The Design Process: Investigating the specific series of actions

and processes in order to achieve an intended outcome.

Max Holland
N0425858
BA (Hons) Product Design
School of Architecture, Design and Built Environment
Nottingham Trent University
February 2016

Nottingham Trent University

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, DESIGN AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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BA

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Module: Critical Theory PROD30154

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STUDENTS NAME:

Max Holland

This submission is the result of my own work. All help and advice (other than
that received from tutors) has been acknowledged, and primary and secondary
sources of information have been properly attributed. Should this statement
prove to be untrue, I recognise the right and duty of the Board of Examiners to
recommend what action should be taken in line with the Academic Boards
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Date .....

The Design Process:

Investigating the specific series of actions and processes in order to achieve an intended
outcome.

Acknowledgments
I would like to offer many thanks to Sarah Kettley who has provided guidance throughout
the development and progress of this paper. I also wish to acknowledge anyone who has
helped provide information throughout my dissertation research stage.

Abstract
The design process is a method used by many designers and people within different
industries; the process was created to aid the designer throughout the stages of their
design. The investigation to be looked into is the application of the design process and the
tools that can be used and how these work alongside each other. It also reviews the tools
used by designers, particularly with the advancing CAD/CAM technology which is rivaling
more traditional working methods.

Through the analysis of primary and secondary sources from a variety of design
backgrounds, an investigation was undertaken for an in depth evaluation of the design
process. The design process consists of various stages, communication and visualisation
being the main focus. By reviewing the tools we use in the germinal and latter stages of the
process and by focusing on sketching, hand modeling and CAD/CAD, the aim of this
dissertation is to create a clear idea of how these are used in practice. In particular, the aim
is to determine whether CAD and more advanced technologies are having an impact on the
way design is accomplished today.

This dissertation also reviews the key attributes that design tools have to offer and whether
the type of tools we use will affect the final project outcome. It further examines if there is
still a need for traditional methods in the design process, and with the advancing technology
of 3D printing and rapid prototyping, do we require both traditional methods and computer
aided design within the design spectrum?

Table of Contents

Page

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

Introduction

Methodology

Chapter One
1.1 The Design Process Overview
1.2 Each Stage of the Design Process
1.3 Importance and Evolution of the Design Process

5
6
8

Chapter Two
2.1 Visual and Verbal Communication
2.2 Design Tools
2.3 Hands and tools
2.4 Sketching
2.5 Modeling

10
11
12
13
14

Chapter Three
3.1 Development of Design tools
3.2 Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacture (CAD/CAM)
3.3 Anarkik 3D Software
3.4 3D Prosthetic Human Heart
3.5 Importance of Design Tools

16
17
18
22
23

Chapter Four
4.1 Investigating the Design Process
4.2 Perception of the Process
4.3 Review of the Design Process

25
26
30

Chapter Five
5.1 Conclusion

31

Bibliography

34

List of Figures and Illustrations

39

Appendices

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

Anarkik 3D: 3D modelling software allowing real sense of 3D touch to easily create and manipulate your
virtual designs

Computer Aided Design (CAD): Is a software used for detailed of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of
physical components

Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM): Is the use of computer software to control machine tools and
related machinery in the manufacturing of work pieces

Computer Render: Is the process of generating an image from a 2D or 3D model, by means

of computer programs.

Conceptualisation: Is an abstract, simplified view of the world that we wish to represent

Design Process: Is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object or a system

Germinal: In the earliest stage of development

Gestural: A motion of the limbs or body made to express

Haptic: The science of touch

Prototyping: An initial working model of a product or a system

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Introduction
The use of design is to create a proposal for the development of an intended outcome.
The way in which we design and the processes and tools we use to design all play their part
in the final outcome or goal.

The 'Design Process' is used in many ways from industry

practice to undergraduate designers learning and uitilising tools to aid them through the
process. At university level, we are taught in a certain way to cover all areas of the design
process, to enable us to achieve the best outcome. The design process is built up of stages
and tools that guide us through the process in order for us to aim for a specific market or
area. The main tools that aid us through the design process are sketching, modeling and
CAD/CAM. These tools help the designer to create and develop their work, they enable the
designer to communicate their ideas to the market place and they provide a real vision as to
what they are trying to achieve. Do we have to use these tools in a certain order?

For my placement year I was employed as a designer/manufacturer at a small creative

consultancy company in Manchester. Throughout my time there I was very much involved
in the design and manufacturing elements of a variety of projects.

For the creation of

these projects the company heavily used CAD software to display detailed drawings and
technical illustration ideas, as this creates a virtual visualisation for the user and client.
There did not seem the need to resort to more traditional methods of working such as
sketching or hand modeling.

So the question is, do we need to include the use of sketching, modeling and CAD or do we
over think the process as a whole? From my learning experience, I would normally pick up a
pen or pencil and explore ideas through the use of sketching. By not using this process in
my placement year, it was a very different way of working to adapt to.

From my industry experience I believe there is a need to have an in depth look into the
design process and the tools which assist designers through the germinal phases of the
design process. This will involve analysing a variety of tools that we use, from traditional
methods to modern day tools, looking into future technologies and the way in which these

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impact the design process. Similarly, I will be exploring each stage of the process to
determine the importance of the tools we use when working through the design process.
Therefore the objectives for this dissertation are:

1. Exploring each stage of the design process.

2. Identifying the key stages of the design process (sketching, modeling,
CAD) and how they are used to help the designer.
3. Identifying how these stages assist an active conversation between the
designer and the design area and if the tools are all necessary.
4. Challenging the design process and tools that assist us through this
process.

Chapter one investigates the design process as a whole and provides a brief introduction to
the reader by breaking each into specific stages to highlight the key areas. It investigates
why it is important to use the design process within the way we work today.

Chapter two and three investigate the author's perspective on design tools available and the
way we are influenced by them. It recognises the basic tools we have, such as hands
through to advanced software that is used in the creative process today, and how it has
revolutionised the way we can design for ourselves and others.

Chapter four explores how the designer uses the design process in order to create an
extensive knowledge of the way the process is used across the university undergraduate
spectrum. It also considers in depth a review into the tools used by the designer and
investigates whether there is still a need for the germinal phases of the design process or if
CAD/CAM is dominating the design world.

As a result there is a need for an investigation into the use of the design process and more
importantly the tools used today, and whether the world of CAD/CAM is dominating the
design industry and replacing traditional methods.

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Methodology
In this dissertation an investigation will be held into the design process and how it may or
may not be used in design. This is ranging from different levels of the design practice as
there is a need to create a broad knowledge of the popular ways of the working process.
Subsequently, the investigation will look into the specific areas of the design process, the
visual and communication stages used by the designer. Furthermore, reviewing whether
these aid the designer through the creative process when working and focusing on these
areas as they appear to have progressed steadily over the years.

In addition, I will be researching various sources of information about the design process
and the way it is applied, for an initial understanding of the process and the stages involved.
Then I will seek to identifying traditional tools that have been used in the work place for
some years and which have lead onto more advanced tools that offer the ability to create
shortcuts through designing.

In order to achieve a knowledge of the process and the tools used within the design process,
a quantitative response is required. This will be carried out through the use of a survey.
This method has been used to create an extensive knowledge of the habits of designers
when using the design process as a method of working.

To gather further information,

contact was made with professionals in different industries to create an understanding of

developed technologies and how these generate and impact of the design process. This
appears to be the most efficient way to gather data and varied opinions on this subject.

Furthermore, I will be anaylsing the data to determine a clear knowledge of the tools used
in the design process in order to create an understanding of whether there is still a need for
traditional tools in the germinal phases of the design process.

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Chapter One

1.1 The Design Process Overview

What is design? It is a stage of actions performed and decisions made. Looking around the
room you are in, you are surrounded by design and each item has been designed for a
specific purpose. Design is a plan of action, for which its purpose is to help or solve a
problem within the world we live in, from large to small-scale projects. Used in a variety of
industries and across all levels of design we are all taught to use a similar design process.

Design is about creating ideas, planning and explaining the execution of those ideas, and
making choices based on evolution of those ideas that will lead to an end result. Designing is
a journey that has a number of stops and detours along the way (Aspelund, K. 2006).

Design is a creative journey in which the designer travels along and uses the design process
to aid them through that journey of discovery. The Design process is one of many elements
that helps the designer solve a design problem and there are a certain set of steps the
designer takes to create a positive outcome. The process is split up into certain categories
that the designer works through, using a range of tools given to help produce the final
outcome, from the germinal phases of the process through to the end result. The germinal
stages relate to the start of the design process, exploring sketching and modeling.

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Figure 1.1 The Creative Process (Scali, Shillito, and Wright,2002)

The design and creative process can be broken down into simple categories, to focus the
user on the task in hand and what processes are involved within it, each stage broken down
(Figure 1.1). The germinal phase of the process is key to creating a successful product, but
the main focus for this is the use of the processes involved and how you determine the end
result and the reasons why you use a certain style of software for a specific job in hand. If
the process was to be done differently, would the result still be the same or could it be
completely different? Maybe changing the order of the processes around could alter the
outcome result.

1.2 Each Stage of the Design Process

The Design Process can be linked to a romantic relationship (Aspelund, K. 2006)

Inspiration an idea has taken hold of you. Everything is exciting, and everything about
your idea is fun and wonderful.

Identification stage where the idea becomes an understandable entity with definite
parameters.

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Conceptualization stage the ideas constraints and needs become clear. The idea becomes
specific a concept with its own definite characteristics. It begins to have a life and shape
of its own.

Exploration/ Refinement stage begins, you must establish boundaries and structures. Any
implications that exist when the idea is conceptualized become fixed in this stage.

Definition/Modeling at this stage you begin to build on what you have discovered so far.
Here is where the experiences youve had and the discoveries youve made about your idea
are used to create a structure that is the best possible design for the situation.

Communication and Production the focus turns to all the details involved. In both these
stages, designers establish and work with decisions already made. The focus is outward,
toward communicating the design to others and leading it through production to its ultimate
end as a physical creation in the world. (Aspelund, K. 2006).

These are the main stages designers use to guide them through the design process
according to Karl Aspelund. These are very brief stages of the design process and the key
areas that aid us through the process, using a variety of skills and techniques. Designing is
in the mind, at the beginning of a project the thinking is as weighty as the doing (Aspelund,
K. 2006). The thought and planning put into a project is the key starting point in anything
you do, if you dont have an orderly plan then the results won't be as conclusive or as well
thought out. Designing involves several development levels and tools that help this task.
This is why the design process should be put in place, as each stage of the design process
helps the evolution of the idea.

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1.3 Importance and Evolution of the Design Process

How the idea can travel from the world of imagination to the world of objects in an
organized, timely fashion, evolving as it goes, but keeps its original purpose and energy
intact (Auspeland, K. 2015).

On all levels of professional practice, the design process plays a key role in how designers
work today. The design process was set out to problem solve, the more we problem solve
the greater learners we become. It is only through this thinking we learn how important the
stages and specific areas each play within the design process. The design process structure
assists in looking at each stage through the design journey, consisting of your initial findings
and moving forward to explore and identify the issue. The designer must be inspired as it
is not something that comes naturally and will have to explore every avenue for inspiration
instead of waiting for it to surface.

According to Auspeland, K. the inspiration is the key step within the design process as it is
the spark that lights the fire, as this is the first initial step you have in creating an idea.
Every other stage after the inspiration stage follows hand-in-hand in the design process.
Learning from each stage helps to develop your work in a more inspirational and
conceptualised manor. This method ensures that we use the correct tool to achieve this
conversation between the designer and the design obstacle.

As the conversation between the designer and design problem is created, what are the best
ways of communicating these issues? Due to the use of new technologies, that job is
becoming ever easier and also becoming a more creative interaction process on the
computer. Due to these new ways of creating and designing, are we loosing the traditional
methods we once had and is the use of sketching and modeling a thing of the past? New
Production methods, new materials (Sparke, P. 2012)

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The advancing use of new technologies enables the process to be more efficient reducing
time and materials. The efficiency of the technology enables us to make conceptualisation,
modeling and refinement a sleeker and more accurate process.

Will this development

move away from the more traditional tools used predominately within the design process?

The design process has a variety of established methods of working which aids the designer.
Due to advancing technologies, the tools used in industry seem to have changed, so the
use of traditional methods are slowly diminishing.

The design process appears to be constantly evolving due to the use of new production
methods and the constant development of technologies such as the use of 3D printing.
Production methods seem to have evolved through the use of new materials changing the
way industry works, so this suggests that traditional methods are becoming less used. In the
modern day world it would intimate that the design process is being affected by the use of
these leading technologies.

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Chapter Two

2.1 Visual and Verbal Communication

Through the design process, visual and verbal communication work with the designer in
order to express the intended idea. Christian Gnshirt suggests that design should be
broken up into two categories, visual and verbal communication to analyse the different
style of media used within the design process.

Visual tools that produce images make it possible to express inner ideas in a visual form, so
that these can be looked at critically and convey to others, while the verbal design tools that
produce texts are there to describe, analyse and criticize design ideas. Or put briefly: the
visual tools are used primarily for devising form, and the verbal tools for developing the
meaning of a design. (Gnshirt, 2012).

Gnshirt explains further that these two main tools are used in the following areas of work,
architecture, product/industrial and graphic design with the use of visual tools being more
important in these areas of industry.

Figure 2.1 Table of visual and verbal design tools (Tools for ideas, 2015)

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Visual communication demonstrates correlation to the design process, it play a primary role
when the designer is proposing ideas through the use of sketching, modeling and CAD
(figure 3). The image shown also relates to the design process and the way each different
stage of the process Aspeleund, K explains in his theory. In order for the design process to
function there are many tools in which aid the designer, these can relate to hand tools and
technology based tools.

2.2 Design Tools

There are many design tools which are available to help designers through the process, and
over the time these tools have constantly been developed to help improve the way we
design today. Ranging from a use of traditional tools to future tools, there is an argument as
to which works most effective when working with them.

You probably think of a tool as something to hold in your hand. It is something to extend
your powers: a piece of technology, or applied intelligence, for overcoming the limitations of
the body (McCullough, M. 1998. P 59).

So it seems over the years, tools have been developed to help the process of working to
produce the end result more efficiently. Hand held tools have been around for centuries
and for a certain tradesperson, hand held tools still play a massive role in the way they work
today.

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2.3 Hands and Tools

The craftsperson uses a variety of tools but the most important tool seems to be the hands
in which control the tools. The skill of the craftsperson plays a massive part. If you were a
traditional craftsperson (working with metal wood, glass or glass art) a generation ago, each
craft required a different tool designed specifically for the material used and the product
made. Those tools would be very different to the mechanical tools that are on the market
today. They both might seem to do the same job, but the craftsperson would spend more
time and have an emotional attachment to the object created, adding small details which
make the crafted product unique. There is a sentimental attachment to the product by the
craftsperson and the owner continues and appreciates the work of the craftsperson. If a
craftsperson creates a range of chairs, each chair would have been made in process but
would be slightly unique in their own way. Do modern style processes we use today offer
the same emotional attachment produced by the traditional craftspeople?

You must make a tool of the creature or a man of him. You cannot make both. Men were not
intended to work with accuracy of tools, to be precise and perfect in all their actions if you
will have that precision out of them, and make their fingers measure degrees like cogwheels and their arms strike curves like compasses, you must humanize them (Dromer,P.
1997. P33)

Dormer, P explains that the human isnt perfect and that the hands are almost meant to
make mistakes, this also relates back to McCullough, M with the use of the hands of the
tools and the way in which the hands can learn. Hands act as conduits in the other direction:
hands bring us knowledge of the world. Hands feel. They Probe. They practise. They give us
sense, as in good common sense, which otherwise seems to be missing lately (McCullough,
M 1998. p 1). Hands are the main tool which allow us to design in the world we live today
and give us the freedom to pick up new tools and learn through the use of hands. Hands
allow us to use a range of tools ranging from practical, mechanical or technology based
tools. Each tool allows the designer to develop their skills through the design process.

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Hands are the best source of tacit personal knowledge because of all the extensions of the
body; they are most subtle, the most sensitive, the most probing, the most differentiated,
and the most closely connected to the mind. They deserve to be admired. (McCullough, M
1998. p 7)

According to McCullough, M the hands should be a highly praised part of the body and
what enable us to complete tasks but also allow us to discover through one of the five
senses. Feel, is a part of the way we learn, knowing what to touch and what we shouldnt is
a process which starts off at a very early age. Children would spontaneously move towards
3D objects when presented with relevant design problems (Scali, S et al, 2002. p 3). Scali, S
explains that children unconsciously are attracted to 3D objects to interact and play with.

2.4 Sketching

From an early age, writing and drawing are a key stage of development. Sketching is an
important process, the process is a good way of gathering initial ideas. Sketching is known
as the germinal phase of work within the design process, it creates a visual for the designer
to communicate ideas towards others.

According to Eissen, K some people believe that

sketching is a bit of a lost cause within designing, but he states that a lot of studios still use
sketching. They are an integral part of the decision-making process, used in the early stages
of design, in brainstorming sessions, in the phase of research and exploring concepts, and in
presentations (Eissen, K. , Steur, R. 2007 p. 7). A sketch can be a way of exploring a whole
range of ideas from a first initial idea to a final sketch. Skills matter, but even in a quick
thumbnail sketch, some designers can already reveal what the final result could be (Eissen,
K. , Steur, R 2007 p. 7). Drawing an outline sketch on a scrap piece of paper you will more
than likely remember the idea and intention at that current moment in time. It is apparent
that sketching is more than just a visual aid but also helps to remember a specific idea or
ideas.

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K Eissen explains that drawing varies depending on the type of job role and industry,
however the intention is the same. He also mentions that the design has to stand out, as it
may be shown and presented to someone who doesnt have knowledge in that area of
work. It is important that the imagery is eye catching and inspiring, and engages the client.

Learning how to draw is very similar to learning how to write. One person may have nicer
handwriting than another, but the writing of both of them should be legible. The better
story is not always written in the best handwriting (Eissen, K. , Steur, R 2007 p. 8). The same
applies to the method of sketching, the quality of the sketch isn't important as long as the
idea or message comes across.

K Eissens relates to sketching as a brief expressive way of working preferable to a computer

render which is creating a 2D or 3D model by the means of a computer programme. When
brainstorming ideas, you can upgrade that original sketch and improve it to a more
presentable sketch. This allows time for you to change and to react reasonably to your
drawing, compared to a render, which doesnt give you the option of change until the
computer render is completely finished. Sketching plays a big part in the visual and
communication process when interacting with customers. Looking at something on a piece
of paper, in a side view or in perspective, is very different to having a 3D object in your
hand.

2.5 Modeling

In design, we are attracted to the appearance, texture and feel of materials; many
different materials are used depending on the area of work. An industry which heavily relies
on a modeling material is the ceramics sector, clay is used as its properties allow it to be
formed freely into any format, allowing the user to let the material do the work giving a
sense of engagement.

Modeling has been an essential craft in the pottery industry, but since the early 1980s its
importance has been diluted by the introduction of the computer- aided design and
computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) systems (Dormer, P. 1997. P158).
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Modeling assists the designer to make decisions when creating an initial model of an idea
using different materials. Modeling can provide a positive experience through the journey
of discovery and allows:
1. Models help us to visualize a system as it is or as we want it to be.
2. Models permit us to specify the structure or behaviour of a system.
3. Models give us a template that guides us in constructing a system.
4. Models document the decisions we have made (The importance of modeling)

There are many benefits to modeling as it provides a way of finding any issues with your
own ideas and allows you to discover whether something that has been designed does have
the potential in an aesthetical and functional form . Is there still a need for the germinal
phases of the design process, due to the efficient advancing technologies that have the
ability to take over these more traditional methods of working?

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Chapter Three
3.1 Development of Design Tools

Modern day technology allows the role of the designer to be able to communicate with
clients quickly and easily due to 3D modeling visual communication software. This is very
different to traditional tools craftsperson work with and has opened an opportunity for the
designer to communicate easily with the use of 3D software as the software enables the
user to adapt to required needs.

Computers are flexible and programmable, and theoretically adapt to different contexts. This
is positively differentiates them from other traditional media. Therefore the usual rationale
of designers adapting to computer interfaces should be put differently, that is, how should
computers match their users needs. (Scali, S et al. 2002. p 1-2)

The above comment explores the limited usability of computers and doesnt freely allow
mistakes when working with CAD software. The designer then becomes limited due to the
software restraints. According to Scali, S the use of computer-based tools doesnt allow the
user to completely explore the creative process and tends to stifle the visual exploring stage
of design work. There is an increasing requirement to integrate digital and conceptual
designing and for the computer to adapt to the user instead of the user adapting to
computers (Scali, S et al. 2002. p2).

The user experience of CAD is perhaps not as engaging as hand modeling.

Staring at a

screen and interacting with a computer mouse may appear insensitive, compared to hand
modeling allowing look, touch and smell of the material. This sensation is unavailable
through the use of a computer screen.

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3.2 Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacture (CAD/CAM)

In the design process CAD/CAM provides the designer with an easier understanding of what
the product will look like through the use of visualisation. CAD/CAM seems to have
revolutionised the design process to enable the user to create a visual object to a technical
specification for it then to be produced.

The ability of CAD/CAM technology has allowed the designer to create an object for it to be
processed and manufactured. This is a fundamental way in which the industry works today.
These processes such as 3D printing and rapid prototyping speed up the process of working,
so is there still a need to include the germinal phases of the design process?

The use of sketches and physical models remain the preferred medium during the germinal
phase of the design process. A survey conducted among practicing product and engineering
designers in 2001 reveled that 93% of cases a computer based output was required from the
design department, but a large amount of projects (73%) would start with conceptualizing
using sketching or rough physical models. (Scali, S et al. 2002. p 2)

There seems to be a gap missing for the need of the designer from working through the use
of sketching or rough physical model and the CAD/CAM technology. Non digital tools,
should now play a role in the integration of future digital based tools that relate to a 3D
format. This allows the designer to create a visual product using digital tools on a CAD/CAM
platform.

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3.3 Anarkik 3D Software

A 3D interactive user face has been created which allows you to feel the same sensation
when modeling within the use of a computer based system. It permits the user to have a
more physical interaction compared to existing CAD systems.

Two-handed exploration seems to be relevant for shape perception. It has been claimed that
the feedback on the shape that the designer obtains is amplified by the use of both hands
and, through these actions, the coupling of his mental imagery with the 3D model are
made. (Scali, S et al. 2002. p 2)

Figure 3.1 Haptic Device (Nelson-Shaw, 2015)

Anarkik 3D, is a haptic device and is the science of touch and allows to understand the
material through the use of touch, to construct in a creative way using a different range of
materials (Figure 3.1). Anarkik 3D is not only used by the designer but also by applied artists
and allows exploration using the hand held device. How we interact with objects and having
a hands on approach as an artist or crafts person allowing to understand the form of an
object through touch. In comparison to the existing CAD software, which may not fully

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immerse the user within the object and allow for exploration of the material to its full
potential.

Occasionally, CAD software restricts and constraints your design as you are working within
the limitations of the system. Compared to the Anarkik 3D which allows you to take the
journey of exploring, Knowledge of making is in our hands. (Bandookwala, F. 2015).
Bandookwala explains that the software allows you to explore the freedom that the
material offers and allows the users knowledge of using these materials to be explored in a
3D virtual basis.

Through Anarkik 3D, the features of the software allow the design to find a form and life of
its own during the development stages.

Through the exploration of the touch of the

material, the software allows you to feel the materials and you can pull, push and shape the
material through the playfulness of the software. It is a hands on experience through the
feel of touch providing a fluent model making experience with all the attributes computers
have. The computer provides you with a memory source in which it can allow you to copy,
paste, undo, redo and save all these options. It allows to make many different styles of
objects and these options allow you to make as many adaptions as needed. As well as these
qualities, it is a computer file so you have the opportunity to send files to clients, but also
have the ability to transport files due to being able to save onto a memory device.

Bandookwala also explains that conventional CAD/CAM packages remove you from what
can be created and prohibit the exploration of all the possibilities that a material has to
offer. It somewhat removes you from the creative process. As you have to think of another
way in which you would form the products in order for it to look correct on the screen, it
creates a barrier between you and your work.

The Anarkik 3D software is trying to

reconnect that bond in order for the engagement to be brought back with the user and
material.

The use of existing CAD/CAM packages allows the user to create a 3D visualisation only.
The user experience is completely different for the haptic touch device due to the ability of
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being able to form the object freely by visualation and touch. Touch in particular represents
our natural "interface" to the real world in the making of objects (Scali, S et al. 2002. p 5).

The haptic software enhances that engagement to the user which existing CAD/CAM
packages are missing. Could this be a new advance in technology? Will there be a need to
produce hand models if we can create actual prototypes using the Anarkik 3D software?
Looking at the 3D software in relation to the design process, it provides the opportunity to
combine the use of CAD and hand modeling in a computer based programme. It seems that
their inherent 3D structure allows for the experience of that space through vision but also, as
it has emerged, through manipulation and haptic (touch) interaction (Scali, S et al. 2002. p
5).

The creation of the product and the ability of 3D printing and Rapid Prototyping will initially
have a big start up cost.

The longer term benefits are that prototyping becomes a cost

effective and efficient process. The innovation in technology allows the designer to
recreate or change certain areas of an intended design if they are not happy with it. The
interaction and gestural aspect of working with the Anarkik software is what differentiates it
from CAD packages. The creation of the Anarkik software allows the user to interact with
modeling materials, granting a sense of virtual touch of the materials properties. Is there a
need for traditional hand modeling methods to continue with the ease and availability of
this software synergy?

Anarkik 3D has revolutionised the jewellery industry, using this technology and having the
ability it appears to form objects easily. As jewellery is a personal object, the fact that the
designer/client can 'feel' the item will lead to a high level of confidence in the end product.
Could there be a market for it elsewhere in other areas of industry, to potentially remove
the use of traditional ways of working that have worked and been used for many years?
Anarkik 3D creates a shortcut within the design and manufacturing process, considered to
be more efficient when designing due to the ability of being able to produce more
effortlessly.

Could this software aid the designer more productively through the design

process? Our software allows real sense of 3D touch to easily create and manipulate your
virtual designs, ready for 3D printing (Shillito, 2015).
Page | 20

Figure 3.2 Jewellery Designed using Anarkik 3D Design By Elizabeth Armour (Armour, 2015)

Figure 3.3 - Anarkik 3D Bangle Design, 3D printed in paper (Anarkik 3D Bangle Design, 2015)

Shillito, A summarises that the Anarkik 3D software gives the ability to model well in a
gestural manner in a 3D computer platform, offering flexibility, portability and improved
workflow. Designs created using the software enable the user to manipulate, enhance and
modify with all the attributes the computer and software offer.

Page | 21

3.4 3D Prosthetic Human Heart

After researching into the use of 3D printing, a researcher at Nottingham Trent Universitys
School of Architecture, Design and the Built Environment has completely changed the use
of the 3D printer. Richard Arm, a postgraduate researcher in MSc Smart Design has helped
create a prosthetic human heart with realistic lifelike details and features. Richard has
become very experienced in working on many life saving defence projects such as Royal
Centre for Defence Medicine (RCDM) and Defence Science and Technology Laboratory
(DSTL), which both fund Richard in his specialism with synthetic organs and tissues for
educational purposes. Richard's work has been well recognised and has revolutionised
learning today, having the ability to form prosthetic hearts using traditional moulding
techniques. Creating a prosthetic heart has enhanced the education of trainee surgeons,
as it is believed that the model can help teach the students clinical skills.

Cardiothoracic surgery is one of the main life-saving treatments taught at medical schools
around the world, but its teaching often relies on basic plastic models, which doesn t
necessarily provide a realistic learning experience (Arm,R .2014).

Richard's creation has not only shown the advanced use of smart and traditional moulding
techniques but also benefits the way in which students learn.

The study shows how it's possible to replicate the human heart, inside and out, and make it
so realistic that it could literally be

operated

on by trainee surgeons. Students would be

able to make incisions to experience how it would feel and see what the inside of the heart
looks like (Arm,R .2014).

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Figure 3.4 Richard Arm with Prosthetic Heart (Curtis, 2014)

The technology can be advanced even further due to the use of CT (computerised
tomography) and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) where they can scan data to create a
3D printed exact replicas of individual human hearts.

There is a possibility of pumping

blood through the prosthetic heart to enhance the life-like actions of an operation. This
could be a real benefit to the way in which we educate students, by providing them with
more realistic experiences before they go live into theatre (Vloeberghs, M. 2014)

3.5 Importance of Design Tools

In industry today, many companies rely on technology based design tools. These have been
developed and established over the years, helping companies improve efficiency and
production. Allowing processes to be completed quicker and to a higher standard, 3D
modeling software has created this chance so it has very much revolutionised the way in
which models and manufacturing techniques are produced.

Not only this, 3D modeling may also help others due to these important advancements in
technologies coming through which allow possible prosthetic organs to be used in health
care, with the help of Richard Arm and his knowledge of smart materials and CAD/CAM.
Page | 23

Models now also bleed and breath (Arm, R 2016). Software has assisted the way they can
perform in theatre, due to the life like properties Richard has used to create a prosthetic
heart. As well as this, the mixture of CAD/CAM, smart materials and traditional moulding
methods still show that these established methods are still very useful to make these
advances in working.

This simulated 'living' tissue is replicated using ancient and traditional craft skills and
cutting-edge polysiloxanes gels (a synthetic elastomers) which reflects the living tissue
aesthetic and mechanical properties (Arm, R 2016).

From the research throughout, there is an eclectic use of the design tools that all seem to
play a role within the design process. How can we determine what is the best tool to use
when they all have their own unique qualities and way of working? A tool is a moving entity
whose use is initiated and actively guided by a human being, for whom its acts as an
extension, towards a specific purpose. (McCullough, 1998, p69). This could relate to the
tools spoken about previously in this paper, ranging from basic tools such as a pencil sketch
to communicate an idea or alternatively advanced haptic touch software. Looking at this
information recognises that the tools available all have a relevant part to play in their
particular field of work.

Page | 24

Chapter Four

4.1 Investigating the Design Process

This section investigates how the design process is used and establishes the way the
procedure is used at university level. The questions asked are to investigate the prime tools
used within the design process, looking at the main focus of communication and visual tools
which are important when communicating with a client or putting forward an idea. This
chapter gathers points of view on the design process and the tools used considering
advancing technologies that are available to us today. Furthermore, it explores the use of
these tools to see if it is overshadowing traditional craft methods. Advancing technologies
that are available to designers today create shortcuts for designing which provide
opportunity to phase out steps of the design process. The intention of this survey is to
understand and establish opinions of the design process and the tools used when working
and how important they are to the design/designer. The main focus is to determine the
designer's perception of the use of sketching, hand modeling and CAD/CAM and the future
of these tools.

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4.2 Perception of the Process

This section involves the perception of the process and the way it is addressed in a level of
practice. The importance of this is to focus on the views of the design process and how it
can be changed and adapted to the user, also reviewing the tools used to aid the designer
throughout the design process. Looking through my results, the use of the process is
important to a lot of people and plays a key role when designing. Reviewing the results,
88.89% of people stated that they use the design process in their method of working and a
small 11.11% reported it wasnt relevant to them when designing. (Figure 4.1)

Figure 4.1 When designing do you consider the design process? (See Appendix One)

The small percentage that said no, stated that it doesnt apply to all projects. Not very,
[important] each project is different, the process will not always be the same (See
Respondent 2). Completely varies depending on the project context (See Respondent 24).
From these results the small majority use the design process in context depending on the
type of project they are working on, they take into account the research, inspiration,
communication in which all fit under the design process.

Page | 26

As the researcher, one of the questions asked was has the importance of sketching within
the design process diminished? The majority of responses given stated that sketching was a
very important part of the germinal phases of the design process. For the early stages of the
project it is incredibly important as you need to get your ideas down visually so you can trawl
through them and find out what elements work best together (See Respondent 17). It has
also been stated that sketching can be used to remember a certain idea or group of ideas
for the designer. Crucially I forget things easily so they are always useful to reference (See
Respondent 22). Sketching acts as a memory tool for designers as well as just a visualisation
tool. It is also a means of communication between designers, clients and others. Although
sketching seems to be a very valuable part of the designers work, a few respondents didnt
enjoy the sketching process, however, they realise the usefulness of it. Quite important, I
dont enjoy doing it but its the equivalent of an author writing down notes (See Respondent
3).

Another concern could be the quality of the sketch; I prefer rough sketches with
annotations than nicely drawn pictures I'm quickly getting the ideas onto paper, for me to
understand so I can move onto the next step (See Respondent 8). The feedback that I
received was that the style of the sketch wasnt too important to the designer, this person
preferred to have rough style sketching with a small annotation explaining what the drawing
was about. The majority of responses show sketching as a key part of their own individual
design process.

The other area of research is modeling. This takes place after or alongside the sketching to
help the designer develop their range of ideas. From analysing, the data modeling is
deemed to be an essential part of the process. I use hand modeling alongside my sketching
to visualise the sketch in 3D which I can then judge the scale and usability (See Respondent
7). The main use of hand modeling is to help the designer visualise an idea in a 3d form, this
is useful as you are able to pick out any issues from a 3D model compared to a 2D drawing.
Even though you might be able to create a 3D form, it is not always the favoured method of
working. With the cheap materials it's hard to get something you are truly happy with, I
prefer sketching it all (See Respondent 9).

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Modeling does have the tendency to be rushed and done on a cheap budget as it plays a
role in germinal phase of the process , similar to sketching. Modeling can also be used, if
you arent too confident with the use of CAD systems then modeling can provide you with a
method of working which you are at ease with but without the inconvenience of learning a
CAD system, mainly used by the traditional craft people purely because these kind of
systems werent around when they started working. Another point to mention is that some
people only use modeling sometimes, depending on the project they are working on. Some
sketch work is enough for adequate communication, but for more ergonomics heavy
concepts, 3D exploration is important (See Respondent 22). Modeling seems to be used in
certain situations; if the project is technically heavy then there is not a real need for a
model to be produced. Could that be a job more suited to the CAD/CAM style of working?

Computer aided design and computer aided manufacture is an important method of

preparing designs for production. This computer software enables the user to visualise a
concept, but gives the opportunity to adjust the 3D sketch. It is believed to be the future of
the design world, could it take over from traditional ways of working in the 21st century? I
heavily use CAD throughout each project which allows me to quickly model up a product
with the correct scale (See Respondent 7). The advantages of CAD are that the system
allows you to create precision drawings or technical illustrations with the option to change
the surface material. An issue may be that the 2/3D visual image on the screen might look
correct but when it comes to manufacture it could have a technical issue. However, there is
the option to change or edit a certain area of the design.

Although CAD appears significant we shouldn't depend on these applications. For many
centuries we have survived without CAD/CAM systems and completely relied on making
products with our own hands (See Respondent 12). Is the use of CAD/CAM relevant as we
havent had to use it in past times why do we need to use it now? Its due to technologies
been formed such as 3D printing, rapid prototyping, CNC machining and laser cutters all
these require a computer software in order to function. The use of CAD/CAM is to aid the
product through the manufacturing process in the terms of accuracy.

Page | 28

What does the future hold for CAD/CAM? Does it have the opportunity to take over the
traditional methods of working? CAD plays a role within the design process as it becomes an
integral stage we use in the design process. It may not seem to be useful in all cases of
design work but in the majority and more technological cases it is an important aspect.

I think it is becoming more prominent yes. But there are still many people out there keeping
it alive. The story behind a traditionally made product is far more valuable than that of a
modern manufacturing method (See Respondent 4).
CAD is becoming a more dynamic process with 21st century machinery, it is evolving with the
times. The use of CAD isnt over taking but it seems to have expanded with the times in
order to keep up to date with the design world. Easier and quicker, but people appreciate
traditional ways and they should be the foundation of the project and CAD should be used a
tool to assist these traditional ways (See Respondent 7).

CAD shouldnt be over used within the design process and in some cases it is according to
the designer's perspective. People become lazy when they realise a computer can do a lot of
the work for them, therefore jeopardising their own skills with drawing and hand modeling
(See Respondent 12). Does the use of computers make the designer become lazy when
designing in the design process if they know that a computer can produce a better image to
work by, instead of using their own skills of sketching and modeling? The use of CAD should
be used to work alongside the sketching and modeling stage of the design process instead of
been seen as a alternative route of working.

Page | 29

4.3 Review of the Design Process

In terms of industry, CAD/CAM appears to be taking over in the majority of stages in the
design process due to the efficiency, economy consistency and higher detail levels that you
can achieve using the CAD/CAM Process. On a teaching level, the use of traditional methods
and CAD/CAM should have the ability to work together to achieve the best results in the
work being done. It suggests there is a use for all these tools within the design process and
all have their own way of working with the user. It depends on the type of tool the user is
most comfortable with in order for them to achieve the best possible outcome.

Everyone has their own way of working and from the results shown, all seem to know the
importance of sketching and hand modeling with CAD being a process after to create a
visual concept in a 3D formed idea. As well as to create a visual image, CAD is important for
manufacturing purposes, as it gives the opportunity for businesses in industry to have the
ability to create drawings instantly and ready for manufacture. There seems to be a gap in
the way the university teaches the design process to the design process used in the world of
business.

This was the author's experience when on work placement.

Being taught to

consider all stages of the design process at a university level to then moving to a work
placement and only utilising half of the stages involved was surprising, for example,
brainstorming initial sketching ideas and the early exploration were not used. This shows
that there are many levels of working in the design industry as projects have to be quickly
produced to meet client's expectations. So it appears these important stages are being
missed out, but does it really matter as long as you achieve your intended outcome?

Is it the university's role to teach all the stages to its students so that they are well equipped
to select from these processes to suit their clients and their own needs?

Page | 30

Chapter 5
5.1 Conclusion

The study was set out to explore the design process and the way the designer uses the
design process method. There are a variety of ways that the designer can use the design
process. The main focus was to create an understanding of the way designers interact with
the tools to enable designing with more efficient results. Having a focal point on the
communication that the designer puts forward and the tools which are used to connect with
an audience was an important part of the thesis.

The research looked at the relevance of the design process from the perspective of
undergraduate students and some industry professionals. After reviewing the results
it was unclear whether the questionnaire was completed by a student or a professional
person, as there was not a question that related to the respondent's job title or role.
Therefore this limited the views and made it difficult to justify complete satisfaction with
the results. It would have been more beneficial for the author to find out the specific role of
the respondents to get a more varied research response. However, the results received still
provided sufficient information required to analyse the design process and tools.

The study sought to answer the specific series of actions and processes in order to achieve
an intended outcome. From the information sourced it was found that the design process
plays an integral part of designing. This process can be adapted to suit the user with the
ability to remove sections that the designer may not find relevant to their method of
working. Through the use of my quantitative research and obtaining feedback from various
designers, the use of the design process and design tools seem to depend on the type of the
project and user initiating the actions, in order to achieve what they felt would be the best
possible outcome.

Page | 31

One of the tools that is not fully recognised as a design tool is the use of the hand and the
way the hands have the ability to adapt. In many cases it may not be the tool that creates
the best job but the hands behind the tool. This refers back to M, McCullough who states

that tools are an extension to achieve a more accurate result. This can relate to both
traditional tools and advanced tools as they are all controlled by the hands. Does this mean
that there is an argument for the type of tools we use? As long as we are able to achieve our
intended goal or outcome, it has proved that it does not matter whether or not the tool is
manual or computerised. As the evidence recogonises the importance of the tools used by
craftpeople, even if the method of working is long winded, it respects the care element of
their unique skill and products.

The advancement of tools over the years has helped the designer to speed up the process of
designing. This has affected the design process in some cases, as digital tools give the
opportunity for the germinal stages to be missed out as CAD is becoming easily and widely
used. However, this restricts the amount of exploration that can be performed. The CAD
software offers a more efficient way of working due to the ability of creating 3D form to a
precision drawing.

The research showed the design process is moving towards Anarkik 3D software as this
provides creation of virtual designs through the sense of 3D touch and hand modeling.
Combining these two elements has created the opportunity to be creative with the ability
to save and change elements, for it then to be instantly printed. Suitably, the interaction of
this software still creates a bond with the item being created and it holds that emotional
attachment similar to a traditional hand crafted product.

The use of 3D printing is not just revolutionising the design world and design process but
also other industries of practice as demonstrated by the 3D prosthetic human hearts in the
health sector. It is important to recognise that the combination of both traditional and
modern tools are used in this process. This indicates that there is still a need for all methods
of working in our society today.

Page | 32

In conclusion, it is important to credit the design process and the stages involved. The
designer adapts the process and tools to suit their way of working, whether these be
traditional or technological tools. There is a need to recognise the importance of the tools
used to aid the designer throughout the design process, and prevent the use of advancing
technologies diminish traditional methods as they still play an extensive role in the design
process.

Finally, there is no right or way wrong way for the designer to visualise and

communicate their ideas whether these be traditional methods or by use of software based
systems.

Page | 33

Bibliography
Books
Aspelund, K. (2015) The design process. 3rd edn. United Kingdom: Fairchild Books.

Dormer, P. (1997) Culture of craft: Status and future (studies in design and material series). 7th edn.
Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Eissen, K., Steur, R. and Stuer, R. (2007) Sketching: Drawing techniques for product designers. Amsterdam: BIS
Publishers B.V.

McCullough, M. (1998) Abstracting craft: The practiced digital hand. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sparke, P. (2012) An introduction to design and culture: 1900 to the present. 3rd edn. New York: Taylor &
Francis.

Journals
Scali, S., Shillito, A. M. and Wright, M. (2002) Thinking in space: Concept physical models and the call for new
design tools, Thinking in space,

Websites
Curtis, S. (2014) 3D-printed human hearts to help trainee surgeons. Available
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11068397/3D-printed-human-hearts-to-help-traineesurgeons.html (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

at:

Farah, B. and Shillito, A. M. (2015) Home of Anarkik3D. Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/ (Accessed:
19 January 2016).
Unknown (no date) The importance of modeling. Available at: http://umlguide2.uw.hu/ch01lev1sec1.html
(Accessed: 14 January 2016).

Page | 34

Interviews
Arm, R. (2016) Model/ Mould Making. Interview with 19 January, .

Citations, Quotes and Annotations

Arm, R. (2016) Model/ Mould Making. Interview with 19 January, .

"Models now also 'bleed and breath'." (Arm, 2016)
"This simulated 'living' tissue is replicated using ancient and traditional craft skills and cutting-edge
polysiloxanes gels (a synthetic elastomers) which reflects the living tissue aesthetic and mechanical
properties." (Arm, 2016)

Aspelund, K. (2015) The design process. 3rd edn. United Kingdom: Fairchild Books.
"Designing is in the mind. At the beginning of a project, the thinking is as weighty as the doing." (Aspelund,
2015, p. 5)
"The design process can be linked to a romantic relationship" (Aspelund, 2015, p. 2)
"How the idea can travel from the world of imagination to the world of objects in an organised, timely fashion,
evolving as it goes, but keeps its original purpose and energy intact" (Aspelund, 2015, p. 5)
"Designing is about forming ideas, planning, and explaining the execution of those ideas, and making choices
based on the evolution of those idea that will lead to an end result. Designing is a journey that has a number of
stops and detours along the way." (Aspelund, 2015, p. 2)
"Inspirsationan idea has taken hold of you. Everything is exciting, and everything about your idea is fun and
wonderful.Identification stage Where the idea becomes an understandable entity with definite parameters.
Conceptualization stage the ideas constraints and needs become clear. The idea becomes specific a
concept with its own definite characteristics. It begins to have a life and shape of its own. Exploration/
Refinement stage Begins, you must establish boundaries and structures. Any implications that exist when the
idea is conceptualized become fixed in this stage. Definition/Modeling At this stage you begin to build on
what you have discovered so far. Here is where the experiences youve had and the discoveries youve made
about your idea are used to create a structure that is the best possible design for the situation.
Communication and Production the focus turns to all the details involved. In both these stages, designers
establish and work with decisions already made. The focus is outward, toward communicating the design to
others and leading it through production to its ultimate end as a physical creation in the world." (Aspelund,
2015, pp. 2 4)

Curtis, S. (2014) 3D-printed human hearts to help trainee surgeons. Available at:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11068397/3D-printed-human-hearts-tohelp-trainee-surgeons.html (Accessed: 20 January 2016).
""Cardiothoracic surgery is one of the main life-saving treatments taught at medical schools around the world,
but its teaching often relies on basic plastic models, which doesnt necessarily provide a realistic learning
experience," (Curtis, 2014)

Page | 35

Dormer, P. (1997) Culture of craft: Status and future (studies in design and material series).
7th edn. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
"Modelling has been an essential craft in the pottery industry, but since the early 1980s its importance has
been diluted by the introduction of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM)
systems. " (Dormer, 1997, p. 158)
"You must make a tool of the creature or a man of him. You cannot make bit. Men were not intended to work
with accuracy of tools, to be precise and perfect in all their actions of you will have that precision out of them,
and make their fingers measure degrees like cog-wheels and their arms strike like compasses you must
humanise them" (Dormer, 1997, p. 33)

Eissen, K., Steur, R. and Stuer, R. (2007) Sketching: Drawing techniques for product
designers. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers B.V.
"Skills matter, but even in a quick thumbnail sketch, some designers can already reveal what the final result
could be" (Eissen, Steur, and Stuer, 2007, p. 7)
"They are an integral part of decision- making process, used in the early stages of design, in brainstorming
sessions, in the phase of research and exploring concepts, and in presentations" (Eissen, Steur, and Stuer,
2007, p. 7)

Farah, B. and Shillito, A. M. (2015) Home of

http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/ (Accessed: 19 January 2016).

Anarkik3D.

Available

at:

"Knowledge of making is in our hands" (Farah and Shillito, 2015)

Gnshirt,
C.
(2012)
NTU
single
sign-on.
Available
at:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/nottinghamtrent/reader.action?docID=10634509 (Accessed: 21
January 2016).
"Visual tools that produce image make it possible to express inner ideas in a visual form so that these can be
looked at critically and convey to others, while the verbal design tools that produce texts are there to describe,
analyse and criticise design ideas. Or put briefly: the visual primarily for devising form, and the verbal tools for
developing the meaning of a design." (Gnshirt, 2012)

Home of Anarkik3D (2015) Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/ (Accessed: 15 January

2016).
"Knowledge of making is in our hands." (Home of Anarkik3D, 2015)

McCullough, M. (1998) Abstracting craft: The practiced digital hand. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
"A tool is a moving entity whose us is initiated and actively guided by a human being, for whom it's act as an
extension, towards a specific purpose. " (McCullough, 1998, p. 69)

Page | 36

"Hands act as conduits in the other direction: hands bring is knowledge of the world. Hands feel. They prove.
They practice. They give us sense, as in good common sense, which otherwise seems to be missing lately. "
(McCullough, 1998, p. 1)
"Hands are the best source of tacit personal knowledge because of all the extensions of the body; they are
most subtle, the most sensitive, the most probing, the most differentiated, and the most closely connected to
the mind. They deserve to be admired. " (McCullough, 1998, p. 7)

McCullough, M. (1998) Abstracting craft: The practiced digital hand. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
"You probably think of a tool as something to hold in your hand. It is something to extend your powers: a piece
of technology or applied intelligence, for overcoming the limitations of the body." (McCullough, 1998, p. 59)

Scali, S., Shillito, A. M. and Wright, M. (2002) Thinking in space: Concept physical models
and the call for new design tools, Thinking in space, , p. 5.
"Two- handed exploration seems to be relevant for shape perception. It has been claimed that the feedback
on the shape that the designer obtains is amplified by the use of both hands and, through these actions, the
coupling of his mental imagery with the 3D model are made." (Scali, Shillito, and Wright, 2002)
"There is an increasing requirement to integrate digital and conceptual designing and for the computer to
adapt to the user instead of the user adapting to computers" (Scali, Shillito, and Wright, 2002, p. 2)
"Children would spontaneously move towards 3d objects when presented with relevant design problems."
(Scali, Shillito, and Wright, 2002, p. 3)
"Touch in particular represents our natural "interface" to the real world in the making of objects." (Scali,
Shillito, and Wright, 2002, p. 5)
"Computers are flexible and programmable, and theoretically adapt to different contexts. This is positively
differentiates them from other traditional media. Therefore the usual rational of designers adapting to
computer interfaces should be put differently, that is, how should computers match their users needs " (Scali,
Shillito , and Wright , 2002)

Shillito, A. M. (2015) Home of Anarkik3D. Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/

(Accessed: 19 January 2016).
"Our software allows real sense of 3D touch to easily create and manipulate your virtual designs, ready for 3D
printing." (Shillito, 2015)

Shillito, A. M., Scali, S. and Wright, M. (2002) Thinking in space: concept physical models
and the call for new design tools, Thinking in space, , p. 1.
"although computers have great potential as catalysts for creativity, current design practice shows that many
designers still prefer to use non-digital media." (Shillito, Scali, and Wright, 2002, p. 1)

Page | 37

Sparke, P. (2012) An introduction to design and culture: 1900 to the present. 3rd edn.
New York: Taylor & Francis.
"New Production methods, new materials" (Sparke, 2012, pp. 30 31)

Unknown (no date) The importance of modeling. Available

http://umlguide2.uw.hu/ch01lev1sec1.html (Accessed: 14 January 2016).

at:

"Models help us to visualize a system as it is or as we want it to be.

Models permit us to specify the structure or behavior of a system.
Models give us a template that guides us in constructing a system.
Models document the decisions we have made." (no date)

Page | 38

List of Figures and Illustrations

Chapter One
Figure 1.1 The Creative Process (Scali, Shillito, and Wright, 2002)
Scali, S., Shillito, A. M. and Wright, M. (2002) Thinking in space: Concept physical models and the call for new
digital

tools [The

Creative

Process].

Available

at:

http://www.edvec.ed.ac.uk/library/papers/thinkspace/thinkspace.pdf (Accessed: 9 January 2016).

Chapter Two
Figure 2.1 Table of Visual and Verbal Design Tools (Tools for ideas, 2015)
Tools
for
ideas (2015)
in Wikipedia.
Available
at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tools_for_Ideas#/media/File:Table_of_Design_Tools_by_Christian_G%C3%A4nshir
t_2014.jpg (Accessed: 21 January 2016).

Chapter Three
Figure 3.1 Haptic Device (Nelson-Shaw, 2015)
Nelson-Shaw, C. (2015) Designer maker feature. Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/designer-makerfeature/ (Accessed: 1 February 2016).

Figure 3.2 Jewellery Designed using Anarkik 3D Design by Elizabeth Armour

(Armour,

2015)
Armour, E. (2015) Jewellery Designed using Anarkik 3D Design Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/
(Accessed: 1 February 2016).

Figure 3.3 Anarkik 3D Bangle Design, 3D printed in paper (Anarkik 3D Bangle Design, 2015)
Anarkik 3D Bangle Design, 3D printed in paper (2015) Available at: http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/ (Accessed: 1
February 2016).

Figure 3.4 Richard Arm with Prosthetic Heart (Curtis, 2014)

Curtis,
S.
(2014) 3D-printed
human
hearts
to
help
trainee
surgeons.
Available
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11068397/3D-printed-human-hearts-to-help-traineesurgeons.html (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

at:

Chapter Four
Figure 4.1 When designing do you consider the design process? (See Appendices 1)

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