Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
By:
Salih Hussien Sulieman Marrgi
B.Sc.in Geology
Dedication
To my parents
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to supervisor Prof. Dr. Badr el Din Khalil
Ahmed for his suggestions, guidance, recommendations and support throughout the
study. I also would like to express my sincere gratefulness to the co-supervisor Dr.Nadir
M. Hassanein for his continuous support.
I would like to express gratitude to the staff of Analytical Concrete Laboratory of Civil
Engineering Department at the University of Khartoum for their help in the physical tests
of the samples.
I would like to give sincere thanks to my dear colleagues of the Geological Research
Authority of Sudan (GRAS) Ministry of Minerals for their valuable support in this study.
Finally, I would like to give my special thanks to my family for their understanding,
encouragement and endless support.
II
Abstract:
Pozzolanas are natural or artificial materials contain active silica and alumina,
which on their own have little or no binding property. However when mixed with lime
and water, they will set and harden like cement. Volcanic pozzolans are formed by
volcanic lava resulting from pyroclastic events.
The final product is hyper cooled by the action of the lava being thrown into the air
where it cools rapidly below a certain threshold temperature. This product is primarily
glass but with crystalline phases. The chemical composition range of these products is
quite large but is characterized by a high SiO2 content.
The ancient Greeks between 600 and 700 BC used pozzolan for construction purposes
and their techniques were later passed on to the Romans (Church, 2010).
A large quantity of untapped volcanic pozzolans (pumice, tuff and volcanic ash) in the
Bayuda volcanic field is the area of this study. For while, chemical, physical, and
mechanical tests were conducted to assess the suitability of using naturally occurring
pozzolan as a cement mortar additive.
In the absence of suitable binding substitutes, the demand for cement in Sudan will
remain increasing. Despite high prices of cement in Sudan, the ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) has been used in all construction applications in its pure form without
being mixed with any cheap additives such as pozzolanas. According to the results
recorded in this study volcanic pozzolana can be used as cement replacement up to
30% for use in structural concrete applications which could be compete OPC in quality
and up to 50% for use in non-structural purposes such as mortars, plasters, renders,
walling blocks and roofing tiles.
III
:
.
.
.
(. )Pumice
.
%89
%04 -04 .
( )
).Sulieman, Salih Hussien (2008
044 044
.(Church, 2010).
.
.
04 04
.
IV
Table of Contents
Dedication ......................................................................................................................I
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................II
Abstract in English Language .... III
Abstract in Arabic Language IV
Table of Contents .........................................................................................................V
List of Figures............................................................................................................... IX
List of Plates................................................................................................... IX
List of Tables................................................................................................................. X
1- Chapter One: Introduction.................................................................................... 1
1.1 Location and Accessibility......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Physiographic Features ......................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Topography.. .3
1.2.2 Drainage ............................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Climate .................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.4 Vegetation.............................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Socioeconomic Feature............................................................................................ 5
1.4 Previous Works ..... 6
1.5 Objectives of the Geological Studies...................................................................7
2- Chapter Two: Pozzolana Definition, History, Distribution, Types and
Advantages 9
2-1 Definition of Pozzolana............................................................................................. 9
2-2 History of Pozzolana9
V
VI
VII
VIII
List of Figures:
IX
List of Tables:
Table 1. Maximum Replacement Level of Pozzolanas in Various Countries................ 26
Table 2. Estimated Production of Pozzolanic Materials in the World. .......................... 27
Table 3. Chemical Analysis of the Pozzolanic materials ............................................ 53
Table 4. Typical chemical mineralogical analysis of some natural pozzolana.... 58
Table 5. Mixing design of the Pozzolana and Portland cement.62
Table 6. Compressive strength of Pozzolana mixed with Portland cement................. 63
Table 7. Physical and chemical requirements by Standard Specifications..73
Table 8. Comparison between requirements of Standard Specifications.76
established
peneplain,
underlain,
by
gneisses
and
The series of grantoid gneisses, erosion cones and Nubian Sandstone, as well
as the mountains of igneous ring complexes and the main volcanic field are
noticeable in the area. The Igneous ring complexes rise in the form of steep
walled massifs (150- 250m above their bases). In Isolated cases the relief was
steepened by young tectonic uplifts.
1-2-2 Drainage:
Dendritic network of dried up Wadis which have an almost consequent pattern
to the Nile and therefore testifies to a pluvial phase of morphological formation
(H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979).
The drainage system in the area is presented by Wadis such as Abu Siba, Wadi
Beida and Wadi Abu Dom. A network of Wadis drains towards the Nile, with high
relief.
1-2-3Climate:
The area of study belongs to the Arid Zone. The mean annual rainfall is
approximately 50mm in Atbara and Merowe and in Abu Hamed it is 25mm. The
rainy season is between July and early September.
The rainfall is normally locally limited and distributed only during few days. Only
exceptionally do extensive, heavy rainfalls occur.
The mean relative humidity in Atbara varies between 19% in June and 38% in
August and annual mean 29%.The highest maximum temperature recorded has
been 48.C in June for Atbara. The mean minimum nighttime temperature in
Atbara varies between 8.c in January and 33c in June with an annual mean
value of 22c.
Wind blows throughout the year, increasing to violent northerly storms in winter
(January). In summer (May- July) real sandstorms occur, carrying sand and dust
into the upper atmosphere. They darken the sun, cause sudden changes in
temperature and bring rains.
1-2- 4 Vegetation:
The sparse vegetation in the area is confined to the valleys. In the ground waterrich valleys, particularly Wadi kirbekan, Wadi Abu Siba, Wadi Abu Dom .Other
swift valleys at the edge of mountains, are of isolated trees. In these valleys Sidr
(Ziziphus Spina), Seyal (Acacia Spirocarpa), Sareh (Macrna Crassifolia), Merekh
4
Caravan Travelers pass through the area without sheep and goats, but with
sizeable camel herds, visiting a well only every 2-3 weeks, especially when the
acacia (talh, seyal, sareh, merekh, kitr) are blooming. The population density in
the Bayuda Desert is very scarce (less than one person per one sq.kilometer).
Previous geological studies in the Bayuda Desert started early with Russegger in
1837. More recently, papers were published by Almond and others on the main
volcanic field. Most of the previous work done in the Bayuda Desert was based
on geology of the area rather than prospecting work on Industrial minerals and
large resources of volcanic pozzolana.
Almond et al. (1969) have estimated the total volume of pyroclastic rocks (mainly
pozzolanic materials) in the main volcanic field at 9km 3 , but was not mentioned
them as valuable building materials.
In the geological prospecting work for the Sudanese - German exploration project
in 1976-1978 and as a basis for exploration of mineral resources, in the entire
Bayuda Desert. The result of this prospecting work revealed as mentioned above
potential amount of pozzolanic materials such as tuffs, volcanic ash, pumice and
tephra and scoria.
Recently, the geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) has given great
concern for large resources of pozzolanic deposits in the Bayuda Desert. Almost
the occurrence of natural pozzolanic deposits were studied in general and
revealed encourage results (Sulieman, Salih Hussien (2008)).
Some samples were brought from different locations of pozzolana at Bayuda
volcanic field and tested the chemical contents and that mixed with partial
replaced in the ratio of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight of OPC to form
6
concrete to detect the fresh and hardened properties of the mix. The results
recorded were showed that all the samples are reactive material with amorphous
silica and alumina that fulfilled the requirement of the pozzolanic properties
(Elhadi et al2014).
In 2010 the author used blended cement containing 50% OPC and 50% of
pozzolana from the study area in plastering, mortar and white concrete in his own
house. The application of blended cement is basically sound and still in a good
condition.
To pursue field studies with view of evaluating the known deposits and
carrying out laboratory work to determine the quality of the pozzolana.
To achieve tangible results and visible impact for low income communities
that can lead to more sustainable and equitable urban development.
The next oldest report of its use was in the Mediterranean region where the
pozzolan was volcanic ash produced from two volcanic eruptions between 1600
and 1500 B.C. The first one is Santorini Volcano, Greece, which erupted during
1600 BC- 500 BC. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, is the second volcano which erupted in AD
79 (T. Parhizkar et al. 2010).
Volcanic ash was first used as a pozzolana by Romans from deposits close to
village of Pozzuoli; near Naples-hence the name pozzolana or pozzolan was
9
derived. Scientists have proven that the ancient Greeks began to use natural
pozzolan-lime mixtures to build water-storage tanks sometime between 700 BC
and 600 BC. This technique was then passed on to the Romans about 150 BC
(Paul J.Tikalsky et al, 2001).
According to Roman engineer Vitruvius Pollio who lived in the first century BC:
"The cements made by the Greeks and the Romans were of superior durability,
because neither waves could break, nor water dissolve the concrete." The
Roman farther developed lime pozzolana cement (LPC) technology. Many great
ancient structures, such as the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the Bath of Caracalla,
as well as other structures that are still standing in Italy, Greece, France, Spain
and the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, were built with natural pozzolan-lime
mixtures. Many of them have lasted more than two thousand years (John W.
that was poured underwater, apparently using a long tube to carefully lay it up
without allowing sea water to mix with it. The three piers are still visible today,
with the underwater portions in generally excellent condition even after more than
2100 years (Mehta, P.K. (1987)
Despite their long history of use in construction and after the invention of
Portland cement, pozzolanic materials still continue to be the current topic for
research and subject for international conferences. This can be attributed to their
complex interactions with cement and lime, to the large variety of types and
properties, to the several technical and economical advantages involved in their
use in construction (A. Yeginobali (1971).
Volcanic pozzolanas widely distributed in the world. Fig.3 shows the major
deposits of volcanic pozzolanas on 6 continents; these deposits occupy more
than 122 locations of pozzolana from 32 different countries. These countries are:
Canada, Canary Islands, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Egypt, England, Fiji, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala,
Hungary, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Madagascar, Morocco, New Zealand,
Rumania, Sicily, Sudan, Tanzania, Trinidad, Turkey, USA, USSR, and
Yugoslavia (Robert L. 1990).
11
Useful pozzolanic materials are not all of volcanic origin. Many other pozzolanic
materials like diatomaceous earth can be found around the world and also
numerous deposits of gaize is a "soft, porous, siliceous sedimentary rock" found
in Ardennes and Meuse valleys in France. This is usually burnt at 900C and
blended with OPC. This material has been used in many marine structures in
French ports [Lea 1970].
There may be more countries which contain pozzolanic materials for which
detailed scientific evaluations have not yet occurred; these countries may not
have started the exploitation for various reasons or may not have brought the
existence of such materials to the attention of the technical community (Robert L.
1990).
Due to the limited supply of high quality of natural pozzolan. In the last 30 years,
the USA and European countries were compelled to lower their quality criteria so
that waste materials such as fly ash could be used as a substitute for natural
pozzolan (John W. Wilson and Y.C. Ding. (2007).
12
The vast Jebel Marra volcanic field, located in the Darfur province of western
Sudan, is the youthful Deriba caldera. The 5-km-wide, steep-walled caldera,
located at the southern end of the volcanic field, was formed about 3500 years
ago at the time of the eruption of voluminous airfall pumice and pyroclastic flows
that traveled more than 30 km from the volcano. Ash eruptions at Deriba caldera
may have continued into early historical time and fumarolic activity has been
observed on the flanks of a small pyroclastic cone within the caldera (Vail, J.R.,
1972a and 1972b).
The alkaline Meidob volcanic field located in western Sudan and covers an area
of 5000 sq km with nearly 700 Pliocene-to-Holocene vents. The volcanic field
was constructed over an uplifted Precambrian igneous and metamorphic
basement and is elongated in an E-W direction (Bisschop & Partners B.V. 2001).
The Meidob Hills have been built up entirely from volcanic material. Field work
and photo interpretation led to the identification of 695 volcanoes, which include
scoria cones 66%, mesa flows 9%, maars and tuff rings 7%, composite cones
and strongly eroded volcanic relicts 19% ( Gerhrd Franz et al , 1997).
Basaltic scoria cones and associated lava flows dominate, but trachytic-phonolitic
lava domes, tuff rings, and maars (maar is a volcanic crater that forms when
magma contacts ground water to produce a steam explosion) are among the
youngest volcanic products. Basaltic scoria cones are scattered throughout the
field; their lavas have produced a broad lava plateau. The central part of the field
consists of younger phonolitic lava flows, trachytic pumice-fall deposits,
ignimbrites, and maars. The youngest dated eruptions about 5000 years ago
produced a tuff ring and a lava flow (Bisschop & Partners B.V. 2001).
15
http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/meidob.html
Volcano Type: Scoria cones, Volcano Status: Holocene
Summit Elevation: 2000? M /6,562 feet
Latitude: 15.32N *1519'0"N, Longitude: 26.47E 2628'0"E
The Bayuda volcanic field is located near the center of the Bayuda desert of NE
Sudan. The numerous small cinder cones that trend horizontally across the
center of the volcanic field were erupted along a WNW-trending line. Lava flows,
one of which was erupted about 1100 years ago, are visible in plate (3), but
about 10% of the vents are explosion craters. Bayuda was constructed over
Precambrian and Paleozoic granitic rocks, which form the darker areas at the
lower right (Vorgelegt Von, 2013).
16
as calcined clays and industrial and agricultural wastes. The following brief
description of these types of pozzolana:
2-4 -1Pumice:
Pumice is a frothy, gas-filled volcanic rock in which the walls of the gas bubbles
and gas tubes are composed primarily of volcanic glass. Pumice is typically a
light-toned rock (white, gray, tan) whose very low density (due to the gas
bubbles) allows it to float in water; at least until the bubble structure fills with
water.
18
19
2-4 -2Tuff
The types of minerals present in volcanic ash are dependent on the chemistry of
the magma from which it was erupted. Considering that the most abundant
elements found in magma are silica (SiO2) and oxygen, the various types of
magma (and therefore ash) produced during volcanic eruptions are most
commonly explained in terms of their silica content (John N. Faick, 1963).
Figure (7) shows basaltic and dacite magma eruption. Low energy eruptions of
basalt produce a characteristically dark colored ash containing ~45 - 55% silica
that is generally rich in iron and magnesium . The most explosive rhyolite
eruptions produce a felsic ash that is high in silica (>69%) while other types of
ash with an intermediate composition (e.g. andesite or dacite) have a silica
content between 55-69% (Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. (2012).
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash/properties.html
21
Calcined or burnt clays were the earliest pozzolanas used, in the form of crushed
reject clay bricks, tiles, or pottery which were mixed with lime to produce cement
for mortars. This process is still used in many countries today and is known as
surkhi in India, homra in Egypt and semen merah in Indonesia. In general, the
best clays for pozzolanas will be plastic clays of the type normally used for
pottery and clay tile manufacture. The optimum calcining temperature is normally
taken to be between 700 and 800C, although for some clay types it may be
higher or lower than this (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1994, 1992).
Pulverized fuel ash, often referred to as fly ash or PFA, is probably the pozzolana
in greatest use globally today. PFA is the residue from the combustion of
pulverized coal in power stations and is essentially a waste material. PFA is
already in a fine powdered form and requires no further processing for use as a
pozzolana and this, combined with its availability in bulk and low cost, makes it
ideal for blending at cement factories or at large civil engineering projects. Its
reactivity is not as high as other commonly used pozzolanas and it is, therefore,
less frequently used in combination with lime (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications
1994).
The carbon content of fly ash is a major concern. Class C fly ash, most of which
is produced from lignite coal, contains little carbon. However, Class F fly ash,
22
Many ashes of plant have high silica content and are therefore suitable as a
pozzolana. In recent years considerable research has gone into identifying plant
wastes whose ashes produce good pozzolanas and which are available in
exploitable quantities. Rice husk, a waste product of rice milling has been shown
to have the greatest potential (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1992).
Agricultural Wastes are available in large quantities in many parts of the world.
When burnt, every five tones of husk produce about one tone of ash. The ash
typically contains approximately 90 per cent silica and is therefore an excellent
pozzolana. Rice hull ash, as long as quality is controlled, is another material that
can be used to replace cement (Pozzolanas: An Introduction, ITDG Publications
1992).
The disadvantage of rice husk is that for its ash to be highly pozzolanic it has to
be burnt under controlled conditions at temperatures below 700C; otherwise the
silica becomes crystalline and loses a degree of reactivity. Rice husk ash has
been utilized as a pozzolana in cement production in Asia, particularly India, and
is under research in rice growing areas of Africa. Other agricultural wastes which
23
have been identified as having potential as a pozzolana include rice straw and
bagasse (Pozzolanas: ITDG Publications 1992).
Blast furnace slag is a by-product of the iron and steel industry which has a
limited pozzolanic reactivity but has been very successful when blended with
OPC. Silica fume is also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, a by
product of the reduction of high purity quartz with coal in electric arc furnaces
in the production ferrosilicon alloys and silicon metal (R. Siddique, 2008).
25
26
Country
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Algeria, pozzolan
Argentina, pumice
Burkina Faso
Cameroon, pozzolan
Chile, pumice &
pozzolan
Croatia, volcanic tuff
Dominica, pumice
and volcanic tuff
Ecuador:
Pozzolan
Pumice
570,000
16,200
10,000
600,000
1,135,771
490,567
6,500
10,000
600,000
1,063,176
328,000
7,020
10,000
600,000
919,249
236,961
7,582
10,000
600,000
824,049
300,000
7,000
10,000
600,000
850,000
15,085
100,000
15,000
100,000
15,000
100,000
15,000
100,000
15,000
100,000
803,502
153,500
55
22,000
250,000
901,379
137,241
60
35,000
276,000
884,773
44,171
60
25,000
276,000
640,620
75,000
60
35,000
276,000
700,000
100,000
60
35,000
276,000
1,400,000
850,000
210,000
220,389
1,059,000
828,000
210,000
393,779
830,000
381,000
200,000
394,955
900,000
380,000
200,000
340,000
850,000
375,000
210,000
150,000
100,000
1,000
1,500,000
100,000
1,000
1,500,000
100,000
1,000
1,500,000
100,000
1,000
1,500,000
100,000
1,000
1,500,000
Eritrea, pumice
Ethiopia
France, pozzolan &
lapilli
Greece:
Pozzolan, Santorin
Pumice
Guadeloupe, pumice
Guatemala, pumice
Iceland:
Pumice
Scoria
Iran
27
Italy:
Pozzolan
4,000,000
3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000
Pumice &
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
pumiceous lapilli
Jamaica, pozzolan
114,482
124,304
132,470
125,000
125,000
Kosovo, volcanic tuff NA
39,631
51,769
52,800
52,800
Macedonia, volcanic 80,910
103,476
113,064
113,000
113,000
tuff
Martinique, pumice 130,000
130,000
130,000
130,000
130,000
New Zealand
354,903
174,729
159,357
118,249
120,000
Philippines:
Pumice
1,912
2,063
2,064
2,274
2,300
Volcanic tuff
16,490
17,570
18,830
19,166
19,500
Saudi Arabia,
784,000
810,000
800,000
915,000
950,000
pozzolan
Slovenia, volcanic
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
40,000
tuff
Spain, including
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000
Canary Islands
Syria, volcanic tuff
810,000
901,000
957,639
950,000
900,000
Tanzania, pozzolanic 184,070
260,403
171,904
45,240
45,000
materials
Turkey
3,995,423
3,449,773 4,322,543 4,000,000 4,500,000
Uganda, pozzolanic
140,000
140,000
140,000
140,000
140,000
materials
U. S., pumice, sold & 1,270,000
791,000
410,000
390,000
489,000
used by producers
Grand total
20,500,000 18,300,000 17,700,000 16,900,000 17,400,000
Of which:
Pumice
2,950,000
2,600,000 1,670,000 1,630,000 1,560,000
Pozzolan
8,600,000
7,390,000 6,890,000 6,600,000 6,710,000
Scoria
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Volcanic tuff
962,000
1,120,000 1,200,000 1,190,000 1,140,000
Unspecified
7,990,000
7,230,000 7,930,000 7,480,000 8,010,000
Source: United States Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program
http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/pumice_and_pumicite/pum
ice_and_pumicite_t4.html
28
As time goes by, pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide
produced by cement hydration and increasing the compressive strength by
producing additional C-S-H. After 21 curing days, 30% pozzolana 70% Portland
cement mixture begins to exceed reference OPC in compressive strength after
28 days; it exceeds reference OPC by about 15%. Pozzolanic reaction keeps on
until there is no free calcium hydroxide available in the mass and the
compressive strength exceeds reference OPC by 30% to 40%.
29
The 30% natural pozzolan added into cement can react with almost all the free
calcium hydroxide and form a much denser paste. Thus, the penetration of
chloride can be minimized and the penetrated chloride ions cannot find calcium
hydroxide with which to react.
are
Figure (3) Sketch Map showing the rock units of the Bayuda and the
surrounding areas (after David Otone Obeyok, 2013).
32
3-1-1Basement Complex:
More than 60% of the area of the Bayuda Desert is made up of metamorphic
rocks of the Basement Complex (Fig.8) shows the rock units of the Bayuda. This
complex could be subdivided into two major rock units:
3-1-1-1Abu Harik Series:
The Abu Harik series crops out near the Nile between Wadi Kurmut and Wadi
Abu Harik and in the cores of three anticlinal structures at Wadi Singeir. This
formation consists of biotite, biotite-hornblende and hornblende gneisses with
intercalations of amphibolites and rare quartzitic layers. The grade of the
metamorphism is that of amphibiotite facies.
This rock formation is considered to be the remnant of the old Basement rocks
which was folded and metamorphosed prior to deposition of the rocks of
geosynclinals Bayuda formation. It is possible that it was reworked and
overprinted by the later Bayuda orogeny (K.D. Meinhold1983).
These areas differ from one another partly through morpho-tectonic exposure
and partly in geological structure and petrographical composition.
The Abu Handal Singeir area of the eastern desert is thus characterized by its
deep erosion level with ring shaped structures in the basement plain. They are
dominated by alkali granites and syntectonic biotite-granites alternating with
migmatized basement (H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold 1979).
Gilif- Abu Nahal area of the central and southern desert displays on other hand a
higher erosion level. A composition structure is generally identifiable, consisting
of a basal complex of interlocking intrusive ring structures dominated by alkali
granite with marginal syntexite facies of biotite granite and a superstructure
consisting essentially of quartz porphyries (D.C. Almond et al1969).
The northern Asma-Razam area is comparable in its erosion level with southern
part of the above mentioned area, but it differs petrologically from the other two
areas in that here the trachytic extrusive facies is most prominent.
Swarms of alkali rhyolitic and alkali trachytic dykes some of them grading into
cataclastic quartz dykes are widespread throughout the Bayuda desert. All the
larger ring complexes are situated on such swarms. Common to the all three
areas is a uniform geological history, despite difference of form and disparate
rock sequences.
34
In the Bayuda desert, on the west side of the Nile near the village of Al Akaba,
south of Amaki, the series attains its greatest outcrop width, approx.3 km. north
of Amaki, the basal part of the series consists of a conglomerate, approx.150m
thick, which consists of pebbles up size of an egg, of milky quartz and basement
rocks (gneisses, schist, and amphibolites) in a coarse sandy matrix. The
conglomerate is overlain by pebble sandstones and quartzitic sandstones, which
again contain a layer of conglomerate approx.100m thick (K.D. Meinhold1983).
The largest continuous section of the Amaki series on the west side of the Nile is
situated west of Al Akaba. There, the series begins with marly schists a few
meters thick, which very soon pass into medium to fine-grained, brownish-red
sandstones. They contain a thin layer of grauhwacke-like limestone and also
several layers of grey and banded, siliceous cherts, as well as pebble
sandstones, and at Al Akaba an intercalation of greenish tuff-like rock (H.Barth
and K.D. Meinhold 1979).
.
The basement rocks in the Bayuda Desert are unconformably overlain by the
rudaceous and arenaceous beds of Nubian sandstone formation, which
35
Remains of lateritic soil are preserved on the lower slopes of hills in the
southwestern Bayuda desert, where covering basaltic lava flows of the Abu
Ruygheiwa volcanic field protected the underlying rocks from erosion. In Wadi
Biti a thick lateritic layer above the Nubian sandstone contains bones of giant
Probocidea (Elephantine)which put the age of the discovered strata at not older
than Miocene.
In the Bayuda Desert, young volcanic rocks are widespread. The following areas
can be distinguished as regional fields of intensified volcanic activity:
From radiometric age determination, the eroded plug basalts and phonolites of
volcanic fields are placed at the boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary (6275Ma.). The volcanic rocks of J. Umm Arafieb were formed in the Pliocene,
whereas the volcanoes of the main volcanic field are of Pleistocene (H.Barth and
K.D. Meinhold 1979).
sediments in the areas of the upper Wadi courses, as well as debris and talus
fans the pediments of steeper slopes and scraps.
Qoz sand and fixed dunes occur in the southwestern Bayuda desert. Modern he
most recent and continually moving deposit and is found everywhere. Wadis
plains are filled with loamy silt, those in the mountain with detrital boulders and
coarse sand.
3-2 geology of the study area
The main volcanic field differs fundamentally in both its geologic-geotectonic
position. The excellent preservation of primary volcanic morphology and the
youngest of volcanoes indicate that the activity was geologically recent, perhaps
in Pleistocene or later (D.C. Almond et al1969).
Figure (4) Geological Map of the study area. The Bayuda Volcanic field is a
collection of more than 90 eruptive centers, including at least 15 named cinder
cones, and five named craters in the Bayuda Desert. The largest explosive crater
Hosh ed Dalam, is 1.3 km wide, and approximately 500 m deep (a
volcanism program". Retrieved 10 October 2011).
38
b c d e
"Global
39
The pyroclastic cones and composites volcanoes from the central mountains of
the Bayuda Desert, rising to attitude of 900m, starting from them, basaltic lava
flows, tuffs and tephra cover more or less completely the crystalline basaltic
structure of volcanic. The recent volcanicity at Bayuda was characterized by a
multiplicity of short-lived centers of eruption, none of which was active long
enough to create a major volcano (D.C. Almond et al1969).
The main volcanic field consist of 100 small monogenetic volcanoes, most of
while comprise cinder cone of a few hundred meters high and a simple lava flow
with a volume similar to that cone. Many of the volcanic centers are small
composite volcanoes and all are composed of basaltic lava and tephra. Each of
the composite volcanoes passed through stage of pyroclastic cone-building,
followed by a period of lava extrusion, which usually resulted in the breaching of
the cone K.D. Meinhold (1983).
40
This simple sequence was rarely repeated at the same center. Perhaps two-third
of the volcanoes evolved in this way and most of others ended their lives at the
cone-building stage (K.D. Meinhold, 1983).
Volcanic field in the Bayuda Desert has abundant resources of natural pozzolana
materials, they are largely lying unexploited. The main types of pozzolanic
materials found in the target area are pumice, welded tuffs, volcanic ash and
tephra plates6,7,8,9,10,11&12 show images these materials.
41
42
Plate (8): light Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs (Main Volcanic Field)
43
Plate (9): Yellowish to brown color sandy tuffs (Main Volcanic Field)
44
Plate (10): Bir El-Muweilih explosion crater with Soda Lake (Main Volcanic
Field)
45
46
47
The cones of the volcanoes are built of thin-bedded ashes, thick beds of cinder
breccias and agglomerates. The cinder breccias are well graded rocks composed
of externally reddish sub-angular fragments of the finely vascular basalt up to 10
cm or 15cm in diameter.
Basaltic tuffs are present in the main volcanic field as subordinate materials. In
the pyroclastic cone fragmental tuffs and pumice tuffs are interbedded with ash.
Fairly widespread are the very recent, sandy cover tuffs of which the ring wall of
the explosion crater are built and which are striking in their bright, yellowish,grey
to ochre-brown color, their earthy baked consistency and their wealth of
hornblende crystals (D.C. Almond et al1969).
Pozzolanic materials in volcanic field including pumice, tuffs, ash and tephra and
concentrated mainly on isolated centers and some pyroclastic cones and
compose volcanoes. Within this area the close spacing of eruptive centers has
resulted in a more or less complete cover of volcanic rocks, while isolated
volcanoes occur scattered over the plain beyond the limits of the field.
The isolated centers are included Jebel Mazrub and Jebel Hebeish (explosion
crater) in the west, Jebel Sergein, J. Zein Umm Araysh, J. Hosh Umm Araysh, J.
Bararumbo and J. Mersidat in the north, and J. Abu Siba and J. Ban Gidid in the
east (D.C. Almond et al1969).
48
The pozzolanic materials found in dry or arid region, are less likely to have been
altered chemically by weathering effect and are more likely to retain their original
actively .The formation of welded tuffs and unconsolidated volcanic ash like in
the target area are reactive.
These are considered potential as far as pozzolana properties such as tuff and
ash, will have a glassy structure and will be relatively lightly weathered,
chemically they contain more silica than other volcanic materials. The volcanic
pozzolanas in the target area are concentrated mainly on Cainozoic volcanic
rocks H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979).
49
Filtering direction filter enhanced the linear features structure and the
drainage system in this image.
50
Generally, a pozzolana will contain silica, alumina, iron oxide and a variety of
oxides and alkalis, but the following can be taken as a rough guide.
Silica + Alumina + Iron Oxide not less than 70%. Other Oxides and alkalis not
more than 15%. Loss on ignition not more than 15% (R. Stulz, and K. Mukerji
1993).
Table (3) Shows chemical composition and loss on ignition of pozzolana samples
of the study area. Pozzolanic activity cannot be determined just by quantifying
the presence of silica, alumina, and iron. The amount of amorphous material
usually determines the reactivity of a natural pozzolan. The constituents of a
natural pozzolan can exist in various forms, ranging from amorphous reactive
materials to crystalline products that will react either slowly or not at all (R.J.S.
Spence and D.J. Cook1983).
52
Location Area
CaO
MgO
Fe2O3 Na2O
SiO2 Al2O3
SO3
L.O.I
P1
J. Angalfaib
9.961
11.257 10.01
2.36
0.77
P2
J. Angalfaib
7.768
7.046
10.29
2.26
3.13
P3
J. Muweilih
9.656
10.428 10.15
2.13
0.64
P4
J. Mazroub
17.448
5.703
8.15
1.32
12.61
P7
J. Hebeish
8.470
7.444
9.58
1.93
1.72
P9
J. Abu-Sergien
7.942
5.769
8.44
1.58
4.47
P11
J. Abu-Sergien
25.283
3.465
4.58
P13
E. J. Abu-Sergein
7.705
6.83
9.15
P15
S. J. Abu-Sergien
7.946
7.626
P16
S. J. Abu-Sergein
8.293
P18
J. Baraumbo
P20
1.81
22.68
0.65
11.96
9.29
1.33
5.22
6.316
9.58
2.10
3.20
7.154
5.355
8.29
1.94
4.93
J.El-Karbaken
7.637
7.825
9.15
2.39
1.64
P21
J.El-Karbaken
7.372
6.664
8.58
1.54
5.04
P23
J. Mersidat
6.698
9.168
11.01
1.30
5.02
P24
W, J.Mersidat
8.266
7.013
10.29
1.93
2.42
P26
NW,J.Mersidat
10.134
9.002
8.72
1.54
4.99
P27
P28
6.603
7.644
12.467 7.86
8.853 8.01
1.23
2.45
4.72
1.29
P30
J. Abu Siba
6.373
5.206
7.72
1.75
5.92
P37
8.182
7.560
9.58
2.25
46.9
2.85
P39
26.17
2.868
4.43
0.75
26.11 7.41
P40
8.805
7.427
9.86
1.98
5.69
P42
6.607
6.515
9.01
2.49
16.46
53
13.97 1.89
2.19
24.16
Sample No
Location Area
CaO
MgO
Al2O3 SO3
P45
16.27
8.621
7.29
0.71
30.83 9.13
P48
7.462
8.273
9.58
1.70
4.02
P50
6.524
6.664
9.15
1.08
49.7
13.26 2.06
8.16
P52
J. Hosh EL Siddg
9.724
10.196 9.29
1.64
4.02
P55
J. Hosh EL Siddg
13.180 9.151
8.01
0.44
34.29 9.93
15.32
P57
J. Umm Qureent
8.843
9.135
9.72
2.22
1.55
P60
J. Hosh EL-Dalam
12.481 8.306
8.58
1.75
5.58
T1
J. Hebeish
8.10
7.38
8.58
2.48
44.6
13.7
N.D
6.08
T2
J. Hebeish
7.69
7.13
7.72
3.17
47.1
13.5
N.D
5.89
VT
J. Hebeish
9.44
8.04
8.93
4.11
45.5
15.8
N.D
1.78
PC
J. Hebeish
8.6
7.62
8.65
4.38
47.1
13.7
N.D
1.28
PUMI
J. Hebeish
8.57
7.79
8.93
4.25
43.9
14.2
N.D
1.13
PT
J. Hebeish
8.25
7.21
8.15
4.58
47.7
13.5
N.D
1.87
T6
J. Hebeish
6.36
6.3
7.58
2.83
49.0
13.6
N.D
8.30
T9
J. Hebeish
7.34
7.29
7.93
2.7
48.1
13.7
0.36
13.7
5.4
4.18
L.O.I
16.46
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) also can be
used in characterizing pozzolans. These methods allow the determination of
whether the silica in the pozzolan is amorphous or crystalline to predict whether it
will react with lime, as well as determining chemical composition in order to
estimate reactivity according to proportions of silica and alumina (Technical Brief,
Testing Methods for Pozzolans, Practical Action). XRD analysis of the samples in
this study revealed that quartz, anorthite, calcite, diopside, dolomite, augite were
the most abundant mineral phases identified as shown in (Figure 6).
55
56
4.2.3 Microscopy:
Another method for assessing pozzolans in raw form is the use of optical
microscopy. These kinds of studies can be useful in identifying and estimating
the amounts of reactive constituents in a raw pozzolan, identifying mineralogical
composition and characterizing the material based on particle size and
distribution, etc. When reactive constituents are amorphous and not identifiable
through X-ray diffraction, they can sometimes be identified through microscopy.
For example, some clay minerals and volcanic glass yield no characteristic X-ray
Pattern because of their amorphous structure, but can be identified visually by
observation under magnification. Unless combined with other methods, optical
analysis cannot conclusively determine pozzolanicity. It is a useful tool, however,
for supplementing other types of analyses and characterizing pozzolans (W. T.
Moran and J. L. Gilliand, 1950).
57
Table (4) typical chemical and mineralogical analysis of some natural pozzolana (Mehta1987)
Pozzolana
Alkalies
Amorphous
mater%
Major crystalline
minerals
6.5
Loss on
ignition
%
3.5
Santorin
Earth
Rhenish
trass
Phonolite
65.1
14.5
5.5
3.0
1.1
65 to 75
Quartz, plagioclase
53
16.0
6.0
7.0
3.0
6.0
50 to 60
4.2
1.1
10.8
3.6
10.1
10.3
4.4
6.7
4.4
18.3
4.0
7.4
1.0
11.0
3.1
50 to 70
Quartz, feldspar,
analcime
Orthoclase, albite,
pyroxene, calcite
Herschelite,chabazite,
phillipsites
Quartz, feldspar
55.7
20.2
2.0
Roman tuff
44.7
18.9
Neoplitian
glass
Opaline
shale
Diatomite
Rhylolite
pumicite
Jalisco
pumice
54.5
65.4
10.1
4.2
4.6
2.7
1.4
6.3
86
65.7
2.31
15.9
1.8
2.5
3.4
0.6
1.3
0.4
6.9
5.2
3.4
68.7
14.8
2.3
0.5
9.3
5.6
90
Sanidine
58
59
A Vicat apparatus is used to test the speed at which the mortar reaches initial
and final set, the measurement of the penetration of the needle at various time
intervals indicates the time of initial and final set (ASTM C191 Standard Test
Methods for Time of Setting).
The initial and final setting times for mortar with and without pozzolan were
measured as shown in Table (6). According to Lea, the setting time of limepozzolan mixes is variable. Initial set may occur in 1-3 hours but final set is
usually 10-12 hours or longer (F. M. Lea. 1971).
The most common and accepted pozzolanicity test is the strength test in which a
test specimen is created using a set ratio of pozzolan to binder and the cube is
subjected to compressive and/or tensile strength tests to measure pozzolanicity
based on strength enhancement (W. T. Moran and J. L. Gilliand, 1950).
60
The strength tests appear in many specifications for pozzolans and form the
basis for the ASTMs Pozzolanicity Index. The pozzolanicity index is simply a
ratio of the compressive strength of a pozzolan mortar mix to that of a control
made without pozzolan, expressed as a percent.
Lime or Portland cement can be used as the binder for this test. The Test for
Pozzolanic Materials in the Indian standard uses the Lime Reactivity test, which
is simply a measure of the compressive strength of a lime: pozzolan: sand
mixture cured for 8 days (Technical Brief, Testing Methods for Pozzolans,
Practical Action )
Strength development varies with different ratios of lime to pozzolan and also
with temperature and humidity during curing. Higher temperatures and moist
curing conditions have the effect of higher ultimate strength, and a long period of
moist curing is essential to the development of high strength in pozzolans (F. M.
Lea. 1971).
Strength tests were conducted on design mixes shown in Table (6). A control
sand-cement mix was also prepared for comparison purposes. All design mixes
were molded at moisture contents around the laboratory determined optimum
moisture contents for each individual material.
The details of mix proportions are presented in Table (5). The water to
cementitous ratio was fixed at 0.55 for all mixes. Mixing was done in revolving
drum mixer in accordance with BS-12-1978. The pozzolan replacements were
61
selected at 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% as a partial cement replacement by weight
of cement content.
Table (5) mix design of the Pozzolana and Portland cement.
Weight (gm)
Blending %
Water
Sand
Cement
Pozzolana
Pozzolana
Cement
78
585
195
0.0
100
78
585
156
39
20
80
78
585
136.5
58.5
30
70
78
585
117
78
40
60
78
585
97.5
97.5
50
50
Compressive strength test is carried out on each mold with a ratio of 1:3 sand :
cement, and water 0.4%. Blended Portland cement specimens containing 20, 30,
40 and 50% pozzolana have been incubated for 3, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days. The
compressive strength of mortar made with blended cements and reference
Portland cement were determined, and the results are given in Table (6).
Three specimens had been mold for each percent and the final results of the test
are the average of these specimens in Kg/cm 2 unit. Those are done at the
Concrete Laboratory in Civil Engineering Department, at the University of
Khartoum. Three 50mm cubes are tested for each sample and the average figure
2
However the Pozzolana activity index tests were done to evaluate the
pozzolanic properties Table (6) shows the results. The pozzolanicity index is
62
Sample No
OPC
P1
P4
P7
P9
P13
Pozzolana
Cement
Setting Time
(min.)
100
20
Initial
Final
3days 7 days
14 days
28 days
28.0
150
230
339
409
506
545
80
25.5
147
185
266
335
387
441
40
60
23.5
144
194
164
262
290
358
50
50
22.5
148
188
131
148
192
292
20
80
27
121
168
274
383
436
485
40
60
26
101
138
148
228
290
348
50
50
25
72
121
135
174
236
275
20
80
26
114
141
233
258
434
469
40
60
25.5
111
142
160
213
303
335
50
50
24
118
141
147
188
241
264
20
80
26
101
165
261
360
380
466
40
60
27.5
104
155
200
284
362
388
50
50
27.5
85
155
140
203
253
319
20
80
27.5
95
135
359
378
431
582
40
60
27
77
136
191
252
304
343
50
50
26
70
120
131
179
232
266
20
80
27.5
100
135
279
349
427
424
40 60
25.5
84
144
168
264
304
343
50
50
24.5
74
134
143
203
250
296
20
80
26.5
120
153
272
338
408
446
40
60
26.0
124
169
213
245
330
364
50
50
25.5
114
178
230
271
319
357
P18
P20
Consistency
Blending %
63
Consistency
Initial
7days
14 days
28 days
60 days
425
560
545
578
148
351
404
460
571
116
142
309
396
422
500
25.5
120
148
261
273
349
387
80
31
101
138
380
440
493
602
30
70
31
109
144
358
370
505
513
40
60
30.5
56
131
271
332
413
455
20
80
27.6
122
172
330
350
513
530
30
70
26
112
167
272
324
412
452
40
60
25
126
166
245
273
345
436
20
80
27.5
103
161
333
364
480
551
30
70
27
106
169
294
319
405
474
40
60
26.5
89
145
232
288
341
362
20
80
27.5
140
174
349
464
494
551
30
70
27
112
156
288
402
458
498
40
60
26
98
131
232
299
373
442
20
80
27.5
123
175
398
449
506
576
30
70
27
135
180
336
426
475
571
40
60
26.5
145
193
247
310
391
453
20
80
27.5
155
189
342
373
509
559
30
70
26.5
127
161
260
325
416
504
40
60
25.5
112
137
218
293
321
365
20
80
25
153
188
335
403
474
520
30
70
24
159
192
279
332
387
472
40
60
23.5
169
194
206
303
294
370
Sample
Blending %
No
Pozzolana
Cement
OPC
100
P24
20
80
26.5
116
30
70
25.5
40
60
20
P30
P37
P39
P45
P50
P57
P60
64
Final
The author in 2002 invented Green sandwich building (GSB) is a new technique
of constructing buildings, to minimize the enormous impact of buildings on the
environment and positively promote alternative solutions for low-cost housing in
Sudan.
On May 2010 the author built two green sandwich rooms in his owns house for
the first time on the North Bahry (Samrab) to demonstrate applicability of this
new method of construction in Sudan (see plates). The patent was registered in
Sudan under number 1751 in Registrar General of Intellectual Property.
The GSB method consists of steel framework for walls and roofings, forming a
double layer grid of thin expanded metal sheets, with lightweight core
sandwiched between two stiff face sheets.
The twins shell sandwich constructions have a limited width with loose filling
materials in between and covered with pozzolanic cement plaster on both sides,
to provide adequate protection against fire and harmful atmospheric conditions,
especially water. Pozzolanic cement containing 50% OPC and 50% of pozzolana
from the study. The application of blended cement is basically sound and still in a
good condition.
The loose filling materials include sawdust, wood shaving and chips, bagasse,
shell of peanut, crushed pumice, brick wastes, straw, diatomaceous earth, husk
of millet, rice, wheat and recycled waste of paper, plastic and organic materials.
65
66
Plate (14): A steel framework of expanded metal sheets for walls and
roofing
67
Plate (15): The twins shell framework filling with loose materials (Millet
Husks) in between
68
70
Early studies sought to relate pozzolan performance with chemical analysis for
silica, alumina, or iron oxide but had little success. Today, many, but not all,
specifications have a minimum requirement for the sum of the oxides SiO 2
+Al2O3 + Fe2O3 as shown in table (7). The intention is to ensure that sufficient
potentially reactive constituents are present. ASTM C 618 requires a minimum of
70% for the sum of these oxides for Class N pozzolans, 10.0% maximum loss on
ignition, 4.0% maximum SO3, and 3.0% maximum moisture content.
The results of chemical test of the natural pozzolan specimens were compared
with the ASTM C 618 Class N pozzolana requirements, as shown in Table
(3).The natural pozzolan specimens meet the requirements for natural pozzolana
class N for loss on ignition, sulfur trioxide (SO3) and activity index with ordinary
Portland cement at 28 days, but did not meet a minimum requirement for the sum
of Fe2O3, Al2O3, and SiO2. The silica is normally considered to be the most
important and should not normally fall below 40 per cent of the total.
71
Hence, the chemical composition of a pozzolana will only provide a rough guide
to its reactivity. Chemical tests tend to indicate the presence of a pozzolanic
reaction but not its magnitude. This means that the best way to determine the
reactivity of a pozzolana is to measure the compressive strength of mortar cubes
(Pozzolanas - An Introduction & Technical Brief Practical Action).
72
Table (7) physical and chemical properties of pozzolan requirements by Standard Specifications
Requirements
ASTM C 618
Fly ash
Natural
Australia
AS 1129
Canada
U.K.
CAN-A 23.5 BS 3892
Japan
None
34
None
12.5
2400
None
68
85
60
None
None
None
Pozzolan
Class N
Class F
Class C
None
34
34
34
50
75
75
75
None
75
75
75
None
0.8
0.03
70
4
10
3.0
1.5%
0.8
0.03
70
0.8
0.03
50
None
0.8
None
None
5
6
3.0
5
6
3.0
None
None
2.5
None
None
5
None
4
2.5
None
None
None
1.5
None
3.0
None
1.5
None
1.0
None
JIS A6201
Natural pozzolans are referred to as "Class N" pozzolans, defined by ASTM as: "Raw or calcined natural pozzolans that
comply with the applicable requirements for the class as given herein, such as some diatomaceous earths; opaline cherts
and shales; tuffs and volcanic ashes or pumicites, any of which may or may not be processed by calcination to induce
satisfactory properties, such as some clays and shales".
73
Figure (7): Chemistry of natural pozzolans of volcanic origin: the IUGS classification diagram
(After Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. 2012).
74
The compressive strength of the mortars with blended cement and reference
Portland cement were determined and the results are shown in table (6).The
reaction between pozzolana and calcium hydroxide happens after the cement
begins to hydrate. At the early age of curing, 20% of natural pozzolana
substituting Portland cement mixture is slightly lower than reference Portland
cement mortar in regard to the compressive strength as detected at samples
(P13, P24, P30, P37, P39, P45, P50, P57) and moderately lower than reference
Portland cement at samples (P1, P4, P7, P9, P18, P20, P24) .
With time, natural pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide, that
produces cement hydration, and hence increasing the compressive strength
slightly. The results in Figures (8, 9, 10 and 11) show that the compressive
strength increased by time .Moreover the 30% of the natural pozzolana
substituting Portland cement result similar to that of 20 % pozzolana substituting
that revealed high mortar strength.
The high reduction in the compressive strength values observed in most of the
mortar pozzolanic samples could be attributed to fineness. Pozzolana fineness in
this study retained on the 45m (No.325) sieve by wet sieving is 65% and ASTM
C 618 limits the amount retained to 34% for natural pozzolanas. It is clearly the
pozzolanas of the study area require more grinding in order to achieve the
desired fineness, the comparison shown in table (8).
75
1-fineness % retained on
sieve No.325 (45)
2-Setting time (Vicat)
- Initial (minutes)
- Final (minutes)
65%
(72-148)
(121-194)
77.9%
339
(260-274)
(148-213)
(131-147)
425
(335-383)
(228-284)
(148-230)
506
(350-464)
(273-362)
(192-271)
545
(424-509)
(294-413)
(264-319)
4-Compressive Strength
Proportion OPC: Pozzolan
(by weight)
3 days
100%: 0.0
80%: 20%
60%: 40%
50%: 50%
76
The reaction between natural Pozzolana and Calcium Hydroxide happens after
the C3S (Tricalcium silicate (CaO)3 SiO2) and the C2S (Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2
SiO2) in the cement begins to hydrate .At the early stage of curing, 30% natural
Pozzolana substituting Portland cement mixture is moderately lower in
compressive strength than the reference OPC .
77
78
79
60
40
7days
14days
28days
60days
20
0
20%
30%
40%
Pozzolana replacement
With time, natural Pozzolana keeps on reacting with the calcium hydroxide
produced by cement hydration and increasing the compressive strength by
producing additional the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H).After 28 and 60 days of
curing, 20% natural Pozzolana 80% Portland cement mixture begins to exceed
reference Portland cement in compressive strength as revealed in sample P30.
80
81
6-2 Recommendations:
The following points are recommended:
1. The positive results obtained in this study can be upgraded by increasing
the fineness of pozzolana, i.e. fineness similar to or slightly greater than
that of the ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
2. To make full use of the results of this study the researcher suggests
training of professionals in cement technology and construction industry.
3. High strength of OPC is not a requirement for many basic building
applications and LPC and blended cements are ideal for use in plasters,
mortars, renders and in non structural concrete such as ground floor
slabs.
4. Detailed geological investigations and material testing is required for
development and stimulation activity in this area.
5. If this study is achieved to establish small scale plants for producing
pozzolanic cements the viability of geological reserve of the pozzolanic
materials will be proved.
6. To achieve the above mentioned recommendations there must be
coordination between government officials, local authorities, private sector
and local communities to insure proper collaboration.
82
References:
C331-77, Standard methods of sampling and testing fly ash or natural Pozzolana
for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete. American society for
Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St. Philadelphia, Pa.19103, USA.
83
Cronin, V.S., 2001, Geology laboratory projects for group learning: Primis
McGraw-Hill, 156 pp., ISBN 0-07-252348-4.
Chappex, T.; Scrivener K. (2012). "Alkali fixation of C-S-H in blended cement
pastes and its relation to alkali silica reaction". Cement and Concrete
Research 42: 10491054.
Cook D.J. (1986) Natural pozzolanas. In: Swamy R.N., Editor Cement
Replacement Materials, Surrey University Press, p. 200.
D.C. Almond, Farourk Ahmed, Bardr Eldin Khali1969: An Excursion to the
Bayuda Volcanic field of Northern Sudan, Bulletin Volcanologique, Tome 1112,
pp 549-565.
D.C.Almond. the composition of basaltic lavas from Bayuda, Sudan and their
place in the Cainozoic Volcanic History of North-East Africa, Bulletin
Volcanologique, Tome xxxv111-2, 1974, pp 345-360.
84
F. M. Lea. 1971. The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd edition. NY:
Chemical Publishing Company. Pp.433.
Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolana in Concrete. Proceedings,
Second International Conference Volume 1, Madrid- Spain 1986.
F. M. Lea. The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd edition. NY: Chemical
Publishing Company, 1971, pp. 434-435.
F. M. Lea, The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd edition. NY: Chemical
Publishing Company, 1971, pp. 428.
Guilia Baronio and Luiga Binda, Study of the Pozzolanicity of Some Bricks and
Clays, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 11 No. 1, 1997, p. 41.
Gerhrd Franz et al , 1997 The alkaline Meidob volcanic field, Journal of African
Earth Sciences, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 263.291.
H.Barth and K.D. Meinhold (1979) Mineral prospecting in the Bayuda Desert,
Technical cooperation project No. 75.7038.0, Sudanese German exploration
technical report part 1. Investigation of mineral potential, volume A.
Idorn, M.G. (1997). Concrete Progress from the Antiquity to the Third Millennium.
London: Telford.
Indian Standard IS: 1489 (Part I) - 1989; for Portland Pozzolana Cement
Specification- Fly Ash based including Amendments issued by BIS in 2001.
Indian Standard IS: 1727:1967, methods of Test for Pozzolanic Materials, Indian
Standard Institute, Marak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi 1,
India.
85
87
Vail, J.R., 1972a. Jebel Marra, a dormant volcano in Darfur province, Western
Sudan. Bulletin Volcanologique 36, 251265.
Vail, J.R., 1972b. Geological Reconnaissance in the Zalingei and Jebel Marra
areas of western Darfur province, Sudan. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of
Sudan 19, 150.
Vail, J.R., 1975 b. Geological investigations in the Bayuda and Nubian Deserts,
Northern Province, Sudan Rec. Res. Univ. Khartoum, no. 1pp. 4-5.
89