Thermodynamics (Energy and Energy Transfer)

Temperature
In solids, the particles comprising the solid are held together tightly; therefore their motion is limited to
vibrating back and forth in their given positions. In liquids, the particles can move back and forth across
each other, but the object itself has no defined shape. In gases, the particles move throughout the volume
available, interacting with each other and the walls of any container holding them. In all cases, the total
thermal energy of the object is the sum total of the kinetic energies of its constituent particles.
Instead of just looking at the sum of all the individual particles kinetic energies, you could examine the
average kinetic energy of the particles comprising the object, realizing that the actual kinetic energies of
individual particles may vary significantly. The average kinetic energy of the particles is directly related to
3
the temperature of the object by the following equation: KE avg k BT .
2
Where KE is the average kinetic energy is given in Joules, kB is Boltzmanns Constant (1.3810-23 J/K), and
the temperature is given in Kelvins, the SI unit of temperature.
Although two objects can have the same temperature (and therefore they have same average kinetic energy),
they may have different internal energies.
Example 1: Given that the average kinetic energy of the particles comprising our sun is 1.210-19 J, find the
temperature of the sun.

MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques

College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
1

Prepared by Yadana Wai

Temperature Unit
The Kelvin scale is closely related to the Celsius temperature scale, but where the Celsius scale targets the
freezing point of water as 0 C, the Kelvin scale utilizes its zero at what is known as absolute zero (the point
on a Volume vs. Temperature graph for a gas where the extended curve would hypothetically reach zero
volume), considered a theoretical minimum temperature. Therefore, absolute zero is 0 Kelvins, which is
equivalent to -273.15 Celsius. To convert from Kelvins to degrees Celsius, just add 273.15 to your
temperature reading in degrees Celsius. The freezing point of water, then, is 0C or 273.15 K, and the
boiling point of water is 100C or 373.15 K. Compare this to the Fahrenheit scale, where water freezes at
32F, and boils at 212F!

Finally the relationship between the temperature unit systems can be expressed as:
TK T C 273
9
T F T C 32
5
5
T C T F 32
9
Example 2: Change 24 C to equivalent Kelvin.

Example 3: Change 1000F to degree Celsius.

MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques

College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
2

Prepared by Yadana Wai

Thermal expansion of solids and liquids

When the temperature of an object is changed by an amount T, its length changes by an amount L that is
proportional to T and to its initial length Li :
L Li T
Where is the average coefficient of linear expansion.
Because the linear dimensions of an object change with temperature, it follows that surface area and volume
change as well. The change in volume at constant pressure is proportional to the initial volume Vi and to the
change in temperature according to the relationship:
V Vi T
Where is the average coefficient of volume expansion.
The change in temperature in the expansion equations can be given in either degrees Celsius or Kelvins. A
sample table showing coefficients of thermal expansion for selected materials is given below.

Example 4: A steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the temperature is 0.0C. What is its length
when the temperature is 40.0C?

MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques

College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
3

Prepared by Yadana Wai

Heat and Thermal Energy

When scientists originally studied thermodynamics, they were really studying heat and thermal energy.
Heat can do anything: move from one area to another, get atoms excited, and even increase energy. When
you increase the heat in a system, you are really increasing the amount of energy in the system. In physics
and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body, region, or thermodynamic system to another
due to thermal contact or thermal radiation when the systems are at different temperatures. It is also often
described as one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer between physical entities. In this
description, it is an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to thermodynamic work, which is a
concept of work more broad than mechanical work.
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the exchange of thermal energy from one
physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction,
convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. All forms of heat transfer may occur in some
systems (for example, in transparent fluids like the Earth's atmosphere) at the same time. Heat transfer only
occurs because of a temperature-difference driving force and heat flows from the high to the low
temperature region.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another object due to a difference in temperature.
Heat always flows from warmer objects to cooler objects. The symbol for heat in physics is Q, with positive
values of Q representing heat flowing into an object, and negative values of Q representing heat flowing out
of an object.
When heat flows into or out of an object, the amount of temperature change depends on the material. The
amount of heat required to change one kilogram of a material by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin) is
known as the materials specific heat (or specific heat capacity), represented by the symbol C.

The relationship between heat and temperature is quantified by the following equation, where Q is the heat
transferred, m is the mass of the object, C is the specific heat, and T is the change in temperature (in
degrees Celsius or Kelvins).
Q mCT

Where Q is heat transferred and measured in Joules, m is mass of the object and measured in kg, C is
specific heat and measured in (J/kg.K) and T is change in temperature and measured in K.
Example 5: A half-carat diamond (0.0001 kg) absorbs 5 Joules of heat. How much does the temperature of
the diamond increase?
MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques
College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
4

Prepared by Yadana Wai

Heat can be transferred from one object to another by three different methods: conduction, convection, and
radiation.

Conduction
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles
through the stationary boundary between two systems. Heat conduction occurs between stationary masses
where there is no movement to carry heat away. Heat transfer through the stationary air layer immediately
adjacent to; say one millimeter or so from an interior wall, or from a warm pot placed on a counter, are
examples of conductive heat transfer.

Convention
Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in
the fluid. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by
buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus
influencing its own transfer. The latter process is sometimes called "natural convection". All convective
processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced convection. In
this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other mechanical means.

Radiation
The final major form of heat transfer is by radiation, which occurs in any transparent medium (solid or fluid)
but may also even occur across vacuum (as when the Sun heats the Earth). Radiation is the transfer of
energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves in much the same way as electromagnetic light
waves transfer light. The same laws that govern the transfer of light govern the radiant transfer of heat.
Summary of Heat Transfer
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:
Conduction or diffusion: The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact.
Convection: The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion.
Radiation: The transfer of energy to or from a body by means of the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation.

MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques

College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
5

Prepared by Yadana Wai

Phase Changes
Matter can exist in different states. These states include solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. Plasmas are
energetic gases that have been ionized so that they can conduct electricity (examples include stars, lightning,
neon signs, etc.)
When the matter changes from one state to another, its internal energy will change accordingly, so the
kinetic energy of the constituent particles inside the matter will change. As it is changing from one state to
another, the change in energy is reflected in the bonds between the particles, and therefore the temperature
of the object does not change. Once the state change is complete, however, changes in energy are again
observed in the form of changes in temperature.

The energy required to change a specific materials state is known as the materials latent heat of
transformation (L). When an object transitions from the solid to liquid phase, you use the latent heat of
fusion (Lf). When an object transitions from the liquid to the gaseous phase, you use the latent heat of
vaporization (Lv). You can calculate the energy required for a material to change phases using the following
formula, where Q is the heat added, m is the objects mass, and L is the materials specific latent heat of
transformation.
or
Q mLv (Vaporization process)
Q mL f (Fusion process)

Reference: http://aplusphysics.com/courses/honors/thermo/thermal_physics.html

MIET6316C Apply Basic Scientific Principles and Techniques

College of Science, Engineering and Health
School of Engineering (TAFE)

Class Notes
6

Prepared by Yadana Wai