Geotechnical - II

Bachelor - Civil Engineering
Department of Engineering
CECE 4131
Prerequisites:
Goal
GEOTECHNICAL
3 Credit Hours
ENGINEERING - II
CECE2230
To introduce the student to the principles of soil mechanics
and to enable him/her to apply such principles to civil
engineering problems
Objectives
Outcomes
The course should enable the student to:

1. Understand the applications of
Geotechnical Engineering in the design of
footings, retaining walls and in the assessment of
stability of slopes
2. Understand types of deep foundations and their
design principles
The students should be able to:

1. Apply basic concept to solve lateral earth
pressure
problems and identify how they affect
structures
2. Solve bearing capacity problems
3. Design retaining walls and footings
4. Apply basic concept to solve slope stability
problems
5. Understand pile foundations and their design
principles.
6. Work in a team
Course Code-Course Name
1|Page
Course Grading Scheme

Course Passing Grade
: 67-69 (C grade)*
* Depends on the course

Marks
90-100
85-89
80-84
76-79
73-75
70-72
67-69
60-66
55-59
Below 55
Grade
A
AB+
B
BC+
C
CD
F
GPA
4.0
3.7
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.0
0.0
Assessment Methods
2T+2P Courses
Theory (T)
Practical (P)
Course work
Quizzes (T)
Structured assignments (T)/
Assignment/Homework
20 marks
Lab report
60 marks
Written Questionnaire
40 marks
10 marks
Mid- Term Examination(T)
20 marks
Final Examination(T)
50 marks
2/3 x Theoretical part marks + 1/3 x Practical part marks= Total marks out of 100
Assessment Procedure
1.
No. of Quizzes in Theory: 4
2.
No. of Assignments: 2
3.
No. of Practical exercise & field work: 8
4.
No. of Practical assessments: 3
2|Page
Quizzes (Announced)
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
10Marks
10Marks
10Marks
10Marks
Best 2
20Marks
10Marks
10Marks
Total
10Marks
Average
60Marks
Best 2
40Marks
Assignments
Assingment.1
Assingment.2
No. of Practical exercise & field work: 8

Experiment-1
Experiment-2
Experiment-3
Experiment-4
Experiment-5
Experiment-6
Experiment-7
Experiment-8
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
60 Marks
Practical Assessment (announced)

Written Assessment-1
10Marks
10Marks
10Marks
Midterm and Final Exams

1.
2.
All topics covered in the given materials will be included in the exams.
Valid college ID card is a must to attend Midterm and Final examination.
Attendance:
Issuing of Warning Letter
Percentage
Number of Hours
First
10%
Second
20%
Third
30%
If the absence reaches 30%, the student will be debarred from the final exam and will get ZERO
in the final exam.
3|Page
A student will be considered as LATE when s/he arrives after 10minutes of the class start time.
Being LATE for THREE times in a class will be considered as ONE class absence.
The full course delivery plan must be covered. If students are absent without a valid reason, it
will be considered as if the topic/s is already covered and will be included in exams.
If a student is absent for two continuous weeks within the semester in all courses, s/he will be
DISMISSED from the College.
Absence Excuse:
If a student failed to attend any class, s/he has to submit the original excuse document
within one week from the date of absence to registration department only.
If a student failed to attend midterm or final exam, s/he has to fill in a Supplementary Exam
Form attached with the original excuse stamped from concern authorities and submit it to
the registration department within one week from the exam date.Hospital/Clinic Attendance
Certificate is not accepted as a valid excuse.
The coverage of topics in the midterm supplementary exam will include topics covered up
tothe midterm exam + topics covered one week after the midterm exam.
The final complementary exam will be conducted within four weeks from the start of next
semester.
Course Withdrawal
A student is allowed to withdraw one course during the semester. The withdrawal period will end a
week after the midterm exam result announcement.
Late Submission of Assignment

20% of assignment scored mark will be reduced for each day of late submission.
Cheating
4|Page
In case of an accusation of cheating during an examination is proven, the following will be

imposed:
Disciplinary Action for Cheating Case/s:
First Offense (Zero Mark)

Second Offense (Study Suspension for one semester)
Third Offense (Dismissal from the College)
Referencing
Referencing or citing the sources used for your assignment is an important part of academic writing. It
is a way of acknowledging the ideas or words of others if you use them in your work. It helps avoid
plagiarism. It is evidence that you have read relevant background literature and you can provide
authority for statements you make in your assignments.
The Harvard Citation Style is the most common style of referencing; hence, it is suggested you use it
for referencing the sources you have used in your assignment or project. Please refer to the link below
for more details:
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/assets/harvard_referencing_examples_tcm44-39847.pdf
(Any citation style suitable for the course can be followed)
Plagiarism
Plagiarism occurs when others work such as print material, images, audio-visual creations,
computer programs, electronic materials, etc. are used without appropriate acknowledgement.
Plagiarism includes , but not limited to, the following:
Copying full or part (paragraphs, sentences or significant part of a sentence) of others

work directly
Copying from others work with an end reference to the original source but without
putting the copied text between quotation marks
Paraphrasing, summarising or rearranging words, phrases or ideas of others work
Copy-Paste of statements from multiple sources (electronic or print material)
Presenting work, done in collaboration with others, as independent work
Using ones own work presented previously
Disciplinary Action for Student Plagiarism is Zero mark

Students are given the chance to lodge their appeal against the sanctions to the Head of
Department.
5|Page
TEXTBOOKS
Course code
CECE4131
Course Title
Geotechnical
Engineering-II
Text Book used

Title
Author
ISBN
Publisher
College Physics
Serway/Faughn
0-534-40814-1
Thomson Brookes/Cole
Outcomes
covered
15/15
REFRENCE BOOKS
Course code
Course Title
S.No.
1
CECE4131
Geotechnical
Engineering - II
Reference Book/s used

Title
Author
ISBN
Publisher
Title
Author
ISBN
Publisher
Outcomes
covered
Advanced Level Physics

Nelkon& Parker
978-0-435-92303-7
Heinemann
15/15
College Physics
Brooks/Cole
9780321689870
Jim Smith
1|Page
14/15
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SN
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Contents
Earth Pressure
Introduction
Active Earth Pressure
Passive Earth pressure
Rankines active Earth Pressure Theory
Coulombs Wedge Theory
Example Problems
Bearing Capacity
Definitions
Modes of failure
Terzaghis bearing Capacity Theory
Effect of water Table
Example Problems in bearing capacity
Retaining Walls and Foundation Design
Introduction about retaining wall
Design Procedure of retaining wall
Example Problem
Introduction about foundation
Design of Isolated Square Footing
Design of Rectangular footing
Design of Combined footing
Stability of Slopes
Introduction
Stability analysis of Finite slope
Stability analysis of infinite slope
Example problems
Chapter 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
Page number
42
Pile Foundations
Types of piles
Load carrying capacity of piles
Dynamic Formulae
Date of revision: 06.09.2015
2|Page
CHAPTER 1
Earth Pressure
Chapter Outline
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction
Active Earth Pressure
Passive Earth pressure
Rankines active Earth
1.5
1.6
Pressure Theory
Coulombs Wedge Theory
Example Problems
Course outcomes covered

Apply basic concept to solve lateral earth
pressure problems and identify how they affect
structures
2.e Introduction
3|Page
In the design of retaining wall, sheet piles or other earth retaining

structures, it is necessary to compute the lateral pressure exerted by the retained
mass of the soil.
A retaining wall is used to for maintaining the ground surfaces at different
elevation on either side of it. The material retained by the structure is called
backfill which may have its top surface horizontal or inclined. The position of
the backfill lying above a horizontal surface at the elevation of the top of the
wall is called the surcharge and its inclination to the
horizontal is called surcharge angle
Fig shows retaining wall
1.2 Active earth pressure:
4|Page
Fig Shows active earth pressure
During the active state, the wall moves away from backfill and a certain portion of
backfill located immediately behind the wall breaks away from the rest of the soil
mass. This wedge shape portion of soil is called failure wedge. The resisting force
due to shear strength of soil is developed in an upward direction along the failure
plane (or slip lines) as shown in Fig.
When the soil moves away from the backfill, mobilization of the internal
resistance of the soil, which builds up in directions away from the wall takes place
and hence earth pressure on the wall decreases. The decrease of earth pressure
5|Page
continues upto a point until the full resistance has been mobilized. The earth
pressure does not decrease beyond this point with further movement of the wall
and is called as active earth pressure.
1.3 Passive Earth Pressure:
In passive case the wall moves towards the fill, due to some thrust etc.The
magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon the movement of the wall
relative to the backfill and upon the nature of soil or fill.
If on the other hand, the wall moves towards the fill, the earth pressure
increases, because the shearing resistance builds up in direction towards wall.
The pressure reaches at the point when the shearing resistance of the soil has
6|Page
been fully mobilized. Any further movement of the wall does not increase the
pressure. The maximum pressure is called the passive earth pressure
1.4 Rankines active Earth Pressure Theory
Rankines Theory: As originally proposed, Rankines theory of lateral earth
pressure is applied to uniform cohisionless soil only. Later it was extended to
cohesive soils by Resal and Bell. The theory has also been extended to stratified,
partially immersed and submerged soil. This theory is valid when:
The back of the wall is vertical and smooth
The level of the soil behind the wall is horizontal
Soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless
The length of the wall is long in comparison to the height so

that it can be treated two dimensional situations.
Rankines Theory assumes that failure will occur when the maximum principal stress at
any point reaches a value equal to the tensile stress in a simple tension specimen at failure.
This theory does not take into account the effect of the other two principal stresses.
Rankines theory is satisfactory for brittle materials, and not applicable to ductile
materials. This theory is also called the Maximum Stress Theory.
The Rankine theory assumes a frictionless soil-wall interface and a vertical wall (no wall
slope).
7|Page
1.5 Coulombs theory: He highlighted that if the wall is not friction less
unlike assumed in Rankines case the lateral earth pressure applied by the
soil is not normal to the wall but at an angle or in other word has both
horizontal and a vertical components.
Solutions from the coulomb theory can be obtained from the
situations when the back of the wall is not vertical but is inclined at an
angle to the horizontal and the soil behind the wall is not horizontal but
inclined at an angle to the horizontal
Assumptions:
The backfill is dry and cohesionless, homogeneous, istropic
and elastically undeformable but breakable.
The slip surface is the plane which passes through the heel of the
wall.
The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body and the value of
earth pressure is obtained by considering the limiting equilibrium of the
sliding wedge as a whole.
8|Page
1.6 Example problems
9|Page
10 | P a g e
11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e
CHAPTER 2
Bearing Capacity
Chapter Outline
2.1
2.2
2.3
Definitions
Modes of failure
Terzaghis bearing Capacity
2.4
2.5
Theory
Effect of water Table
Example Problems
Solve bearing capacity problems
2.e Definitions
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement.
Foundation soil is that portion of ground which is subjected to additional stresses
when foundation and superstructure are constructed on the ground. The following
are a few important terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.
Fig. 7.1 : Main components of a structure including soil

13 | P a g e
Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that a foundation

soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.
Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in
addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without
undergoing shear failure.
Qn = qf qo
Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to D
for level ground without surcharge where is the unit weight of soil and D is the
depth to foundation bottom from Ground Level.
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is
subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.
qs
qn
qo
F
Here. F represents the factor of safety.

Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil
is subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.
Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil.
Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the super structure to the soil
below such that the stresses in soil are within permissible limits and it provides
stability against sliding and overturning to the super structure. It is a transition
between the super structure and foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical engineer
14 | P a g e
is to ensure that both foundation and soil below are safe against failure and do not
experience excessive settlement. Footing and foundation are synonymous.
2.2 Modes of shear failure
Depending on the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation,
the
following are the modes of shear failure experienced by the foundation soil.
1. General shear failure
2. Local shear failure
3. Punching shear failure
Shear failure in foundation soil

P curve in different foundation soils
Fig.: Footing on ground that experiences a) General shear failure, b) Local shear
failure and c) Punching shear failure
General Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1. Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the edge
of footing and ground surface.
15 | P a g e
2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
3. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
4. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.
5. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in P curve.
6. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads
gradually downwards and outwards.
8. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil with
considerable (>36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density (I D >
70%).
Local Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1. A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of
plastic equilibrium is observed.
2. Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
3. Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil
around the footing is observed.
4. Failure surface is not well defined.
5. Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.
6. Well defined peak is absent in P curve.
7. Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (> 10 to 20%) in a soil with
considerably low (<28o) and low N (N < 5) having low relative density (I D
> 20%).
Punching Shear Failure
16 | P a g e
This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The
following are some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
2. Failure pattern is not observed.
3. Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
4. Failure is characterized by very large settlement.
5. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in P curve.
Fig. presents the conditions for different failure modes in sandy soil carrying
circular footing based on the contributions from Vesic (1963 & 1973)
Fig. Modes of failure at different Relative densities & depths of foundations

Distinction between General Shear & Local or Punching Shear Failures
The basic distinctions between general shear failure and punching shear failure are
presented in
Distinction between General Shear & Local Shear Failures
17 | P a g e

Occurs in dense/stiff soil
Local/Punching Shear Failure

Occurs in loose/soft soil
>36o, N>30, ID>70%, Cu>100 kPa

Results in small strain (<5%)
Failure pattern well defined & clear
Well defined peak in P- curve
Bulging formed in the neighbourhood of
<28o, N<5, ID<20%, Cu<50 kPa

Results in large strain (>20%)
Failure pattern not well defined
No peak in P- curve
No Bulging observed in the
footing at the surface

Extent of horizontal
spread
neighbourhood of footing
of Extent of horizontal spread
of
disturbance at the surface large

Observed in shallow foundations
Failure is sudden & catastrophic
Less settlement, but tilting failure
disturbance at the surface very small

Observed in deep foundations
Failure is gradual
Considerable settlement of footing
observed
observed
2.3 Terzaghis bearing Capacity Theory

Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for evaluating the
safe bearing capacity of shallow foundation with rough base.
Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.
2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.
3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two
dimensional plane strain problem.
4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to to the
horizontal.
5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear
resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.
6. Method of superposition is valid.
18 | P a g e
7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq
produced by surcharge and PP produced by weight of shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
10.Footing and ground are horizontal.
11.Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete shear
failure is mobilized at all points at the same time.
12.The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure
Limitations
1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations
2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic
zone may not develop at the assumed .
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is
near failure zone.
19 | P a g e
Fig. Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in foundation
soil
Concept
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath due
to the vertical load from superstructure. Let q f be the final load at which the
foundation soil experiences failure due to the mobilization of plastic equilibrium.
The foundation soil fails along the composite failure surface and the region is
divided in to five zones, Zone 1 which is elastic, two numbers of Zone 2 which are
the zones of radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of linear
shear. Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating empirical
relation, the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity,
q f cN c DN q 0.5BN
If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then

q f cN c (D q ) N q 0.5BN
Net ultimate bearing capacity,

q n cN c DN q 0.5BN D
20 | P a g e
q n cN c D ( N q 1) 0.5BN
Safe bearing capacity,
qs cN c D ( N q 1) 0.5BN
F1 D
Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3)

c = cohesion
= unit weight of soil
D = Depth of foundation
q = Surcharge at the ground level
B = Width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing Capacity factors
Table: Bearing capacity factors for different
Nc
Nq
Ng
Nc
Nq
Ng
5.7
1.0
0.0
5.7
1.0
0.0
7.3
1.6
0.5
6.7
1.4
0.2
10
9.6
2.7
1.2
8.0
1.9
0.5
15
12.9
4.4
2.5
9.7
2.7
0.9
20
17.7
7.4
5.0
11.8
3.9
1.7
25
25.1
12.7
9.7
14.8
5.6
3.2
30
37.2
22.5
19.7
19.0
8.3
5.7
34
52.6
36.5
35.0
23.7
11.7
9.0
35
57.8
41.4
42.4
25.2
12.6
10.1
40
95.7
81.3
100.4
34.9
20.5
18.8
45
172.3
173.3
297.5
51.2
35.1
37.7
48
258.3
287.9
780.1
66.8
50.5
60.4
21 | P a g e
50
347.6
415.1 1153.2
81.3
65.6
87.1
Fig
Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different
22 | P a g e
Effect of shape of Foundation

The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and other
contributors have suggested the correction to the bearing capacity equation for
shapes other than strip footing based on their experimental findings. The following
are the corrections for circular, square and rectangular footings.
Circular footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.3BN
Square footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.4BN
Rectangular footing
q f (1 0.3
B
B
)cN c DN q (1 0.2 )0.5BN
L
L
Summary of Shape factors

Table gives the summary of shape factors suggested for strip, square,
circular and rectangular footings. B and L represent the width and length
respectively of rectangular footing such that B < L.
Table Shape factors for different shapes of footing
Shape
Strip
Square
Round
Rectangle
sc
1
1.3
1.3
(1 0.3
B
)
L
sq
1
1
1
s
1
0.8
0.6
(1 0.2
B
)
L
23 | P a g e
Local shear failure

The equation for bearing capacity explained above is applicable for soil
experiencing general shear failure. If a soil is relatively loose and soft, it fails in
local shear failure. Such a failure is accounted in bearing capacity equation by
reducing the magnitudes of strength parameters c and as follows.
tan 1
c1
2
tan
3
2
c
3
Table summarizes the bearing capacity factors to be used under different situations.
If is less than 36o and more than 28o, it is not sure whether the failure is of
general or local shear type. In such situations, linear interpolation can be made and
the region is called mixed zone.
Table Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general shear
conditions.
Local Shear Failure
< 28o
Nc1, Nq1, N1
Mixed Zone
28o < < 36o
Ncm, Nqm, Nm

> 36o
Nc, Nq, N
2.4 Effect of Water Table fluctuation

The basic theory of bearing capacity is derived by assuming the water table to be at
great depth below and not interfering with the foundation. However, the presence
of water table at foundation depth affects the strength of soil. Further, the unit
weight of soil to be considered in the presence of water table is submerged density
and not dry density. Hence, the reduction coefficients R W1 and RW2 are used in
second and third terms of bearing capacity equation to consider the effects of water
table.
24 | P a g e
Fig. 7.5 : Effect of water table on bearing capacity

Ultimate bearing capacity with the effect of water table is given by,
q f cN c DN q R w1 0.5BN R w 2
Z
1
Here, Rw1 2 1 Dw1
where ZW1 is the depth of water table from ground level.

1. 0.5<Rw1<1
2. When water table is at the ground level (Zw1 = 0), Rw1 = 0.5
3. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw1 = D), Rw1 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw1 lies between 0.5 and 1
25 | P a g e
Here, Rw 2 2 1 Bw2
where ZW2 is the depth of water table from foundation level.

1. 0.5<Rw2<1
2. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw2 = 0), Rw2 = 0.5
3. When water table is at a depth B and beyond from the base of foundation
(Zw2 >= B), Rw2 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw2 lies between 0.5 and 1
Effect of eccentric foundation base
Fig. 7.6 : Effect of eccentric footing on bearing capacity

The bearing capacity equation is developed with the idealization that the load on
the foundation is concentric. However, the forces on the foundation may be
eccentric or foundation may be subjected to additional moment. In such situations,
the width of foundation B shall be considered as follows.
B 1 B 2e
26 | P a g e
If the loads are eccentric in both the directions, then

B 1 B 2e B & L1 L 2e L
Further, area of foundation to be considered for safe load carried by foundation is

not the actual area, but the effective area as follows.
A1 B 1 XL1
In the calculation of bearing capacity, width to be considered is B1 where B1 < L1.

Hence the effect of provision of eccentric footing is to reduce the bearing capacity
and load carrying capacity of footing.
Factor of Safety
It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It depends on many
factors such as,
1. Type of soil
2. Method of exploration
3. Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength
4. Importance of structure and consequences of failure
5. Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.
Assume a factor of safety F = 3, unless otherwise specified for bearing capacity
problems. Table provides the details of factors of safety to be used under different
circumstances.
27 | P a g e
Table Typical factors of safety for bearing capacity calculation in different

situations
Density of soil : In geotechnical engineering, one deals with several densities such
as dry density, bulk density, saturated density and submerged density. There will
always be a doubt in the students mind as to which density to use in a particular
case. In case of Bearing capacity problems, the following methodology may be
adopted.
1. Always use dry density as it does not change with season and it is always
smaller than bulk or saturated density.
28 | P a g e
2. If only one density is specified in the problem, assume it as dry density

and use.
3. If the water table correction is to be applied, use saturated density in
stead of dry density. On portions above the water table, use dry density.
4. If water table is some where in between, use equivalent density as
follows. In the case shown in Fig. 7a, eq should be used for the second
term and sat for the third term. In the case shown in Fig. 7b, d should be
used for second term and eq for the third term..
eq
1 D1 2 D2
D1 D2
(a) Water table above base

(b)Water table below base
Fig. 7.7 : Evaluation of equivalent density
Factors influencing Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some
important ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table
29 | P a g e
9. Eccentricity in footing load

10.Inclination of footing load
11.Inclination of ground
12.Inclination of base of foundation
Determination of Bearing Capacity from field tests
Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the advantages of field
tests over laboratory tests for obtaining the desired property of soil. The biggest
advantages are that there is no need to extract soil sample and the conditions
during testing are identical to the actual situation.
Major advantages of field tests are
Sampling not required
Soil disturbance minimum
Major disadvantages of field tests are
Labourious
Time consuming
Heavy equipment to be carried to field
Short duration behavior
Plate Load Test
30 | P a g e
Fig. typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25
mm thick acts as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate
on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.
5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For
smaller loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load.
6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A
hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are
recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) &
average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the
horizontal scale and settlement () is plotted on the vertical scale.
31 | P a g e
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the
local or punching shear failure.
10.The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both
shear failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are identical
to the actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P 32evelled of ground.
The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are
1. The test results reflect the 32evelled of soil below the plate (for a distance of
~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally very large.
2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long term
consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is
essential in such soils.
4. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and carry
out testing for several days in the tough field environment.
Standard Penetration Test
32 | P a g e
Fig. 7.8 : typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly

1. Reference can be made to IS 2131 1981 for details on Standard Penetration
Test.
2. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.
3. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm
long and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm.
4. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.
5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle
under its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating
drive.
6. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the
ground is the standard penetration number N
7. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure,
saturated fine silt and energy)
33 | P a g e
8. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained

cohesion, density etc.
Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are
1. Relatively quick & simple to perform
2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample
4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of soil
5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available
Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are
1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.
2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance
3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.
5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.
6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.
Cone Penetration Test
34 | P a g e
Fig
typical set up for Static Cone Penetration test assembly
1. Reference can be made to IS 4968 (P3) 1987 for details on Standard
Penetration Test.
2. Cone Penetration Test can either be Static Cone Penetration Test or Dynamic
Cone Penetration Test.
3. Continuous record of penetration resistance with depth is achieved.
4. Consists of a cone 36 mm dia (1000 mm2) and 60o vertex angle.
5. Cone is carried at the lower end of steel rod that passes through steel tube of
36 mm dia.
6. Either the cone, or the tube or both can be forced in to the soil by jacks.
7. Cone is pushed 80 mm in to the ground and resistance is recorded, steel tube
is pushed up to the cone and resistance is recorded. Further, both cone and
35 | P a g e
tube are penetrated 200 mm and resistance is recorded. Total resistance (q c)

gives the CPT value expressed in kPa.
8. Cone resistance represents bearing resistance at the base and tube resistance
gives the skin frictional resistance. Total resistance can be correlated with
strength properties, density and deformation characteristics of soil.
9. Correction for overburden pressure is applied.
10.Approximately, N = 10qc (kPa)
Advantages of SCPT are
1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.
2. Static resistance is more appropriate to determine static properties of soil.
3. Can be correlated with most properties of soil.
Disadvantages of SCPT are
1. Not very popular in India.
2. If a small rock piece is encountered, resistance shown is erratic & incorrect.
3. Involves handling heavy equipment.
Presumptive Safe Bearing Capacity
It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data based on
visual identification at the site. National Building Code of India (1983) lists the
values of presumptive SBC in kPa for different soils as presented below.
A : Rocks
Sl
No
Description
SBC (kPa)
36 | P a g e
1
2
3
4
Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. granite,

trap & diorite
Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in sound
condition
Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard
shale cemented material
Soft Rock
3240
1620
880
440
B : Cohesionless Soils
Sl
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Description
SBC (kPa)
Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to

penetration when excavated by tools
Coarse sand, compact and dry
Medium sand, compact and dry
Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers)
Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium
sand, dry
Fine sand, loose and dry
440
440
245
150
245
100
C : Cohesive Soils
Sl
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Description
SBC (kPa)
Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry

Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail
Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with
strong thumb pressure
Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure
Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters with
the thumb
Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry
condition (50 % saturation)
440
245
150
100
50
130 160
Note :
1. Use d for all cases without water. Use sat for calculations with water. If
simply density is mentioned use accordingly.
2. Fill all the available data with proper units.
3. Write down the required formula
4. If the given soil is sand, c = 0
37 | P a g e
Problems & Solutions

1. A square footing is to be constructed on a deep deposit of sand at a depth of 0.9
m to carry a design load of 300 kN with a factor of safety of 2.5. The ground
water table may rise to the ground level during rainy season. Design the plan
dimension of footing given sat = 20.8 kN/m3, Nc = 25, Nq = 34 and N =32.
Data
C=0
F = 2.5
D = 0.9 m
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 20.8 kN/m3
Nc = 25
Nq = 34
N = 32
qs
P
P
1
2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
D
A B
F
300 142.272 B 2 53.249 B 3
B = 1.21 m
2. What will be the net ultimate bearing capacity of sand having = 36o and d =
19 kN/m3 for (i) 1.5 m strip foundation and (ii) 1.5 m X 1.5 m square footing.
The footings are placed at a depth of 1.5 m below ground level. Assume F =
2.5. Use Terzaghis equations. (Aug 2003)
35o
40o
Nc
57.8
95.7
Nq
41.4
81.3
N
42.4
100.4
38 | P a g e
By linear interpolation Nc = 65.38, Nq = 49.38, N = 54 at = 36o

Data
B = 1.5 m
D = 1.5 m
= 19 kN/m3
Strip Footing
q n cN c D ( N q 1) 0.5BN
qn = 2148.33 kPa
Square Footing
q n 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) 0.4BN
qn = 1994.43 kPa
3. A square footing 2.5 m X 2.5 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of
density 19 kN/m3 having an angle of shearing resistance of 36 o. The depth of
foundation is 1.5 m below the ground surface. Calculate the safe load that can
be applied on the footing with a factor of safety of 3. Take bearing capacity
factors as Nc= 27, Nq = 30, N = 35. (Feb 2004)
Data
C=0
F=3
B = 2.5 m
D = 1.5 m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 27
Nq = 30
N = 35
39 | P a g e
qs
P
P
1
2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
D
A B
F
Safe load, P = qs*B*B = 3285.4 kN

4. A strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kPa at a depth of 1.2 m
in sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5 kN/m 3 and unit weight above
water table is 16.8 kN/m3. If c = 0 and = 35o, determine the factor of safety
with respect to shear failure for the following locations of water table.
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
d. Water table is at Ground Level.
Using Terzaghis equation, take Nq = 41.4 and N = 42.4. (Feb 2005)
Data
C=0
= 35o
B=2m
D = 1.2 m
b = 19.5 kN/m3 (bottom)
t = 16.8 kN/m3 (top)
Nc = 0
Nq = 41.4
N = 42.4
Safe load intensity = 400 kPa
q s 400 cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.5BN RW 2
F1 D
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level

RW1 = RW2 = 1
= 16.8 kN/m3
40 | P a g e
F = 4.02
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
RW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5
1
16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.227
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
RW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825
eff
16.8 X 1.3 19.5 X 0.7

17.745 kN/m3
2
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 17.745 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.825
1
16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.779
d. Water table is at Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 19.5 kN/m3
400 19.5 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 0.5 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5
1
19.5 X 1.2
F
F = 2.353
5. A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below ground has to carry a safe
load of 800 kN. Find the size of footing if the desired factor of safety is 3. Use
Terzaghis analysis for general shear failure. Take c = 8 kPa, N c = 37.2, Nq =
22.5, N = 19.7.
d = 18 kN/m3 (Assumed)
c = 8 kPa
F=3
41 | P a g e
D = 1.3 m
Nc = 37.2
Nq = 22.5
N = 19.7
P = 800 kN
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P
P
1
2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
D
A B
F
47.28 B 3 320.06 B 2 800 0
B = 1.436 m
6. A square footing 2.8 m X 2.8 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of
density 18 kN/m3 and = 36o. If the depth of foundation is 1.8 m, determine the
safe load that can be applied on the footing. Take F = 2.5, Nc = 27, Nq = 36, N
= 35.
Data
d = 18 kN/m3
c = 0 (sand)
F = 2.5
B = 2.8 m
D = 1.8 m
Nc = 27
Nq = 36
N = 35
P=?
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P
P
1
2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
D
A B
F
42 | P a g e
P = qs*B*B = 6023 kN
7. A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at a depth of 1
m below the ground surface. The foundation soil has cohesion of 10 kPa, angle
of friction of 26o and unit weight of 18 kN/m3. Taking bearing capacity factor
from the following table, calculate the safe bearing capacity using Terzaghis
theory. Use factor of safety of 3.
15o
20o
25o
Nc
12.9
17.7
25.1
Nq
4.4
7.0
12.7
N
2.5
5.0
9.7
As = 28o, the ground experiences local shear failure

C = (2/3)X10 = 6.67 kPa
tan = (2/3) X tan
= 18.01o
By linear interpolation, Nc=15.79, Nq=5.97, N=4.01
B=1m
D=1m
= 18 kN/m3
Strip footing
q s cN c D ( N q 1) 0.5BN
F1 D =94.96 kPa
Square footing
q s 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) 0.4BN
F1 D =103.08 kPa
8. A square footing placed at a depth of 1 m is required to carry a load of 1000 kN.

Find the required size of footing given the following data. C = 10 kPa, = 38o,
= 19 kN/m3, Nc = 61.35, Nq = 48.93, N = 74.03 and F = 3. Assume water table
is at the base of footing. (July 2007)
43 | P a g e
Data
C = 10 kPa
= 38o
B=?
D=1m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 61.35
Nq = 48.93
N = 74.03
F=3
RW1 = 1
RW2 = 0.5
qs
P
P
1
2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
D
A B
F
B 3 6.14 B 2 3.56 0
B = 0.72 m
CHAPTER 3
Design of Retaining wall and Foundation
Chapter Outline
44 | P a g e
3.1
Introduction about retaining
3.2
wall
Design Procedure of
3.3
3.4
3.5
retaining wall
Example Problem
Introduction for foundation
Design of Isolated Square
3.6
Footing
Design of Rectangular
3.7
footing
Design of Combined footing
Understand the applications of

Geotechnical Engineering in the design of
Footings and retaining walls
3.1 Introduction about retaining wall:

Retaining walls are usually built to hold back soil mass. However,
retaining walls can also be constructed for aesthetic landscaping purposes.
45 | P a g e
Fig shows the retaining walls
46 | P a g e
Classification of Retaining walls

Gravity wall-Masonry or Plain concrete
Cantilever retaining wall-RCC
(Inverted T and L)
Counterfort retaining wall-RCC
Buttress wall-RCC
47 | P a g e
Classification of Retaining walls
3.2 Design Procedure of Retaining Wall:

Earth Pressure (P)
Earth pressure is the pressure exerted by the retaining material on the
retaining wall. This pressure tends to deflect the wall outward.
Types of earth pressure :
Active earth pressure or earth pressure (Pa) and
Passive earth pressure (Pp).
Active earth pressure tends to deflect the wall away from the backfill.
Factors affecting earth pressure
Earth pressure depends on type of backfill, the height of wall and the soil
conditions
48 | P a g e
Soil conditions: The different soil conditions are

Dry 49evelled back fill
Moist 49evelled backfill
Submerged 49evelled backfill
Leveled backfill with uniform surcharge
Backfill with sloping surface
Stability requirements of RW
It should not overturn
It should not slide
It should not subside,
i.e Max. pressure at the toe should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of
the soil under working condition
Design requirements of retaining wall
Stem: Top width 200 mm to 400 mm
Base slab width b= 0.4H to 0.6H, 0.6H to 0.75H for surcharged wall
Base slab thickness= H/10 to H/14
Toe projection= (1/3-1/4) Base width
49 | P a g e
Figure shows the dimensions of the retaining wall

Design steps of Cantilever Retaining wall
Stem, toe and heel acts as cantilever slabs

Stem design: Mu=psf (ka gH3/6)
Determine the depth d from Mu = Mu, lim=Qbd2
Design as balanced section or URS and find steel
Mu=0.87 fy Ast[d-fyAst/(fckb)]
3.3 Example problem

Design a cantilever retaining wall (T type) to retain earth for a height of 4m.
The backfill is horizontal. The density of soil is 18kN/m3. Safe bearing
capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. Take the co-efficient of friction between
concrete and soil as 0.6. The angle of repose is 30. Use M20 concrete and
Fe415 steel.
Solution
Data: h = 4m, SBC= 200 kN/m2, g= 18 kN/m3, =0.6, =30
Depth of foundation
50 | P a g e
To fix the height of retaining wall [H]

H= h +Df
Depth of foundation
Df =
SBC
1 sin
1+ sin
= 1.23m say 1.2m ,

Therefore H= 5.2m
Proportioning of wall:
Thickness of base slab=(1/10 to1/14)H
0.52m to 0.43m, say 450 mm
Width of base slab=b = (0.5 to 0.6) H
2.6m to 3.12m say 3m
Toe projection= pj= (1/3 to )H
1m to 0.75m say 0.75m
Provide 450 mm thickness for the stem at the base and 200 mm at the top
51 | P a g e
Design of stem
Ph= x 1/3 x 18 x 4.752=67.68 kN
M = Ph h/3 = 0.333 x 18 x 4.753/6
= 107.1 kN-m
Mu= 1.5 x M = 160.6 kN-m
Taking 1m length of wall,
Mu/bd2= 1.004 < 2.76, URS
(Here d=450- eff. Cover=450-50=400 mm)
To find steel
Pt=0.295% <0.96%
Ast= 0.295x1000x400/100 = 1180 mm2
#12 @ 90 < 300 mm and 3d ok

Ast provided= 1266 mm2 [0.32%]
52 | P a g e
Curtailment of bars-Stem
Curtail 50% steel from top

(h1/h2)2 = 50%/100%=
(h1/4.75)2 = , h1 = 3.36m
Actual point of cutoff
= 3.36-Ld=3.36-47 bar = 3.36-0.564 = 2.74m from top.
Spacing of bars = 180 mm c/c < 300 mm and 3d ok
53 | P a g e
Design of stem-Contd.,
Development length (Stem steel)

Ld=47 bar =47 x 12 = 564 mm
Secondary steel for stem at front
0.12% GA
= 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
Distribution steel
= 0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
54 | P a g e
Drawing and detailing
C/S of the retaining wall
55 | P a g e
L/s of retaining wall
56 | P a g e
3.4 Introduction for foundation:

FOUNDATION
The foundation of a structure is the part of the structure which transfers the
load to the soil on which it rests.
The ground surface in contact with the lower surface of the foundation is
called the base of the foundation
The ground on which the foundation rest is called the subgrade or
foundation soil.
SUBSTRUCTURE AND SUPER STRUCTURE
SUBSTRUCTURE:
The structure below the ground level it is called sub structure
SUPER STRUCTURE:
The structure above the ground level it is called as super structure
Types of Foundations
Shallow Foundations
If the depth of the foundation is equal to or less than its width the foundation
is classified as shallow foundation
(i) Wall Footing
(ii)Column or Isolated Footing
(iii)Combined Footing
(iv)Mat Footing
Deep foundation
If the depth of the foundation is greater than its width it is called as deep
foundation.
(i)Well foundation
(ii)Pile foundation
57 | P a g e
Bearing Capacity of soil:

Ability of the soil to resists the load with out failure.
(i)
(ii)
Causes of failure of foundations:

Unequal settlement of subsoil
Shrinkage of soil below the foundation due to withdrawal of moisture
Design Find the area and the depth of foundation required for a column
carrying an axial load of 1250 KN. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is
120 KN/m2 . The density of the soil is 18 KN/m3 and has an angle of
repose of 30 degree.
Solution:
Load on the column = 1250 KN
Approximate weight of foundation = 125 KN
( take 10 % of total weight)
Total load = load on the column + approximate weight of the column.
= 1250 + 125 = 1375 KN
Area of the foundation = total load / safe bearing
capacity of soil
= 1375/120
= 11.46 m2
Provide a foundation area of 12 m2
Determination of depth of the foundation:
Minimum depth of
the foundation = (p/){(1-sin)/(1+sin )}2
= (120/18) {(1-sin30)/(1+sin30)}2
= 0.75 m.
3.5 Design of Square Footing:
A square column 500mm X 500mm carries an axial load of 1500 KN .
Design square footing for the column. The safe bearing capacity of the
column is 225 KN/m2. Use M20 and Fe 415 steel.
Design of the foundation:
Load on the column = 1500 KN
Approximate weight of the footing at 10 % of the column load
= 150 KN
58 | P a g e
Total load = 1650 KN

Safe bearing capacity of the soil = 225 KN/m2
Area of foundation = 1650/225 = 7.333 m2
BX B = 7.333
Breadth of foundation B = (7.333) = 2.71 say 2.75 m
So the area of the foundation is 2.75 X 2.75 m
Net upward pressure = load on the column / area of the footing
= 1500000/(2.75 X 2.75) = 198347.11 N/m2.
Depth of the foundation =
Minimum depth of the foundation = (p/r){(1-sin)/(1+sin )}2
= (225/18) {(1-sin30)/(1+sin30)}2
= 1.4 m
Determination of the depth of the concrete slab below the footing.
Critical section for bending moment is = (2750-500)/2 = 1125 mm = 1.125 m
Maximum bending moment = M = 198347.11 x 2.75 X 1.125 x( 1.125/2)
= 345170 Nm
Factored moment Mu = 1.5 X M
= 1.5 X 345170 = 517755 Nm.
To find the depth of the slab in the foundation.
Mu= 0.138 fck bd2
517755000 = 0.138 X 20 X 500 (width of column) X d 2
d= 613 mm
D= 613 + 12/2 +60 = 691 mm
(12- dia of bar , 60 clear cover for footing)
The depth of slab of the foundation is increased by 30 %
D= 691 X ( 0.3 X 691) = 900 mm
d=900 (12/2)- 60 =822 mm.
Determination of quantity of steel required:
Ast = Pt X b x d
Determination of area of main reinforcement
Ast= Percentage of steel X b X d
Percentage of steel =
59 | P a g e
Factored moment Mu = 1.5 X M

= 1.5 X 345170 = 517755 Nm
Fck = 20 N/mm2
And
Fe =415 N/mm2
b=500 mm
And
d=822mm
Substitute all the values in the above formula we get
Pt= 0.47 %
Ast = Pt X b x d
= (0.47/100) x 500 x 822 = 1932 mm2
2
No of bar =Total area/ area of one bar= 1932/ (3.14/4)x12
Assume 12 mm dia bars so provide 18 bars of 12 mm diameter.
Here the column is square so provide the same reinforcement on both the
directions.
3.6DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR FOOTING

A rectangular column footing 600 mm X 400 mm carries an axial load of 800 KN
Design a rectangular footing to support the column . The safe bearing capacity of
the soil is 200 KN/m2 . Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel.
Load on the column = 800000N
Approximate weight of the foundation take 10 % of the weight of the column =
80000N
Total load = 880000N
Safe bearing capacity of the soil is given as 200 KN/m 2
60 | P a g e
= 200000N/m2
Area of the foundation = Total load / Safe bearing capacity of the soil.
= 880000/200000 = 4.40 m2
To find the length and breadth of the foundation
in case of square footing its easy because by taking square root we get all the
values
Area = 4.4
BL = 4.4
B= 4.4 /L
Equating the projections on both sides beyond the footing
( B-0.4) = (L-0.6)
Sub B Value
( {4.4/L}-0.4) = (L-0.6)
Solving the above equation we get L = 2.2 m
Sub this is B value we get
B= 4.4/L = 4.4/ 2.2 = 2 m
Now find the projections on both the axis
= 0.8 m
Net upward pressure = column load / Area of the footing
= 800000/4.4
=181820 N/m2
Determination of reinforcement in section xx axis and YY axis.
Bending moment Myy = 181820 X 2.2X 0.8 X (0.8/2).
= 128000 Nm
Factored Moment Muy = 128000 X 1.5
= 192000 Nm
Determine the depth
Muy = 0.138 Fck bd2
192000 = 0.138 x 20 x 600 x d2
d= 341 mm.
Bending moment Mxx = 181820 X 2 X 0.8 X (0.8/2).
= 116364.8 Nm
Factored Moment Mux = 116364.8 X 1.5
= 174547.2Nm
Determine the depth
Mux = 0.138 Fck bd2
174547.2 = 0.138 x 20 x 400 x d2
d= 398 mm.
From the above two depth take the greater one
d= 398 mm
Providing 10 mm dia bars at a clear cover of 70 mm
D = 398 + (10/2) + 70 = 473 mm
The overall depth may increased by 30%
= 473 + (0.3 X473)
= 614.9 mm
61 | P a g e
D=620 mm.
Effective Depth of the footing
d= 620 (10/2) 70
= 545 mm.
Take Muy and find Longer direction steel
Factored Moment Muy = 128000 X 1.5
= 192000 Nm
Ast = Pt X b x d
Sub b= 600mm
d=545mm
Fck=20N/mm2
Fe=415 N/mm2
In the Pt formula and find Pt
Pt=0.32 %
Ast =( 0.32/100) X600 x545=1046.4mm2
No of bar =Total area/ area of one bar= 1046.4/ (3.14/4)x12 2

Assume 12 mm dia bar .
Provide 12 mm dia bars of 10 numbers.
Determination of area of main reinforcement
Ast= Percentage of steel X b X d
Percentage of steel =
Take Mux and find Shorter direction steel

Factored Moment Factored Moment Mux = 116364.8 X 1.5
= 174547.2Nm
Ast = Pt X b x d
Sub b= 400mm
d=545mm
Fck=20N/mm2
Fe=415 N/mm2
In the Pt formula and find Pt
Pt=0.45 %
Ast =( 0.45/100) X400 x545=981mm2
2
No of bar =Total area/ area of one bar= 981/ (3.14/4)x12
Assume 12 mm dia bar .
Provide 12 mm dia bars of 9 numbers.
62 | P a g e
3.7 Combined footing

Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing,
it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the
economical.
Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
1. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated
footings
2. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
3. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building
column
63 | P a g e
Types of combined footing
Design Steps
Locate the point of application of the column
loads on the footing.
Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the center
of footing.
Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded.
Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence
draw SFD and BMD.
Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.
Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for
depth and reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.
Design of combined footing
Slab and Beam type
1. Two interior columns A and B carry 700 kN and 1000 kN loads respectively.
Column A is 350 mm x 350 mm and column B is 400 mm X 400 mm in section.
The centre to centre spacing between columns is 4.6 m. The soil on which the
footing rests is capable of providing resistance of 130 kN/m 2. Design a combined
footing by providing a central beam joining the two columns. Use concrete grade
M25 and mild steel reinforcement.
Solution: Data
fck = 25 Nlmm2,
fy= 250 N/mm2,
fb = l30 kN/m2 (SBC),
Column A = 350 mm x 350 mm,
Column B = 400 mm x 400 mm,
c/c spacing of columns = 4.6 m,
PA = 700 kN and PB = 1000 kN
Required: To design combined footing with central beam joining the two
columns.
Ultimate loads
PuA= 1.5 x 700 = 1050 kN, PuB = 1.5 x 1000 = 1500 kN
64 | P a g e
Proportioning of base size

Working load carried by column A = PA = 700 kN
Working load carried by column B = PB = 1000 kN
Self weight of footing 10 % x (PA + PB) = 170 kN
Total working load = 1870 kN
Required area of footing = Af = Total load /SBC
=1870/130 = 14.38 m2
Let the width of the footing = Bf = 2m
Required length of footing = Lf = Af /Bf = 14.38/2 = 7.19m
Provide footing of size 7.2m X 2m,Af = 7.2 x 2 = 14.4 m2
For uniform pressure distribution the C.G. of the footing should coincide with the C.G. of
column loads. Let x be the distance of C.G. from the centre line of column A
Then x = (PB x 4.6)/(PA + PB) = (1000 x 4.6)/(1000 +700)
= 2.7 m from column A.
If the cantilever projection of footing beyond column A is a
then, a + 2.7 = Lf /2 = 7.2/2, Therefore a = 0.9 m
Similarly if the cantilever projection of footing beyond B is 'b'
then, b + (4.6-2.7) = Lf /2 = 3.6 m,
Therefore b = 3.6 - 1.9 = 1.7 m
The details are shown in Figure
65 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4
Stability of slopes
Chapter Outline
4.1
4.2
Introduction
Stability analysis of Finite
4.3
slope
Stability analysis of infinite
4.4
slope
Example problems

Apply basic concept to solve slope stability problems
4.1 Introduction
Earth embankments are commonly required for Railways, Roadways, Earth
Dams, Levees and River training works. The stability of those embankments or slopes,
should be thoroughly analyzed, since their failure my lead to loss of human life, as well
as economic loss.
I. The failure of a mass soil located beneath a slope is called slide. It involves the
movement of soil mass either downward or outward from the position.
Types of slopes: 1) Infinite slope 2) Finite slope
4.2Finite slope:
If the slope is of limited extent of it s boundary, it is called finite slope
4.3Infinite slope:
If a slopes represents the boundary surface of a semi-infinite soil mass, and the
soil properties for all depth below the surface are constant, it is called infinite slope.
Modes of slope failure: An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with
the horizontal is called unrestrained slope.
The slope can be natural or man-made.
It can fails in various modes
The failures are classified in to five major categories:
1. Fall 2. Topple
3. Slide
4. Spread 5. Flow
Fall: this is the detachment of Soil and or Rock fragments that fall down a slope, and
large amount of soil mass has slide down a slop.
Topple: this is a forward rotation of Soil/Rock mass about an axis below the centre of
gravity of mass being displaced.
66 | P a g e
Slide: It is the downward movement of soil mass occurring on a surface of rupture

Spread: this is a form of slide by rotation. It occurs by sudden movement of water
bearing seams of sand silts overlain by clays or loaded by fills.
Flow: this is a downward movement of soil mass similar to a viscous fluid
4.4 Example problems in slope stability
67 | P a g e
68 | P a g e
References
1) Text Books
Example:
King, M. (2000).Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, New Zealand: Viking.
2) Reference Books
Example:
King, M. (2000).Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, New Zealand: Viking.
3) Web sites
Example:
Hobbit Team. (2011, November 5). 3D concept sketch [Web log message]. Retrieved from
http://www.thehobbitblog.com/
69 | P a g e

Geotechnical - II

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Geotechnical - II

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

The course should enable the student to:

The students should be able to:

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course Grading Scheme

* Depends on the course

Mid- Term Examination(T)

No. of Quizzes in Theory: 4

No. of Practical exercise & field work: 8

No. of Practical assessments: 3

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

No. of Practical exercise & field work: 8

Practical Assessment (announced)

Midterm and Final Exams

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Late Submission of Assignment

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

In case of an accusation of cheating during an examination is proven, the following will be

First Offense (Zero Mark)

Copying full or part (paragraphs, sentences or significant part of a sentence) of others

Disciplinary Action for Student Plagiarism is Zero mark

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Text Book used

Course Code-Course Name

Reference Book/s used

Advanced Level Physics

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Date of revision: 06.09.2015

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course outcomes covered

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

In the design of retaining wall, sheet piles or other earth retaining

Fig shows retaining wall

1.2 Active earth pressure:

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Fig Shows active earth pressure

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

1.3 Passive Earth Pressure:

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless

The length of the wall is long in comparison to the height so

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

1.6 Example problems

Course Code-Course Name

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course Code-Course Name

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Bachelor - Civil Engineering

Course outcomes covered