INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY:

DEFINITION:
Anatomy and Physiology are subdivision of the broad area of inquiry called BIOLOGY
ANATOMY: (Gk: ana-up; tomos, temos- cutting)
Science of body structures and the relationships among them
First studied by dissection (dis-apart; section- act of cutting)
Modern: Various imaging techniques
PHYSIOLOGY: (Gk: physis-nature; logos- study)
Science of body functions
How the body parts work
o Control systems that permit the body to operate and survive in an often hostile
environment
SUBSPECIALTIES:
Embryology- first eight weeks of development after fertilization
Developmental biology- complete development of an individual from fertilization of an egg
to death
Microscopic anatomy
o Histology- Microscopic structure of tissues
o Cytology- study of cells
Surface Anatomy- Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through
visualization and palpation (gentle touch)
Gross Anatomy- Structures that can be examined without using a microscope
Systemic Anatomy- Structure of specific systems of the body
Regional Anatomy- Specific regions of the body such as head and chest
Radiographic Anatomy- Body structures visualized by x-rays
Pathological Anatomy- Structural changes (from gross to microscopic) associated with
disease
Physiological subdivisions based on:
Systemic function
Neurophysiology- functional properties of nerve cells
Endocrinology- Hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body
functions.
Cardiovascular physiology- Functions of the heart and blood vessels
Immunology- How the body defends itself against disease causing agents
Respiratory physiology- Functions of the air passageways and lungs
Renal physiology- Functions of the kidneys
Exercise physiology- Changes in cell and organ functions as a result of muscular activity
Pathophysiology- Functional changes associated with disease and aging
Organizational level
Molecular or cellular physiology
Organism
Human Physiology
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical level- very basic level
Includes atoms, molecules
Atoms essential in maintaining life: C, H, O, N, P, Ca, S
Molecules: DNA, glucose
2. Cellular level: formed from molecules that combine together
Basic structural and functional unit of an organism
Smallest living units in the human body

 Ex. Muscle cells, nerve cells and epithelial cells

3. Tissue level: groups of cells and material surrounding them that work together to perform
a particular function
Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue
4. Organ level: different types of tissue are joined together
Ex. Stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, brain
5. System level/ Organ system level- consists of related organs with common function
Ex. Digestive system
6. Organismal level- any living individual. All parts the human body functioning together
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIVING HUMAN ORGANISM
BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
1. Metabolism- is the sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body
Catabolism (catabo- throwing down; ism- condition)
Anabolism (anabol- raising up)
2. Responsiveness/ Irritability- bodys ability to detect and respond to changes
Sense, monitor and respond to changes in external environment
Withdrawal to pinprick/ painful stimulus
Increase body temperature- response to change in the internal environment
Turning head toward the sound of squealing brakes- response to external
environment
3. Movement- motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells and even tiny
structures inside cells
4. Growth- increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells,
increase in the number of cells, or both, or an increase in the amount of material
between cells
5. Differentiation- development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state
Stem cells- precursor cells that divide and give rise to cells that undergo
differentiation
6. Reproduction- refers either to the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or
replacement, or to the production of a new individual
HOMEOSTASIS: (homeo- sameness; stasis- standing still)
Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the bodys internal environment due to the
constant interaction of the bodys many regulatory processes
Dynamic condition
HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS:
Intracellular fluid
Extracellular fluid
o Interstitial fluid- fill narrow spaces between cells of tissues
o Blood plasma- ECF within blood vessels
o Lymph- ECF within lymphatic vessels
o Cerebrospinal fluid- in and around the brain and spinal cord
o Synovial fluid- in joints
o Aqueous humor, Vitreous humor- in the eyes
Proper functioning of body cells depend on the precise regulation of the composition of
the interstitial fluid (referred to as the internal environment). It changesas substances
move back and forth between it and the blood plasma.
Exchange of material occurs across thin walls of the smallest blood vessels- capillaries
Provides needed materials such as glucose, oxygen, ions etc to tissue cells. It also
removes wastes, such as CO2

CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS:
1. Nervous system: send nerve impulses to organs that counteracts changes from the
balanced state
cause rapid change
2. Endocrine system: includes many glands that secrete messenger molecules called
hormones into the blood
Work more slowly
FEEDBACK SYSTEM/ FEEDBACK LOOP:
Cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated,
changed, re-monitored, reevaluated and so on
Controlled condition- monitored variables such as body temperature, blood pressure or
blood glucose level
Stimulus- any disruption that changes a controlled condition
COMPONENTS OF A FEEDBACK SYSTEM
1. Receptor body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition
Sends input to a control center
2. Control center- sets the range of values within which the controlled condition should be
maintained
Evaluates input it receives from a receptor
Generates output commands when needed
3. Effector- body structure that receives ouput from the control center
Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM:
Reverses a change in a controlled condition
Ex BP regulation
POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM:
Tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one the bodys controlled conditions
Ex normal childbirth