G.

Vignesh
Assistant Professor
VIT University

Fuels are primary driving source in

transportation, energy production,
agricultural processes, cooking etc.
Energy from the Sun is converted into
chemical energy by photosynthesis
We burn oil in automobile engines
We burn oil and coal to heat the water to
produce the steam to drive the turbines
We burn natural gas or oil in our homes

The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in

selecting the right fuel for the right purpose
and efficient use of the fuel.
Studying combustion of fuel will lead to
design combustion system and control the
burning.
Will help in the research of alternative fuels

Energy dense
Easily storable and transportable
Stable over wide range of temperatures
Non-damaging to combustion systems
Inexpensive to produce and distribute
Available from secure sources
Not detrimental to air quality
Low CO2 over its life cycle.

A Combustible Substance, containing Carbon

as a main constituent, which, on proper
burning, releases large amount of heat, that
can be used for domestic and industrial
purposes.

The atoms of Carbon, Hydrogen, etc.

combine with atoms of Oxygen, and Liberate
Heat at a Rapid Rate, due to Rearrangement
Of Valence Electrons, i.e. forming New
Compounds.

Fuel + O2 Products + Heat

Fuels

Primary Fuels

Secondary Fuels

Natural Fuels

Derived Fuels

Solid

Liquid

Gaseous

Wood,
Coal,
Lignite

Crude
Oil

Natural
Gas

Solid

Liquid

Gaseous

Coke,
Petrol, Coal Gas,
Charcoal Kerosene, Water Gas,
Bio Gas
Diesel

Furnace Oil

Diesel Oil

Petrol

Kerosene

Ethanol

LSHS (Low Sulphur Heavy Stock)

Viscosity
Internal resistance to flow

Decreases as the temperature increases

Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes
Viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Saybolt or

Redwood
Viscometer is used to measure viscosity
Important characteristic in the storage and use of
fuel oil

Viscosity
Influences the degree of pre- heating required for

handling, storage and satisfactory atomization

If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to
pump, hard to light the burner, and difficult to
handle.
Poor atomization may result in the formation of
carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls
Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper
atomization

Flash Point
lowest temperature at which the fuel can be

heated so that the vapour gives off flashes

momentarily when an open flame is passed over
it. The flash point for furnace oil is 660C.

Pour Point
lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow

when cooled
rough indication of the lowest temperature at
which fuel oil is ready to be pumped

Specific Heat
Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature

of 1 kg of oil by 10C.
Unit KJ/kg K
determines how much steam or electrical energy
it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature
Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas
heavier oils have a higher specific heat

Density
Defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the

volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of

15C.
Density is measured by an instrument called a
hydrometer.
The knowledge of density is useful for
quantitative calculations and assessing ignition
qualities.
The unit of density is kg/m3.

Calorific Value (CV)

Measurement of heat or energy produced per kg of

complete combustion of fuel

Measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific
value
Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour
produced during the combustion process is fully
condensed.
Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves
with the combustion products without fully being
condensed.

Specific gravity
Ratio of the Weight of given Volume of oil to the same

volume of water at a given temperature.

The density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific
gravity
Specific Gravity of Water = 1
Measured by using Hydrometer.
Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights
and volumes.

Fuel oil type

LDO
(Light Diesel Oil)

Furnace oil

LSHS
(Low Sulphur Heavy Stock)

Specific Gravity

0.85-0.87

0.89-0.95

0.88-0.98

Sulphur content

Depends mainly on the source of the crude oil

Normal range 2 to 4%
Kerosene 0.050.2
Diesel Oil 0.05 0.25
L.D.O 0.5 1.8
Furnace Oil 2.0 4.0
LSHS < 0.5
corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during and after
combustion, and condensing in cool parts of the
chimney or stack, air pre heater and economiser.

Ash content
Inorganic Materials in Fuels.
Typically, 0.03 0.07 %.
Corrosion of Burner Tips and Materials /
Equipments
Damage @ High Temperatures

Carbon Residue
Tendency of Oil to Deposit a Carbonaceous Solid

Residue on a Hot Surface.

Residual Oil : > 1 % Carbon Residue

Water content
Normally very low as the product at refinery site

is handled hot
Maximum limit <1%
can cause damage to the inside furnace surfaces
during combustion especially if it contains
dissolved salts
Spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly
extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame
temperature or lengthening the flame

Calorific Value (CV)

Fuels should be compared with NCV

Calorific Value of coal varies depending on the

ash, moisture content and the type of coal

Calorific Value of fuel oils are much more
consistent
Unit - kJ / kg for Solid & Liquid Fuels.
kJ / m3 for Gaseous Fuels

Calorific Value (CV)

Hydrogen
Petrol/gasoline
Diesel fuel
Crude oil
Methanol
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Natural gas
Hard black coal (IEA definition)
bituminous coal
Lignite/brown coal (IEA
definition)
Firewood (dry)

121 MJ/kg
44-46 MJ/kg
45 MJ/kg
42-44 MJ/kg
20 MJ/kg
49 MJ/kg
34-55 MJ/m3
25 MJ/kg
17.4-23.9 MJ/kg
<17.4 MJ/kg

16 MJ/kg

Typical properties
Properties

Fuel Oils

Furnace Oil

L.S.H.S

L.D.O

0.89-0.95

0.88-0.98

0.85-0.87

Flash Point (C)

66

93

66

Pour Point (C)

20

72

18

HCV (MJ/kg)

43.95

44.34

44.8

Sediment, % Wt. Max.

0.25

0.25

0.1

Sulphur Total, % Wt. Max.

< 4.0

< 0.5

< 1.8

Water Content, % Vol. Max.

1.0

1.0

0.25

Ash, % Wt. Max.

0.1

0.1

0.02

Density (Approx. g/cc at 15 C)

Data from Thermax India Ltd.

Solid Fuels

Anthracite

Bituminous

Lignite

Hard,

Soft Coal,

Geologically the Oldest

Geologically the Youngest

Sub Classification : 1. Semi Anthracite,

2. Semi Bituminous,
3. Sub Bituminous, etc.

Common coals used in Indian industry are

bituminous and sub-bituminous coal
Grade

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

Calorific Value
Range
( in kCal/kg)
Exceeding 6200
5600 6200
4940 5600
4200 4940
3360 4200
2400 3360
1300 2400

Physical Properties
Heating Value

Moisture content
Volatile Matter
Ash content

Chemical Properties
C, H2 ,O2 ,S

Moisture Content
% of Moisture in Fuel ( < 0.5 10 % ).

Heating Value of Fuel.

Powdered Raw Coal.

Fixed Carbon
Fixed Carbon = 100 ( Moisture + Volatile Matter

+ Ash )
Responsible for Heat Generation during
Combustion

Volatile Matter

Methane (CH4), Hydrocarbons (HC), Hydrogen (H2),

Carbon Monoxide (CO), etc.
Typically 25 35 %.
Easy Ignition with Volatile Matter.
Results in Weight Loss from Heated and then
Cooled
Crushed Coal.

Ash Content
Will not burn

5 40%
Important for designing combustion chamber

Composition
Fuel

Moisture in
Dried
Sample
(ppm)

C
(%)

H
(%)

N
(%)

O
(%)

Calorific
Value
(MJ / kg)

Wood

25

50

0.5

43.5

16.7 18.8

Peat

25

57

5.7

35.3

17.3 22.6

Lignite

20

67

1.5

20.6

27.2 29.7

Bituminous

83

10

33.5 35.6

Anthracite

1.5

93

0.7

36.2 36.5

Proximate analysis
Determines only Fixed Carbon, Volatile Matter,
Moisture and Ash.
Useful to Find HCV.

Simple Analysis Equipment.

Ultimate analysis
Determines all of Coal Component :
i.e. C, H2, O2, S, and others.

Useful for Furnace Design

Design)

(Flame Temp + Flue Duct

 Least amount of Handling.

Simplest Burners Systems.

Least Maintenance.
Environmental Benefits : Lowest Emissions.

Gaseous Fuels

Naturally Found

From Solid Fuel

Natural Gas,

From Coal,

LPG, Refinery Gas,

Methane, etc.

From Biomass,
From Industrial Wastes

Oil Gasification

From Petroleum

From Chemical
Fermentation
Processes

LPG :

Propane + Butane + Unsaturates,

Lighter C2 and Heavier C5 Fractions

LPG Vapour is Denser than Air!!
Safety Issues : Leaking Gases can flow to Long Distances.

LNG :

Methane (CH4) of 95 %.

Remaining 5 % (Ethane + Propane + Butane + Pentane + Nitrogen +

Carbon Dioxide + other gases.
High Calorific Value.

No requirement for Storage Facility.

No Sulphur Content.
Readily mixes with Air without Smoke / Soot.

Fuel Gas

Relative
Density

Higher Heating
Value
(MJ / Nm3)

Air / Fuel
Ratio
(m3 / m3 )

Flame
Temp.
(oC)

Flame
speed
(m / sec)

Natural Gas

0.6

39.14

10

1954

0.290

Propane

1.52

93.0

25

1967

0.460

Butane

1.96

119.3

32

1973

0.870

Fuel Oil

Coal

Natural Gas

Carbon

84

41.11

74

Hydrogen

12

2.76

25

Sulphur

0.41

Oxygen

9.89

Trace

Nitrogen

Trace

1.22

0.75

Ash

Trace

38.63

Water

Trace

5.98

High CV
Less pollution
Cleanliness of space
Easy control of combustion
Economy in space
No wear and tear of grate
Easy handling and supply
Easy starting and stopping

Easy distribution
Good control of combustion
Pollution control is simple
Complete combustion without pollution is
possible
Cleanliness