DEFINITION OF PRIMARY IMPORATANCE IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

LIMIT LOAD. The maximum load anticipated in service.

ULTIMATE LOAD. The maximum load, which a part of structure must be capable of supporting.
FACTOR OF SAFETY. The factor by which the limit load must be multiplied to establish the ultimate
load (normally 1.5 unless otherwise specified)
LIMIT LOAD FACTOR. The limit load factor is the load factor corresponding to limit loads.
ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR. The ultimate load factor is the load factor corresponding to ultimate
load.
LOAD FACTOR. The load factor is ratio of specified load to the total weight of the aircraft. The
specified load may be expressed in terms of the following; aerodynamics forces, inertia forces or
ground or water reaction.
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram
Condition I: Maneuvering Load Factors
(a) The positive limit maneuvering load factor n may not be less than the following
values.
24, 000
n = 2.1 + -------------------, Normal category
W + 10, 000
except that n not be greater than 3.8 and shall not be less than 2.5
n
(b) The negative limit maneuvering load factor n may not less be less than

Design Maneuvering Speed, VA

VA = VS + n
Where:
Vs = stall speed with flaps up
+n = positive limit maneuvering load factor
(a) Formula for + CNA maximum curve:
nW
+CAN = -----------qAS

nW
-------------------( 1/2 ) pVA2S

; n = positive limit maneuvering

load factor

CAN pVA2
+n = -------------------W
--S
(b) Formula for CN

A maximum curve

-CNA = -nW =
qAS

-nW
pVA2S
1

-n = negative limit maneuvering load

factor

-CNA pV A2S
-n = ---------------------------W/S
Condition II: Load Factor due to Gust
Design Cruising Speed, Vc

des

Vcdes = 0.9 Vmax

Vc may not be less than the following condition
Vc (in knots) </33 W/S (for normal and utility category)
Vc (in knots) </33 W/S (for acrobatic category)
Where: W/S is in lb/ft2
Limit Gust Load
n = 1 + n
n=1 +

KUVa
575 (W/S)

Where:
K = (W/S) (for W/S < 10 lb/ft2)
U = nominal gust

velocity (= 30 fps)

V = airplane speed up to Vc, mph

a = slope of lift curve per radian

CL
a-ao

Design Drive speed, Vp

For V D, the following apply
VD < 1.4V cmin (for normal category)
VD < 1.5V cmin (for utility category)
VD < 1.55V cmin (for acrobatic category)
Limit Gust Load Factor
n = 1 n
KUVa
n = 1 ----------------------------W
575(-----)
S
Where:
U = nominal gust velocity ( = 15 fps)
V = airplane speed up to VD, mph
Example:
Determine the limit factors at sea level required by FAR 23 and construct a V-n Diagram for an
airplane assuming the following data; gross weight = 2000 lbs., Bhp max = 150, span, b = 38 ft., design
2

the wing area = 210 sq. ft., CL max = 1.5, estimated level high speed = 160mph, slope of lift curve =
4.25 per radian, utility category.
Given:
W = 7000lb.
Bhpmax = 150
b = 38 ft.
s = 210ft3
CLmax = 1.5
Vmax = 160 mph
a = 4.25/radian
utility category
Required:
Limit load factors and V-n diagram
Solution:
For positive limit maneuvering load factor; n:
24, 000
n = 2.1 + --------------W + 10, 000
24, 000
= 2.1 + ---------------------2, 000 + 10, 000
= 4.10

Vs =

W
2
1
(----- ) ( ------) ( -------)
S
P
CLmax

Vs =

2, 0000
2
1
(----------- ) ( ------------) ( ----------)
210
0.002377
1.5

Vs = 73.09ft/s = 49.83 mph

____
VA = Vs +n ____
= 49.83 4.10

VA = 100.90mph
Vcmin(in mph) = 38

W
----S
2, 000

= 38

------------210

VCmin = 117.27 mph

3

VD = 1.50 VCmin
= (1.50) (117.27)
VD = 175.90 mph
Since the level high speed is estimated to be 160 mph and it may be desired to cruise at 90% of
this figure, the actual design cruising speed may well be made, higher than the minimum, permitted by
FAR 23. Accordingly at is proposed to make.
Vdes = 0.9 Vmax
= (0.9) (160)
Vdes = 144 mph
For negative limit maneuvering load factor, n:
-n = -0.4n
= (-0.4) (4.1)
-n = -1.64
Gust Load Factor
KUVa
n = 1 ------------W
575 ( -----)
S
For this airplane;
W
2, 000
--- = ----------- = 9.52lb/ft2
S
210

K=

1
W
----- ( -------)
2
S

= (0.5) (9.52)
K = 0.88
The regulation specify that the airplane must stand U = 30 fps up to speed Vc and U 15 fps up to
speed VD.
at Vc = 144 mph
(0.88) (30) (144) (4.25)
n = 1 ---------------------------------- = 3.95 or 1.95
575 (9.52)
at VD = 175.90 mph
(0.88) (15) (175.90) (4.25)
n = 1 ---------------------------------- = 2.8 or -0.80
575 (9.52)
VF = 1.4 Vs
which is greater
VF = 1.8VsF
Vs = the computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the design weight.
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Lose Factors, n
Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA)
n = 1 + n

n =
Use the
higher
value

32, 000
0.77 + ----------------------W + 9, 200

KUVa
n = -----------W
575( ------)
S

3.25
------------------W
(---) 0.435
S

gust load factor increment

Where:
W = gross weight, lb
W/P = power loading, lb/hp
V = max level speed, mph
U = gust velocity (= 30fp)
W/S = wing loading, lb/ft2
a = slope of lift-curve per radian
K = (1/2) (W/S)1/4 , for W/S, 16 lb/ft2
2.67
= 1.33 - ---------- , for W/S > 16 lb/ft2
W
(-----)
S
Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA)
n = 1 + n

n =
Use the
higher
value

32, 000
0.77 + ----------------------W + 9, 200

KUVa
n = -----------W
575( ------)
S

3.25
------------------W
(---) 0.435
S

Where:
U = gust velocity ( = 15 fps)
V = airplane speed at gliding Vg, mph
Vg = Vc + Kg (Vm + Vc)
Vg = Vc + 100mph or 1.5 Vc
Use the lower value
1, 850
Kg = 0.08 + ---------------W +3, 000
Vm = terminal speed (power off)
5

maneuvering
load factor
increment

W
2
1
_
(----) (----) (----) sin y
S
P
CDo

CDo = Zero-lift drag coefficient

_
Y = 90o
Vc = cruising
Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA)
n = 1 + n
KUVa
n = -----------W
575 (----)
S
Where:
U = - 15 fps
V = airplane speed at gliding, mph
Airplane Categories are defined as:
1. Normal Category Airplanes in this category are intended for non-acrobatic non-scheduled
passenger, and non-scheduled cargo operation.
2. Utility Airplanes in this category are intended for normal operation and limited acrobatic
maneuvers. These airplanes are not suited for use in snap or inverted maneuvers.

Limited Acrobatic Maneuvers is interpreted to include steep turns, spins, stall (except whip stalls), lazy
eights, and chandelles.
Steep Turns A flight maneuver in which the degree of back varies from 45o to about 75o
Spin A flight maneuvers if done intentionally and a flight condition if it occurs otherwise, which is
the result of a complete stall after which the airplane, still in stalled attitude, loses altitude rapidly, and
travels downward in a vertical helical or spiral path.
Stall The condition of an airfoil or airplane in which it is operating at an angle of attack greater than
the angle of attack of maximum lift. It is a loss of flying speed and in many cases temporary loss of
lift and control of the airplane. A complete stall in normal flying is to be avoided at all times, but it
sometimes occurs unintentionally, because of inexperience piloting, and is sometimes done
inadvertently by the experienced pilot.
Whip stall A flight maneuver or condition, which is the result of a complete stall in which the nose
of the airplane whips violently and suddenly downward. In some cases the airplane slides backward a
short distance before the nose of the plane drops. Whip stalls cause severe strains on the engine
mounts, and all surfaces.
Lazy Eight; Flight An advanced flight training maneuver, which combines the dive, turn and the
climb. It is a maneuver in which the nose of the airplane describes a horizontal figure eight lying on
its side upon the horizon. An object on the horizon is selected and used as an axis for the maneuver,
i.e the horizon divides the halves and the selected object is the intersection of the two halves of the
eight.
Chandelle A flight training maneuver of the composite type, composite type, combining the climb
and turn, approach to a stall and recovery back6to normal flight. The simple chandelle is really an

exaggerated 180o climbing turn in which the bank and climb are gradually increased until a maximum
is reached, approximately at the 90o point during the 180o turn. After reaching this point, recovery is
started by gradually reducing the climb and shallowing the bank until at the time of arriving at the
180o point of the turn, the plane is flying straight and level at a speed just above the stalling point.
The advanced chandelle is started by doing a slight forward slip and pulling up and around; the
initial bank remaining constant. The vertical flight path of the airplane up to 90o point of the turn is
on bias to the vertical plane and as the turn increased the bank only seems to increase. At the 90o
point of the turn, recovery to normal flight (180o change of initial direction) is executed the same as
with the simple chandelle. The main objective of this maneuver is to gain altitude at the same time
that the direction of flight is changed.
3. Acrobatic Category Airplanes in this category will have no specific restrictions as to type of
maneuver permitted unless the necessity therefore is disclosed by the required flight test.
From Wiley:
The Phugoid is the long period longitudinal motion.
The Dutch Roll is the long period lateral motion.
The SPO is the short period longitudinal motion.