such
as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as
recently as 2 million years ago.

The Outer Solar System

The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large
moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to
their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System
contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than
those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these
compounds to remain solid.

Outer planets
The four outer planets, or giant planets (sometimes called Jovian planets),
collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn are
together over 400 times the mass of Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen
and helium; Uranus and Neptune are far less massive and are composed primarily
of ices. For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own
category, "ice giants". All four giant planets have rings, although only Saturn's ring
system is easily observed from Earth. The term superior planet designates planets
outside Earth's orbit and thus includes both the outer planets and Mars.
Jupiter

Jupiter is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed
largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates semipermanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot.
Jupiter has 67 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io,
and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and
internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than
Mercury.
Saturn
Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several
similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere.
Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95
Earth masses. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than
water.
Uranus
Uranus ,at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among
the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the
ecliptic
Neptune
Neptune though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17
Earths) and hence more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as
Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is
geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen.

Moons
The Moon is Earth's only permanent natural satellite. It is one of the largest
natural satellites in the Solar System, and the largest among planetary satellites
relative to the size of the planet that it orbits (its primary). It is the seconddensest satellite among those whose densities are known (after Jupiter's
satellite Io).

Earths Internal Structure

Three Parts of Earth's Interior
A knowledge of earth's interior is essential for understanding plate tectonics. A
good analogy for teaching about earth's interior is a piece of fruit with a large pit
such as a peach or a plum. Most students are familiar with these fruits and have
seen them cut in half. In addition the size of the features are very similar.
If we cut a piece of fruit in half we will see that it is composed of three parts: 1) a
very thin skin, 2) a seed of significant size located in the center, and 3) most of the
mass of the fruit being contained within the flesh. Cutting the earth we would see:
1) a very thin crust on the outside, 2) a core of significant size in the center, and 3)
most of the mass of the Earth contained in the mantle.

Earths Crust
In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural
satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle.
There are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean
basins and thicker continental crust that underlies the continents. These two
different types of crust are made up of different types of rock. The thin oceanic crust
is composed of primarily of basalt and the thicker continental crust is composed

primarily of granite. The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to "float"
in high relief on the much higher density mantle below.

Earth's Mantle
Earth's Mantle is thought to be composed mainly of olivine-rich rock. It has
different temperatures at different depths. The temperature is lowest immediately
beneath the crust and increases with depth. The highest temperatures occur where
the mantle material is in contact with the heat-producing core. This steady increase
of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. The geothermal
gradient is responsible for different rock behaviors and the different rock behaviors
are used to divide the mantle into two different zones. Rocks in the upper mantle
are cool and brittle, while rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft (but not
molten). Rocks in the upper mantle are brittle enough to break under stress and
produce earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are soft and flow when
subjected to forces instead of breaking. The lower limit of brittle behavior is the
boundary between the upper and lower mantle.

Earth's Core
Earth's Core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. This
composition is assumed based upon calculations of its density and upon the fact
that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the interior of a planetary
body) are iron-nickel alloys. The core is earth's source of internal heat because it
contains radioactive materials which release heat as they break down into more
stable substances.
The core is divided into two different zones. The outer core is a liquid because
the temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy. However, the
inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer core. Here,
tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of the overlying rocks is strong
enough to crowd the atoms tightly together and prevents the liquid state.

Justin L. Rabago