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turia A. Mange
Departntent of Earth Sciences
Universit' of Oxford

Heinz F. W. Maurer
Hofstattw,eg l

CH-3041 Sririsw,il
Sw'itzerland

CHAPMAN & HALL

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ii
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@1992 Maria A. Mange and Heinz F. W. I\,Iaurer
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A catalogue record for this book

is ar ailabre from the

British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-publication Data


Mange, Maria A.
Heavy minerals in colour / Maria A. Mange, Heinz F. W. Maurer.

p.

cm.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISB,N 0-412+39LU7 (atk. paper)

J.. Heavy minerals-Identifiction-Handbooks, manuals, etc.


I. Maurer, Heinz F. W. II. Title

Q8364.2.H4M36

549'.1-4c20

1989

89-9199
CIP

Contents

3tl'';,'/
l-'lt /tl
pagewi

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part

ix

Heavy minerals in the study of sediments:


principles and practice

Introduction
Heavy minerals in the study of sediments:
their application and limitations

Hydraulic effects

Heavy minerals and grain size


The chemical stability of heavy minerals

Methods

11

Sampling for heavy mineral analyses


Preparation of samples
Size reduction, disaggregation and cleaning
Sieving
Heavy mineral separation

11

General considerations

12
12
12
13
1,1

Preparation for optical analysis

15

Splitting of heavy mineral lractions


Grain mounts
N{icroscopic identifi cation

l5

Electron-probe microanall sis


The scanning electron microscopc
Cathodol u minescence

l-s

l6
17
17
18
19
7t0

20
20
20
22

Presentation and nurnerical analysis of heavl'


mineral data

z7

Application of heavy minerals

29

Part

7'

i1

Centrifuge technique
Miscellaneous separations

X-ray diffraction
X-ray fl uorescence spectrometry

11

Gravity separation

Grain counting
Study of varietal types
Advanced auxiliary techniques

II

Descriptions of heavy minerals

35

Introduction

37

Abbreviations and symbols

Heavy mineral descriptions and colour plates

39

References

135

ldentification table

t42

Mineral index

r44

Gcneral index

145

Preface

Although some handbooks on the microscopic identification of heavy mineral grains are available, a
comprehensive manual illustrated in colour has not
been published until norv. Because the appearance of
minerals in grain mounts differs considerably from
those seen in a thin section, a different approach is
necessary for the identification of detrital grains.
Coloured photomicrographs, shorving their colour
shades, pleochroism and interference tints, provide
an excelient means of assisting recognition. As a
number of mineral grains have similar optical properties and morphology, it is equally importanr to
describe them verbally in detail, pointing out
characteristic features and differences.
This book is intended primarily as a manual that
describes and illustrates the transparent heavy minerals most commonly found in sediments. It is hoped

that such a manual will be useful as a ll'ork of


reference for students and research rvorkers alikc.

In Part I the concept of heavy mineral analysis is


introduced and the relative significance of factors
affecting heavy mineral assemblages is discussed. There
are brief references to the commonly used laboratory
methods and auxiliary techniques. It concludes with
some examples of the application of heavy mineral
studies.

Part II contains the descriptions of 61 transparent


heavy mineral species, including those which are
commonly authigenic in sediments. positive identification of authigenic minerals is important to avoid
confusion and to help recognition of diagenetic
events. In the mineral descriptions considerable
emphasis is placed upon detrital morphology and
diagnostic features. Optical properties and characteristics are detailed, together with information on host
rocks. Each mineral description is accompanied by
one or more representative colour plates.

Acknowledgments

This book was completed while the authors rvere


engaged in research at the University of Berne,

I (MM) wish to express my gratitude to


A. Matteq. His help and encouragement was
instrumental in securing the book's publication. I am
also indebted to N. H. Platt and S. D. Burley fo their
Switzerland.
Professor

constructive criticism and valuable suggestions. Thanks


are due to R. Oberhnsli for his help in the microprobe
analysis and for reading some parts of the mineral
descriptions. The manuscript benefited from fruitful
discussions with P. A. Allen, Th. Armbuster. A. J.

Htrrford, A. C. Morton, Professor E.

K.

Niggli,

Ramseyer and with several colleagues fronl the

Geological and the lv{ineralogical-Petrographical


Institutes of the Llniversity of Berne. F. Zw'eili has
kindly provided assistance with the scanning electron
microscope. We are grateful to G. Evans of Imperial

College, London for aliowing access to the heavy


mineral collection of the late Professor H. B. Milner
and to J. Waltzebuck of BEB Erdgas and Erdoel
GMBH, Hannover for permitting the use of several
heavy mineral grains from the Rotliegend of
W. Germany. Aegirine, arfvedsonite- and dumortieritebearing samples rvere kindly lent by A. C. Morton of
the British Geological Survey, Keyworth.
We acknorvledge the continued support and interest
shorvn by Roger Jones, norv of UCL Press.
Financial support was generously provided by the

Universitl, of Berne, the Srviss l-ottery Foundation,


(U.K.) and BP Exploration, London.

Shell Expro

Maria A. Mange-Rajetzky
Heinz F. W. Maurer

J'PART I
HEAVY MINERALS IN THtr STUDY OF StrDIMENTS:

Introduction

High-density accessory mineral constituents of siliciclastic sediments are called heavy minerals. In their
parent rocks they are present either as essential rockforming minerals (e.g. amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas)
or are accessory components, such as zircon, apatite,
tourmaline, etc., occurring in a wide variety of rock

depositional dissolution may often profoundly modify


an initial mineral suite.
Largely as a result of these drarvbacks, but also in
part because of the arrival of more attractive and
fashionable new techniques, many geologists regarded

types. Heavy mineral grains are seldom encountered in


appreciable quantities in sandstone thin sections; their
total quantity rarely makes up more than one per cent
of the rock. In ordcr to studl,hcavy mincrals cffcctivcll'
they need to be concentrated, and this is normally done
by means of rock disaggregation and mineral separation, using liquids with densities of 2.89 (bromoform)
or 2.96 (tetrabromoethane). High-density mineral
grains sink in these liquids, hence the name 'heavy'
minerals.
It is now more than 100 years since the study of heavv
minerals was established. The first part of this centur)'
witnessed the enthusiasm of early researchers as thel'
looked for and identified heavy minerals. During this
time methods were refined and there u'as a proliferation of publications (e.g. Thoulet 1881, Retgers 1895.
N{ackie 1896, 1923a, Artini 1898, Illing 1916, Milner

However, the technique has by no means been neg-

1929, Bosrvell 1933, Edelnan 1933. Baak 1936,


Doeglas 19-10). The popularity of heavv minerals until
the 19-10s stands in contrast to the general scepticism
torvards their valLre thereafter. The decline in popularity was due in part to the recognition that hydraulic
effects cause selective sortin-t according to size, shape
and density, and also to the realization that other
phenomena may affect heavy mineral assenblages. For
example, the occurrence of several mineral species is
often grain-size dependent, and in addition post-

heavy mineral studies as uninteresting

or

useless.

lected. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s a number


of researchers successfully used the study of heavy
nrinerals in keynote 'rr,orks on a tvide rangc of geological problems (van Andel 1950, 1955, van Baren &
Kiel 19,50, Hutton 1950, Wieseneder 1952, Koen 1955,
Feo-Codecido 19-56, Sarkisyan 1958, Sindowsky 1958,
van Andel & Poole 1960, Baker 1962, Hubert 1962,
Fchtbauer 1961, 1961 , Hubert & Neal 7967, Gazzi &
Ztrffa I97A). These studies have greatly contributed to
a better understanding of the factors important in
modifying heavy mineral suites, and have opened the
n'ay for more sophisticated interpretations. The expansion of heavy mineral studies into hitherto neglected
fields, the application of advanced analytical techniques and of mathematical data treatment - have all
been important advances rvhich have led to a re.juvenation of interest. Consequentlv, heavy mineral anall'ses
are no\\' more frequently employed and thcy yield
highly informative results. This can be simply confirmed from scanning some of the latest volumes of the
Bibliographl, and Index of Geologv, published by' the
American Geological lnstitute. There are nranv studies
in which heavl'minerais play a conclusive role.
Our intention is to provide further assistance and
encouragement for the study of heavy minerals and, we
hope. to help in achieving more accurate results.

F{eavy minerals in the study of sediments:


their application and limitations

Where observation is concerned


chance favours only the prepared rnind

Louis pasteur

Heavy mineral fractions in sediments are often composed of diverse mineral species, in which each grain
conveys its ou'n history. It is the sedimentary petrologist's task to decipher the message encoded in the
assemblages and apply them for the purpose of:

(a) determining provenance: reconstructing the nature


and character of source areas;

(b) tracing sediment transport paths: rhese are especially useful for cornplementing palaeocurrert
analyses;

(c) mapping sediment-dispersal patterns;


(d) delineating sedimentary petrological provinces;
(e) outlining, and in suitable cases correlating, r,arious

(f)
(g)
(h)

sand bodies;
indicating the action of particular hydraulic regimes
and concentrating processes;
locating potential economic deposits;
elucidating diagenetic processes.

Heavy minerals are particularly useful in studies


sedimentation related to tectonic uplift, as the
evolution and unroofing episodes of orogenic belts
are faithfully reflected in their foreland sedimenfs.
Analysis of heavy minerals in foreland basin sequences
may thus prove valuable in constraining the structural
histories of both the basin and the tectonic hinterlands.

of

Heavy mineral studies are also widely used in pedology.


as they provide clues to soil formation.

From the moment the minerals are released from


their host rocks a seies of processes come into effect,
operating until the assemblages are extracted from a
sediment for study. The significance of factors likely to
affect the reliability of heavy mineral analyses and their
interpretation have been discussed and evaluted in
many publications (Mackie I923a, van Andel 1959,
Blatt 1967 , Hubert 1971, Pettijohn et al. i973, Morton
1985a). The most important parameters are:

(a) Physiographic setting and climate of the

source
area. These factors largely control the pre-selection
of mineral grains during host-rock weathering and

1922_95

thus determine the original input of heavy mineral


species into a sedimentary system.
(b) Abrasion and mechanical destruction during transportation. These are related to mechanical durability of the grains themselves.
(c) Hydraulic factor. This operates during transportation and is controlled by thc conditions of the
particular h1'draulic regime. Its effects result in
selective srain sorting according to size, form and
densitr'.

(d) Post-depositional, diagenetic, effects (.intrasrratal


dissolution').

The last f\\'o parameters are especially important. The


hydraulic factor decides which mineral grains rvill be
deposited under certain hydraulic conditions. postdepositional dissolution introduces a selection process
of a different kind, namely the elimination of the less
resistant grains. and it influences the ultimate heavy
mineral assenrblages of a particular sediment. Abrasion
during transport appears to cause negligible modifications of heavy mineral suites (Russel 1937, Shukri
1e4e).

Hydraulic effects
Rubey (i933) presented the first conclusive paper on
factors causing large variations in the relative mineral
abundances of deposits that have been derived from the
same source lithology. Rubey forrnulated the theory of
hydraulic equivalence which states that grains of
different sizes and densities, but of the same settling
velocity, rvill be deposited under the same conditions.
Consequently, the 'hydraulic equivalent size' is defined
as a difference in size between a given heavy mineral
species and the size of a quartz sphere with the same
settling velocity in water. To resolve the problem of
selective sorting, Rittenhouse (1943), in a study of
sands from the Rio Grande, introduced the hydraulic
ratio which he defined as '100 times the weight of a
mineral in a known range of sizes, divided by the

HYDRAULIC EFFECTS

weight of light minerals of equivalent hydraulic size'


(Rittenhouse 1.943, p. fial.
Subsequent investigations, however, have shown
that the hypothesis of hydraulic equivalence is not
universally applicabie, and that in most sediments the
heavy and light minerals are not in hydraulic equilibrium. Rittenhouse (1943), van Andel (1950) and
Briggs (1965) attributed this discrepancy to limitations
on grain-size distributions inherited from the host
rocks, and particularly to the deficiency of larger size
'heavies', relative to larger 'lights',. at source. van
Andel (1950) noted that the relative availability of
heavies varies consistently with transport distance;
Lowright et al. (1972) later demonstrated that this was
caused by hydraulic effects. In a study of the environment of Lake Erie these authors detected a systematic
divergencc frorii hydraulic equilibriunr in that thc
heavy: light settling-velocity ratios displayed a systematic divergence from those expected from conditions of
hydraulic equilibrium. They observed an apparent
source influence in the river- and river-mouth sediments, but in longshore transport the eft'ect of selective
sorting appeared to be predominant. T'hey concluded
that deviation from the hydraulic equivalence was due
not to source restrictions but rather to 'differential
mineral transport', rvhich resulted in the progressive
elimination of heavies from the transporting s)stem
with increasing distance of travel.
Hand (1967) recorded that, once deposited, heavy
minerals are more difficult to entrain than quartz.
This theory was further developed b1'Trask & Hand
(1985) in a study of the effect of h.'draulic sorting of
heavy minerals in longshore transport on the eastern
shore of Lake Ontario. Trask & Hand introduced the
concept of 'difficulty of entrainment' *-hich implies that
'the smaller size of heavy minerals nrakes them less
entrainable and less transportable than fall-equivalent
lights'. This is partly explained by the tendency of the
smali heavy grains to 'hide' in the interstices of the
larger light grains. Slin,qerland (I977 ,1984) pinpointed
factors such as 'selective grain sortin-s' during deposition and 're-entrainment processes', n'hich ultimately
exert most control on the final grain size of a deposit.
The dependence of marine concentrating processes
on the energy of a particular environment was shown
by Swift et al. (1971), Stapor (1973), Drummond &
Stow (1979) and Riech et al. (7982). In the area of
offshore Alabama and Mississippi, Drummond & Storv
(1979) observed that the smaller and more dense heavy

mineral grains (ilmenite, zircon, leucoxene, monazite


and rutile) are concentrated in low-energy environments, rvhereas the larger and less dense heavy
minerals (kyanite, tourmaiine, staurolite and sillimanite) are found in areas of relativelv high energy.

The influence of bed configuration on heavy mineral


accumulations was noted by several authors. Hubert &
Neal (1967) revealed that bottom topography largely
controls sand dispersal patterns of deep-sea sands
in the western Noth Atlantic petrologic province.
Steidtman (1982) stressed that the 'hydraulic equivalence of grains is not only determined by conditions of
deposition' but also by the 'specific style of grain
motion and bed configuration'. The degree of hydraulic
sorting of heavy minerals differs markedly between the
upper and lower florv regimes. Steidtman advocated
that 'sampling and analytical techniques should take
such factors into account if a successful application of
hydraulic equivalence is to be achieved, either in
interpreting depositional proces.ses or in reconstructing
pr0venance'.

Results of recent stutlics, espccially those wliicli


investigated the mechanisms of fluvial and alluvial
placer evolution, have facilitated a better appreciation
of processes operating in the entrainment, concentration and hydraulic equivalence relationships of light
and heavy minerals (Slingerland 1977,1984, Salleneer
1979, Komar & Wang 198.1, Komar & Clemens 1986,
Peterson et sl.1986, Komar 1987).
The effect of grain shape on the settlin-g velocities of
heavy mineral grains was investigated bv Briggs er c/.
(1962). This work shorved that the 'variations in shape'
factor has an effect on the drag coefficient (a dynamic
reaction betrveen the fluid and the particle) of a similar

magnitude to that caused by variation in specific


gravity. Therefore 'sorting of heavy minerals by shape
is as important as sorting by specific gravity'. The
importance of hydraulic fractionation by shape in
addition to density n'as also emphasized by Flores &

Shideler (1978). erpressed as'shape-fractionation


index'. This is calculated by the ratios of bladed and
elongate minerals to equant minerals (e.g. pyroxene,
hornblende, etc., versus garnet and epidote). Flores &
Shideler showed that. during reworking of sediments
on the South Texas Outer Continental Shelf by the
Holocene transgression, the more equant epidote and
also the heavier grains had a higher selection rate for
permanent deposition.

Several attempts rvere made to evaluate quantitatively the effects of the hydraulic behaviour of heavy
minerals on provenance determinations and correlation

(for details see Hubert 1971 and Morton 1985a).


However, the methods employed include time-consuming laboratory measurements as well as computation and they are not used in the general routine of
heavy mineral analyses.
In studies of heavy minerals, the extent and possible
effects of hydraulic sorting must always be considered.
Its effect may be minimized by carefully plannecl

HEAVY II{INERALS iN THE STUDY OF SEDIIVENTS: 'IHEIR APPI-IC;\TION AND LIMIT;\TiONS

shmpling and selection of only those grain sizes typical


for, and representative of, the sediment under study
and the energy conditions operating during deposition.

Heavy minerals and grain size

A number of heavy mineral

species have an affinity to


grain
their initial size in the
This
reflects
sizes.
certain
primarily by confactor
controlled
rocks,
a
source
zircon to
The
tendency.of
of
ditions
crystallization,
in
context.
grains
is
mentioned
this
often
occur as small
sillimanite,
kyanite,
as
staurolite,
Other species, such

andalusite, topaz, and not uncommonly

garnet,

mounting and analysis difficult. When abundant coarse

and fine grains are available, the problem can be


tackled by splitting the heavy residue into two (or
more) fractions. This may prove particularly beneficial
for the analysis of poorly sorted sediments or for those
rvhich include detritus from source terrains, comprising
complex lithologies and of various size grades. A far
less frequently used but probably more effective
approach is to convert relative percentages of healy
minerals to weight percentages (see p. 18).
Finaily, it must be borne in mind, that for correlation,
on either a local or a regional scale, only similar grain
sizes and similarly treated and analysed heavy mineral
suites should be used.

tourmaline and pyroxenes, often appear as fairly large


fragments.

As both the size of the individual heavy mineral


grains and the mean grain size of sediments are
controlled by factors operating in the particular depositional environment, a uniform grain-size range,
suitable for all heavy mineral analyses, cannot be
established. Probably the only compromise is to assess
the properties of the sediment in question and then to
select, by means of careful examination and operational
tests, a size range that will yield the most representative assemblage of heavy minerals and the maximum
information. This practice is frequently adopted
and two principal methods are used. The first limits

the grades into one, often narrow, size

fraction
(e.g. Sindowsky 1938, 10G-200 rm; Carver 19'11,725-

rm; Gravenor & Gostin 1979, 75-150 rm;


Morton 1985a 6!125 pm). This has the advantage of
producing uniform observational conditions and
eliminating apparent variations in heavy mineral proportions, caused by differences in grain size. In
250

addition, using a narrow size grade helps to reduce the


effect of hydraulic sorting. This approach is ideal for
fine-grained, well-sorted sediments. However, in many

it involves the risk of leaving undetected some


diagnostic species, which are present only outside the
cases

selected size grade. This method may thus provide


dubious results, especially in the case ofcoarse-grained
deposits.
The second practice employs a wide size range or
uses the entire heavy mineral 'crop' (e.g. van Andel
L950, van Andel & Poole 1960, 62-500 rm; Fchtbauer
1964,63-400 rm; Galehouse 7967 and Rice et al. 1976,
. : 62-2000 pm; and Milner 1962 and Pettijohn et aI. 1973,
' the entire heavy mineral aisemblage). These sizes will
,.,.'.. lnglude all potentially useful species and; in addition,
will provide a good characterization of the entire heavy
mineral spectrum of a sample. The drawback of this
- approach is that the presence of fin and coarse heavy

a single concentrate rnakes


. .';;', '' i ; ., ,:' r'

mineral grains within


t -.

=.oi;ar#li.r.,,
::lr::,:-r

'

,.

i:,

l+,

Dissolution processes of common rock-forming minerals

in soils and in
(among
others,
simulated Iaboratory experiments
Raeside 1959, Wilson 1975, Berner 1978, Berner &
Schott 1982, Nahon & Colin 1982, Anand & Gilkes
1984, Velbel 1984 (in soils); Huang & Keller 1970,
1972, Schott et al. 198I (in the laboratory); see also
Colman & Dethier 1986, Huang & Schnitzer 1986 and
Tan 1986). These studies have investigated the rate
and kinetics of mineral dissolution, and their results
provide some insight into reactions betrveen minerals
and solvents, into dissolution processes through prohave been extensively studied both

gressive etching, or into the conversion of one mineral


into another mineral by replacement. Although these

investigations were limited to surface or near-surface


conditions, the processes probably take place in a
similar style during burial.
The importance of post-depositional dissolution
cannot be overemphasized. This can obscure provenance by elirninating informative unstable rninerals,
leaving a residue of ultrastable zircon, tourmaline,
rutile and, often, apatite.
Details on the complex subject of mineral stability
versus dissolution are beyond the scope of the present
work. This is widely covered in the relevant literature,
and the reader is referred to some key studies and
reviews, such as Edelman & Doeglas (L934), Goldich
(1938), Bramlette (1941), Pettijohn (1941), Dryden &
Dryden (1946), Blatt & Sutherland (1969), Hubert
(197i), Grimm (1973), Nickel (1973), Morton (1984b,
1985a). Several earlier studies on the stability of heavy
minerals have been compiled and reviewed by Luepke
(1984). Morton (1985a) summarized previous works on
the chemical stability of heavy minerals and, basing hs
studies mainly on sequences from the North Sea, he
established a, realistic stability response'. of heavy
.

'

';,:.;'::...:,,,:',l;,.1:..',,,1,.:..,,t,,..,,,,
't,' l.tt ,.:..,. a. ' :,,::':, .,..1 ',: .,r . :,.,.

l:i.j:i:.,.;'r;.:i

:,ilf:-li::.'::lr,:t.r:i.

The chemical stability of heavy minerals

. :tr.:.rilr:

.:
'

',

':;

r.::.:.
:t:1,1r,:f:t':
1"i:
'

THE CHEIvIICAL STABILITY OF HEAVY MINERALS

minerals to acidic and alkaline geochemical environments (Table 2.1).

Thoulet (1913) was one of the first to note the


decreasing complexity of heavy mineral suites with
increasing geological age. Pettijohn (19a1) considered
that the general absence of many heavy mineral species
in older sediments could be attributed to removal of
unstable minerals by intrastratal solution. Pettijohn

regarded age as a major controlling factor on the


survil'al of minerals in sediments and this *'as expressed

in the 'order'of persistence' of heavy nrinerals (Table


2.1). Larer studies (e.g. Wieseneder & Nlaurer 1958,
Walker 1967, Walke et el. 1967, Grimm 1973, Friis
I971, I976, Fchtbauer 1974, Scavnicar 1979, Friis
et al. 7980. lvlorton 1982a, 1981b) dealing with subsurface formirtions u,hich experiencetl acid or alkrline

diagenesis have shed


processes that account

light on the conditions and


for the gradual dissolution of

unstabL- species. Horvcver, the overall behaviour of


heavl' minerals rnay be dependent on thc chemistry of
the individual mineral species in question. Mineral
behaviour mrv also reflect different gcological settings
and different geochemical environments.
In general terms, the stabilitl' of a prrrticular hear'1'
mineral species can be determined from thc- pH of the
geochemicirl environnlent, although caution is needed
rvhen using this simplistic approach since both Eh and

ionic compositiorr of pore ffuids are

rlscl likell'tc-r

influence heavr, mineral stability. Unfortunately, there


is still little data available on this sLrbjc'ct at presentHeavl minerrl assemblages appear to rc-spond differently to extrelrcs of acid environments (such as those
ty'pical in lateritic or humid-tropical rvc'utherinq conditions) and alkaline enr.'ironments (as trpical in desert
soils or as occurring in the saline brines ssociated lrith
hy'clrocarbon reservoirs).
This difference of behiviour is qell illustrated by the
response of apatite and girrnet under these extremes.

During acidic u'eathering apatite is highll' unstable.


rvith the result that soils and rocks sr-rbjt--cted to acidic
leaching are usually depleted in apatitc. The apatite
dissolution effect is particularly strong in carbonatefree acid soils (Piller 1951). Lemcke et al. (1953) nnted

that in the presence of Ca2* ions the solubility of


apatite is reduced. Holever, it is comnronly present in
ancient sediments and in deeply buried rocks provided

they rverc not subjected to acidic leaching. lvlorton


(1984a, 1986) observed no dissolution of apatite in
North Sea sequences even at burial depths exceeding
3800 m. In deeply buried Rotliegend sandstones apatite

is present at even greater depth, rvhere it frequently


develops overgrou,ths (MM, unpublished data). As
apatite is rvidespread in detrital sediments, absence of
apatitc lrom a sedinent may be diagnostic of acid

leaching either in the source area or at some stage


during its history (Morton 1986).
Garnets are sensitive to acid leaching in the weathering profile (Bramlette 7929, Dryden & Dryden 1946),
and their unstable nature in acids was confirmed in a
laboratory experiment by Nickel (1973). The stability
of nrembers of the garnet group varies according to
their chemistry. Humbert & Marshall (1943) found that
melanite garnets, as lvell as iron and manganese garnets
in the weathering products of basic rocks, were more
weathered than the garnets from weathered granitic
lithologies. Dana (1895) and Allen (1948) also noted
that garnets with high ferrous iron content were

particularly prone to disintegration. Morton (1987)


observed that garnets rvith the highest calcium content
s'ere least stahle and 'rvere dissolvecl at comparatively
shallorv depth in the Upper Palaeocene Forties Formation in the Central North Sea.
Recently, Velbel (1984) investigated the weathering
process of almandine garnet in saprolite soils and in
siream sediments in North Carolina. He demonstrated
the different behrviour and dissolution of garnet in the
studied en'u'ironments as a response to controlling
factors such as oxidizing potential and influences of
organic and inorganic processes: garnet from the
inorganic environment of oxidized vadose saprolite
had a thick lay'er of gibbsite-goethite as weathering
products, thus pror,iding a Iayer which protected the
grains from corrosion and their surface remained
unetched. In soils u'here biological and biochenrical
processes prevail. and also in streams, a protective
Iaver cannot form and a selective surface attack is
shou,n by' numerous etch pits.
'I'he facetted forrns of garnet have attracted
consider-

able interest rihich provokecl debates on their authi- (Simpson i976) versLrs dissolution - (Gravenor
& Leavitt 1981. l\,laurer 1982, Morton 1984br. tsorg
1986) related ori-qin. Hansley (1987) carried our an
etching experiment on garnets, using organic acids, in
order to reproduce the deeplv facetted forms (conrmon
in the }vlorrison Formation in Neu'Mexico) and to gain
senic

a deeper understanding of the process that produces


facetted forms. Hansley provided petrological and
experimental evidence, thus confirming studies that
attributed the facetting to advanced etching, and
discussed both the kinetics of etching and the factors
controlling the dissolution processes in the N{orrison
Formation.
The effects of mineral dissolution can be observed in

optical mounts, but the textnral critcria fclr its recognition are most rr-'adily rliscerned using thc scanning
electron microscope (Hemingway & Tamar-Agha 191 5,
Setlow 1978, Berner & Schott 1982, Maurer 1982,
Ivlorton 1984b). Incipient dissolution procluces small

THE CHEMICAL STABILITY OF HEAVY MINERALS

etch pits and mamillae on the surface of the affected


minerals. As the process continues, the unstable grains,
in accordance with their crystailography and chemistry.
shorv facets, ragged edges, deep parallel grooves and
furrows or become 'skeletal'. Grimm (1973, pp. 1.17 &
120) illustrated the progressive stages of dissolution for

the most common heavy minerals. Of the numerous


etch patterns, probably the 'hacksarv' or 'cockscomb'
terminations of pyroxenes and staurolite, the 'fra1'ed'
edges of amphiboles, and the 'etch facets' of garnets are

the easiest to reccrgnize under the li-eht microscope.


Horvever, cation is necessary before ascribing ali these

features to dissolution effects. Edelman & Doeglas


(1932, 1934) noted that similar textures are often
initially causcd by mechanical processes and then
enhanced b1' subsequent corrosion. Hubert (1971)
arguecl that, in some cases, ragged outlincs ntight
reflect the ori,einal habit of mineral -erains in the host
rocks. Some irregular shapes are also produced bv
breakage during transport. In the course of our u'ork
u'e have seen typical 'hacksarv' terminations on freshll'
eroded pyroxenes in beach anci river srnds fror

southern Turkey and St Lucia. It therefore seems


probable that grains may already possr-ss inherited
ragged outlines. superficialll' resembling etch leatues.
hcforc ttrc timc of dcposition.
In deeply buried porous sandstone bodies. the
dissolr.rtion process is most likell'to modifl the original
nrineral suite. Hulrert (1962) suggested the zrR index
as an rid to the quantitatire definition of nlineralogical
mirturity in heavy mineral suites. The zrR index is 'the
combined percentage of zircon. tourmalinc-. and rutile
among the transparent heav) mincrrls omittins mic.ls
and authigenic species'. This index is useful as a scalc- of
the 'degree of modification. or maturitr. ol entire
hervv mineral assembla-ges of sandstones'. In most
greyrvackes rnd arkoses the zTR index is about 2-3993.
Horvel'er. it usually exceeds 90?,., in orthoquartzitc-s.

This reflects the general increase in ZTR inder uith


increasing geological age of the sediments as a result of
the progressive dissolution of unsiable minerals.

abundant heavy minerals and informative assemblages.


Oil infiltration into a sandstone halts or inhibits
further diagenesis, and hence prevents or slows later
mineral dissolution. Yurkova (1970) demonstrated rhat

oi1-saturated zones in the productive horizons of


Sakhalin contain significantly more unstable accessory
heavy minerals than the adjacent rvater-bearing formations. Morton (1982a) found similarly well-preserved

unstable minerals in the oil-saturated Tertiary sandstones of the North Sea Balder Field and also attributed
their preservation to oil inhibition of diagenesis.

Although intrastratal dissolution can profoundly


modify initially diverse heavy mineral assemblages, an
impoverished heavy mineral suite cannot be universally
regarded as a consequence of diagnetic loss of the less

stable species. r'an Andel (1959) argued that the


absence of unstablc heavies is in many cases due to
parent rock compositions or to loss before deposition in
areas of intensive rveathering. van Andel stressed the
prime importance of the geological settin_9: platform
facies sediments, receiving detritus from cratonic
sources, are generally characterized by stable assemblages; in contrast. sediments shed b1' orogenic sources
contain diverse hear,y mineral suites. In tectonically
active settings, high relief. strong erosion and rapid
burial provide conditions favourable for prescrl'inu an
'initial' composition of sediments faithfully reflecting
the litholog,v of source lands.
Only' a few studies of this kind have bc'en carried out
on pre-Cretaceous post-orogenic sediments, but their
resrlts appear to support van Andel's argument: thcPerrno-Triassic molasse of the pre-Ural re_{ion contains
uell preserved pvroxenes and anrphiboL's (Sarkisian
19,58;. 1y,tn the clastic Upper Dl'onirn series in rhe
axial zone of the Pyrenees, Stame-rger (1976) distinguished a'u'estein' heavy mineral province. tpified by
hornblende-zoisite-clinozoisite-epidorr'. rvhich stood
in sharp contrast rvith the adjacent heavy mineral
provinces containing stable species only,. The heal'y
mineral composition of these provinces was controlled
bv source-area lithology and not by post-depositional

Early cementrtion may seal pore throats and isolate effects. Pyroxenes and hornblende are common constithe rocks from circr-rlating pore fluids. thus protecting tuents of the Devonian Old Red Sanclstone (regarded
the unstable minerals from dissolution. Cclncretions, as a post-orogenic mol;rsse) of Scotland (Anderton
thinly bedded sand bodies rvith frequent muddy et al. 1979, pp. 111-25). Cawood (1933) studied the
horizons, and silty mudstones, usually have restricted compositions of detrital py'roxenes in early Palaeozoic
fluid migration and thus contain better preserved heavl' rocks from the Nerv England Fold Belt of Australia,
mineral suites (Bramlette 1941, Weyl & \\erner 1951, and Weissbrod & Nachmias (1986) have reported
Ludrvig 1968, Blatt & Sutherland 1969, lr{orton 198.1b, the presence of unstable minerals from the late Pre1985a). Recently Blatt (1985) drew attention to mud- cambrian Zenifim Formation of the 'Nubian Sandstone'
rocks as potential ancl reliable rock types for proven- in Israel, and from similar assemblages in southern
ance studies. Nludrocks are abundant in most seclimen- Jordan.
To sumnlarize, it is necessrry to assess the iocal
tary environments (they form 65% of the stratigraphic
mudstones
conditions
prevalent in cach indiviclual study area
the
silt
fraction
of
silty
coh.rmn) ancl
'ields

HEAVY

whethr

Methods

natively washing with water to dissolve soluble

Sampling for heavy mineral analyses

salts;

(3) removal of organic substances;


(4) freeing the grains from adhering clays or iron oxide

The value of heavy mineral analyses largely depends on


the accuracy of sampling. rvhich consequentll' should

be carefully and meticulously planned. To a large


extent the purpose of the study and the nature of the

coating;

(5) cleaning

depositional ehvironment or environments in question


rvill dictate the ntode of sampling, but it is very
importaut to design a dense sampling procedure and to
collect unrveathered material. Taking samples haphazarcliy will almost certainly -vield meaningless and
clisaprointing results. Sanples should be takert at
regular intervals as well as after changes of stratigraphl"
lithology, facies, texture, flow regime, bed configura-

are

sampling these

sizes.

cemented samples. Either dilute HCI (10%) or 10%


acetic acid (CH3COOH) is used. The former rapidly
dissolves calcite but remor.es dolomite onh'rvith boiling.
The serious handicap of HCI treatment is that it also
eliminates phosphates. In view of the importance of
apatite in fission-track dating and in studies of the
thermal history of a formation, the HCI treatment
should be avoided. Acetic acid leaves the phosphates
intact, but a prolonged immersion is necessary to
dissolve calcite (1-3 days, and subsequent boiling may
still be required). Silica-cemented rocks may be disaggregated by alkalne digest, using KOH or NaOH
solutions. Flowever this treatment can seriously attack

-.

I The mass of a dry sample for heavy mineral analysis


t may vary between 100 g and 1000 g. From sands,
volcaniclastics,

saturated

mineral grains.
Acid digest is applied to dissolve unrvanted carbonate
material. The technique can facilitate the removal of
calcareous particles from unconsolidated sediments and
the release of other mineral grains from carbonate-

Preparation of samples

oil

Mechanical disaggregation may introduce the danger


of fracturing mineral grains. Ho*'ever, Henningsen
(1967) experimentally demonstrated that the percussion method causes only negligible breakage of heavy

accumulations alone should be aroided.

It immature sandstones or

crude

The size reduction of many hard rock samples is best


achieved by means of a laboratory roller-crusher or a
jau'-crusher with aperture set to produce 5 mm chips.
These in turn can be treated by chemical means until
complete disaggregation occurs. For some samples a
ceramic or iron percussion mortar and pestle are
sufficient. The pestle should be applied u'ith a crushing
action (the force exerted vertically) to avoid destroying
the original shape and size of the grains. Fine particles
should be sieved out frequently to avoid over-grinding.

composed of hydraulically selected and -concentrated


grains of normally high densities (in most cases oplques).
Thel' are important in recorcling specific hl clraulic
conditions (lvfcQuivey & Keefer 1969. Cheel 19.S:1). but
are not representative of the overall heavv mineral

of a formation. Therefore,

or

Size reduction, disaggregation and cleaning

compositions, usually the fine-to-medium grained sands


or sandstones yield the optimum heavy mineral assemblages. Siltstones and silty mudstones can often provide
good results.
Almost all sands and sandstones contaiu at least
some heavy minerals, even if 'dark spots'. or streaks.
indications of heavy minerals, are not apparent $'hen
investigating clastic sediments ri'ith the naked eye or

content

bituminous

(6) sieving to extract required grain

tion, etc.
Though grain size may influence heavy minerai

under a hand lens. Heavl' mineral rich lirvers

of

samples;

a sample of

:- 100 g to 200 g rvill usually yield a sufficient quantity of


heavy concentrate, but mature sediments and those
rvhich contain high proportions of cement necessitate a
larger bulk-sediment sample size.

The following sequeitce of treatments usually pre-

silicates.

cedes heavy mineral separation:

Several other methods which serve to disaggregate coherent fine-grained rocks were described by

(1) disaggregation of coherent sediments, to liberate

Krumbein & Pettijohn (1938), Can'er (1971) and


Allnran & Lawrence (1912), and many' of these can b

individual grains;

(2) acid cligestion, to elintinatc carbonates, and alter1t

IUL,'IHODS

successfuly applied to sandstones. The ultrasonic


method functions by breaking dorvn the rock by highfrequency mechanical agitation. The technique is
carried out using 5% sodium carbonate solution and a

smail quantity of rvetting agent (e.g. Teepol) in

rvhich is fi1led up rvith de-ionized rvater kept at about


30'C. The rvater needs to be changed oncc or tt'ice
daily and should not be allorved to evaporate, as this

will promote precipitation. Anhydrite and gypsum


usually dissolve rvithin one week.

beaker rvhich is placed in a sonic tank for 5-30 minutes.


All these treatments should be follou'ed by a thorough
wash with water.
Grains may need to be cleansed of adhering clays or
cement, and aggregates and flocculated particles should
be dispersed. This is achieved by agitation using either
a mecharical stirrer or ultrasound. The addition of a
dispersant. such as sodium metaphosphate or sodium

Sieving

Komar & Cui (i984) as u'ell as Wang & Komar (198-5)


pointed out that sieving involves not only grade
selection but also grain-shape selection. This is particularly relevant in the case of heavy minerals, u,hich
exhibit much nlore variation in shape than do light

silicate, pronlotes efficient cleaning. Subsequently


tl-re fine suspension is decanted, the residue sands
are poured onto a sieve of 0.063 mm, alternatively
0.053 mnr aperture (us Standard mesh 230 or 270,
British Standard sieves 2,10 or 300) and the fine

grains.

Before the main grading commences, unwanted finer


particles are removed from the loose sands and
disaggregated materials by a spray of rvater ('ivet
sieving') using a sier,e of 0.063 nm or 0.053 mm
aperture (230 or 270 LrS Standard mesh, 2.10 or 300
British Standard sieves). The selected grain-size range
is extracted from the dry samples by standard sier,ing
(Ingram 1971). Ifpossible, the sieves should be agitated
for 10 minutes using a mechanical shaker. A thorough
cleaning of the screens after each sieving is imperative.
A test run may be necessary to reveal the grain sizcs
yielding the optimum results for a particular study. This

particles are rvashed through by a spray of u,ater.


For removing a pervasive iron oride qrain-coating
Leith (1950) suggesled"oralic acid"and aluminium. A
piece of aluminium is placed in a beaker containing a
solution of i5 g oralic acid and 3tl0 ml \\'ater, the whole
sample is added, and the mixture is boiled gently for
1G-20 minutes. It may be necessary to add more oxalic
acid to remove all iron. This treatment should be used
cautiously as it attacks apatites, causing intense surface
corrosion, alteration to a greyish-brou'n colour and a
tendency towards aggregate polarization.
Samples containing fluid hl,drocarbons and asphalt.
or other bituminous substances, can be cleaned with
petroleum distillates or with benzol, chloroform, erher,

can be done using a ferv representative samples, u,hich


are then sieved into narrorv size grades and carefully
weighed. Follou'ing heavy mineral separation and

weighing the heavy residues of each size grade, a


microscopic examination will reveal those fractions
containing the optimum of heavy mineral assemblages.
If appropriate, t$'o or three narrow grades can be
combined for a subsequent routine analysis.

trichloroethylene or carbon disulphide.'Soxhlett'


equipment provides an effective method, in which
crude oil is extracted from the samples rvith hexane
(CuHr.).
Certain formations contain abundant authigenic
minerals rvhich may settle in the heavy residue and thus
mask the detrital population. Drilling mud also intro-

Heavy mineral separation

duces contaminants into cuttings samples. Milner


(1962, pp. 123-a) described the follorving methods for
removing the most frequently occurring authigenic
contaminants, but these techniques also destroy many
detrital species.
Warm water dissolves gypsum and anhydrite. The
heavy residue is placed in a fairly large beaker (500 ml)

G en eral c ons i d erations


Concentration of heavy minerals is performed by
means of high-density liquids. There is. a considerable
difference in densities between the framework constitutents and heavy accessory minerals of a sediment.
Upon immersion of a sample in a liquid of an intermediate density 'sink' (higher density) and 'floar'

(lower density) fractions are produced. These are


Mineral
anhydrite
baryte

gypsum
pyrite

commonly called heavy and light fractions respectively.


The acquisition of reliable heavy mineral data largely
depends on minimizing laboratory errors. The choice of
techniques used rvill also have an effect on the quality
of the results obtained. Rittenhouse & Bertholf (1942)
compared the effectiveness of gravity settling and
centrifuge separation. They observed that the weight

Treatment

hot, strong hydrochloric acid


concentrated sulphuric acid
hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulphate or
bromoform-benzol solution
15% nitric acid, or warm hydrogen peroxide
12

HEAVY MINERAL SEPARATION

(a) gravity settling or funnel separation, and (b) centrifuge separation. The latter is best for separation both
of very fine (<63 "rm) and of sand-size sediments. This
technique was already advocated in the mid-1920s, but
rvorkers consistently encountered difficulty in achieving
complete and uncontaminated recovery of the trvo
separates from the centrifuge tubes. The introduction
of 'partial freezing' (Fessenden 1959) largely alleviated

percentages of heavy mineral concentrates obtained by

the trvo methods differ significantly, but the number


frequencies of the individual heavy minerals are the
same in both cases. Recently, Schnitzer (1983) presented startling results of his laboratory experiment on
T'riassic Buntsandstein samples. FIe found high fluctua-

tions in heavy mineral percentages from samples


separatecl simultaneously, using either different
liquids (bromoform or tetrabromoethane) or different
separation techniques (gravity or centrifuge methods).
Variations aiso occurred when different settling times
or cliffering ensities of bromoform were used. The
causes of these fluctuations are not completely under-

this problem and vastly improved the centrifuge separation technique so that it is now in very widespread use.
Fessenden (1959) employed solid carbon dioxide (dry

ice) to the lower part of the centrifuge tube, permitting


freezing of the separate containng the heavy fraction.
Scull (1960) suggested liquid nitrogen as an alternative
freezing agent.
Centrifuse methods which omit freezing the heavy
iiquid employ various modiflcations to the centrifuge
tube design (e.g. constricted tubes or a 'tube within

stood. However, Schnitzer's rvork underlines the


inportance of considering the possible influence of
separation technique on heavy mineral data.
High density (highly toxic) liquids norrnalll' used for
separation are:

tube'arrangement). In such cases the tubes are


equipped with a closure rod or stopper to ensure a
clean recovery of the heavy fraction (Hutton, in Tickell
1965. Allman & Lau'rence 1972 and Gautier & von

Density

(tribromoethane)
tetrabromlde)
(di-iodomethane)
solution

bromoform
tetrabromoethane (acetylene
methylene iodide
Clerici's

t;;g'
2.96
3.32
4.24

Pechmann i98.1).

The latter is a high-density aqueous solution of thallous

formate-malonate. It is of particular use for the


concentration of some of the 'heal'ier' minerals such as
garnet or zircon.
Washing liquids suitable for removin_e the heary
liquids from the grains are: carbon tetrachloride,
benzene, alcohol (ethyl alcohol or methy'lated spirit)
and acetone. Because of their lorr' toxicitv, alcohol and
acetone are most frequentiy used.
Re-qardin-q diluents, IJist (1973) recommended isoamylacetate as a stabilizer and diluent for bromoform.
and orthoclichlorobenzene for methylene iodide. IJlst's
tests indicated that use of a rveight proportion of 1%
isoamylacetate to the bromoform will produce a stable
solution which has a cpnstant density (2.82) and will not
decompose during use or storage. He obtained similar
results with methylene iodide and orthodichloro-

Gravity, separotiort

All

separations must be carried out in an efficient fnme


cupboard. Rubber glol'es are essential to prevent
contact u'ith the liquid.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the arrangement of equipment

used for separation bv gravity settling. The hear,y liquicl


is filled in the separatins funnel, thr. dry and u'eighecl
sample (marimun 10 g) is then addecl to the liquicl

rvhich should be stirred to ensure that the grains arcthorou_qhlv $'etted. Grains aChering to the stirring rod
or the side of the funnel are removecl using a jet of
heavl' liquid. Heavy minerals u'ill accumulate in thcbottom of the funnel above the pinch clip. When no
more grains sink (normally after G8 hours separating
time). the pinch clip is opened slowly, thus allouing the
heavy fraction to pour onto the filter paper in the lower
funnel. The pinch clip is closed, leaving a layer of clear
liquid belorv the li-eht fraction. A ner.r'funnel, rvith filter
paper, is placed under the separating funnel. The light
fraction is then drained into the nerv funnel. Subscquently the wall of the separating funnel is rinsecl with a
jet of heavy liquid in order to remove any aclhering
grains. Both fractions arc rvashed thoroughly lvith
alcohol or acetone and set aside to dry. The used heavy
liquid and rvashings are collectecl in iabelled botties.

benzene solutions.

Recently the non-toxic sodium polytungstate


(3Na2WOa.9WO3.HzO) has been proposed for heavy
liquid separation to replace the highly toxic

heavy

liquids (Callahan 1987). Sodium polytungstate is available in either liquid or porvdered form from soMETU
(Falkenried 4, D-1000 Berlin 33, West Germany). It is
lvater soluble and the mirleral separates can be cleaned
u'ith distilled $'ater, though rvith some difficulty
because of the high viscosity of the liquid.
In geological laboratories trvo basic techniques are
employecl for'standarcl' heavy liquid fractionation:

The heavy liquid can be re-used. After drying, the


ireavy fraction is r.veighed and bottlecl in glass vials.'
13

Figure 3.2 Commonly used cntrifuge tubes


(a) Standard slass rube. (b) glass tube u,ith tapered encl, (c)
constricted. ('Hurron') tube and closure rod.

cc'ntrifuge f ubes are balanced. While the centrifuge is in

t\\o sets of funnels and filter papeis are


arranged. \\'hen the centrifuge has stopped, he tubes
are carefullr lifted and placed into a test-tube rack over
'dry ice', or held bv crucible tongs, lorvered onto liquid
operation.

nitrogen or liquid air. The lower part of the liquid.


which contains the heavy fraction, will freeze lr'ithin
seconds. The liquid above rhis frozen plug is poured
into a funnel and the walls of the centrifuge tube are
rinsed carefully u'ith a jet of heavy liquid from a
squeeze bottle held in inverted position. The frozen
plug is ernptied into another funnel and the centrifuge
tube is rinsed u'ith heavy liquid to recover all heavy
grains. The separation process is completed in a
manner similar to that used for the funnel separation

Figure 3.1 A.rrangement of equipment for hear'i mineral


separation by grayitt seftling
(a) Retort stand, (b) u'atch glass. (c) separaring funnel. (d)
position of light fraction, (e) heavy liquid. (f) funnel supporr,
(g) rubber tube. (h) position of heavy residue. (i) pinch clip.
(j) filter funnel support. (k) lter funnel, (l) collecting bottle.

method.

'Tube v'itltit tube' method (after Gsutier & von

Centrifuge technique
Allorv 1G-15 minutcs in the centrifuge for the separation of fine-grained sediments. Separating times can be
shorter for coarser sediments. Centrifuge speed is
usually set between 2000 and 3000 rpm.
The sample volume should be in proportion to the
capacity of the centrifuge tube. The best results are
achieved when the ratio of sample to heavy liquid is
1 : 10. Extreme size differences should be avoided.
Separation is most accurate when the particles are of
fairly uniform granulometry. The most commonly used
centrifuge tubes are shown in Figure 3.2.

Pecltmarut 1931) This scparation involves uo frcczing.

It requires standard

100 ml centrifuge tubes fitted with


a tapered inner tube (Figure 3.3). The inner tube has a

collar attaching it firmly to the rim of the centrifuge


tube. The tapered end of the inner tube has an opening
of 2 mm in diameter which can be closed with a pvc,
polyethylene or Teflon rod. The filling level of the
heavy liquid is marked on the tubes. It is important to
regulate the lelel so as to prevent lifting the inner tube
by hydrostatic pressure.
The inner tube is filled with heavy liquid near to the
level mark then the closure rod is inserted. The sample
is poured into the inner tube and the rnixture is stirred
with a glass rod which is then rinsed with heavy liquid.
The closure rod is extracted and rinsed from adhering
particles. The centrifuge tubes are balanced and the
centrifuge is started. The light fraction will float rvithin

Partial freezing method Dry and weighed samples are

poured into the centrifuge tubes, heavy liquid is added


and the mixture is stirred or shaken thoroughly to wet
all the grains. The stirring rod and the rvalls of the
centrifuge tube are washed with heavy liquid, then the

I4

:':.:.-'l:.:.

,;'tt:i.i,l

.;j.._.::

*-_==
\-:

Figu re 3.-1 Procedure of hear' mineral separation b 'tube in tube' method (afre r Gautier & rrn Pech m ann 19E1)
( l ) Arranue ment of tubes. hear v liqu id ancl bulk seclime nt be fore separurion; (2 afte r centrifuge separation. L: lish t fraction, H: hear
)
(3. 1) recovc-n' of the lieht and h!.r\'! fractions.

the inner tube, but the heat'y grains rvill escape through
its opening and settle on thc bottom of the outer tube.
After the centrifuge has stopped, the closure rod is
crrr'fulh inserted. The inner tube is then re moved and
the light fraction is dc.carlted into a funnel. The hear.r.
fraction is emptied into another funnel and the centrifuge tube is rinsed of remainin-9 grains rvith a jcr of
hear i' licluid.

racti.n

minerals based on their different magnetic susceptibilities. lvlagnetic separators are usuarlly supplietl ivith
practical notes for application and tables shou,ing the

magnetic susceptibilities of commcln minerals (e.e.


Hess 19,i6;. Tables indicating magnetic susceptibilities
and the best extraction ranges \\'ere compilecl bl.
Rosenblum (19-58), Tickell (196-5, with refr.rence to
Flinter 1959), Parfenoff e al. (1970) and Ailman &
Larvrence (1912). This techniquc- is particularh' useful
for concentrating garnets. pvroxenes and amphiboles
for chemical analysis, or apatite and zircon for geo-

lll is c el I an eo us s ep a tt ti o n s
Ponnirtg may be use d to reduce the initial volume of a
sample. Hutton (1950) sr.rggested panning in the field as

chronolog\'.

method to pre-concentrate loose sands and soii


material. Panning is usualll' follorved by heavy liquid
separation to gain a clean concentrate.
The concentrating or shoking table is used in mineral
processin-q and in cases where minor accessories such as
minerals for radiometric dating or chemical analyses
need to be segregated from large bulks of material.
Recently, Stervart (1986) proposed its application for
the routine separation of heavy' minerals. Bearing in
mind the he alth hazards of heavy liquids this technique
may be viable as a safer alternative, br-rt it may not be
efficient for the separation of small volumes.

Details of the above techniques together with the


description of several additional methods developed for
concentration or segregation of minerals with special
properties, u,ere described by Krumbein & pettijohn
(1938), lv{ilner (1962), Tickell (1965), Parfenoff e a/.
(1970), Carver (197i) and Muller (1917).

Preparation for optical analysis

Splitting of heavy mineral fractians


If a heavy residue is too large to be mounted evenly on

Magnetic separution of sedimentary minerals is often


carried out on ireavy nineral fractions for the purpose
of scgrcgating a certain nlineral spccies or group of

a microscope slide,

has
15

splitting becones nccessary and this

to bc performed precisely; many analysts clo not

II h]-liOl)S

realize the ser"iousness of errors il1\rolved in carelc--ss


splltting. Sprinkling part of the residue from a i'ial onto
a microscope slide incluces grain sorting. Hutton (19-50)

then be appiied u'hich can bc subsequently removed


s,ith acetone. A single slide may be used rvith a itumber

of

successive immersiou liquids.


For pennanent tnounts, r'arious rnounting nedia are
available and tlte type ernployed depends on the
preference of the individual analyst. The classic resin,
Canada balsam (n : 1.538), has been largely replaced
by s1'nthetic resins, but rnany t'orkers still prefer to use
it and it is easilv obtainable. The advantage of liquid
Canada balsam is that it has a lnolassic consistency
u'hich is excellent for 'crystal rolling', enabiing exam-

advised strongly against 'the common practice of taking


sarnples rvith the point of a pen-knife'.

Microsplitters (small devices used for splitting) are


efficient l.neans of producing sniall portions for grain
mounts. Krumbein & Pettijohn (1938) described
several types. When a microsplitter is noi available a
method suggested by Hutton (1950) serves as a qood
alternative. A small funnel rvith an upper aperture of
about 25 mm diameter and a horizontallv cut lou'er
aperture is placed onto a large microscope slide, or
onto a piece of sheet glass. The heavy fraction is poured
into the funnel. uhich is tapped gently to shake dorvn
an1' adhering grains; tl.re funnel is then lifted slou ly off
the plate. The cone of grains. formed this u'av. can be
divided by quartering rvith a razor blade.

ination of grains irr differerlt orientations and thus


greatly assisting the identification of difllcult minerals.

lf

Graitt nloutlls

For temporary ntounts varir.rtts inlnlersion

necessarl'. grains can be easiiy recovered later rvith a

sharp needle fo auriliary anah'ses. Retrieved grains


are placed in a drop of benzenc- or rylene for cleaning.
\,iounts nade in liquid Canadr balsanr have to be
stored flat on a tra,v. Alternatilely. the balsar.n can be
hardened bv helting at l1)'C.
Slnthetic resins u'ith lorv refl'actire indices are Eukitt

(n : 1.,-iJ).Pcrnrount (rt : 1.-567)


antl Entellan (rt = i.l9l)-1.-itJ(i). The latter is 3 new
embedding agent inrended to replace Caedar and
produced br' \Ic-rck (Darmstadt. Wcst Germanr).
l\,fany n'orkers favour high-index resil'ls. as these
pcrmit Otr,lt'tglirrn berveen species by comparillg the
refractive indices of the minerals u'ith higher and lou'er
refractive indices than the resin. Horvever. it is difficult
to study lo*.er-inder minerals, especially those tl.rat are
colourless. as their outline is alnrost invisible in a highinder resin. and surface textures and cleavages are
hardlv detectahlt'.
A nerv range (rf mounting ntedia are available in the
'Cargille lrf eltnount' series. produced by Cargille
Laboratories Inc. (55 Co.nmerce Road, Cedar Grove,
Nerv Jerser,.0;009-1289 us.+). These are specially
formulated optical-quality thermoplastics and are ideal
for rermanent rnounts. N'{eltmount 1.539 is recomrrended as a replacement for Canada balsam. Of the
high-index series. \leltmount 1.662 is a direct replacenert for Aroclor 5442 and Meltmount 1.704 for
Naphrax. In addition there is a series of other
Meltmount media rvith refractive indices: 1.582, 1.605
and 1.680. All ihese products are fluid at 65"C, require
no curing tinle antl are thermally reversible for particle
retrieval or re-orientation. They are soluble in toulene,
acetone, ethl'l ether and methyiene chloride' Mounts
are made on a hot plate (this should be set first at about
80"C to melt the resin, then reduced to 65-70"C for the
mounting procedure). Grains are placed on the micro-

(l = 1.,5-1).Lakcside

liquids

are used. the ntost contnlonlt' used L-'t-'ilrg clore oil.


(n : 1.53), monobromnaphtalene (rr : 1,653). ccdar
oil (n : 1.7-1) or methvlene ioc'lide (n = 1.71).
Pennanettt portial unbetldttg and Iiquid ittttttetsiot't
merhod The principle of this technique is to stick the
grains onto the microscope slide and then to applv
successive refractive index liquids to the same assenblage. After inspecting the minerals in a liquid of a
particular refractive index. the slide can be u'ashed.
Another liquid u'ith a different refractive index mav

then be applied. This nethod is hclpful either for


routine analysis or as a special aid for distinguishing
between minerals of similar appearance lrut different
RI.

Various agents tnay be ernplol'ed to adhere grains to


thc microscope slidc. Spencer (1960) recommendecl
Collodion (rr = 1.505). This is only successful u'ith siltsize particles. Nayudu (1962) suggested gelatine for
sticking the grains onto the glass slide. andGazzi et al .

(1973) used gunr arabic. The latter is commonly


employed by Italian sedimentary petrologists for
routine heavy mineral analysis (G. G Zuffa, personal
cornmunication 1986), and in the preparatiorl of the
grain mounts for the illustrations in this book. I (tvtlt)
also used gum arabic before applying the rnounting
resin.

A mixture of 1:4 gum arabic and distilled rvater is


spread onto a rnicroscope slide and allowed to dry for
about three hours. Grains are sprinkled evenly onto the
surface of the dry gum aratric film. To fix the grains the
surface is moistened by breathing onto it and then dried
for a ferv rninutes under a lamp. hnmersion liquids may

scope slide, covered rvith a cover glass, and a few drops


of Meltrnount are applied with an eyedropper until the
grains are surrounded. Meltrnount sl"rould not be
overheated, as bubbles form easily.
16

GRA]N COUNTING

Pipcrine (n : 1.68) \yas suggested for use in grain


mounts by Martens (1932).

mation of the refractive indices. This is carried out


either by using the farniliar Becke method or by
'oblique illumination', otherrvise knorvn as Schroederr,an-der-Kolk test (see lVfuir 1977, pp. 4-5-7). Van
Hilten (1981) proposed the technique of 'oblique

Mounts in epoxy casting resins Methods emplof ine


this technique were described by Chatterjee (1966),
Middleton & Kraus (1980) and Leu & Druckman
(1982). We use Araldite D and Hy 956 hardener in a
5 : 1 ratio and prepare the mounts on a hot plate to
speed up curing time. The hot plate is heated to 90"C, a
drop of Araldite is placed on a microscope slide and the
grains are sprinkled onto it and then stirred in a circular
motion with a dissecting needle to ensure even grain
dispersal. The tcntperature is raised to 120'C, causing
the hardener to evaporate in about t\\'o minutes. A
mount prepared this u'av is very durable and is easy ttl
polish. When onh' a fetr', coarser grains are available.
they' may' be mounted on a microscope slide u'ith
double-sided adhesive tape. A mould is made b1'
placing a plastic ring around the grains, filled *ith
Araldite and then treated as above. (Note: some
Araldite is birefringent and not stitable for ordinarl'
grain mounts; therefore caution must be taken to ttse
non-birefringent Araldite).
Heavy mineral grain nrounts made using this technique are suitable for the identificrtion of associrted
composite grains and rock fragments and. if necessarl .
for the stiiining of carbonates or sulphates. Uncovered
and polished, these mounts can be used for electron
microprobe or cathodolurninescence anall-'ses.
When preparing grain mor.rnts, it is essential tcr
distribute the grains er enl\' on the slide . avoiding
overlapping and dense packing of grains. Even dispersal and preferred grain orientation arr- promoted b\
ger-rtly sliding the cover glass backu'ards and fonvards
w ith plastic tweezers or a pencil eraser rvhile the
mounting medir-rm is in a liquid state.

observation' rvhich needs no out-of-focus manipulation


of the microscope. It is based on the phenomenon that

light rays, departing from an'interface'(i.e.

the

junction betu'een trvo grains or betrveen a grain and a


mounting mediurn) are denser above that which has
higher refractive indices. Looking obliquely into the
microscope by moving the head slightly will cause
blocking of the higher- (or lo*'er-) intensity part of the
light beam. In the former case the result is a darker
interface as it receives less illumination, whereas a
brighter contact uill appear rvith the opposing movement. Observation is promoted by slightiy closing the
substage diaphragrn.

When the precise measurement of the optical constants of individual anisotropic mineral grains b1' the

immersion method is necessarr', the spindle stage


proves a valuable tool (see Bloss 1981, and Nesse 1986,
p.2ea).
Detrital minerals often appear in diverse forms and
take up various orientations upon mountin-q. Those
u'ith a good cleavage or parting settle in the immersion
medium on their best cleavage. but rrrany species,
known to sho*' g,rod cleavages in thin section, fail to
display any in srain mounts. Grrins are usually thicker
than their counterparts in thin section, hcncc colour,
pleochroism and interfercnce tints are trrorr- intense
and could bc- misleading. Prefc-rred particlc oric-ntirtion,

poor preserr'rtion or strong interference colours can


inhibit thc dc-termination of the optical character and
elongation. Irregular habit ancl lck of visible clcavages
may' hinder the nleasurement of the extinction angle.
Though the above factors ma)' cause confusion. most
detrital minerals have fairly consistent diagnostic
features lvhi:h assist identificrtion (see Part il).

Microscopic identification
N{any publications deal uith the identification of
minerals by their opticai properties (Heinrich 1965,
Trger 1969, Phillips & Griffen 1981, Nesse 1986,
Pichler & Schmitt-Riegraf 1987), and discussion of the
topic is unnecessary here. Horvever, as most optical
mineralogy textbooks convey information and illustrations almost exclusivell'for the investigation of minerals
in thin section, it is important to point out some major
differences arising during examination of the same
mineral species in the form of detrital grains.
In grain ntounts, in contrast rvith thin sections, all
grains arc surrounded by the mounting nedinm, aird
relief is pronrincnt. The techniqrre of parlial embeclding
(p 16) is especially advantageous for a good approxi-

Grain counting
To determine the relative abundance of heavy nrinerals
in a sample, three cliffer.'nt point counting methods are
used (van Harten 1965, Galehouse 1969, 1971):

(a)'Fleet ntethod (Fleet 1926): All grains are countecl


on the microscope slide, and relative abundances
. are calculated to give number percentages.
(b) Line cottnting: The microscope slide is moved by
mcrns of a mechahical stage along linear traverses
('lines') and indiviclual grains rvhich are intersected
by thc crosshair are i.lentiliecl ancl counted. 'ftie
11

t\lEtl.IoDS

rcsults are number frequencies. Ths methoci is


grain-size sensitive, as the 'lines' intersect the
larger grains more frequently than the smaller
ones, thus leading to a distortion in favour of the
larger grains.

(c) Ribbon

countng: This technique involves rarclomly

selecting ribbons (bands) within rhe microscope


slide. Grains within the bands are counted rvhile
the slide is manoeuvred by a mechanical stage. The

width of the ribbons can be measured conveniently


using a micrometer eyepiece. The results of ribbon
counting are independent of grain size and they
yield nurnber frequencies. Judging frorn references
to counting methods, ribbon counting seems to be
the most popular.

Some authors have atternpted to convert numl-cr


percentages to u'eight percentages (e.g. van Andel
1950, Ludrvig 1955, Hunter 1967, Norman 1969, MangeRajetzky i983; this method was also referred to by
Fchtbauer 1971 and Brix 1981). Conversion calculations are based on the densities of the individual
minerals and on the total rveight of the heavy fraction.
Weight percentages provide reliable values for the
overall frequencies of a mineral species in a sample and

are especially useful when several size grades are


analysed. For accurate resuits all species should be
counted, making this a very time-consuming approach.

Study of varietal t'pes


When anaiysing heavy mineral assernblages the nonopaque, non-micaceous suites are nonnally counted
excluding authigenic minerals. Some researchers count
opaque grains and 'alterites' (weathered unidentifiable
or composite grains; van Andel 1950) separately and
express their abundance as a percentage of the totai
grains counted. In assemblages dominated by the
volume of a prominent mineral (e.g. garnet or apatite),
this species may be counted separately, similarly to the
above (Fchtbauer 1964), thus allowing more accurate
estimates of rare but diagnostic minerals. The number
of grains counted is usually recalculated to equal 100 %
and the abundance of individual minerals is expressed
in percentages by number.
The precision of heavy mineral analysis is Iargely a

function of the number of grains counted on

Bramnral (1928) pointed out that 'the t,ariefal features


of a species in a detrital assemblage may be of greater
significance than the mere presence of that spccies'.
Indeed, during the history of heavy mineral anall'ses
many studies have proved that the value of results has
increased considerably u'hen the various types of a
particular mineral (or of a mineral group) u,ere
distinguished and counted (i.e. rhe varietal r)'pes).
Recording of r,arietal fearures may facilitate the success-

ful correlation or distinction of sand bodies, and may


also yield clues about progressive recycling of a

particular formation into successively younger deposits.


The recording of varietal characteristics will also permit
more refined reconstruction of source-area lithology
and provenance. Focusing on one particular mineral or

microscope slide. Dryden (1931) graphically illustrated


the reliability of heavy mineral data in relation to the

number

of

grains counted and observed

mineral group helps to minimize the effects of the

h1'draulic factor and of other (e.g. diagenetic) factors

acting to modifl' the members of an original heavy


mineral suite. Varietal studies can be conducted on
criteria of ph1'sical properties, such as mineral colour,
inclusions, striations, tiiinnng, or,'ergrou'th, zoning,
etc. These characteristics may be studied under the
polarizing microscope or alternatively under cathodoluminescence. Grain size and the degree of rounding

rapicl

increase in accuracy with increasing number of counts

up to 300. Above this number the probability of


inaccuracies is grcatly decreased. Ir a tcst on Rhile
sediments, van Andel (1950) counted separate batches
in multiples of 100 berween 100 and 600 grains. He
found some variations in the proportions of the most

abundant minerals, though these variatiors never

may also be recorded.


The use of phlsical properties may be'applied to all
t1'pes of sedintents, provided that the selected minerals
are sufficiently abundant. It is necessary to count
75-100 grains of a particular species, recording the
informative varietal types in separate categories. Zircon
is an ubiquitous detrital mineral and its variations in
morphology, colour and textural characteristics all lend
themselves to successful varietal counts (see details
under zircon in Part II). For instance, the proportions

exceeded 5 %. Rare species were encountered only


when 200 or more grains were counted. In view of such
experiments it is necessary to count at least 200 nonopaque grains to arrive at a reasonable estimate of
mineral proportions and also to detect rare but often
diagnostic species reliably.
The efficiency of the analyses increases considerably,
when other mineral characteristics, such as morphology,
colour, etc., are noted at the same time as the grains
are counted. For example, distinction between euhedral
and rounded forms of zircon, tourmaline and apatite
may permit the recognition of different sedimentary
histories (see below).

of zoned and unzoned zircon grains permitted the


correlation of members of the Karroo System in
southern Africa (Koen 1955). The colour and morphological criteria of zircons in the Morrison Formation of
18

ADVANCED AUXILIARY TECHNIQUES

New Mexico assisted in distinguishing betrveen zircons


sourced by Precambrian and Mesozoic intermediate
intrusive rocks and those derived frorn Tertiary rhyolitic
airfall tuffs (Hansley 1986).
Tourmaline has many varietal types. However, these
are not always consistent, even within a particular host

is usually

rock formation, and hence provenance reconstruction


on this basis alone should be avoided. For example
Staatz et cl. (1955) found significant chemical and
colour variations in tourmalines between the rvalls and
core of a single pegmatite. In contrast, Porver (1968)
and Henry & Guidotti (1985) showed that the chernical
characteristics of tourmaline compositions can be
useful petrogenetic indicators under particular conditions. Krynine (1946) summarized the use of detrital
tor.rrmaline in tracing sediment provenance. Beveridge
(196t)) was able to distinguish three major parent-rock
types in the Lower Tertiary Formations of the Santa
.,rnia on the basis of tourCruz Mountains c
, In a study conducted by lrrt
maline shapes and c.on sediments from Tunrsia. slender green prismatic
tourmalines with a darker nucleus were reliable markers
of several sedimentary formations lvith a common

Advanced auxiliary techniques

limited to younger sediments. Morton (1985b)


advocated study of the cornpositional varieties of
garnets as they are relatively stable, faithful indicators
of their mode of origin and are widespread in sediments.

Though the petrographic microscope remains the


fundamental tool in heavy mineral identification, in
recent years additional advanced techniques (such

scanning
electron microscopy and cathodoluminescence) have
also been employed, further assisting optical identication. Use of these techniques provides information on
chemical composition, structural and textural characteristics, and thus considerably increases the accuracy
of heavy mineral analyses, permitting more confident
interpretations to be made. The techniques are applic-

able

minerals

just as they are to their

Sufficient quantities of a particular mineral species


can be concentrated either by conventional separation
techniques or by hand picking. As in most cases the
number of available grains of a particrilar species is
limited, hand picking is often the onll' approach
possible. N'IcCrone & Delly (1,973) and Nfr.rller (1977)

The crystal form, colour, characteristic strings of


and pleochroic cores of apatite are all
informative properties for varietal studies. Fleet ct
inch.rsions

Smithson (1928) traced the source of several deposits in


Wales and the British N{idlands to the Leinster granite
lvith the aid of cored and dark apatites. Varieties
characterized by parallel strings of dark inclusions u erc-

described several useful methods for manipulating


rninute particles. Fine needles are important for hand
picking. Ther can be made from dissecting neeclles by

useful index minerals in sediments derved from a


common source in lulvl's studf in northern Tunisia.
Rutile, which is found in a number of varieties in
sediments, is also a suitable candidate for varietal
studies (Galloway 1972, Riech et al. 1982).
Inclusion-free staurolites indicated a Catalanides
source, whereas those which contained abundant
carbonaceous or quartz inch.rsions indicated a Pl renean
parentage for the Oligocene sediments of the eastern
Ebro Basin (Allen & Mange-Rajetzky 1982). Hanslei
(1986) also noted a change of staurolite r-arieties

grinding them to a finer point, or from 2-l-6 eauge


tungsten uires and a sodium nitrite (NaNO) stick
(N{cCrone & Delll' 1973). 'Tunssten reacts exothermically' *'ith sodium nitrite- to form sodium tunssrlte.
This serves to chemically etch the tungsten ancl. when
appiied to a rvire, a frne-tip needle is quickly produced.'
A stick of sodium nitrite is held or,er a Bunsen burner
and, lvhen the needle is red hot and the tip of the stick
begins to melt, the rvire is gently' struck through the
sodium nitrite melt, thr.rs producing the fine-tip needle.
It may be useful to include a few hints abor"rt isolating
grains, as this seemingly difcult process might deter
rvorkers from applying further tests. Different mineral
species can be recognized, and easily selected, under
the stereobinocular microscope by means of their
colour or morphology. Colourless, irregular and rare
grains are easier to detect under the petrographic
microscope rvhen immersed in a drop of alcohol,
distilied u'ater, or in partial embedding and immersion
liquicl mounts. 'Ihe location of the grains may be
marked u.ith a fine marker pen or by placing a small
chip froin a crushed cover glass over it, so that it may
still be founcl after the slicle has been transferred to the

between the lower and uppermost part of the Westrvater


Canyon Member of the Morrison Formation, New

Mexico.

A more advanced approach involves mineral chemistry. The varieties of a mineral species or group may be
distinguished by their chemical composition. lvlorton
of several studies

to detrital

counterparts in'hard rocks'. However, sample preparation mal be laborious.

parentage.

(1985a) summarized the results

as

X-ray diffraction, electron microprobe,

by

this method. Pyroxencs, amphiboles and epidote


minerals are most suitable for varietal stuclies by
chemical means, since their compositions shou' great
variability through solicl solution series; but, orving to
thc unstable nature of these minerals, their occurrence

i9

N{ETIIODS

biirocular microscope, fom rvhere the grains may be


n.rore easily retrieved. The selected grains are trans-

ferred onto a microscope slide and a drop of distilled


water or alcohol is added. Evaporation of the fluid
causes the grains to adhere to the slide and helps to
prevent loss. Further preparation rvill depend on the
nature of the analysis planned.

Peri-Alpine lvlolasse. N4orton (1985b, 1987) used garnei


chemistry to trace provenance.
For rapid gathering of qualitative information, grains
may be mounted on sticky tape or partially embedded
on a microscope slide in adhesive. If sufficient grains
are available, then they can be mounted in epoxy resin
(see description on p. I1).

Mounting a

X-ray diffracton
X-ray diffraction (xRD) aids mineral identification by
providing data on crystal structure. XRD can also be
useful for identifying opaque grains (Harrison 1973)
and for obtaining a general knon,ledge on bulk heavy
mineral composition (Pryor & Hesrer 1969). The X-ray
method requires finelv ground (1-10 rm) crysral

pou,der. Pou,der cameras are used because the quanti-

ties of material available are usually minute. For


further details of the X-ray technique, the reader is
referred to Guinier (i964), Klug & Alexander (1974)
and Zussman (1977).

X-ray fluorescence sp ectrametry


X-ray fluorescence (xnn) spectrometry relies upon
bornbardment and excitation of elements by means of

primary X-ray beam; this results in the emission of


X-rays with characteristic wavelengths for each element.
This radiation is detected by an X-ray spectrometer and
is then used to identify and estimate the concentration
of elements in samples (Norrish & Chappell 1977).
XRF may be used on the whole heavy mineral
fraction and may prove advantageous for distinguishing
between similar lithological units and petrologicai
provinces by the trace element contents of their detrital
minerals (Riech et al. 1982). For more informarion on
this technique, see Norrish & Chappell {1977).

fel,

small important grains without

damaging or losing them is often a problem. Jrg


Meggert, in the Mineralogical Institute of the University of Berne, obtained exceilent results using moulds
filled with Buehler No. 2G-3400 AB Transopric powder.
Moulds are made in a Buehler 'simplirnet' Hydraulic
Press (obtainable from Buehler Ltd, Metallurgical
Apparatus, 2i20 Greenwood St, Evanston, Illinois
60201, usA and Buehler-N4et GmbH, Lessingstrasse
66168,D-46 Dortmund, West Germany). About 7 gof
Transoptic pou'der ivill produce 25 mm dianteter and
10 mm thick discs. The grains are placed onto a
removable mould base. covered immediately u,ith some
pou'der. and rhen rransferred into the pr.rr. T1l. :.est of
the powder is added and the pressure and temperature
are set. The mould is formed u,ithin 30 minutes and is
left to cool completely under pressure in the machine.
The melt surrourds the grains, but they will not move
and they remain in place vcry near to the surface of the
disc. The disc is then poiished u'ith progressively finer
diamond pastes and finished by hand on a polishing
clothThe scannittg electron microscope
The scanning electron microscope (srrr,r) is probably
the most frequently used auxiliary instrument in heavy
mineral studies. A modern SEM is equipped with an
energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer which facilitates
elemental analysis and thus assists mineral identification. Robson (1982) described a computerized sErv,r and
energy-dispersive spectroscopy (ros) technique used to
identify and count the constituents, including heavy
minerals, of unconsolidated nlarine sediments.
For heavy minerals, the SEN{ is used to inspect
general morphological characteristics (Robson 19g4,
Mallik 1986). However, rhe majority of studies focus

E lectro n- p rob e micro an aly s is

The electron microprobe plays an essential part in


identifying unknown or ambiguous grains, and in
distinguishing between individual members of a mineral
group or series by providing the necessary data on
crystal chemistrv. Several recent studies have proved
the value of the electron microprobe in heavy mineral

on the examination of surface textures. These, revealed

by the

SEM in great detail, rnirror the effects of


subaerial or subsurface dissolution processes and aid
assessment of post-depositional diagnetic modifications
(Setlow & Karpovich l9J2,Hemngway & Tamar Agha
1975, Setlorv 1978, Morton l9i9a, 1984b, Berner &
Schott 1982, Maurer 1982). Figure 3.4 shows some
common dissolution features on garnet, pyroxene,
amphibole and staurolite.
Surface textures of quartz grains have been used for
over a decade (Krinsley & Doornkamp 1973, LeRibault

analyses. Knowledge of the mineral chemistry of


detrital pyroxenes (Carvood 1983) or Ca-amphiboles
(Morton 1984b) permitted the reconstruction of plate
tectonic setting in both cases. Mange-Rajetzky &
Oberhnsli (1982) deduced the timing of uplift and
'of
erosion of subduction complexes from studies
different generations of blue sodic amphiboles in the
20

Figure 3.4 scanning electron photonricrographs illu.strating prominent etch f'eatures


(A) Garnet shoning mamillae and incipicnt etch faccts (Devonian. North Sea); (B) garnet uith *ell dcveloped erch face rs (TriasSic, North Sca)l
(C) garnet -erain sho\i'ing aclvatlced stage of etching (1'riassic. North Sea): (D) aueite clominaterl by'hacksaw'tcrminaiions (Oligocene, Barrmc

strttrolitcgrain(Oiig,lct'nclvlollssc,lrfurgt-nthl.ssitzcrlend).Scilcbarrcirr.sents3tlrtnlin(A-E)antl 5 rirnin{F).

IIET[.IODS

1977). He avy mineral surface textures have receiveci far


less attention (see Stieglitz 1969, Setloiv & Karpovich
1972, Lin e al. 1974, Gravenor 1979), in spite of rhe
fact that the morphology and surface patterns of first-

cycle heavy ininerals may in fact provide better

information on environmental processes than can be


obtained from quartz, which is usually polycyclic.
For SEr.{ inspection the grains are mounted on
standard aluminium stubs which are covered with
double-sided adhesive tape.

Cathodolumnescence
The property of certain minerals to emit enerey in the
form of light when bombarded by electrons is knorvn as
cathodoluminescence (ct ). This property is prompted

by the presence of impurities ('activators'),

often

manganese or rare earth elements incorporated in the


mineral lattice; on the other hand it may be inhibited by
other elements ('quenchers'), e.g. iron. The relative
proportion of quenching and activating impurities u'ill
determine the cathodoluminescence properties of the

host nineral.
CL is observed either using the electron microprobe,
r'hich is useful as it also reveals the identity of the
'activators' (Srnith & Stenstrom 1965, Grz et al. 1970).
with the SEM, or with Cl microscopes (Herzog et al .
1970). Nuclide Corporation AGV Division (Box 31-5,
Acton, Mass. 0i720, USA) has recently introduced an
energy-dispersive spectroscopy (ens) accessory which
can be fitted to a Nuclide Luminoscope. This facilitates

elemental identification as well as qualitative and


quantitative analysis, while viewing the specimen. The
hot cathode luminoscope constructed by Zinkernagel
(1978), modified and improved by Ramseyer (Ramseyer 1983, Matter & Ramseyer 1985), f ields excellent
results with sandstones and permits observation of faint
and quickly fading luminescence.
The capacity ofcL for revealing internal textures, the
partitioning of trace elements, etc. - properties not
detectable through the petrographic microscope - has
made it an important tool in sedimentary petrology
(Nickel 1978).
Heavy minerals have so far received little study

Additional infomratiorr can be found in Marshall (1988,

pp.37-s6).

Srrith

& Stenstrour (1965) recognized

luminescence colours

rhat

rhe

of apatite show affinities to

particular parent rock types: e.g. alkaline plutonic


rocks from Greenland yielded a lavender-coloured
luminescence; Precambrian microcline perthites from

Finland contained minute

yellowish-luminescing

crystals, whereas those of pegmatites exhibited a


variety of colours, including green. Some greyrvackes
studied by these authors contained two or three types
of apatites, each recognizable by their individual
Iuminescence properties.

In

addition

to

manganese, Portnov

&

Gorobets

(1969) identified additional acrivators in apatite as


Ce3*, Sm-l*. Eu2* and Dy3* ions. They studied the
correlation betu,een activators and luminescence colours
and establislted four different groups, each one associated with particular petrogeneses (after Nickel 1978):

I
II
III

Bluish-r'iolet CL: apatites from carbonatites. and


from mafic to ultramafic rocks.
Lilac cl-: apatites from alkalic rocks.
Pinkish orange to l,ellorv CL: apatites frorn granitoids. and from their genetically related mineralizations.

lV

Yellorv CL: apatites from metasomafic phlogopite


deposits in metamorphic rocks.

Mariano & Ring (1975) examined the luminescence


carbonatites and genetically
associated igneous rocks (the apatites displayed light
blue to violet lunlinescence which was activated by the
presence of europium) and apatites from low-temperature porphyry copper deposits (exhibiting bright
yellow luminescence rvhich was activated by Mn2+).
They found that the degree of europium activation in
apatites is specific for different petrogenetic environ-

of both apatites from

ments. It may be strongly dependent on crystallization


temperature; for exarnple low-temperature crystallization conditions inhibit lanthanide intake in apatite.
Under these conditions Mn2* is the likely activating
cation.
These observations have significant' implications.
The tendency of apatite to select particular activators

under CL. Ohly the luminescence of apatite was studied

under different crystallization conditions makes

systematically (see belorv). Reports on the CL behaviour of other heavy minerals merely describe the
luminescence colour and intensity of a particular
species, often without referring to the host rock from
which it was extracted. Dudley (1916) and Mariano
(1917) reported the luminescence of a ferv detrital
heavy mineral species from sediments. Data available
to date on heavy minerals are shoivn in Table 3.1.

valuable indicator of specific source-rock types.

it

The differing luminescence colours and internal


textures of zircon may also prove helpful in defining
certain parentages. Observations by K. Rarnseyer and
MM oil hyacinth zircons from West African alluvial
consentrates, on zircons fron the Oligocene-Miocene
Numidian Flysch Formation of northerr Tunisia, and
from orthogneisses from the southern Alps, indicate
22

ADVANCED AUXILIARY TECHNIQUES

their potential use. The West African and orthogneiss


zircons exhibited blue luminescence and extensive
internal zoning parallel to their long axis (Figure 3.5A

and B, page 143) which was invisible under

the

polarizing microscope. The Numidian Flysch contained

trvo varieties of zircons, one type showing

nonluminescent overgrowth on a yellow luminescent core


(Figure 3.5C, page 143) and the other displaying blue
luminescence and sharply defined internal zoning, not
detected under the petrographic microscope. These
observations bear significant implications regarding the
cL properties of zircon and the corresponding petrogenesis which may be deduced by examining zircons

under

Ct..

The ct- properties of zircon and apatite, ubiquitous


species in both ancient and young sediments, have

23

much to offer in clastic sedimentary petrology. Sandstone units may be characterized by the presence of
zircons lv;th distinctive luminescence or internal texture
(or both). These features may also serve to correlate or
distinguish between certain sandstone units or formations. 'fhe homogeneity or variability of apatite and
zircon lurninescence colours within a sandstone unit can
also be valuable in tracing parentage, or in indicating
specific or mixed provenance. (However, these properties have yet to be exploited.)
Uncovered and polished grain mounts are often
necessary for high-quality ct- anall'ses. For the hot
cathode luminoscope the most suitable mounting media
are the high-temperature-resistant resins. A very thin
coating of carbon, gold or aluminium will protect the
slides frt'rm destruction by heat.

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Presentation and numerical analysis of


heavy mineral data

After analysis, data are tabulated and the quantities of


the individual heavy minerals are expressed in relative
or weight percentages. This gives the first insight into
the heavy mineral spectrum and provides a basis for
deciding on further data treatment.
Cumulative heavy mineral compositions can be
shown graphically when the heavy mineral variations
are plotted horizontally against distance or vertically
against depth. Pie-diagrams are informative in depicting the spatial distribution of the heavy minerals
being studied and are useful in highlightin_g differences
in heavy mineral compositions between sedinlents from
different petrological provinces in a study area. Mineral
dispersal patterns are best illustrated rvith isopleth
maps. Binary plots (scatter diagrams) and ternary
(triangular) diagrams permit characterization of a
group of samples, particularly when data points cluster
within a certain field on the diagram. Such characterization in turn helps to outline a unit, a petrological
province or formation.
Although visual inspection of figures allon's detection of the more obvious trends, the less marked
differences can easily be overlooked. and hence the
employment of advanced numerical techniques is of
considerable importance if data assessment is ro be
objective. Modern computer techniqLres allow selection
of the most suitable programs from a *'ide range of
available options.

Imbrie & van Andel (1961) introduced computer


analysis for the interpretation of heavy mineral data,
using Q-node factor analT'sis. This analysis is most

applicable in studies involving complex and remote


source regions and far travelled, mixed sands. The
Q-mode analysis produces maps shou'ing regional
variability patterns useful in revealing the areal distribution of mineral assemblages. This method also assists
the pinpointing of priucipal sediment supply areas and
the correlation of distribution patterns rvith geological
events and processes.
Q-mode factor analysis, coupled with varimax rotation, for processirlg heavy mineral data has yielded
useful results in several Recent depositional basins such

& van Andel


1964), the Bering Sea (Knebel & Creager 1974,
Gardner et al. 7980), the South 'lexas Oute Continental Shelf in the Gulf of lv{exico (Flores & Shideler
1978), the Bristol Channel, UK (Barrie 1980) and the
as the Orinoco-Guyana Shelf (Imbrie

East China Sea (Lirong et al.1984). Galehouse (1961)


applied Q-mode factor analysis to determine the degree
of mixing and the compositions of source assemblages
for the Pliocene continenta! Paso Robles Formation,
California. Maurer et al. (1978) and Maurer & Nabholz
(1980) used Q-mode factor analysis of heavy mineral
data to distinguish several depositional units within the
Oligocene-Miocene Molasse sequences of the Linden-1
and Romanens-1 boreholes from Switzerland.

Stattegger (1987) applie d rhe extended e-mode


factor analysis of Klovan & Miesch (1976) for a
statistical treatment of heavy mineral data in order to
investigate its potential for reconstructing source-rock
lithologies and provenance. This method was rst
tested on heavy minerals from river sediments of
known provenance from northern Austria. End
members, calculated by the extended Q-mode factor
analysis, led to relevant source rock lithologies and, in
addition, they yielded information on mixing effects.
Subsequentll,Stattegger used the model to treat heavy
mineral assembla-ees of the Alpine synoro,qenic Gosau
Formation (Late Cretaceous). The results permitted
the differentiation of three major lithologies, and
indicated the particular plate tectonic setting of the
depositional areas and that of the hinterland.
Principal component analysis - one of the multivariate techniques and contributing part of all factor
anaiytic schemes - transforms the original variables of
a data matrix to a set of theoretical independent
variables called 'principal components' (Rice er c/.
1976, Davis 1980) and deals with eigenvectors of a
valence-covalence matrix. These components can be
used to explain most of the variance within a much
larger set of original variables. Rice el a/. (1976) used
principal component analysis to identifl' major heavy
mineral distribution patterns along the southern California coast. Pirkle et al. (1984) employed rhe same
technique to elucidate processes controlling the accumulation of Recent heavy mineral-rich sand deposits of
north-eastern Florida. In a subsequent study pirkle
et al. (1985) successfully unravelled the original heavy
mineral composition and provenance of two economically important formations from the Miocene of Florida.
This approach also facilitated the identification of two
different sedimentary facies rvithin the large Miocene
delta.

Linear discriminattt analysis \vas employed


27

by

PRESENTATION AND NUIVfERICAL ANAI-YSIS OF I,IEAVY ]\,{INEIIAL DATA

.Demina (1970) to differentiate betu'een two contrasting


sediment derivation paths and by Gwyn & Dreimanis
(1979), who recognized discrete heavy mineral suites
useful in distinguishing betrveen different glacial lobes.
Stattegger (1982) succeeded in delineating Ordovician
and Upper Palaeozoic rocks in Steiermark, Austria, by

use

of

heavy mineral data treated by the above

technique.
Flores & Shideler (1982) employed stepvtise multiple
discrimnant analysis in a study of the Outer Banks
barrier system of North Carolina, hoping to distinguish
between foreshore, berm and dune sub-enr'ronments,

28

but this approach was unsuccessful.


Cluster anolysis of heavy mineral data rvas tried by,
among others, Rice er al. (1976), Maurer et al. (1978)
and Maurer & Nabholz (1980). Cluster analysis is
generally used combined rvith another multivariate
routine, usually factor analysis.
The studies mentioned above all give more details
on the precise nature of the mathematical modelling
and computing techniques employed in each case.
The reader is referred to these works for further
information.

Application of heavy minerals

If a man will begin with certainties,


he shall end in doubts; but if he rvill be content to begin with
doubts, he shall end in certainties.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
information on sedimentary processes include those of
McMaster & Garrison (1966) in a study of the South
New England shelf, Hubert & Neal (1967) working in
the North Atlantic, Kelling et al. (1975) working
offshore from the L{id-Atlantic tlsA, Knebel & Creager
(1974), Gardner er a/. (1980) in studies of the Bering
Sea, Gazzi et al. {1973), Rizzini (I974) working in the
northrvestern Adriatic Sea, Belfiore (1981) in the
western Mediterranean, van Andel (1961) in the Gulf
of California, Barrie (1980) in a study of the Bristol
Channel uK and llfange-Rajetzky (1983) in the eastern

The following exarnples demonstrate ttre uJrsatility and


u'ide application of heavy mineral techniques.
The properties of heavy minerals allou' an insight

into the petrological

character

of

sediment source

terrains and pci'ntit their e xtcnsil'e use )n trucittg

provenance.

An

association

of

characteristic heavy

minerals is intimately related to particular source


lithologies and may often be correlated u'ith ar identifiable source terrain. Recognition and mapping of the
spatial distribution of heavy mineral associations furnishes information on sediment dispersal patterns. A
survey of the regional variation of heavy mineral
compositions enables delineation of heavy mineral
provinces. A heavy mineral province is characterized
by the presence of volumetrically important hear'1'
mineral species that are absent or rare in adjacent

Mediterranean.

Lateral movement of beach santl was detected using


heavy mineral studies in Portland, Australia (Baker
1956), on the Rhode Island shore (McMaster 1960), on
the continental shelf off Accra, West Africa (Brckner

& Morgan

provinces. Analysis of heavy mineral content through a


vertical profile (e.g. in outcrops or in boreholes) mav
also reveal the presc'nce of heavl' mineral zones.
typified by volumetrically irnportant heavy mineral
species rvhich are absent or rare in the underlying or

1964). and on the northern coast of

Columbia (von Erffa 1973).


The study of van Andel (1955) on the sediments of
the Rhne delta is an example of how heavy minerals
ma1'be used to indicate sediment distribution patterns
rvithin a single river delta system.
Mange-Rajetzky (1979) studied tlte heavy mineral
composition of Quaternary-Recent sediments along
the southern Turkish coast u'ith the view to contributing
to the modellin-q of molasse-type sedimentation. The
analyses revealed distinct heavy rnineral associations

overlving beds.

Heavy mineral studics on ntodertt basis hal'e


provided actualistic analogues which iead to a better
understanding of the geological historl' of their ancient
counterparts. Baak (1936) demonstrated the corelationship of source areas, transport processes
(fluvial, glacial and marine) and the five heavy mineral
provinces in the surficial sediments of the southern
North Sea.
The Gulf of Mexico and adjacent regions have been a
fruitful area for heavy mineral studies (Goldstein 19'12,
van Andel 1960, van Andel & Poole 1960, Davis &
Moore 1970, Flores & Shideler 1978). These studies
revealed the presence of important heavy mineral
provinces and provided clues to the pathrvays of the
Pleistocene fluvial netrvork on the shelf during low seaIevel stands. Heavy minerals also permitted mapping of
Pleistocene river mouths and indicated the extent of
reworking and rcdistribution of the shelf sediments
during the Holocene transgression.
Other stuciies enploying heavy minerals to yield

lvhich were linked to specific source-rock compositions.


Sedimentary petrological provinces, delineated on the
basis of light and heavy mineral data, mirrored their
relationship to prominent source-rock lithologies and
also indicated processes distributing the sediments
derived from them.
Heavy minerals are often the only means of reconstructing provenance in sedimentary sequences. A
comprehensive study by Fchtbauer on the Molasse of
the Northertt Alpine Molasse Basin (1964, L967; summarized in English in 1.974) has contributed greatly to
the understanding of the type basin of Molasse sedinentation. Heavy mineral data provided essential clues
for the interpretation of sediment provenance, assistecl

in
29

distinguishing between

tlie loads of the

major

APPI-IC;\TION OF HF-AVY i\4INlrRAi.S

alluvial fans feeding the basin, and highlighted sediment transilort and dispersal directions rvithin the
basin. Allen & Mange-Rajetzky (1982), in a study of
sediment dispersal and palaeohydraulics of Oligocene
rivers in the eastern Ebro Basin, combined heavy and
light mineral analyses with palaeodischarges estimated
for rivers of differing parentage. The integration of
these two approaches resulted in the delineation of tu'o
major sedimentary petrological provinces and several
sub-provinces, all of which showed intimate links rvith
two opposing source areas: the Pyrenees to the north
and Catalanides to the south-east. Prolonqed tectonic
activity in the Pyrenean chain promoted an increasing
Pyrenean dominance through time and this is reflected
in the progressively greater areal extent of the Pyrenean province, Heavy mineral analyses assisted in
revealing the sources of sand supply and helped to
elucidate mechanisms governing the accumulation of
tidal sandbanks in the Burdigalian sea of the Swiss
N{olasse Basin (Allen et al . 1.985). A combined study of
rock fragments and heavy minerals in the lr4iocene
Marnoso Arenacea Turbidite Formation in the
northern Apennines (Gandolfi et al. 1983) shed light on
the nature and evolution of this complex deep-sea fan
system. Six sedment source areas were identified,
dispersal pafterns were mapped and the progressive
north-eastward migration of source terrains and depocentres during the Apenninic orogenesis was recognized. Hansley (1986) applied the stratigraphic variation of heavy minerals and some of their varietal types
in a study of the Morrison Formation, New Mexico.
This work permitted the determination of provenance
and the reconstruction of diagenetic episodes of this
economically important uranium-bearing formation.
Use of mineral chemistry and varietal studies can be
readily applied in reconstructing provenance. A potential approach is outlined on pages 18-19.
It is commonly believed that heavy minerals have a
limited value for tirne-stratigraphic correlatior. Resulfs
have been unsatisfactory in regions where the source
areas (usually cratonic terrains) and sediment accumulation rate remained constant for a considerable
length of geological time. Carroll (1940) stressed that a
large number of rvell located samples is necessary for
the accurate correlation of subsurface sediments rvith
their outcrop counterparts.
Dense sampling in closely spaced boreholes yielded
accurate stratigraphic correlation of heavy mineral
zones in the San Joaquim Valley, California (Reed &
Bailey 1927). Similarly, identification and correlation
of stratigraphic units by means of heavy minerals have
proved successful in Venezuela (Feo-Codecido 1956).
Koen (1955) applied heavy mineral studies in the
correlation of rnembers within the Karroo System in

the northern part of South Africa. His rvork perrnitted


locaI correlation and allorved clarificaiion and correlation of the existing stratigraphy.

Lithostratigraphic units are commonly associated


with particular heavy mineral assemblages. Depositional breaks or unconformities are often characterized

by rnarked changes in the heavy mineral suites. This


emphasizes the stratigraphic significance of lteavy
minerals. Tieh (1973) applied heavy mineral analyses
and rvas able to characterize and distinguish stratigraphic horizons of the Eocene to Miocene sediments
of central California. Stattegger (1976) shou,ed that
each formation of the Cambro-Ordovician to postVariscan (Stephanian) clastic series in the axial zone of
the Pyrenees is identifiable by a characteristic heavy
mineral suite. Time-stratigraphic units of the PeriAlpine Molasse can be clearly recognized by their
distinctive heavy mineral compositions (MangeRajetzky & Oberhnsli 1982, Maurer 1983). \\/oletz
(1963, 1967) anall'sed Cretaceous and Palaeogene
sediments from the Austroalpine dornain and found
that several tectonic and stratigraphic units can be
typified by their particular heavy mineral associations.
These units ndicated links to parentages rvith *'hich
they fornred intimate tectonic relationships at the time
of sedimentation. Weissbrod & Nachmias (1986) used
heavy mineral data to define stratigraphic units rvithin
the Precambrian to Mesozoic 'Nubian Sandstone'
sequence of southern Israel, southern Jordan and Sinai.
These units coincided with previously defined lithostratigraphic units and could be used for stratigraphic
correlation. Changes in the heavy mineral assemblages
aided the recognition of paraconformities that $'ere
otherrvise not readily apparent.
Briggs (1965) developed statistical means and modal

separation

for the recognition and correlation of

independent mineral provinces.

Heavy mineral studies have been proved to be


important contributors to the analysis of sedintenlaion
associated w'irh tectottically active hinferlands. The
vertical and stratigraphic evolution of heavy mineral
assemblages

of the basin fill provide a rnirror of

tectonic events and the erosion history. of the source


terrains. In sediments, eroded from orogenic belts, the
heavy mineral suites commonly become increasingly
complex in a vertical sequence, this evolution reflecting
the uplift and erosion of successively more complex
lithologies in the source area (unroofing). The sequence of heavy mineral zones are seen in the inverse
order of the sequence at source.

Heavy mineral assemblages are generally *'eil


in sedimentary settings associated rvith
pronounced topographic relief because of the consequent high sedimentation and burial rates. The Lower
preserved

30

APPLICATION OF HEAVY MINERALS

Oligocene to Upper Miocene Peri-Alpine Molasse


basin evolved in response to tectonic events in the
Alpine mountain belt. Consequently, the succession of
heavy minerals in the Molasse sediments mirror the
progressive uplift of Alpine structural units and thrust
movements. Minerals diagnostic of early Alpine mctamorphism are well preserved in these sediments, even
though in the source area they may have been
overprinted by later metamorphic episodes, or either
eroded or buried under thrust sheets in the hinterland.
Analysis of these mineral assemblages provides much
useful information, facilitating the more accurate
reconstruction of the orogenic and sedimentary
histories of the region. The first appearance of index
minerals from each of the multiple phases of Alpine
metamorphism in the sediments indicates the time
when erosion of their respective parertt rocks commenced (Vatan 19,19, Fchtbauer 1974,

nat only in distinguishing various individual glacial


lobes but also in determining their respective provenance and bedrock lithology in each case. Heavy
minerals incorporated in ice-rafted debris may be of use
in pinpointing the source regions of these materials

(Alam & Piper 1981), especially when applied in


conjunction with other petrographic analyses. Heavy
minerals of stream sediments in remote terrains can
yield valuable information on rock formations in their
scarcely known or inaccessible catchment areas (Mange-

Rajetzky 1981). An interesting application of heavy


minerals in the detection of the sources of Recent dusl
fallout deposits caused by dust-storms in Kuwait was
reported by Khalaf et al. (1985).
In recent yearc geochemicql methods have been
increasin-ely used in the study of heavy mineral assemblages. Silver & Williams (1981, 1982) investigated

the morphology and physical properties of

ange-Rajetzky'
& Oberhnsli 1982, 1986, Maurer 1983). The frequentlv

observed marked changes

in

N'f

zircon

populations, together rvith their chemical and isotopic


compositions to asskt the modelling of ttranium
mineralizatio? processes in the Morrison Formation
(southern Colorado Plateau and San Juan Basin, New
N{exico). Their approach can also be applied to other
heavy' mineral species in detrital sediments, and may
hell to obtain more refined information on the nature
of provenance.
Thomas et al. (1981) used analysis of rare earth
elements (nee) incorporated in sphene, allrnite and
monazite, to clistinguish particular source rock characteristics. They demonstrated the potential of their
method in distinguishing between sediments derived
from different sources and proposed its rvider use for
the correlation of unconsolidated sediments. Orven
(1937) denonstraied that concentration of hafnium in
detrital zircons is a l'iablc- indicator in provenance

heavy mineral assem-

blages at prominent stratigraphic boundaries within the


Molasse sequence document important changes, as rvell

as reflecting evolution in sedimentary environments


and changing transport mechanism through time.
Winkler & Bernoulli (1986) reported the occurrence
of detrital high-pressure-low-temperature index
minerals in i late Turonian flysch seqtrence of the
eastern Alps. These minerals rvere formed by ltlidCretaceous subduction-related metamorphism, and
their presence in the late Turonian sediments indicates
uplift of their parent rocks from about 20 km depth
within a rather short time interval. This has important
tectonic implications bearing on the possible mechanism responsible for such rapid uplift.
Heavy mineral studies have been rvidely used to
clarif, specifc problems and to complement other types
of research. The presence and abundance of euhedrai
zircon indicated volcanism in the Lorver Tertiary' of
centrai Texas (Callender & Folk 1958). Weaver (1963).
Spears (1982). and Winkler er a/. (1985) emphasized
the interpretative value of heavy minerals in recognizing volcanic clays and distinguishing between primary

studies. Owen used this method to reveal petrogenetic


relationships betrveen sandstones which rvere derived

from the same proximal source.


Heavy minerals of alluvial deposits have lons been
used for prospectitrg for gold, platinum and diamonds
(e.g. Raeburn & Milner 1927). Zeschke (1961) used the
presence of scheelite in stream sediments to trace
valuable tungsten deposits in Pakistan. Goldfarb (1981)

and secondary bentonites.


Heavy minerals of air-fall origin in a detrital assem-

located mineralized skarns in the southern Sierra


Nevada, California, b1' applying geochemical techniques to heavy minerals extracted from river sediments

blage reflect contemporary volcanism, and their


chemistry may provide clues to the nature of the
volcanism (Morton 1982a). Heavy mineral assemblages
have also been used in mapping and correlaling tephra
/nyeru (Juvignd & Shipley 1983).
Investigating the mineralogy of glacial sands can
prove a valuable means of beclrock mapping in glacated
te.rrains (Callahan 1980). Grvyn & Dreimanis (1979)
investigatcd the heavy minerals of tills in the Great
Lakes region of North America, and succeeded thereby

down stream.

It{ertie (1979) demonstrated the value of heavy


minerals in regonal geologcal exploration. Saprolitic
accessory minerals assisted

the delineation of

the

economically significant monazite belt in the southeastern uSA. Accessory minerals also proved useful in
indicating the metasedimentary or migmatic origin of
granites oI this region.
31

APPLIL-A ION OI] I.IEI\VY \4INERALS

The analysis of eavy mineral concentrates fron.r


'alluvial and colluvial deposits as well as frorn soils is
a technique widely used in kitnberlite prospectittg
(Kresten et aI. 1975, Leighton & McCallum i979,
Hearn & McGee 1983). Brown (or chromian) spinel

mineral spectra ancl can be correlatecl basin-u,ide.


Heavy mineral assemblages are useful inclicators of
proximality/distality of a location to the source regions;
they provide clues to the definition of sedintent
dispersal patterns, thereby helping the assessment of

can be a valuable signal of diantond places. In Namibia


it is commonly associated with Recent diamond placers

sand body geometry.

(Zimmerle 1984) and

it is found in fossil diamond

placers in the northern Urals (Bekker et al. 7970).


Several earlier papers on the economic analysis of
heavy minerals in sediments were compiled and briefly
reviewed by Luepke (1985).
The contribution of heavy mineral studies to the
solution of problems in basin analysis, petroleum
exploration and reservoir management is considerable.
When allied rvith other sedimentological and/or stratigraphical and geochemical techniques, they have much
to offer towards a better understanding of the history of
a basin. The study of heavy minerals proves especially
informative in Iithologically uniform clasric hydrocarbon reser\oirs, as they can reveal the petrological
heterogeneity of the successions. Such heterogeneity is
highlighted by the presence of distinct heavy mineral
zones in reservoir successions, recognized in the
distributional patterns of heavy mineral species and

paralleled by similar trends

in the ratios of selected


mineral pairs. Major changes in the heavy mineral
spectrum usually coincide with peaks in the plot of the
ratios, thus permitting delineation of independent

& l\{angeRajetzky 1989. \lange-Rajetzky 1989) and unpubtished


data on petroleurn resen,oirs in different countries har,e
assisted in the reconstruction of the depositional
environntents of marine and terrigenous clastic sediMorton i988) and my published (Allen

ments, and hale helped

o provide an extensive

information data base of use in rnore accurate modelling


of eservoir derelopment and quality distribution.

Although the purpose of this book is to provide a suide


for the identification and use of transparert heavv
minerals, it is necessary to mention the intportance of
the opaque suite. n hich often constitutes the bulk of rhc
Use of polished sections and reflected-light rnicroscopy are essenrial for the identification of opaque
grains. but this technique is generally neglected by

heavy mineral zones. Heavy mineral zones rvith similar

sedimentary petrologists. However, the value of


opaques in provenance reconstructions has been
demonstrated in the few studies carried out (Blatt 1967,
p. 1038). Sanders & Kravirz (1961), by summarizing rhe
results of several studies, emphasized the importance of
opaque mineral determinations in palaeomagnetic
research, economic geology and in the understanding
the origin of red beds.
Stumpfl (19-58) pointed out the significance of many
opaque species in interpreting hinterland lithologies.
An assemblage of ilmenite confaining finely exsolved
lamellae, together n"ith 'pure' magnetite and ilmenitehaematite, is tvpical of acid plutonic source terrains.
Ilmenite, and ilmenite with exsolved broad titanomagnetite lamellae, occur in basic plutonics. pseudobrookite is characteristic of volcanic rocks. Hilmy et ol .
(1971) investigafed rhe opaque constituents of recent
beach sands in Kurvait. Their analysis has revealed a
diversity of opaque minerals and has proved useful in
tracing the source of these beach sands to various rock
types present in Turkey, Jordan, Syria and Iran.
Luepke (1980) used the magnetic opaque fracrion of
beach sands on the south-rvestern Oregon coast to

importance in basin-wide lithostratigraphic correlation.


Heavy minerals are sensitive indicatosof sedimentary
processes and are useful in signailing changes of the
depositional environment or facies. This capacity can
be used to assist facies analysis, important in evaluating
reservoir properties. The morphology of many species
may help to distinguish and correlate aeolian horizons
in successions where fluvial and fluviolacustrine sediments are interbedded with aeolian deposits (Allen &
Mange-Rajetzky i989 and in prepararion). Recording
characteristic varietal types and computing their ratios

to the identification

interpretation ofuncored sequences. Studies by N{orton


on the North Sea (1979b,1982b, i984b, 1985b, Hursr &

heavy mineral fraction.

characteristics and containing similar varief al and


morphological heavy mineral types can be correlated.
Therefore the use of heavy minerals has considerable

provide important clues

In the knotvledge of their chemical stability, heavy


minerals contribute to the evaluation of diagenetic
episodes and burial history of reservoir successions.
Heavy mineral analyses can be performed on drillcutting samples, thus providing valuable data for the

and

comparison of different sand bodies and to unravelling


the recycling paths of older sediments into successively
younger formafions. The presence or absence of certain

varietal types of the ultrastable suite is especially

important in this respect.


Structural events in the hinterland, resulting in the
exposure of new lithologies, are mirrored by distinct
changes in the heavy mineral compositions. These
changes are recognized as marker horizons in the heavy

distinguish betu'een source and wave-sorting effects on


32

APPLICATION OF HEAVY MINERALS

--

the distribution of heavy minerals in the area.


Darby and Tsang (1987) focussed on the variation in
elemental composition of detrital ilmenite grains in the
sediments of three large drainage basins in Virginia,
USa. Their analyses indicated that ilmenite compositions remained virtually unchanged along major river
courses and also that the compositions were specific

for

-1

-)

different drainage basins within their study area.


Granitic, mafic igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
sources were clearly identifiable from different ilmenite

& Tsang concluded that this


approach can provide an additional means for distinguishing tretween the sediments of adjacent drainage
basins and for determining sand provenance.
compositions. Darby

PART II
DESCRIPTIONS OF HEAVY MINtrRALS

paSe

SILICATES
Olivine group
Zircon
Sphene (titanite)

4t

2 Calcic amphiboles
3 Sodic-calcicamphiboles

41
45

Andalusite
Kyanite (Disthene)

A1

84
B5

85

50

Hornblende series

B8

5,1

Staurolite

5-5

Chloritoid

57

Epidote group
Zoisite

59

Clinozoisite

60

Epidote

6l

Piemontite

63
61

4 Alkaliamphiboles
Glaucophane-riebeckite series
Arfvedsonite
IVIica group
Muscovite (including other white micas)
Glauconite

Biotite
Talc
Chlorite group

-s9

Serpentine gror.rp

B7
91
91

93

95
95

96
97
99
100

Prehnite

102
103

OXIDES

104

65

Tourmaline group

67
69

Axinite

l2

Cassiterite

10rl

Corundum

Brookite

106
701
109
111

Spinel group

712

SULPFIIDES

113

Sphalerite

113

Rutile
Anatase

73
73

E,nstatite

74

Hypersthene
Diopside-hedenbergite series
Diallage

77

Augite
Aegirine-augite
Aegirine (acmite)

84

86

Dumortierite

General considerations

83

49
52
53

Pyroxene group

83

Tremolite
Ferroactinolite, actinolite

Topaiz

Larvsonite
Pumpellyite

General considerations
1 Iron-magnesium-manganese amphiboles
Anthophyllite and gedrite

39

Garnet group
Vesuvianile (idocrase)
Sitlimanite

Allanite

Amphibole group

39

75
78

79
81

82
35

LIST OF I{EAVY MINERALS

SULPHATES

1I4

Baryte

1"14

Celestite
Gypsum

L16
1,I7

Anhydrite

118
119

Jarosite

CARBONATES

120

PHOSPHATBS

125

Apatite minerals

125

Monazite

128

Xenotime

130

MISCELLANEOUS

132

Scheelite

Fluorite
Calcite
Siderite

1.20

Dolomite-ankerite series

123

t22

36

L32
133

Introduction

Go my sons, buy stout shoes, climb the mountains, search the valleys,
the deserts, the sea shores and the deep recesses of the earth.
lr{ark well the vrrious kinds of minerals,
note their propertics and their mode of origin.
Petrus Severinus (1571)
said that 'a picturc is *'orth a thousand rvords', but a picture
accompanied by'a descriptive anallsis is even more l'aluable. We hope

It has been

that the full-color.rr photomicrographs in this part of the book will assist
the accurate identification of hear'1' minerals by complementing the
clcscriptions of grain molphologl'. optical and phlsical propertics.
Multiple grain mor.rnts of each heal'l mineral species uere prepared
for the images. Heavy minerals u ere selected from a varietl' of
sedimentary environments in order to provide the most informative
illustrrtions. Grains affected b1 dissolution and the most common

varictal types are lso inclucled.


Cargille Meltrnount series resins n'cre used for mounting the grains
and the particular mounting media in erch case is indicated at the end of
the mineral descriptions. Nfeltntount 1.-539 and i.-581 rvere employed for
minerals rvith lori'to nredium Rl. and Nleltmount 1.661 trls used for
those minerals nith a high relief. This approach ma) present some
problt'ms rvhen compnring reliefs. but uas necessar) to achieve the bcst
possible presentatir.rn of optical and phvsical propl-rties.
The individual grains \\'er!- first stuck onto a gum arabic base, thus
securing their position. Thr'resins ur'rc then applied. In spite of
painstaking efforts. in a feri'crses a little air became trappL-d bet*een
griiins and the gum arirbic filrn. This appcrrs in thc illustrrtions as one or
more small bubblcs. These nrar easilr be distinguish.--d from surfrce
patterns and inclusions and shoulcl not be confusing.
t In order to facilitate the best oLrsc-rvation of pleochroism and
interference colours, the polarizcr u as rotated instead of the rnicroscope
stagc.

The age and locality of the dcposit fron rvhich the minerals u'ere
obtained is indicrtecl for all illLrstrations, except for those lvhere
commercial confidentiality still applies.
The optical diagnosis was confirmed bt' microprobe analysis for
minerals u,hich required chemical means for positive identification
(e.g. amphiboles, pyroxenes, carbonate and sulphate minerals and rare
species).

Chemical formulae, optical and physical properties and occurrence


rvere taken from Deer et cl. (1962,1963, 1978, 1982, 1986). These u'ere
complemented in some cases rvith additional data from lvlilner (1962),
Heinrich (1965). Parfenoff et al. (197A), Phillips & Griffen (1981),
Boenigk (1983) and from nrany other publications.
The chemical stabilitl' of the heavy minerals is cliscussed in Part I, and
in acidition the stabiliti and plrtictrlal scdimentary occurrence of sonre
prominent species is brieffy summarized uncle 'Remarks'.
37

INTRODUCTION TO PART II

' The descriptions of heavy minerals are arranged in systematic rather


than in alphabetical order. This facilitates liaison between the English
and German editions.
Abbreviations and symbols

CB
CL
Mmt
n
r)v
RI
2V

x, y, z
o, 13, y
o, fJ, y

e
co
6
A

Canada balsam
cathodoluminescence

Meltmount
refractive index

(or r<v) the optic axial angle is greater (or less) in red light than
in violet light
refractive index
optic axial angle
the crystal axes
least, intermediate and greatest refractive indices
the vibration direction of the slow, intermediate and fast ray
refractive index, extraordinary ray
refractive index, ordinary ray
birefringence
density

: length slow
negative : length fast

Elongation: positive

Length of scale bar: 100 pm

38

F#

F*avy etaiga*sal dcscs'ip*eas

and cq;l*ur

pBe*s

gELECAg'flS
livsae Grerup
liisteritc ftr;rv:rlic,l*l'i*s
rllr,rrllrrllrlrr(. lrlrsrlrl ( i ) t

ibrsteritr

i;rvrlitr:

fulg.Sii ],t

l-. 'Si{

ttlt. l.il7
;rli l.-\9
ry .H7iJ
, (i.il5l
n +..it!

rtt t.l-aJ5
rlt l.{i5I
it"i i.f7{l
i-! ll.tl-15

Fti'sir:r'iic (Mg olivinc) and i:ry:rlite {Fc-olivilci ars ihL' en{l


r*nrhcr: qi :r :;ulitl :;riluiii-rt sct'ics :rttl, rvitct chcniical atitl vsis
his ilit ir,-,c t:ittietl rtui lo po:;iivclv irlrrrtil-v :r !rartir,:r,lar
ilrlrtrtr*r. gtnitrs in r:edineri-*:ttt usually rlesignail:ri a:; eilivine.

Firen i .trditttts:

iipcr:iirrens {} aril th} lirrsterii<:


ir;cluretl. lngriar, irregt:i:ri'tir ritttic1,
oftctr aiiainrn:r irigh:;1.lit.-'i'i.-:iiy lurpr:r)-'! fre! lrcttrcnllv
i:rc:li:;r: minuis- ilplrrluc impuriiie:; rnii :;hr-* iitv b iqh'r.
imme,-i rii:;s,-lu'rion it,-iiliu,'s;tri r,ilirit: c:iah l:itia:ins on heir
l'o::ae rilc:: rl serplrntini::cd hrlir::s irar,' lie :ii;rcle r-l ir
=utfar:c.tr tuvctcLl lrv : yr'lltwi-sh rl Pilc ::frtLtl ihr,iu:; :e t ;ctrtitrc.
ilivincs oi' tr:irirsive rcck:: :r:rc;ii' ia : v:rrie iv ri li l:;. eid
:rrc erlr,-iai. rri:rnatic, ir',:sula wrih rcnchriitl;l fr';rcIttc:r.
ttnriq,El {rt vL^lv ivl-'ll rr}tt!l{lcr1. lncittsi,rt-: itrlr v(}lciiric rlirt ir .
:;pinel, iipaiitr. !yr.):ienu- plagiiicl:rst, ::i c rd ilntnitc.
Alierititr irur!uris -r[ .:lir:ite tiitr:ls :e iir q:ii!c:;,

olivi*es. e-ireis

r:

::.5----------=7:=

!- -i -..-4,,.-tl(iEli-:

l.iisi.jrtic l:

L.-l<rtlc:s

:livirr:s :ra!: .ji.j! f..riutlt-!:i,

lt !r,:;>: hr;= i s ;.'

Fv:rliiie
llltt

! I !

i va't ::ic ':-rr:rn. ilihrr


ii ;;i,,: irii

Eiiri-:v i,,:ili:iv

lrrr::riiir :.!i.,,!"., :iiu ;r.l-l!:iirhr,:!ir:


rrt;ik- i...!lr1: iii i.r.;i!.!: :rrll.f*

l=j1!fir-:iiri:r ,rii:-il:rv

rl:'-!

I I .

fiirt.fi'ittottt<:-'.- ir4iii.,'r;r i,; :-irii!:-: i;iriigr:r i:li!li:- !!


.i.;id i-lt.:ri*r*nc.-'lrrlla!!t:t i tiltt(i'rrd*t :it:F:- velLrt::irt,-i
gicen- lj+t:!-'r;l irti+tllr-:: --'irUi l:rtri:::!Fll!!'tr:ii:?i::.ri
--ihc in a,;iaLrirtria riugr; ii; iarali,-'i rviiil irr c':-,:;:l iuiiirr
!:glr!at ] ililfl'!'!: l!!li::;iiir.:!t eiiiiiii:: :ir,' !i;i fiim.:.i.
i hicL :':ii:. rii:;i!:i';

:tr.; hirii ,.ri,Jrr .;tllcr.,'i:;it-'+liiii: ai:

:iiiL,

iilieiiiece int:;

!-,i*;egr:ktrt: F:'-!triti! ir i'!r!!gliri!i gL.irii:, h;+c ai::lic!


i:::i;ii(iii!i.
!--.....i
iiltL-t

.--..l\,("Al\'i

.,r,qifd_,

F i..i,'iEl{

',,it! t!ir r::i:.. il;:tri:.

..viir

:ili1:ir'::

ii::i

1,iii!-:r,li.rll

:i f,i!i!::i :iit;r:rl!i

i:;iig.,,r.'.

= =g-

==

=
t--:

e.

iddingsitr,. :i,:'rriiir- i)ulvitirrPs. at{

==

,-:..'=
=,:==

--

:-re

IltrAVY I\llNl;ltAl" I)lrS( l{ll'l'l()NS ,\NI) ('()1.()tll{ I'l


surrountlcd by nunrerous hright colorrrccl isochlrrrr:rIic rings.

- -OccasionallV
,._can

bisectrix litures with p:rlc isogyrcs lrrd l:rrgc 2V

bc ttbscrvcd. Othcr oliviltc vlrrictics rrovitlc biscctrix

ligurcs rvitlt either poor or wcll-dclinerl isog\,rcs ultl scvcr;rl


_..colour rings. Dctermintion o{ thc opticiil chunrclcr is dilllcult
as the dcnsc colour rings obscurc otrscrvation.

Elongatitttt:

Eithcr |t,:itivc or rrr'.r:;rlire

Distittguisling feoture s: Olivincs are diurnosctl by lairly


high relief. palc tints or Iuck ofcolour:nrd stronq bircfr irlrtcrrec.
irencc vivid intcrfcrcncc colours. 'l'hc fleclucncy of tlissolution

'-

fealures is also clistinctilc.


_ *hen prcscnt, is diagnostic.

Sel'pcntinizalion or itldinqsitc.
P'rorcncs alrd antphibolcs ure
usuaily associrtcd r ith tlivincs in scdinrcnts and thcir
--occurrcnce rray signal its prcscncc. Prisnratic olivinc grrrins
resemblc cnstatilc. cspcciall' u,hen both are sc-rrenlinizcrl.
-'However, enstatite sliou,s pyroxcnc clcavages and oftcn
:tntains exsolution lanlellae. The bright intcrfcrcnce colturs
' -'of olivincs rescnrble thosc of clinozoisitc and t()iliz, but lroth
Savc trctter cleavases ancl lack the characteristic dissolrtion
pallerns frequcnt on olivincs. Pale-grcen olivines can bc
.. _Jistingui-shed fronr epidotc by thc highcr rcfractivc iniliccs:rntl
lrlcochr.ri.ru of lhr' l:rltcr.

Occ'urrettc:a: N'f cnbcrs of thc olivinc group ir c rrintip:rl


-constitucnts of nranv basic itrrcous rocks. Forstcritic olivincs

rrc importanl rock-fornring ltlinerals oi nriflcs lrnrl trltrnllrlics


---and are also gcnerated by the thernlrl nrctarnorrhisnr of

'mpurc dolontitic limestones. Iron-rich olivincs frrnr


'alkaline

in

felsic rocks such as sonre sl,cnitcs. rhyolitcs and

.__

lolcrites. The nrelanrorphisnl of iron-rich sedinrcnts ntav


irtr' f;rl lrlitie,rlir incr.

alsrr

Fcrl('r

Renlorks: Duc to the ir hishiv unst[)lc n;r1:lc. olir iltcr rrc


--usually found onlv in Quatcrnary lo l{eccnt scrlilrcr1s.
' 'Graitts
front: (a) Bcach sanrl. sruthcrn Turkev: (b) rivcr
:and. Centovally. S*'itzerland: (c) beach sancl. Tcncrifc.
-Canary Isiands (tr,lnrt 1.-582).

40

ll,S

.li{{-'i I.j

Eineeac

-_
7,rs,{

}.t

I(tt i ''t:'i 't


tt l.!i'rl l.{}i5
il i|-t|-il {,.{i.i

t:;E
==,

7-iri:r inirs iu)f)rjrr rvitl a r,t r'!' iiglr

-F.:

I'rxgmt:lts. :(i t:thc(lr:rl rrf.,,:riiils rrr: stl<ittlitic- Flv crr!1rsi.

irccits qrf :rfkose:; lirt mosfly sharp rttiiedr:il cvs;ill:: lr


etrlr:ilrlrl gis'"viih ---r-lgr-l icrir:iirts, lu wcll-iqruirieri
iitrtrts:rrr, ri i{im()1. i'.iicOn:; :lic rfiq:t inil<)i(igc!t!,-(}t!s ;nrl
,t"a1l ir,,:r::: ,.i :rritg itvc hec ,-li:;tin!:ri-thcrl o ilc h::r;r 'i
iyrit ;rnrl urr.qiir. .-!n d,--lri:rl *r;iis ilr: rl!orvi' i'/:i-'s r:i
q

hr t*r:it*t i::er-i :

ai 7-rining iL:srriiir:r i''rr erriirtrrrs *rirth. l'hi:; i:: :;c*:r :rs


vcv lir:t i--errrls gen.,t'liil', rlr:r!!cl i<i lre ct'-vsial buunrirv_
lee<rilt tieser nrer !ilu Pealrlt

(qcc()nil irirgc :rririr!!e i


h1, r.:vcrgrcrvi!r:r:rr,i
iltligt(rrih. 'l ir: iq;lrtr ait ita i()tl! rvilr_:t:,' : irc,:rn ::ft
euhc:qlrl : wril rtril:,ii i:; tiira:i:illv ilvr-:i::t(l!1.i i-;v :r
',,

(bl Diseiniinur:. ts,alt is i!(icittcri

l;lk-:i gcr:ttii oi ,:rci;! ti !r::::; rirqriqlv ::r:iir*_


:li!r!r!t!{i;}g ii i; ll :;iiie:; q;ir I ,-- Ei:i.ii:i: r!..irt*,iii rir:ti:lii-{ iil i;r r:ril i-ra ih! .J.fitin i:]i_.1q! ;
i?llr i

l'h.j. ! 1r.li.!t!c ii

r:r!tiirj!l:iilrr :lv;ni:!:cits ir i,:rrtlrErl

ihi

iliariar {}i "riiing lti iira!gi}:vti- i<:gcilr:'triih iEL: ri{-'::L!ft'


;i r.dir:lrtivt :rncl alL: i-:tili c!r!trnis 1li*rirriir'la;r:i ii.!7lr:er:rl:ri,r. l: l,l).a-uigiil.xth:.:irr_'rsrailtiiiu! FrhrrEir:ri;trii-.lll
irarie.i(!!!:; '3q: i+'ili') rr,';r!: iF"il ;i r'L'tl:i; i,, {rig-!:.
.i
lst?r:i. ! h.,.; er i:t' iccir {}r ::rr}(iiir!:. }ri Jcliraic riur.:
'
.,
:ilrggrj:;i:i lhiri alav arr qlr:il
tt :iliiirnar-, ai rt ::

j:e

<tiikcrl:r'i: ihe:;r irilt!aij':i:.tvivt rfr::irl :irid it;rir:;!r(!ii:li;{}ir.


-!-l.se

.i!r+i:. iiilr:.-':lrihit :i:;!i:tiL:tn !ii f;teiaii'i-':.

==:=

lalgr-i glliirrs. 'i'hu srr i,r: ol il.tr Lrurrl*l gr:tins nrlrv he riti.:tl
aild ristcil- liiaiistii:s indir'rrir: ihiri Tirc{ilr ri ti::i :antlsiord:
i:; tcParr:tct-:rl rierkrriiirt;iniiy [rv (tundctl eL:riils Qr ;flgul;ii

5:#
,-' -:
-:Eg -+ .-: =
=;.-:.-=lE='
E "-= -E ;r :=

=:]i-F-

itt rvriii:lasi.t i.1::;


ihr :r'irins irt rrtrt:r'}.
U:;u:rlly ihc rvi,itl r,l:itrttincs c si:L: di t!r-'1]l in .!
lr;ri(:uiii sii(:: ifiil'li()n. rxtlre r hft!r tlre length. In :;crlimuti:;
ihc inoi'ihokr1, uI tircrrtt !if:tins v:uifs ftottt slt;iLr .-:tthcr-it;tl
crysfils ihrrgl is:irc lrld .inhcrirxl fra:lnlt'nts. gt rtirrs ;viilr
gcntlv riltrn(lccl icrfirir:tiirs iii rtcll-tiiutrtled iirtrs :rrtl
arlnrplelc :;phercs (lowct). Rriurrdirtg s ilr(irc i,-lr,;rrrri ilr

i:a

:,=: =.!

-i.(1. tlrousl iiictc;rc r:i:-e:, rslrcr:i:illv


.Jhcrc il is grralcr th:r -l {! i{-g- .{{}tt',rl

.=.'.8

ri:lir:l'lrnrl Ih,,'v arc srrrr]rulrlLrri [ry;r [rlirr:k h:rlir. {'vsi;l:-:c


gcttcr-ally':;nr:tll; ilrcir;v{ir-iirr lengtl i::;rtlsIrrrrs arrl;rrk-osrs
is (1.15 i|-15 lnl ;rlrl th;rt iri siltstorres is [].(l-i.(].lj rtt
( Polcl.--rvaurt i955). 'l'hc ni)r phol()geirl ch:tracte ristics il'
zirr:trl trc (lctcl-nlinLr(l hv thc plrysiell :rnti chctticlrl colrtlititts
tluring grorvtlr: thcrr:tirr.-' ;rir'^on tncrphrtkrgf is rvirle lv t'cgarrlcri
is a pL:rdglt.lctic irqlicaor. (A.-ilnilcnsctl rcvicrv 0l t'rpcrirr='ltal xnil pt: t!'!)l()!licirl slrilics or uiteor is iivcrt bt.-.' !ireti'
i9ti(f.) 'l'lri: Lrl.)lg;rti()!i (or i.ltJ) -iriios oi ;:ircotrs (lcirgtir
elivicletl bv brerrt!th) generally iidic:tte ihc nittt'e qri lli:;l
'icks: in igncous rrek:; thc:vrt:lgl: rkrtlior :tli, is l,-,s:: illtt

:-':i.. i

g
E

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.\

Frru it ,";:iliu:n!:;:

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cnrmcrlr,

::trli:rir iim i!rj.:r:lif. isu!lv:l:rtig !.i*r inIlrrs(ii:.


iui.rr i i!.i5ill :ai iiit!irr! iltis :lri:ni:rnenrin ic ilie ':r.-ii:lrci i - it',
':l !hc ri::i. Iitlu:;ir;n:;;rL' ::::;!!; iittiri gichult:::. rli:it!a:;.'rir,:c.:.:q:;iiiir. !!i;ti;!ia- hirait uiiit. ci!:r:.;ii.!=iL. Lrrir
E

:r;llin<: lni ..iriti!uL i lL::-

ti
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r. !

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'i.;' l"ittri i:: fiilrlt!iir-:,:.- r,rtL. ,urr1.. reri ii:!lrlr:.


it:lii;1i. 1;t1,'r hii:r t it-1,, i iv:r'i:ili i:: ih.. piril: rtttr1,.
:ill;rrir,, -!-h!' i'rltl,ti:ii iii ilri!:l :iii.-i!i!:; :irL Liliur!r':;:; iil
Fil 1,. !- f iq' oi vf :i{-E :.[itlr.:; ; I :]1!irii!.!!t:i,: {'ir'nt'it't i.;-

'.

r...

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lj: --.- !'=-:==


ii!itl.iiti!;i
ii. iJLilii

h:l:_: i :;irir:: iri.:l'iu:r,-.- lr,-:nrc


ilietlrirrr'1'1rl!r!!:- iui-'Iii::i ll+::.,,iir- r.,i;iish lrllou..
tinl: in !hir:!.ei s:it:-.'i'iri:c r:1ai::;!!;Li i:irntn!ii.;.1:ttihii
iiri:liii 'r,r:ili;r+. {!iirii.r- ireetr lrilil q:.: iii::. t;:allr,,.viiir r:r.i:u1!
i

i:

rjIi Lj!-.jri-'i,

r:i,iq ttr

l:: ttls.

l=i.ti!rz'!!: r!t::iq:ririi gain:: :rilrr\.' i;i;;r!ir! i-':.:i!i;riir;ir


i;i;':'.ia';'l<': ili:l-;ft:': Ileirii::l ::irq'ir:; lrir:1., !rr-,,irlt. rqrii!
iric ir:ri:lcr' i!:r'r:: !irl,-!rri :rrrri pi i::i':i:tiir. i:raia:; Lririt!lli!!E..
virlt! i:li l-'i:l::i:li iur'i,::r. s.it;li:. erl!riit ir;r::rl :rr!r,1:. r
ftriltl'r! gr:i:n:: l:iViitL r:i! i]

illrt

hi,' ,t.tr, l;itc!tit,.lrlrr::ltil

!i:::.:rl ri:rt'-iir_i irteogrii;:rr-l

ilt-ii-!{lfL:.,i -ii i:il!-.ir

cl-.li!!.Iir:. lr!(iviLir: aci'lrr{l r Frrit!ly .:ir-:ri Uti:i_ri;;! iirilr:


in:: rviriir: fir:l1. tl'i1l o r",,iili-ui i:.,crhonc:;. !::ir.nr,

rliil ri,'rr ir '.,'llrittr i lsllrlq'


Elttngtlitttt:

!r(is\k:. hLr! tlilli--uli tr

:=
$hse

rvc.

[=ei:;tinEuishifi!:.-r.riurc:;: ::ririr-';eli,-'i.,-.harar:i-'risii
Flr(rl(igf t|ld irir(ilg biicll iirgcn..]a:" logrrllr: n,ill ih,. l:rck
()l:i-tf{il}li cillot!i:;. iir {liililnr)stir (r /:ii(i}!1. l i: lr,.rii lhr
lcrlrlilv iderrlili:rblc l:trii i!iilL:tl:;i,-! rnlt it a;rr L:r:;c:; c:tr
m{r

:,,

ii be urtirr:r-:ri ririli :iUcl r-'r:rilt:: ::; spltctir.. {ri;11:ie. l!iilr.


qr;tii:rit(jriLc :rnd ::r:nifiut . Th: lii:i.in!:e1.r. .)i s!lhr,:!l.j :_
strililg.:r. tr,-l trn:l;:ic lr:r:; ;l liw,:! *li-.{. vcllorvish c
hr'wrish
!tltjf,Iri:ih cololr::;trl lir-'11:iriiita!. !)iii!t
'
stair:r (irc tr-r deeiii.rrisiiirrr. lt arkiiii.i ihr chlrLcir:rislir
:rbsorriio:i littr's ii lrr:r ilc (scc ultdqi. iQnil1i1-' o rcn0{intlr )
Iticl ;r prrsilivr rli:;iini:tir:rr. I{utilc h;:; : highi: ,:liq.i- tlr_rr:tei
coloun arcl i:; t:rtrillv plcor:liroic-. {';:r:riicriir-.li:r:;:rr alireirlr:
t-clir:1. sir'olige r cnlorr:: ittrl bilrlt in{cncc. 'l hc til til .itrrotirc
i:. lorvr:r anti ii c:llitril: highi' -qr tle r.. ;rlnos rriiill rvhite
l(ilati:rlior coloufs. .{cll,-rtirrc cil!.} il:;(} irc tlistigui:;hci liv ii:r
_

Ithsorri1r :ipccl rl.


P.atli:ttirtl tl:ttt:tg-e. rcslliiu liqrr r:rtlirr:liyc ihriuit:rrtl
rrarriurr it ziic,tr. c(invcrfs ctvsrlrllinr zirr.on inlo:in oiticall-1,

nnotl)ll(irt:. slfll(:tul'a. l'!te ltroci::: is

trrrrlrd mcl;lnritlizrtioll
antl nretric or nlllltcol zirerls; :rrq ilLlsk.,, ,l;lrk rcv. brrvl
js,rlrlri1..
"r ltl:rtk lurl rrrrr;rllr
Llu:ltrrt:tt't: Zirq-rn is a rcnr:rkfrlt' r,.,itltsrre :rtl lr!--.ssory
rnircr;rl ir toaks ()l cruslal urigin. ll is plrlliuularlg lrlli.ir!iiorlr
ir silieic ;rl iliernrcrlilttc ieile()us ri)aks. !l alsc liilnls il
nt;rnllc rr:nlrlill:-. lunat 're!,,:;rntl lcic()file:i- ?'-ico lrv
tceh hir:h tr)tcr:ntr;riit! in sorrr

11,ttufks: Nc olhi:l iicjr5:-{}rv rilitrrr':i! h;r:;


inr:ttsii,,-'1,t, :r:; z:iii:i1. l-li::

sLrcl;r:: ii:; rrliilLriiriu::

'::rr li, il.ihtiri!

ilrL-5Ltl.r_r

;rirrl

pllrt_:i-.r.s.

hr:E:

slrrclictl

ltr-lr_'h s;rr1:.

!l:lrl:ri

;:;

i.

rtr:r:i;rl rrr:ililir::lrll lvirr:, (r il,.1::;.

ii:; titotpl:iilogi{,':l cllitit(:iL:fif:iir: :rntl }riglr lrcc!i;lnir,';rl

:rrt!

==.:..

r:ltcti:li silrhilit'v- 1,,';lutirrqu:; trrl cxlltusiir-.t:ilt(iir,:: !tvc


loctsccl (l!i ilic trbilvi' ;!spar'i.i i.r'r' Str. l1g1 lir ltrlct,-:lrrrJ7-irctit nirf'ltiiir:r, r, ,t.-tt usr-.-l lo rleiernrir. i!rr. trlrrr.t:
Irntl gcnesi:. tl ilc rrr-k:;. ln inirrsivr' gr:ltril.r(l:r :,t.!.1!lr is
qcnat:illV erltcilr;l. lltr clt:rt;r,tle il i:liti ::lrcqi: ilr irtr:ii=
rlt()fftlrie t{i{ k:t ieacepi m!{nt;,tii{i,::;) llutrr hr:r ke.,, it iriliuliitt:
thc igneorr:; oi sc:i-lintnl:rV origirr o! llr.j p.oiiiliil- l].irnlcii

=.=
-==. t.

==

--=

t,.=t=

J'

Z-IRCON

shape, especially high rounding index, is regarcled as a


criterion of detrital origin, though occasionally this may be
caused by magmatic corrosion. The ternlinations of zirctns of
orthogneisscs are often curved and zircons of kimberlites re
rounded (Krcsten et al. 1975). During intermediate ancl highsradc metamorphisrn, zircons retain their inherited shape;
therefore rounded zircons may be supplied by variou:
metasediments, schists and parzr-gneissesl If conditions are
favourrble during metanorphism. grains may develop over-

in migmatites. anatexites and somc contict-metamorphic rocks. the majority of zircons recrvstallize to euhcdral
crystals but the presence of r relict core is not uncontrllon.
The nrture of zircon in seclimentarv and igneous rocks uas
highlighted by Poldervaart (19-55. 19,56). Extensivc studies on
zircon morphologr' ('tr,pologie') and implications were ntadc
by Pupin (1976), anct Pupin & Turco (1972. 1981; see also the
many references in the latter).
grorvth.

The purple colour of zircon is attributed to prolongecl


radiation bombardment; consequentlv rhe intensitv of shacics
increases *'ith the anlount oI radioactive elentents in lr grlrin
and also uith geoloqical agc. Studies b1' lvfackie (lql3b).
Tomita (195-1) and Zimnrerle (1972) assumcd that rnost purplc
zircons ol sediments *ere derived from Precambrian source
rocks. Gastil et al. (1967') noted that hyacinth zircons lose thcir
colour pro{ressively rvith incrcasing metamorphism.
Zirccn is regrrrcled irs one ol tlte nrst .stablc ninruls. The
mincralogical maturit\, of hetvy mircral assembluscs is
defined bY thc zirct:rn tourntalinc-nrtile (zrn) inclcx (Hubert
1962). Zircon pcrsists througlt severrl scdimentr! cvclcs antl
cliugcncsis, as rvcll as through ntetilmorphisnt. lts rcfrlct(,t)'
naturc is *cll kno*n. 'I-hc rcsistancc of zircol is rttributctl ttr
srnall size antl lack oi clcavaqc. Undcr ce rtuin conrlitiLtns it rs
susccptible tc lkaline leaciring (Carroll 19.53, Blumcnthal
l9-58, Colenran & Erd 1961). Carrtll listccl s*,eral rvcakncsses
rvirich arc duc to zoning, fractures, inclusions and brt)kcn
faces. lvletarnictization results in structural instabilitl,. Thor,rgh
thesc factors cxist. they influencc onlv a negligiblc proforrion
tf zircon p<lpulations.
Zircon in palacotcographic stutiics shoultl bc trcatctl
clrtttiotrslt'. as its slrlrJrc antl sizc nury bc trrrilornt throrrglrorrt

rr [orrnltion. l)ronoLrncctl chan_{cs, howcvcr. lnlrv incliclLtc


diflercnl s()urccs. [)u:in (197{r) rlcrrronst'rl tl lluc oi
zircons in tracing the sorrcc ot tletitus ol thc []crnro-'frilssic
stnds!oncs in south-cast [;nrnce.7-ircolt plit]s an intportant
rolc in tcochrurrokrgv (Faurc

1977).

Crains frortt: ?-irst page. uppcr: (a) Uppcr Eoccnc tuff


horizon, Possagno, Italy; (b) Carbonifcrctus. borcholc Wciach
129-1 rn, Su'itze rlndl (c) zircon u'ith ovcrgrorvth. Carboniferous, borcholc Wcich, l.lJ I nt, Srvitzcrlnd: lvlicldle ro*:
Carbtnilcrous, borchole Wciach. 143 I ln, Srvitze rlancll l_orvcr
rorv: Buntsanclstcin, Triassic, boreholc Kaistcn. l{)6 nr.
Srvitzcrlancl (lv{nrt 1.662).
First page, lorver: Zircons exhibiting various clcgrces of
rouncling - selectecl fron scvcral ancicnt sedinrcntarv cnvir-

onnlr:nts (lvlmt L(r2).


Seconcl page. ntiddlc: Zircons exhibiting rlultiplc stages of
growths, lluntsantlstein, -frirssic, borehole [,faflhau-1, 1822 nr

(Aroclor).
Secontl pitgc, lon'cr: Zircons rvith (plcsuntablv xcnotimc) outgrorvths, -['riassic. North Sca (Mmt l.(162).

43

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-ia . ::i!
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!tii .'r!rrtir rri tilqr, l,!iilr s'l!glil lt iliiliiliiii:t' !'t!1.:ii::

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r'irrlqlri:ri! (!i!1 iii:!ilr' iIlrl:.i;ri !lrlirii.j ;r!ri .llr',,r1. i ilili:
i,,
:llirr:riiil
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llil'{!irli '!ti1r'L:1L:r,l i(i l{-rri{-:ii}:r!!u ln iiggt(:gi{q a1 ltiiL'.
;1fi:ti:rsLi;liril hiiiiikilr:i lvlii.:ll i:;:;!'.ji r!iaici cllti'itr! ligli :r:-:
;-c Iicr..,i::I i ii-rI! iir :;uiiiIliltL'.
'.( lll!i

l,illt'.'

:-'ii{ii!i.-:!:i- r:rlc qii:,'ii-

!igr,' 1r'llri'ri.. rr !irlii

;i.;:le;i:;;l-'{ {ii.!..:.iriiit:;ii1;.;:;iii.:rr:rL;lr:rir'!irtrr:ti:.
t' r 'rlr'trilr':,:. i!:ii' 'r ;!tt. ll r:rl. lrrr,.r,ri:h ..s ilr"'r iq' li;ti'
l lil".l',1: ir( ( ,''iiii:;t. l!,,r,'r! ;,. rirrl .', ,t r'rt

li i r<' i'r i rt g,t n taj-' Si rt!lg l( .:{ii.:nrt' ;iii t lr' cliei rriv ::h()vr :l
:;iighi 'l.rintlirg.' :!!- llrq ili.lilsr-:{![rr- siii.g., i: o:rie-l- itriu
le'enr:t-' -:r1q..rr:: iiiu rlL:fii irigh-ortL-'; iiti:, i ::ilrlq vr:llrr,v.
yL:ii1ri:;ir 4.r,,riif ri tlf;ifl ::!ev []u i(] :ji:i!tg ii:-itr:ior lllr

rql,ru:, rll,: (-rli:lge ii:llr:lliitt:;:;l:.; hlttr'. whf,1;pllr'ii:


Li{}s. i{} .xlinijiiril Iriit! :rtri i:; clt;rlaelcri:;iic.

!'..t-i:iin: [,]iirrcrrl sh:rpr-'i.i gliit:: !l.,,c s!,r.:i ir;!


e::in,-jti.:in. lititrg rlisirt::iO!r .:-u!i:i itr iririiiltictc c\iit.t(:tlillt.
in.itr.ii:rtnt't

i1urt:: (iri:. thar slr-rl

;u.nr:rLrus rricr

fcrcnaL'!'ill()ti:.-:lrri ilrr0lnplciL'r:=:llrtrrn _vir-:ki eerrtred or


slightlv oil:ce nt!c ;r{-:riir hisccti:: ligu-es :rsl. iirrt-,rrdrrg on
thr Ti=aOt!lcni. sontiil.,,h!l vilti:rlrlc ]1t'- 'I hr- i:rrgy.1 l-,cd)nta
h{i}ll.l{l! ri rlii-lusr lorvrilS thL. LrXicti(!i' o tlir Iigurc itr(l:f'j
sttat{rurdaii !rv iltltt,-,rilus tlril i::or:ltrilttc {-uf\.t:i- t i'*.
(licirri :.i1rrt i:; c::l r:cl v

::t

uns-

i:-i;tittiilirirt: {-}lr:;ei'uiior qr ilic- elttguii{rl is Llili(juit r5


irio.i:: riar ijlr:;eutr{l br,!ii:l-rrtlci inictir.:n.'e iillis.'l'hc
tlili-t,-i-::l;riirri :r;ili:: tta lfii!ih !:lsi ir i!q, litr,:r:1irl ri ile
Irl!iF !i iii:-1()riil.
!ii:;iitt.:ti:;hiitl: i'cr!!i:a.\- !irl:r:uc i:,,-li;i:i::r:i lv hirh
iil:i'i!a, a.1eillr: q:liri. :iii]!rq hii'l;nltrncr-' itn( u:it!:tlv
-l'lt.-

:rhiir;rrrl:tl riii:tri;t;tiiiiii L-i!tit!t:t,


rh:rr:,-i': iriia ir-' ict{'r,r
iig,riri: lrntl s1trtg iii:;Ft:::io i-c al:.ii iii;rrir;iir i{lonJ./.ltu.
a:ia,r::iiijiiir'. tttla- r:ris1f irll{-:iitrr!i{ilf il::1 lei{'ilillr':;rlir:ire.
! Iirv+.,'i:'. l(il:;r.rla !:. k,s,-'t R-l ;rttl l,-iwq-rdrr irlL'rl!r('rj(:
rtii..iLr!:t- l lrc ntrir-rltriiogr,, iri ct:;:;i1cii,_. i:.: rithet pri:;lu:rtiu rrr
irlegul;rr. ii:: i:ilorrrs atr ritr:rr:t :r:iil oilcr aFplrlt it :; p:rir:liy
ffrlgalrriri. l,oisilc iu:.:i l!r!'Jci i(-:lci itltr! i1 ili:;ll:r1,:;

==

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:::.:
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!rr:; lorver rel rai'tit,r' i1,-licc::- rvr:rk-ci

rlisiinctlv lllc{)(:hr{ri(-.-

hilr,lingenct: lrn(l nri.ti:tl prrlariz;riiiiri tilrts. l:,itile erlilrri::;r


lrightr rcliel. rli:lirrr'i riror:lrlrrisri :lnrl nrtftlitl ini'tl._.rLltuu
t:irlol:;.
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un(lcrs;liuiirlr(i :!nrl i!i('t1lc(li:r{e tlrrlonic trick:. li nre! lilli
ii pr:grultliir:;;rirri i;r lrr".-i:rrllrr';riufe Aliittr'-1r.,rr iein::. lll:;
it sl:ltt-s. lt i:: le :::: .:-cnl11)n in volelrrir' 'srr:l;c, h4cl rrnl plti '
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irnprtrc r':ih:rila:ri!"!.!.'k:i crtlirlolill.trrrt{;riit::tlreirr


!i,+tn tt f i'-s : 5rhrnt' i:-,'h,-.rnic:rll.: rrt:ri;rhL :rrl rr::rr;llr ili::
:r(rlur5 ;ri :r etrl! ili::!' oi rli;rg.,,lr.::i:. !it ::rcri;rl c;r:,.:: ii
dec0tit-lilsc:; inl lr;1q1;:. {lu;!i:--':itrl,-';ilCiir (F.,t:tri ililtl;trr l(iSi) ri irrr:., rrririlir. ilt!iltiFrni( -:t.!r:iiitl:: i()gq:illa
rvitlt :rrrllrirrti,. lii:riuin rrirr:lrls ((irill:li:.elirv lilt',l. I ,rr1i
(.llri
I r,!('!{.i. Al(lrll;rr .! lt-i o ;:ri I
i.

Gruit:; ./ir;,';t.' t r1-- r(!w: I crl:iv iniillins .l r:nl1ti\


'I'urk-cv; l-rvr:r arr..,: {':trlrrtilrruu:-.
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l.t1,-ri.

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tu

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isiirrct ir:
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n

alrurlilire l-cr'Al.lsi{}rl,
slte:;:.atiine futn,.{i.llii{i,,1,
il'lsrAl. l:;i)rl.
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llaAl. lSi(),lr 1.71.1 .1.4-.l.ft
atxrf;c."lsi()rl, l.sli7 i.7-+.
{-a1(-r. l5i{-},1, LHaf} .1.+.l.s
1

f"trn it sadin{!11fs: i,)ctiitirl tr.ncts i)r'cur us erlterlt'ul


ru'), sltirtr itl-tlgttlar lrltgnlctrts (ttirltllc.
rlFur ror.v) lrn!l \uhr()uldeLl t() r.)tlll(lL:(l g-rllilrs (ntirltllc.
rttirkile riirv)- llneven 0t tottelrtitlttl brcltk;tgc Pllt-'ftls' itflr
tlle t crliliited. Dissolutior Ir:ltlttrcs tc[ :rs rtt trt:c Pittillg.
rr:rnill:re lttrl rw:ll-lirrntr='il c-leh lacels ltcrtt,:trtlv ilcvelop oit
gr!nb (llraiilg cli:rgcncsis (i,-Lllc. ltilut titrv). (lle:n:rue i';
:lhseii hui { l(lt)} rartirtg (itl itltitn!litrc n;rv llo,ltr:c pl:iv
tirin:;. lrrr:ltisi.ttr: rrl rltutrtz. irtrn ,rrt. :rPiliii!. ileott. rtttilcct'ys1:ils (uppt:r. irst

iilr:.cir'ite. lliQiit(-' att(l gtiPhitc llfc e()titt(ttl.

<

==#

i:--e::-

ur,i:li(ivii i:; ralr r-rcen.

ir ini:t nt.' !'vi iirc uicl alr:rndinc erc i tlv isoit,rtrie.


::rc:;:.:rftillr r'iaf shrlw tligltr artistrtlrr)isll. iln(l ihc ttgrtnilil,:
rt:

:
:

: -:-

==

-5

-:===::
---

=-=:

-:l

iniLr tLl Lrncc

f nii:ri i:r tntc: fi 4trt: : Arris,itr r,,ir' L:rire[\ :rrc unirrri:rl or


li:rii:rl ieetir. i1.11 .,,ni;11lc lV ntl :.rnrciitu-'s :;trrr
i-lisr.-,rsiiirr. '(ri;!ai rcianl()tllhL'giifnci:l ilV :;hrii+- :rltett;
ting isoiro-rrr: ttl I'itt:iringr:ri i)cs irit'ltll.-:! 1() lhu ('.v:illil
i-ace::, -Pic sharctl'wcilg-es rr scctor trrinnirl: lkrrver. righi)

llt;li l,'.r.,rllr.,rrllt tir:li ri;ri:.


I,ti:;izHishin!: i:!it!F<'.::: i irrr r.-:i i:; r:i'ri.rr i r;cri!rtr :'
iiri ligh itlici. irigcihci iviih i:.oirripir dll:riricui. '-'r:rl-il!::;
:iH .1:1t ,li.riirrrrr:, l-ir':r :, q '. i',ilr'r !,r,.',, nr .i!' ;tii'
,lisiinciit,- :liiririr:lcrii !-:r iir:i::. lrili .:;lt!sr-' !a!iL!:;i(::il- hui
iila ld1! ii.:ii-'etcr cr!rirl:: :rri iinir:: {r. isitinr ii:.:-rri l
iht: irL:riiir':riii. l'ht riluu ll :pinrls i:; clecrei.:;!iiilrrli1r..
i.i

thr=.., <L:;plu';

-:j:--

--=-

:--'-

gtortp. i-':;pur-'i:illv gtr;-:stllrr;lrl:rrrli:rrlitc. eilttonlv ltavc


.Ji::lk irii t'ifiltrlcc ;rrrl sh{)!ii :f(-'v or' bltri:;l-rvltiit:
cilorr:; (lcrvuri.

F-----._=

=.4 s-=-

d'oltu': !:'vi':rlsriic::ilnfi:i:rrc rrhrtttlcss. light r:rlc rink,


r;rlc tc,-l (rl i)inksh lrtorn. {-irtisstl;rt ril iltc ugt;tttclilr gr'np i5
c()l()iltlcss i() ilille grcc.r. :urtlr:dite is r:rle to ,-lcclt [L,r*'tr ;trtl
i-i i

,niiliirfLl:r! ri;iiiiil ;rrril :ri. ir!l! i:;iiirilpic

i i_'-'u'f'Ei':: ii;itr-:i i:: eli1ixii1 in;t.,.iti-'ii; oi :iicilrnii;iphi.


r'!::.:iiiri i:; iil:r{i il!e::rii iti rirri+irir iglirriti-; irir:k\, ilelii:r!ir..in rtli;rt:ii,: r;rr'ir-'tit:; :rri iir :iirq: :lcirl uoic:riir:; :t-g:trtis
(u'rarlite:;) ;r. iL-:-iriLiL'rl i.:' .ililr(i !ai;irirrrirliir inpui.l
iirr::;iiire:;. i.-'ii::(ili!{ia:;k:t:; littl i(r.;r'ili::i.; !iiiilrii ii,rli
irrir: li.-rsttinLr.i l-1r:, a{:i}Lii !rri:riliLi}il!ti. l-igrir;ii r'. :t
iiir,: -rllr(:iri:r :,1 ir: iiutri iil rri,-ltitil,-,s t) :{-:Fr-:rriiliir'" !r
::r'rliilrtlts:rlit:r,,1ite ir- iir Q:; Edc:;il'e:!(i gi!iii('i.

l?'lqrl;:;: i h.:,- trii':! ( (!lir.i;iii(ir -i g;1.. i::l irrr:iirr


I'i ire .th,-'iiiL;rl :riiri ' I i<:tlitiri:: dutil:: Ltr:,iitl gtiiu'ilr'
ihr-rr-lirrc : lr.i(.s!a.ig(: ri ilcii;l l;tei tlitii:.i';:ill(i
4-q

HF-AVY MINEI{AL DL,SCRIPI'IONS AND COLOUI{ PLATES


conrpositional zoning is a reliable tool in rcconstructing srlurcc
rock t)pes and povclse (Morton l9g5b). Carncts aic fairly

sensttive ro acid leachins (see p. 7) but they can survjvc


rec'cling and, (o a cerlain degree, burial diagcncsis. In
decply buried rocks, faceletl garncls are often found togclher
with highly resistant zircon, tourmaline, rutilc and, not
uncommonly, apatite.

GrAinS frOm: lJpper: Llpper row: srream sancl. Melezza.


Switzcrland; Mitldle rrw. lcft: Oligocene glass sancl. Laussach,

southern Gcrntrnl,; nidtllc: Oligocenc, Barrnre Basin,


Francei right: Carboniferrlus, North Sca; Lorvcr row: Oligo_
cene. B.arrrc Basin, Frrnce (Mmt 1.662).
Micldle: Upper rorv: Cartonifcrous, North Sea; lr4idclle row:
Borehole Leyntr'n-1. 252nr France; Lo*.er rorv: etched
grains. Devonian. North Sel (Mmt l._5g2).
Lou'er: anisotropic and tu'inned grains, Oligocene lVfolasse.
Saro. Francc (l\lnrt l.6:).

46

Vi:.:lt.rVlAN I-I'l :

VesuvEanite { idoerase}
{-l

r,,(

\l,Fc3 '

N.ls,l cr ' ) ,(si.( }7).r( sior )ri}(o.ol I.F) r,


tctln.oul. uni:rxial ( - )

) r,,(

itt 1.7(xI l.74rr


nt't I.7(1.3- 1.752
ii tl.()(ll t)-(ltli
'1 i.:r-r-.i..1,,1
F'rrn in

seitiftttts:

Vesuvianiir: recrrs as short t, nrre

ly, long :risnrs. rt-ismlrtc lragrricnts; ltl-stt sh;trp argulrr,


irrcgtrlirt rlt equant gritins. l{tiurtded errtcrs ltl tottnrled t0
rare

wcll-rountlcrl lirlnls arr: n(){ trnci)tl(rn. Clc:ltvltgcs :rc se kkrtt


observed, 'l'hc plisnratic lragnrertts arc tst:tllv tround rviih
rlailr. rvcri crvsial faces:rntl thcir sttritc.-s m:ry sli(t\v -cllitll
Lrtch pits. cracks or dark diser1,.ttt-atirn. Inclusititli ll-L:
inlrequcrtt.

{slour: (icncrallv colourle:;s, LrllL: vcllow or prlc srlr.rn.


Tlickr:' grrits oceasiotrallv displav crilttur zortittg or irr'gula'
crlour- rlistritruti0n.

Itleu:hrlist' (- irkrured
B

i.rej'ri tryen

t'r.'

grain:; rtr:rv slorv Iairlt plcor:lriiii:;rir

Wcah, :rntl grains crhihit fir:.;t-orclcr rlcrp-

ycllow cr dull grel,ish-ysllrrv irlerlerencc ettloLtts rvhictt ;rc


rltrir lrl(riflLr(l rc;rr criinctirn rrtilri. fuft)st striking :lrc.
l<wevcr. ihc ;rtom:rl0u:. illlcfiLirc1L-L- tints, rvhir:h f lgr-' if(ln]
ilccr dark yrll,rr,v- b'rirvrirh ycilorv lhrottglr pur[]k: i(] intcnsc
trl,rc (Ecrlin hluc) or rla'k attvc. Srrnc crvstlls:;ftrrv
hotrrgcrrtu:; polirrization r(tkiuf::, iillre r:; displ:ry ;r frlsri (if
ihe rlrve sh:tic:" rrftcr v;rrvirrg rvithili :r :;inglc gnrirr. ,/.onal
:rt'lgcnrant li ihc vell,rrv rt airrillirlrius crlcur:; is oec;rsi, rt
allv dcir:r-tahlr:.

Ei lt:ittl :

Irisatir: gi ;rir:s huve per:rIlcl

rrtineiion.

lnii'rie r,-:il.t:,: figure:: { }ficn rorirlv ilisplavcd. fui:rnv qr:rnrr


:;how faint ilashcs oi hi;r:i:rl isogvres ..vith lalgc lV in a qlull
dark lrr,.ru,lish ve llirv Iieltl. Wcll-.lclinr,rl isoeytcs n<l ilistinei
,-li:;per:ri,iu ilay hc tlisce ttrihlc r)r s()nf, rpccimen:: and rtrtr
'arr:lv an of q:cnIr!: urilxial igur.: is::cr-. The biaxi:l rty:.t:tlr
e eiilrc' iliriicallv prisitivc iir rtes;iivr-', hiri iirtiaxiiil gr:tin'
gn-r;lll\ ..irrrrr :r nt g:rtirr'
di
t,t ttl'ital

.i,rr-

et. i l:,il:,'.li\lll:li

rl( .'irirr'

. 1{'llt;rriIl

!.ii:;li;r.qt:i:;!ti;t:: i;'r!it!'i'.\: !!irir , li, l ;rnrl , h:r:r'it;i.,ii,


r){-laiijriiiiilil Liirirrts ;lir iliagrtostir fur.*rvcr. ihr laiic ir;r,.
1.::r-l iir .:rrrlir:;ir. iitisi:rkirtg ve:.uvi:rti[e lirr ;oi:-ile-,-liri
;'.rigii,: 1;= :.!.rhcic, 'lic;r-ii:;iie li:r:; gririd ,:ltavare:i- itu ilr':+
:Lt ;tci".'rli:-rl;ivtrl iry r't:-itvi:iiriir 'l ht ycll,rr': :jh:t!is:j !ti ilf
.:ciisii: aliil(?riisiir, itciieietee iiis le rii hi;hr:r'rrlc ;!trl
thr iier,:[ purFle !];!uvc :rrd !lrilir hluc r-'i]l{-rLrr:i afr' rlr:;er!i.
li'rhcrir h:i:;;r higttcr tliei.;r disiirtct::tr'i;ee iriler:iiritt:it,l
:;irong rlistr:i:;iir. ilieiringeni -gri::rrlr g;rritei. ivhieh i:- iiitttt
irir:ii.:i;rlLr(i '*iih -:i:r:rrvi;rnitc. hlr: gr'-vi:;h q'hiit itir:ticlrtr:r:

ril,it!=:;:iil,l:.iiQtigllj ttriitlci-l !i!'iaiullri.)iv r:rlinriioil


i.!:<:iirr+:;t<:':: l'!rc iiiirci'rlri lIreri iriL:k:, rl vr::;rrvilrit .rr,i:.il:!a: rcil!!li).ihic i]lrilgerr:ir:. ;l:isr!ciatur! n.viih inprrc
iic-riirt:..:. xy'c::u..,ititi: :l:ri ice(is in :;kars anil ,rec;i:;itnltllv
in greeit:;ciri:;i:..- A:; e r:;ttlt oi *xll:iunr ntaas()fiririisrr il liirr:.
yLriti:. il r!itr;ilr:t:tit-- rock:;. in :;errcritinites ntl if i:. ;r t:h:,rr;rcle
isiie inr:il ,ri t"lingites.

J7

(I

tr( i{'RASF

U
,
\_.
\.-

IIf:AVY

MINF.."ItAI- I)E,SC'RII'I'IONS

Retarkt. Vcsuvian.itc in setlinrcnts has lcclr rcporlcd fronr


various Iocalitics (sce Milncr 1962). It was ulso mcntione(l l)y
Cazzi & Zuffa (197()) fronr tlrc Palucogcnr' Emilil saxlsltncs

of lhc northcrn Apcnnincs antl it is c()rnl()lr in

srrnc

(Jligocenc fornrtions of llre Barrmc Ilasin. southcnl Frlncc


(Evans & Mange-Rajctzky l99l).

Graitts from: L)pper: Oligocenc, Barrnrc Basin,

\.-- (\{mt

l.-582): Lo\\'cr: same locality

(Mmt

France

1.662).

\_.
\J

\J

48

ANI) ('OI-OUI{ PI-A'fi:S

:;tt.t_tMANt t !..

in a hcavv nirral suite ntiry indicatr: ilre

tillimas!ce

pri;sqncr: of

sillimanitc.

Al:oIsi()4l

{}c(urrenct:: Sillimaniic

lrthorhtmbir:, bia.,{il ( + )

crv:it!llzcs

in

high-ieinperalurc

rnetlrnrerrphic r,.rcks :ntl ocrlrr: in sillinranite .-corulie rile gncissc:; rntl biotilc sillirn:itc lornftlscs. lt is also prr::ilrnt in

t(r l 654-l.irrrl
rrf't 1.653*1.62
it! i.7j I.i-l
{}.{tl0 {).{t2l
_1.23 3.21

granulite i:cies ocks. High-g,ratlc ertirnal mclamorplrisnr,rl'


relitic nruk:; ;rl:o pro{ucr:.s :;illintnite -

{irirls

(Mmt

Ftrtl it :;<:dintt:lls: Sillinranite nrost commonly (ict-rrrs :rs


Iong sleniL:r prisr-rrs cleiugutcd on r', sh()rt stout prisrlatic

./i'r*it: riral; :;iimirlc,

F}crt

rii Bcira.

M()zatrrbi(pie

1.5,!2).

frag,mcnts, cquant grairrs and also as c:lclrvagc inrgmcnis or

irrcgularly shapctl particlcs of largcr crystals. (irains nrli


rlisrlay a crrrtain rlr:grcc of tountling. Elcsirlc thc prisrnalic
nrrirplrrilogy, sillirr-rnite cry:;tallizcs in a llhrous style whieh is
usually callccl librolite. Thc laiter lppelrs as fine nctdlcs in
parallcl or stbparallcl intcrgrorvth ad also as intclllcittg tttitts
of fihrcs (l'). {)ccnsionally hoth habits can lc ritrsen,cd in a
singlc grain (SF). fitxrtl {lll(}} cleaveic is c.xhitritcrl hv nany
spccimens. Iclusirlr:; ri srinel, litrtitc artl zirr:on arc oftcn
pte

se

ili

tlt.tl.r: Pri:;nratic gr:riirs are colourlcss. Fihriilitc !l)l)firis

witli a pale gi'ccri (ir palc blown

hue

Plto:hroisnt" Slight prk: trrqrrvr to pilc vcili)rv plc<ielrroisnr


is rarcly dcteciahlc ii lil:r,.ius grain:;.
llirefrint:rut:ar.' ful()(lerai.r tii iairly strong. A slighi 'twinkling", c:;pccialiy o{'the iihrcs. i:; niiiiccatlc rin it:tion. Itrisls
and iibrcs display billi1 -ceeorrl= anti thircl-ordc' irletlcrcncr'
ciiour; rvith ycllow. grecn anil ili.:.1r -iink us riorninant shadcs.
E3asal ragmcnts h:li,e krw i:ircfringcnce , hence iheir ;oluri:.:;rLi0n colours :l-c iirsi-rrrrle ' gt'.-,_V ;lnd yclkrrv.

!t),ri!zttitl: iii ih.j pr:rl:r

rd fi[r'es is -prar':rllel,

5F

Initrjtt'i:ttt:t: J"ig,urc: Prisratic grains antl clc:rvagu inr{rtcnls Vickl la:;h igurc:;. A rvcll-ccntrctl icte t)isfctrix iigure
c:rn iL- iiftitted ironr iragmr,nls ancl ,ch!i't plisnts rvhich lay,irr
lheir bsal Brlane r rillcd otu their b:s;l plarrc in r)frllrr i!)
qi.riait an iertcrcni:i,' igure. lsogvre:; rppea in l ivhilc i'
"vtlL...r iield wiihirrf isoc-htritesl. lV is trdi:r;ic
*c ! c

fig

i , r!-

ry

P+r;i i i v,-:.

LPi:;iitz't:i,rlti.ilt i:rii3, ]isi!iir' halri ;rd b illi:ni


iiri'ijaerc- c,-lGUi'x:ir,: i;rirlv '-li:;ineiita- E-:iii:iic L)!rri:.
wlil :;iila' cii,-:i na./ hc rurluseii 'rviih ::illiraii,:" iui if
ii!iEr.ji iit.: t!:;r:llv bri;ir:r. i:ttrttl: :ri :hrr.,v !i.:r- hicirir
gt;rc=. Itt ;u-k!ititn ihcy {:lici,-':iilii r:.::;t;ltiicr la',.lll.,.
:;tL-t"ritrri:.::iioi :!ir! i-a)arlfnlly arPriti r.viih :rggctl clgr:s ,i
-'hin :;illin:riii-'
c!i.",=liy r;the: :;i:n..: oi ilist::ilr:ii,.::1.
ir'i:;nr:, *ii
wc;ikct lr(!:rri?,r,airlil aall(it:; -':;enrtir :rr:riir:. ht1 ihr: i:riir:r r:.!errgiEr iasi. Anrlrlr:;iic lrs a lit",'c' 'clici" un irriig!l;ti hal-'it, !
i:: lcngih iilsi iiid rrsti:iliv plcochi.ii!-. +ilittoplr!:lliir rri:ir'..
;;,rv i: La.)nt::eil rvih :;illi:tiio-:. hrr ile irei 'lr;v lrr
liLriir::llllr' itciriii,t- Fr:r:tutl,qi ,tt lrlt-'rl gt;rirts atr iiicr,:
driiirrii io jiie.iiiy. Fihri!iie :.irliiigly rc:i.:inlrle:: ihe ilru:.
:iiiiliiirhviliti: vlii,-:t!,gcriiir, i=il ivhicl dislinr:flqii bv l-'ir-::ri
igi-r ltlr-tc s iici al\,t:",,:::;t:cac:;:iri. {icdritr: hii:; ilccrc;
raie br,rwir.t E:1.v.j hai L:!11)ut:1,:inri ttstt:ill1,rli:;;rliiu:;
lia:li ii:tiarH!: lgichtrti:;t- l-l;uriiliie . kv;liie :rnri :rid:l:;iii:
,1q

llF:,,i1Y h4ll'Jl:li1.

lllr:l{'!{i!!'!!(ji{:rl

AFlt-r {'i.}1.{}ii-i: tl t-.:l

AadaEu,-;e
.41.{!l:=:iirl
orth,:r'h!ibia.

li:l;i:r!

s{t .lq f.ii4{}


tr[!' !.ri.]:i L{-'.+4

ti .{'}.3:-l l.i;tl
r1 i).0{ifr-.{1.!t |!t
A I i-l l.lt
Ftrnl it :;riiftlcttf :i: 'l'hc morpholoqv ci tlct ital ;nt!lu:;iar
i:i ;1ilqulilr irrcgLtlar, ocr:;rsiiinailv llt::nt!t i.t. sr hn r trL:,1 l ri
rat'cl,l' we ll r,-run,-led. {-'le:v:rgr: lrcL^:; itrL' l'!).irlv .l!sr!;ty-.j(1.

g-i!-iis

siti,: i:;

trluenilv erckr:;e c:rrlontecorr:;

iltirly l;rge inii

i:; i..rt,t l'itrrl ir

{'o!our: i'ril()l!rlqs:i or ii

lii ar

ini--Lrr-iii"-:;- A.l:llr-

ilt

Lrrr:;r:

pr:dt::

iiirkish ir!:,,.,'!'ic r:,:

il:!lgi!r.iur r-'itairtv v;r{inf i:: tr,:cr ;rrrrl rlcriehroic ir l;tili:::


ol' enerirltl grcc :rrii vcllilrvish i:-(rrtr.

Pl:t:ltf-tiSL'ljrrnre gairr:; itrr t)(.)tr,f)leoeltrric (klrrcr r,irv.


lcft). othcr:; ilisplay li ,li:;lintl1ivr rlcochr',risu: (1. r{}-sr: pink (ir
velk*v: f,l irnd 1. colcurles::, p:rlc ve llo*,^ grccnish vclkirv. 'l'he

ltitikrf cl Plcoehfrristlr

is usuallV ittllornosr,nous rlrd tlrctc re


rton-pL,ocltroie arl st ronglv plciie'lrrtii.-' iul chr-'s rvitlr irr :r si rrgl.gra i n.

Ii irt:Jrtgc ttt-.''.' Wck. Interlercncr: colour:: ure lirsi orclc'


whitc. htrt thcs* irc scen rrllV orr tliri itaenlrrli:;. 'l'lic
trtajrrlity ol arldaiusitc grains clisrla. scr:orrcl-orelcr rLrgc. reel
:lntl g-ci:trish-blttc irticrlereiice erlour::. ()rving tr tlre
irt e gular shapc lrird lrnLrr?cn thicktrass ()1 nl()st glains, the
intcrlcrcttcc citlouri slr{)rv :l disrlrdcrlv pilttct'n. {}r rrruntletl
grain:- thc conccltttic inltrii'rerrcc h:rnds irrc sinril:rr tc tirosr: oi
g.rev and

?=:

ilctr'itiil qu;rrlz.

. -{=:.
.-=
:a: -:+=.
---i=; "-=:.:

E.+linctit,tn: Iiarallcl tc clcvagc tliir(-:s lr-l crvst:l lrccs. but


diflicult tii rrbstrLvc lecausc oi thc irrcgrllr strripe ol tlr

:. ::

griri rrs.

: .:::
- i-.:

Inter.[ereni'c Jigure: l]:rsll ll'lsrrcnts yicirl

rr

re

I)i,ttinguishin!4 f(eftrrcs: Pleochroic an,lahsirc crr lrc


ersilv rcr-'rrcnizetl lty its distint:tivc pleocl]r(]isrl^ coutlccl rvith a
nlrirlerrte rrlici. l)cnl(intitc hrs high nr irnd i-r [riaxial positilc.
Hvrcrstltcne is n.rrstlv rrisrnalic. it i-'xhibit-s a hiehcr relicf.
ltYroi:etrf clc:tv;tgcs atrrl rrisitivc clonglrtitn. Sillinanile ct,lt-

nl()nlV oacurs ts rvrrll-defiIted Jrrisrrts ilr lilrr0rs at.1rreg:trcs; it is


trrrn-plcoclircie . birxial xrsilivc ;rnrl lcnqllr sltrrv. Anr!:rlu:ilc.
w"hich is ll-ce of cu'tronrcr('us inclr!-\i{rns utd litcks pleochrrri:,nr.
r:all lrr: conl'u:;cd rvith toplrz. l li*,cvcr. 1lr: latti:r gtrre rally
vicltls a gr)o(! irterlcrcncrr fi.qure with a prisiiirr-'sirrn.

{}:<'Urft't,r:Anilalrrsite i::r tvriclillv rlei:rrnorrlric nrirnrl


in argill:iccous foc:kr- (}1 .-:{rnltci

Itncl :tppcars l(]st c{ltnr:(}nlv

ll

j;

Ncgative.

itulctilr::; irf{rUn(l igrrc{)ur iltttusirl-.:rttl:chist:-

l::
::

rle

triscctrix ligurc rvith !arg* 2V antl werrk rlisrc:r'sion. {lle:rv;u.:c


fngnrcnts shorv :r llush figulcE k t ttgtt l io n

,
.'

is c0nnon i lr.-,i-tsc:.

Ilernarks: {lhiastolite i:; un unil;rlusitt vuic'rr'. ll-nc.u1Lrd xt


relativr,:lv lqtw tctnpclittr!r'c:;. lt cor1:ritt:: ahunrl:lrl .rr'arlritc:rrrtl
a{}

ANDALUSITE
carbonaceous inclusions which are arranged systent&tically
within the mineral, appearing as dark bands or as a black cross
in a basal section. The form of detrital chiastolite is irregular
or rounded, sometimes prismatic. Rarely basal fragments
occur. It is colourless and non-pleochroic.

Grains from: (a) Aquitanian, Nerthe-Chain, provence,


France; (b) glass sand from the Oligocene Nfolasse, southern
Cermany (Mmt 1.582).

-sl

'il.t!-R...f lll

:iq

liil'lliit=l!;

1
f't't!'i't'llt'a':

Kyaeee idsEreee!

Al.{ }l:;t{ r.,l


rrcliri.:. liil:ia! i

!i

.r.i.r!!:,

i..\;rlltir

t! .tii\\,.'.

,,.'li1.,.

;rl

!--:.:fni F:S:

viir i:- ; .-,1llt,l

rl.:t

ilrl

rri-':!-

i::

kr :r:irli,: rre:lllleling {(irirr!!r 197-j- }Ji,'kcl l{}7:i nrl


i:: iairlv -rtllie iii ihr rlirgrnetic r]nlji(;ntr:ni. \L,'iii irrre:l:ilrc
{r:rtl! rif [urial !t -ils-rolvr:: lrlorr t:ruroliir' iFlrrii lt]H.llr),
ri:rl5i1

i= {}.{}ll ll.{ll{"
r. r1

.'r]l_{it iR !' ;1 ! t:::.

reliiii'sr:hi::ir; ..vlieh rr,. srirtril ir,, i!rt -r,gi,.l! !(:litl!ri


:hi:rn iii't1.)::ly iicliir fak-:-, !i i: ai!t::iLrr:{i ll::r: iili:l!ii ci
lhL' tnrlli1ti)tlrhi.: trt*t tigher t!rtn Ilr: olr: i !1,i{l} :-i::r!rll,.
i rr:: lLi ttret-'rlirir :il im:lni ir- r;rt ic.

it.:. .7l i,7!l:


,ili 1.1:.1 l.i:3
tt": I .727 .7 i1
ii

.+-.ri-r

1-qlt

f"ortl in :i.:li|ti:ilis:

F-variir, gi:iiir:; ilirv lrr..q1ir !aigr:rirri


miria fterucni i Ilr* roirs. gr;riir:, lti :;l;ll ,'1,-':r,r:r
ilake:; ;llrr ;ipptar in line griiincr! sedincnls. iirai:: a, rrrrr:,i
L:(!1.r!11it!!v ;rttgu!ar. llatlri r Pfi$tlrltir :rnr! ;:rt tjli;ni:airLi ilri
r'. 'l lcv u:;u:liv lii: iin thr t l{}t}l l:rcc. rvirirl i:; tliij a--'lrnr o
tcliici clcavlrge . llc:;r.:lting from i]ie ernlititio r! {l{}l}
clcavtgc anr! p:rrting riii {{i{il } at alrno-:i rgh ;rnglr-r: io lhr:
lrngtli oi the cry:;lal:-- gi':iiit:; r,xlribii L:hiract{:ri\ii.'Lirr:::
frrctur,:s atrri stei=lik-c l'r:iutc:;. l{rtutrding oi 1ls L:rn.,-r:; r::r't
be frequcni. (ta !ll:Lltsiorljllv rvr:ll-rornrlerl liirins appeai
'l'lrct-c re srualc-shaperJ lragmcnl:; shorvitrr rrrr r:L:;rvirgrtraces attd also s,ntlr whielt ac lr:l rit itlcgLlliulv sl!apl-{l

iifai*:;.jrttftt'
ilr'l I-i;wr-i

lr'a

i liliilt

{i { iih.!:inPlr. ['rt ril ljr:ir;i. ir4rrniliilte .


h4iqri:.-'nr-: F..'1nl:l:su. i"iltltt:.rlr !=i;rsi. E:;t:r

.lllr-

Irtraslt!rIitl sr1!luti{)n plxhlt^c-! finr-: r:1ch-fllr:cts on lhc etlgcs ol


the grains rnd on thr parling. rl:rne:;- Irlrrid inr:Lrsiol:-" alsr
rulk:. itpillit!:. graphite. ct(:.. rc conl{)n.

(lnlour:

(i'lins

often rvith

ln urirvfi

ic

donrinltly !'.){rr!rlL^s:; rr arelv bluc.


eokrur distrihulicn.
d

tdt roi:; tt-' i3he-ciloureri ::rccinrcnr: havr rve:rl.: pli:cr:ltrri-cIt: rt, colourle:i:;; [i, violet l]lue ; i', cobali lilur,
!:t l t

IlireJringentc'.' Modcrale and tlir clr;rvaqe llakcs cxhibit


lifs!-.if(lfr gcv lillal vlrlhiw illtL:rlerrn(jr rrlous.']-llc.se

nrav

riulFe trl srcondrrder {)nlngc, plrrpL: :rrrtl blrt' in lhiekr:r


grains.'l'hr-: slt:lt-like urvr:i thickrtcss rllr rrsull: iu ;l
srecllcul:rt irrrirlgcmcnl ol thc inifrlcr(:rtr:t: trrliilrts. irrsi
irrg palc gfcv {)rt tlrr thinnr:r crlgr,s arid decr ir.u.rle or hlrrc irr
tlrc thir:kel p;rts.

==:#

I nf crJ'erente .f i,qu rc : l{}f) } qcctir rr* rrrivirle wcll-ccnll qrl


{1r rcarlV ecnlr{j d ile utc bise c1ix ligulcs with lrr.se lV.
Isogvtes;lllllc:rr {)n il lvlrtr or velkrrv lii:lel lvith {)r wthqtLrt

istlclttorncs. flisrg -sion is wr,lrk.

fi I on 4af i t t tt : tro:irivc'.

flistittgui,shing J'eulufr:,r: !Llit, thc


lcel clci!\rtgc ltnrl i;rr'littg, l()gi:lhLrr r',,ith

corrrhirr;rlion ol'
lrrgc rxlrrli('rr

iltlg,lc;rnd lt grrod inlqrIcrr:cc litrrrc, rrovirlc il!

r:it!-y

r-li;tgno,ri,r. 'l hq: irlcrtiiir:;rlicn

irrcgular g.!!n iF
rliagtioslic clltt'irL:lL:t

n-o-q-

of' r'ourrrlerl ;uirl hi'lhlv i'1ehcd


rliificult- In thesc els*; ctrc rl lhr:

islie.'; nri!y lrc

:-.
.i

!T-

E-titttitn: l'hc extirrctirn ariglc nrcirsr!r'c1! orr { ll}{)} is


lirrgc, ranging helwc*n 21"- 12. Glrirs lavi! on {{)l{l} have
parallcl cxtinction.

Fe!

=::=:.:-=

t_ii

vi:ihlr.:, !r.:;lr!ing lo rccrgliiiur.

'l'he lurge rxlinrti{}ri ;rrrglc lr::sists il rlisiiruui-clrilu kvrlritr


hu-c lrrvr'r' r'{ilirl.;lrtc! il is lcrslh
Ia-ct. 5(nrtc barVlc rlerr,rg,f l!'ilgnlr:nl-s rcsr:nllrlL: kvarritc lrill
Ittvc hrwcr Rt ansl snrllcr c:{1ll:lir!11 irngh.

lronl sillinaltilc. 1nrl;rlrrsilc

{1

=.;.

i{il',
3'clglaz
Al_(tlsi(1,ltI;"(]H

),

o'thrthinrlic. liaxiul

(*

,ttt 1.6{Xrl.6li}

,li I.r)()q l.r3:


i l.6lirl'--iH
;) t).{x}s-}.{}l I
;r- 3..i1]--1.7

i ::1

Ftrrt in :;tdftlt:ftts: T()p:r. :rpFe irrs :rs ungul:rr iresul:r ir


.;{irllLrIimcs roundr:el grainr. [:ilrs;rl lragmcnts trsrtall- clisrlirv
tLat:trs ol pclici:t .i(X)ll clclvagc. 'l'he suri:rce ol- thr gr;rirrr i:
ctirnrrrrlv nuuketl bv- crescent-sh:rpctl indcntations. Fluiri,rr
(iparluL: inclus(ins ;rrc irccucnt,

=:
_u-

{lolclur: futtst rle trit;rl sr:rins aLc cokrurlcss rvith ; noticciirlq:


bluislr-rvhitc tingc- []ut urle-coloulerl rell,iw. pink, r.--rl ;rr(i
hluc grairt:; :rrc also rcxrrted.
l'letChrti:;tL' ;\[)scnt tr l,e rv rvr-:iik (in thick {r:rin::: ir. rrlc
(il lrrtrtvn: fi. ptlll r}l-ln':L-: i'" plrle rink-

vell{iw-

llirt.f'ringtnt:.' !\ic;ik.
tL.:v. rvhitc or palc
gt iri n-! -!ll( iW n

iillllc

ve

;irrl hir Irigrcnrs vickl fi':;r-rrrtlc:


lliiu, inte rlcrcncc toktrr:;. Tlrick rL:liit;rl

{) '

L:()l(itl ts

fi) ccrin(l-()-(lcr (!faflflu-. rr-rl.

hhe arrl tr.^e iE.f in'tiln: !'u'allcl io,-:lcavallLr ircr:r unil to prisnurtic
.n| s\lnnrtlric:rl,'l htrsll :iur'liUni.

tu.-r,:s

{ntcrJr:r'enit figttrL: {inrins luving r)n il.L'ir hasul rlarr.:

r cenired irr:ulc li:;ectrir iieurc witl : rlistinct -.v


tlirlrcrsi,rr-. fulanv riclrit;il i)tli! .trt ic rlirgnr:er,l *'itl
.ii:riitiy by rrllilg ihL:!r iir :r liruitl intlrc:;i11 inL-rliurt (rittrl
.vir:kl

ilt.^i-basll rllrti.:. rvl-rir:h thcrr u,ill ir{!iri(lc;r el,l;rr intciucncc


igure. {ir;rilrs riell:ri:rl :re,jortling tr the h:rsl rl:rnc tlispl;rrr
lorrur-orilel interfclecc r:iilottt':r (ltivr:t, (;r) r'i!.tlit-herrl i:r:rin).

f',otf:ufiQt: !'osiiir,,, to -ir,:;ial tlong:rtion. i)trd ircg:liivr.irl


clca!.:rgc ii:rccs.

!ji,::tint:ui:;hit< i;'aiur;::;: tilui:;h-ivhirc iingc:rrrtl irrr irir:

gul:r

iir

:.,trht;Ltt,lrrl

iiitnt iviiir

iicr,rrerri irlrlei:tiiit:;

;r<.1

i).jflcdt t);rs:rl elc:rvlgr: a'r r-rh;lritairjti-{tic. ll r:rl ire r:i:-ily


ri:;i;ke ir)t ilrl-lllc,.ichi'ic ;nriirr:;i1c i=.tri il.-: l;iir,:r i:
criically iiei:tiivr: ithirrl::h ii oiiri iirils iii ::hrt : rliscil;k:
ii.jfica'r1r lkuq)- F-iciicil. ttlttii,l t!r:.ir:!iiir clivie.sr:rlir
r:::r:nlt-.!c iiipi!,-r: il(i*r,;!'r iire ir t.t tttl hi'L-:i ilr-qr,:tu. :i._rq1:;irler:liriv hir:h'-. i'he i:lir-:i ii :ifi;liid i:i higlr.-:,
'i r.rtti;:i;ri:rn,l lergili iisi- tt:ii:t h:ls lrrvc rel:r.-iivc- i.ii.:.:s.
{iiwitnetl l:ru::;tiic. ..vhielr ;l:-, r::liiiiis : thi:;h rr-gc
.;inril;'ini,:lcrnce ct:iiL!t:;" r:.rfinciirr:rrd iclrr:;iir:..::rrr ir.:
cririLt:,ed rvitlt itiliit-::. hr:i l;r+:tiiic.gr;ins;re ihinner. pllriicr'.
ir:i.,'c :r higlcr clict' atrl l;tigrr
lir.iinsuish ccriciiic, l ililrz it(iil

JV li n;iv le rliii.:il{
sc

iiei i i::e-l ; nd: h:i c,

rrr.il. !-)p.lr: is i(!irrc.l pfiFiiif i!l giatiii,r. t:tiril.:


tllrPnliliitc :rrrl i grr:isi='4. Higlr-tcnt-1.-'r';lf!lrc vLin:t :!r,! rr
:i:[rt:;iis :ls 1r]L'll i:;
al!r.,iici. .ial lis:]r!e:; Qi ei,l i!,,k:: i;lv
!
,..,.
..
J 1

"lli::;.

:lsi i:ri;!i ii)pit. t ilr-:Lt:i ;: itrci;tittot:liic ii:k:; ilnc,l hv


i-.!ia:is{)iitaii:;iti irlri i:felv r iu:.i:viii: k:;:tt!iiL'-:.,ahi:;i:;-

lrin:;

1' l.ru.,c fuiirccir !:!,.i1:r:sr:, nr:,rlluh(ir) lrt;rch::lrril. Sl lvc:;. [jrl;il IN,int 1.5.1.).

f;tsn;

1',rviiz,:lari;

.::
:..

r=:

<1
.1

! -_::
:.'
. ::

=-

ili:VY l':.ili-lt:li1. !ir:;'lllil{}F]S

l'J- {-a!l.aii!r. FE.,...i'tr:i

ilFcca{en!enie

ia.l.Er.''' }.i-},il ,il:i{ i, l,


ilil'hqnrhit:. hil::i;rl [

itt!
,t'

i.ft55 l.{ii{'
i fii

I l "

i.ni+

.7:1,.:

{r.(}l{f {t.{t1;
tlil

l:t*tr itt :;rdi*rcrls: Li.iitul iur:iticriic i:; !:ce:rl!".'


ecrili lr ii:; krnl' ari:;. I'r:

:;lt.!ii !ifisti!ii(-!i .l(tt-q:!irai

(rtlrmonlv- irre;.:ular {lapnttttl:; itlttr:it! . ::fiitii!ili:; t:rr:rllel *'ith


thc lcrrrtl oi lhr Pti:rurs tl:i1'lrc,]llrihit.r. l-!v:;{!ilt slcriiit, ll:
-['hr c,!:,,:: rrl
{

I { i{ I

iht

r,:ic;tvl gi-::;

{;ttii:; i)u!::sorirll-t :;litn' trtrttt,iitti:. !}rsiitri

lr.:

rcc:t:ion: I l'v vi:;iti,:.

i=littlr: [jitrc. {rr.-nisl-. trlrrr- !:lvrrl-ic. rink. rr-rlilish

-.!11.,:.

!ti:rx'hrlisl-- Strun!: ilnLl di:ii!r.iilv.-'. ll arrr:it:. iit i'iit:

trastirr: sltarlt:. ri[ (l(:c[r ll!ur:. ittrligii iir rr,,!-viqil,'t:,. bitl.virllcl. !:trlrillsh blttr:: [i, eriltrrttlcs;- lilrl-r'rillrl prrle lila,-.

-i- ill(lurl!:s.r, llilla hltl!, llilL' P-recll. h'llrirrttttl


:rbsorpli(r ;lllllcilr:: whcn thc lenetlr rl tc .l\.rslll!:l i:: per:rllel
1o ilrc vibr:rtior Jircctiotr rtl thr ;rrlltri;:r-r
!-cll!)rv:

itift'.['ringenti'.' Wi:tk 1(r nr(xlcrill.]. atl i::tiittttll ittir:


lcrc,nce colouls rangc i't'cm lir::t-'trle Erhii(-', r)tiittga ;intl pirrk
io sccrird-order liue :rrrrl yglllrr.: qi ihick l'ragrrcnt:;.
F.xi.w'tion.: !':rr:rlle I tc thc lcngth ol thr riistrts {i :iitiili{}trs.
Ittte r.frre ntc .fi4ure : { l{x)} cltlrvugc ii':rgtttcttl:; 1.,ie Ll oblusc
hiscclrir: liurcs g.ith l-i(x)lv dclinrri i:;rtlttrrttllie ctr,t:s.

lil t tngu! it ttt : Ncgalivt


i s lt i tl g j'a I u r(,\ : l'4ulcr';1e rcliel. et,Lr-rr- vcLv'
plcochreistr an(l rrcgirlivf, rlongatirn lrrr iliagrt,r.''tic.
Stlonglv plcoeltroic totrnralinc is liahlc lo bc conluscd u,illl
rlunrortiet'itc. lut tounn:rline i:- uniir::i:rl :urd tt-' rrta,iitluttl
;hsrlplior is n,rtnttl trr tlrc r,ilrr'iiotr ilir-'ciiot ril lhe rolat izt-t.
'l his is a rlrliairlL: proPLrrt,v thirt assisl-\ irr ilistirr:uishirrg lrclwccn

I ) ist i tt

gu

irrle nsivc

thcsc trvo mincr;lls. Siitlic irnrrhiholes hav.-' inelined cxl i trct ion
-l-he
tt ol corudui is highcr anrl it
anrl anrrhiliole cleavages,
is tiiaxirl. PiL:n1rutlc hr-: a dislirctlv stronuL-r lclicl' nil ;r
posil ive sitn.

()fCtttn'ttt't': |)illltrlticritt r\'(ur\ in i'.t;lt)tl l)!linl:rlt('\.


aplilcs irnd.lultz vlrilrs. ll is lsii .r'cscrtl in sorre (lr!;rrtrites.
in granil.'gnsisscs aril miea:;chists,:is rvell is rr hvdrrltlttnnellv rltcretl trr;rrtz-lclitspll rtitrks.
{irain.s .lt'itnt: l-1prer': Lou,er' {lrccnsrtrl. ilretaeeous.
Llorking 1..'ilir llil! L)isirict. Errglanrl (r'tt) Ijrortt tlrc col[,clirrtr

r'l I l. li hlilrt,

Midrllc: Wi:altlcn ll:.in. liri::lol {'hanncl. F.ngl;rni! iF;llni


l-51i2|- {'iurtcs-y of A, (-. h4oriirr.

e,t

s',t A t

jt{{ },1' tl

SunqlEiee

--=
;.
=:: .:

(Fe:*Mg).(AIFc'* ),,tl,.lSia) I l(o-a)t i ).


r.otrilc!inic. p:;!:u(li)-.]rtll()rhtrbir:. hill:;i:l i + )

to.

.7

]()

1:.

:. 1..:

.711

rrfi 1.745 i.75,1


it"i l''152 1.161
ir r).{}l: {}.U1.+
^

..

::

i ir

i,

::--

rri\

:rrc fiirrd. iirrggeri oullitrr. ctelr lrltenli rtrrl n:rrill:tc lte


iir.:i,ucntlv cxhihiicrl trv urait:. rvlir:h huvi-' espcricncul rli-r'
soluii!)1 ilrrring tliagettc:-is (t1). ltr:ltsions

ol

cu;trtz :tttcl

,,==
: ' =-.;,

(';lll)rril:t('(r,ils rll;rll( f tt' (-1)ililltrill (;t).

{lllour: Sit:rrrr,.ilitc hlis bliilht .,,cllorvish cririurs in shirllct ()l'


pale ycll,riv ilti'riugh g(:)ldr:n vL^li(tlv tu rl:rr[: '.;cikir..'islt btrirvn.
Ptea'tlri,trt?-"! hc inie r:;iiv ol rlcor:!rroisnt i:: intltclcctl lr!'
ih.- thie kic::; r.'l- thc gt airs bui \.n ihiii ri!lr-f(jl(itlr(:rl
iraglnciris tlislrlv riilicc:tt-,lt rlcuchr'ois: i. (,-()ot!rlc'j:: i()
pale 'y.-llorv fl. palc yclloivl 1. goltlen vellirv itr yrilqu,isfi
brrwn.

Birefriagr:tlr''.' L4o(icaiir:. ld irc'icicnec coiturs i:rlgr-'


irir iirsi-drdcr sriiv (if yrllQu' in iriii iitrgnrrrris l() $Lrr-(jlai'
i.rrdrr orat.{e- re{,| lr( lilui:;lt giccit in thickc':;!llrqrincr:;.
F.:tin:tiul: rving io ihe icgrri slrirr. ol iht gtrirrs il i:
,-iiffierli r'o +b:;cvr ihe .:xtinciirr irlglLr. 'aisiilirtid ir;r!:riler!ls
;!nil !l!heriril ! i:rv:;f :r l:; ::hr i*' r:r riil lel e:i i i it,-'i ir iit.

!nitrj'tr:ni't' .;t'iyilrt: H:r:;:l :eciitirs


t!r:Lli!llv lslwcr-rit(lL:f l(rliiai;:1rirr

f,fillr. :r{it!ir iisrrlri: iigurt


wiih

e,ii:;qr,'r'nillc :=r,,

lrbsent. {lt

(rvhir'h .:;rn te rctr

rol(l!t:i

.,,ir:lrl rit tii

qrt a rvhiic or p:rlr velliiri liriil

,li:t!::.irit. lsrcl'iire:: :rc gete;rllV

hr='r i ir-r: ::iv.-' al.)of !:ir-a:rri .i{-' iigLr f .rs.

l:, I t i n gt l it i n

Pir-iia i ir- er;rin:.

:r

rr

!,-'n:ili slt rv

{-risilEi:;hiils .i'ti!iur<.:;: ilirr'i;lic i:; i!!r' ,,ri i!rtr r:usilv


itlciiii;il;ir, r,ir-'irii:li rtir:rl:;- !!igh rrlir:i. cl-'icii 'silr
;h;<lc:: $i vi-'li*.v,l vr:lit;ri,i::it iitli!i- iiri{l ri:liiiri il.(!fl!iii::1
:ir ,-li:.ili:;iir li ma'", irc L'ii!iti:;L:ri =iiIr ..t-lhiu-' r: .,r111r,.1i1,i1
iri.:t li;r l::iiirr: iTI i;rrt ih,-j iritie i i;rr ii.,'r iciiri,
rrrgeiivr ::il icrgh ia:;i.

i:.,

u:ii::=:i;l

.r':Ufi::i <: ili:iciiir: i:; ;l<:i L:.{.:ltri!!j!t : ::tqrltri :i


il.rr::.iii!!l-girlir iceiri;i mL'i:!r('iFi;:ir:ii!ii i i{a: i!l iit!:.:
:;ehi::i:;. -le'ivcri irn;rrgill;cci!r:::rrj{liilt!:!i'-r. iiil(1 lf::r; iL
r: r!c !ilr,r irt griri:-;:-.r:;.
t-tnAf k:;: iii;lrrrliie i:; r:ii'itl!i ii,-:iii:l ili. !i i:; i'iti11.:
iL::;:i:iii ii ..vr:ltfh-'if ritri l;rt.i;l .Ji:r;,:irr::i:. iiii. r; r rjrfirir
!-:irii. Ljclicli19. Eii ihr:ra,-linenis ir i:;:ts:rci;licti wiili.:iihrl'
kv:nii:" ;r.ilu:.ir :irl/i ::illirr;rie- '...'iliril Irriii:; iq ili;:ii
i'(!!1r!r!1 lli]liigl:. ii t :, {ruii{l iti :iit iiirltivrii:;lr-'il iliirt;tl
:;tiiir ir:gci!tri e'iih:lpaiiir':rntl g:rrrei:s'.yL.'ll :i\ uli'::.ieilc
j.ii(:r,:-!.iliiiitiinr:atirt!iilr-:. llciltiie,:lt::r:virq:ihq:.::;tl

1.74 .i.fi=i

dcli nLr(i cL:lvil!1c rlccs- R;rrc lv, di; rnorttl-sh:tpr:il liaslrl srl

br.t

ZJ

Forl in ,trilinels: Stiu''lite rcelr:. is ircgrrlui. argul:rr.


srlrlcwhul platv. olt'-n l'r:cirrrcd gl'irins which rih{)\r pltr)rlv

tizc,l

-:1rt

ii tiilc rte-velinc cl il:iiufr +)ti r riii rrr; r,-' ii i rrrri r- i ;r rir t i!5 i.;
hy ilie e.tll iurtlcri ;r:.:.cci;leti rninerei:-i r; iii:,:.tr

irili:-:cri

t,

t.:'a?:

.
.'

IIt:AVY MINI:ltAl. t)l:S( ltll/l l()NS ANI) ( ()1.()tJlt I'l.A IIlS

-- lulion tlrrrirtt dilrgcncsis. clilnirrlrtirrg lllc lcss slirblc srccies.


'f'hc dirnirtution ntl lhcn lllc;rbscncc ol sl:ttrtolilc willl
- inclcltring tlcpth ;rs funclion ol irttrltstrlt;rl tlissolrltirll rv:ts
shou,rt by

(irinrnr (1973) lnd Motlon ( l()79:t. I9t'lh).

Grains Jfunn: (,t) (ilass srrrrtl lrortr lhe Oligoccnc Molrtsse .


southcrn (icrrrtany; (b) grab s:ttttplc. I)ort of llcil'ir' l\{ozltnlbiquct (c) 1'crtilry, Nortlr Scir; (d) C':rrbonifcrous. Notllt Se:r;
(T) tournralinc (Mnrl 1.662).

56

{-lll.li'{}!t
L-EEerEond
i

r'
.h4g.i14n ).i n l. !-c )trl,t ).1 si{ ), l-( { il I ),
nli)or:lilir:. trielinic. li;iil i*i r'( )

l;er'

tat

;rli
t t'!

I .7

ll

I .7-i{}

l,7li. i.7l-l

i.7t.i

l.7J{)

.==--

il.tlt] {l.i::

'r, it j

f*trn

Fi{

ol r:hl.rririrl
in :;t:tlint:itls: 'i'hr: ia-vcr-likc
','r
ilr pctft't nricli=iypc f{}{}l } r-:l*uvlrgr: rvhir:h iL,ii-'rrrrilq'r;

rLrslIs
is dcril rilPu;l.irlec. t Lr:u ilct'i1ll grains occur il.;tiurntlv
lts l;rsal r:L:lrvag,, rllttc:;. A grait '.rstullv cosisls oi- several
supcrinrrrist:il lasll pLles lril sh<rv:; :r illli;rtetl h;rbii. Thcr,: i:;
:i ia:nrlLrnctrr lir lht: brtsrtl plittcs f() i:urve- (lhkrriioiil rrni:tins;t
rvirle varir:tv rf iri,'lrsiors. n1()sllv qrlrrtr:. niu:c0vite- ttlilc.
trrrtlrlini: lril g; nc!. 5o!.- grains arr sreckled :viilt rrritttir

irnrrrrilie:;. Althtiugh trvilrirg is verv c,rnrttrrr. il is ratrlv


rotiec;rblc i;n rietrii:rl er:rit:;g--tltu': {llLirititi has a rlir:tirct g!cv:h hhL: <r sliehilv
i, vcll,rx,idir rr!c a()l()lrr. {iLrrr zirniiri: i:- r-'iiii-.

g!rjL:ili:;l

F lt:tx-hrti:;rt' llistict pL'orlrroism is rlisplaved i :;h:rile:;,il


grev rri,-l irlu,-': r. rle rr-',-r,'. grevisl gr,-'e: {i.:;lirlv blur'. inrligt;
hlttr: ;. pillc 'r,clhi's. l;tlr gt,-,.:t.

Birej'rittgt'ttt''.' Li:rriiti !irr,'l-iri:entr-' is iv,,'ik ir triilrl


;rlc rrrt l(ll()f rir j I l{)} irr:r::;. I-ru is v.:r:' rvc;1.: ii hL' rirs:rl
rhne. !ttirriL't'c'cr: ccltu:; rb:;etv.-tl {}n ihr l;rller rtrc li'sir)a.L-:f gf(:v;rntl r*lric.:i()iilL:iirlus;ririri;krt:i. clustd ll!'
inlrcruri mir'rl eiiliitrr. lhickur 'grri:. lvirg on ir)l-hasitl
act:r ,,'xhilit (-'iiar-'!{-' llcrr-'hiiii:;ilr ;iriri ::e,:ttrrl or,lrr etlitt:;
il,liclr iiv lrr: rrrnirr:;ilg. '!lrr iricrtilv ,l':ruch gr;i-c e;i lrr
c(inii!rirrl ,-':r:;il-v bv trtnril:: rni iii ihci h:rs:rl illurc irt li
liirrirl inrrtrtrsii)r lltcrliu'r.
E'.xiilt'til:

V;rricrr rir ;l,s[ rrrallcl trr 15", l--in ihe l:r::;ll

rlil]c i i:- :vrtrnrr:iric:rl r iri:lin.,ri iri tltr: irtir;nl:rir

{I

ltl}

rlCitvAgr,:s,

itttt'rJtrcfitt

t'igura': li;i:ril rl:rt$: !icLl :i iit';rv r.iire{i

lrcuirr hi:r-'ririi ligrrie witli vlrr':rillg lV irl::iirt:j -r


r-lis.lct

sicn-

-!'!ts

', i i ; n t1e i i e t i t :

i;itiir-;rI :.is i:: asrt;lit llrsli!'c.

f'Jrg:rii;c-

dli:;iit,:i:;llin'1. ii'iir!rt':;. !>li'; !ralrii. i:iililr; ;i<'i+'!ri,i!,.


:;lh.lir. r:l:iii'.,tll'iigh i:li.'i criir:-i -:.,iih kie iriqii!r,:1r:r:
r il.-' h::-:i il:r:!r :r:; .,..qli :: ilrr icrirrt ic: yiq:lii grrq!
iiii!rri-cr!:c! i{irrf:: :rq .i:;rglr!}:;iir'. l'irr'::r' si iirr ;::-:-i i!l
iii::iiti:luiihing cllt riil i on !ilrr i;!ii*.-l tirr;ri:. i liliic'
It:t:; !rwc .1:rril:.r:ril .lV.:rl ii:. r,lqirr:;:rt iti:;h:rii':: i
glff! !iLl ilri:;h grr:*t. !i:;r;riic i!rg-ltr!! !r;!v a!:;L':l-!ir-'
irluc g=cri h.!ithlaniir {f i{rtt*}rliii!:- irui ie ii'r' '''

lriir--;ill-v

rfgirii!r

t!1!

!ul!,tli :,liiri. i;hrrr:: iquftl:1lir'

!i!1- :

!irv,: cliei' :iiii :. i!li;!::i;ll-

i'iiliiriil r:; u rt,*iti.'i rti !!il,rj i.ii !!!i:.,r'i


ilr cgi,.i;i
!rriir!r!' F!i:;it ri tiir :.r{-iiiilLilts. ii i:., cr:;rarlc.i ;rs ;r
liri:!iri!rliir::llr::: iirtr;tl ir I r i:iar:::l L!l!irlll!cr i
{ }'-'lf:'lt'-':

crliil-g;:i.: rrcil!tiiii;tt :itrii i:. :c:iriairrl ir:

:-.

ioreil li' h..,1lrti

Fiir-a-'f:sr':- ir

vrir::i r;r.'iir; iilliit.!t:-

*
|

=J:=* =,==
'. ::' ., ,'i= -:-='
::'::i. :.t:.1
-E
:

tilir\VY MlNhltAt- DL:SC'ltlP'llONS ANI) ('()[-OUR I'LA'l'trS

r sanci. Danubc, llungaryl (b) I-orvcr


lrlioccnc N4olassc. \nzfiuh. S*'itzcrland (N4nlt l.5tt2).

.Graitts .frrtn?.' (a) I{ive

,sg

(-iISIl-Il

,ininaltlv irrc!rul:r. Veuvilrnitc disrl:rvs i!tacr:ic'irrli

EFE*q}T'E GR*g-iF

hluc'. prrrtlc o .hlll vcllirv ltriliiiization ci)lours. Corrnhl

I lnil is rnirxitl. 'l-hrlifrr r-escnrhlcs hvrclsiltr:nc. ltrrlilusilc aril picntorrtit.,'" hut ii is vcv rtlqr ill
has a highcr r.:lie

ZelEsie
{lr.Al, l.C}.

H I Si

-o'llSia),

rrthirhrrbic. triaxial ( +

:;e

{-} <:c

rut l.irH,i 1.7(15


afJ l.Et l.7l(l
il'l l-6\)1 l-1?-1
i) 0.(ift.l-(1.{[)t"i

Ufre

rc.e

: Zoi:itc

is rcnrr tlql bv mcrlirrnr,gr;irlc regional

nrctanl(it[hisrl arrl i:; lr eil:trJt:iL'fistie constiiucrrt

silictc granulitcs :l!(l !:alcitL:-ztiisitc nricaschists. lt

less corrrror thun

{-iruils ./i'olll.' Lli:er


I .662),

elrains are short sturrlrv rrisrls or'

thin reciangular cleavage lragmcnts. stlne tirrc-r with a :;liqhtlv


icunelcd ottlinc. {0ll}} cleavagc irlecs lr'r' rftcn cletcct;rblc.
Composititinal zeiiring is c.)llnou. ()parluc. fluicl or rccdlelike :imphihrrl,: inclusir.rns rtta,v bc rqr5\:1 iri sontc gr:rinr.
sl'-irrtrt z,-iisiic

i:; (l(iuths:i, whcl*;l:t tla

t;rLr'

m.lnganoftn valitrty hrlite is pintr.

r' r-nten m;rv


B i t e:.f r isl ge: ttt:i: tul(;(leraie. {lha n gcs iif F;.rcsull in vrriations ol lrirel'rinscncc within a grrin. lror lree
;:risiir,s rlir;Fliv cithtr.:revi:;h=rvltit,-'ot. ttor,-, lrequenllv,
rnrmalous dccp iniligrrl-'luc :tnrl ycllorv irt.-rrlcrcir:c c!)l()rr15
rjttt io:jitr-)trg dispersittn. i-Lu,rvcr. these :rre not:;cen in all
cristnl iiricntirtions. Wh.:n 'iillir..'l .rlr;iirrs in e liquid
inmcrsion inedium trnrler ctrsserl -xrlar:;. tltr.: ;ll(lnl!l(jus
e(lttrs ltsttatllv :tFrpc:rr ()ii ihe ha:;ai planc. Fcrroan {li) .,,risiie:
rnd ihulitc ha.re .sti-iingc'r bir*fring*rrcc irtl rtirn;l ::eeonrl
iifdrlf itrictleterce

carlous.

F.-iitt:it: P;a!lcl to prism-tiuilines:, bt iI


utluiaair'v

ntr' b*

o i nctrnLl*ic.

lnerje'r'tnce t'igllrt:: , ;,-ri:;itc:;. shorving !l)rrrr!lil intcr=


icrctec eokrur:;. usually yicltl ccntrcd or rrcarlv entre(i ar:utLl
iisr:r:trir igui'es '-+,iih :;nrall lly il!(-l stirliig. i->v r -: r,l
riispersiiin. Wcll-rleiired isogves :tcptriq thr: lir:id irir hluc
airtl yelkrrv :;ccirts ti]el iite :ihscnce rl i:;(t-toilatirr ct!!!L::r ib
chiiair-rii,'i

isiic. i zci:itc

par.jvrrjrr

Lrf-d-iri. +r ptir: .rli:-

iigrc:;.

l,i;;lgit-iit:tl:
,-lr't:iti,n

: :.,:;i:iir- !ri:; ,:iile r


ii;ti r,i ; -..tii:i!it. i:, ltrr.,tiiir.

rsiii;'c {}

!lr -;iti1!:

ilei:;iiitgtti:;ltitt5 .:i!irft:;: -l'i* ieietiii::ii c: ::ci:;iiq: i:,


ciaiivrl'; e:il,, ::. high rclicf :nrl :;ltii prisnratic hahii.
irlgeiiief rviil r:rrnii::;iing:uliFn:icr:: iicrfei*ec crlcut::. rc
di;ignrir:iic. iliilrr'r'i:;iie
iii r,;irir*: iei:ilei ,tir:iiri!
=fliEit
;trcl rbnil inieiicrcncc a:iitif:r il!v bc erfus;cd qjth
..:ri:;iic- iui iirc !aite i pr,,;viit+:; :i ch:i:e iriisii: irt.^{crqi.,
iiEu'* :il i'r:: inir:ie'erca airu:- :rc m:!:r:<ilv dt,-irc
Aratiis ilis a ior.la' ciie- end ilulicr. .qre."'isil ine'icc,:i

cil<rlrr.. 'l'he rcr'!!niiitn c [i ;:li::iic !s ro-, rlii-iicr!i :rai i a:


liL+l,v iii lrr illi:ii:ik-n iirr ,-linci:;iig-.. r br .iliri ititrlai:tl:i

+iiir

:;iiia

ilpiir;tl

)ii)pijaiir:::= llillit:t !:; iqrvct ii'r,rirg-

=lc! :1n(l ini*icr-rt LrulLil:; i:;ir;iles ii ];iigc- r.-il nrl


!:rc-. ur.itlllv lri;;rngr:il in r
ia:;ii:rn r!ici l:. lui
"-ncrlir:e
'u'pii:al iif .oi:,iir:.'i'lc ii q ii)F:iz i:r irsci airii it:;:;harc is
5$

dl

:rlte 'atiOr

plagioclasc. \s a tletit;rl spccics


r'itlr rlr ot eliltr rzr risilc.

riptL:al properties vary.

iloloUf:

c;rlc

conlfionclli of guussurie. iirrcd by the

'lr,vo variciics of zoisitc hrve becr distinguish.'ri: iioi-l''-c rir r


zoisitc and icrronn or l-i zoisitc. ln accord u,itt ehe rnistrv. thcir

Form in sedii?teni.t:

0i

rl:;ri oeeurs

irr rcgitinallv tctiltr(rrph(serl lrasic rqncrrs roLrk:i. Zi]isitc is;l

.1.15 -j.17

tlitne nts,

it is

r:aL:i_:

N,lioe,:rc. H,rstrrn Hungalv (Illnrt

FAr,"-t'

lt'i I f-l r!:=AI

_!. + i_+. i

!i

ti,d-_:. ll :;i. J,

nrcl,:ri-'li-. it::i:!

tf ii,l'i!;

ll

'i

.-

l i i't lli ;l I l

ri

ocks rrv .r.!!i:rir '-'lii..!ri.-t:tiir. L,iirlr-rie- rlittt:-:iisi'r

tltt i'71;l7lli !.1'+ L l-'..


it"; !.i-.!.(! i.7.1'i
; {}.{}il5 {.i}i5
,!

F-J

{}t'rsys''r.; i'liri;.ii:i1,,'. t.rgah. wri!i.:,iikiir. i:.;i


cirlriln riiiiltr:i i lr',' ti:. rrreriirrrti.gl;til.' rrrjilrri,!,11iri!.
'i lic! ,-rcrur in :ii;rii' ir'iiiiir: rririoir
':i.:!oiiii ::ciii:;i:- iif thi
g!ceit:;rrri ia(:ic$. :iiii :i(rtlrile::. il: l:lu::-chi:;t:; i,orrr: l:r:;ii

{:lEccE+s+Es*
s:--::

I-l:,S'li

alr rrnrli{ur:riir i
;rligt- i;i ;!lici:l::r;r.
:-,:iisii.'

:i:!-::;rali.- i.i,ii

irt,i

l i: lorr,rl l'.,'ih.-'

{ifaitt:; j'rtt*t
1;; i-iiiccr:rtr' E'!il;i:.rrc l-i;vlr:. ilr!,=:t.
li ai.r,:i,ri -.rrrrri '-i,'1.;;.,. (.=i i 'b;rtiii'sr-(rt!:. Frllh 1;.:::

i.!.

l1!;

Fr:'se i s-u.lti!:tx!:;: a='iii:.risiti' hlis u itigh r,liti :lti r


i'.rur! J:: :.,lti!!1 f lolt:: rti:;nrr:. ll(tka!l ctth,:ii:tl ci9:;i:ti:: :tiiii

!tii:liai

la:,i

1'(;: (:1'lll

:.f!-;.

rrri:rigrii:ii iliglrtli:; irrrular or rottrilerl g':i::.- r,iluili;lr


:rd iibirr:: tirq:; :rrt iniri:rlurnf l)'ricri l:;i:;:!! ri.,';vlu,' ;ittl
:,.tig :c lrrasirnall',' di:;lrriillr !i'li:- iiir t-!.tii5Li lilti.i
il !?j,rr!.:- lrlr'li!.;.i:l',. ! ,1' ':rirt 'rI rq,rir!!rrr:!. ,i( " !,'1, ,'t'
t liil,i-:,,t':i, r'.;:. qirli1,li:rlgttq :.i..,
i-l ; I -t u r

{-'tioir rL,::;:;. !lalr-'

yL-

lolv or

pe Ie

grcen.

Plt.'il'ti:;ttL- t-olourcl gi;riir:; rrr:i1, <,lisplnv u,cak pleo


chnrism.

!trirefi'in.;t'ttt'{'.' G(ivctt-'(l l.; lhc :;trhslilulion oi Fr-'" iiil


Al. !icir-pixii clin,-zoisit,-,:; h:lvr ltrw [ir,:ftingenct: ;ntl intcr
[rll'iltc {i{l!!il!!'-q !]f ii!-:ri-ol'al!rr vlrl!(}R'trn(l I-lLre . Wiil ittcttirslttg
r()F ciini.ri :rrd :rl::i in ihiei:cr gt:ins, itrtctictrrttr'r: r:illl)t!ri
rari-gc t(! lil!int !eL\ild-()r'{lcl sliiilcf.. liluc :rri vclkrr iiirlr
rr lllr. rr:irgir:- rri tlrc gr:rin:; :trr verv che:rctei:;tit. {itaits

:' 'i=: .
i=

! -'-',

t,

:"

'; '

u=

lrciuenliy c;=:ltiiii irrrit:tltu: tluc iiLl'icll()\1r i!llL:!ic!'.:nc.l


,-1rl{rrJ', Ir(r';r\r' of rirntrt .!\l} t!(,r1.

==-l-

i:

Extilt'.iit': (-,.rirqisiirnlrl:irirs t,:rrlt:. i \,irr!'ing r::1rr(r


tirt ltngk::; cvcn rviihir a sing!.,- grltin.:rnil ertittciit i:-; rrit-'lt
ilcrlL:ir:- {-'ty:-il:; ,:lort:tcd on Ir lrv,-' [a:tlL'l r:.rlircli,rlt.

..:.. ----:;:

-d

Itiattv:;,rr-::ir-rtl:-;- r::lr-:ci;tllv illtr-rc


lnlt'f.l't:rt';it'e.figUrt:
rvlrich:hou incornplu-ir'cxii1.'ii(!. rtiiviclc :ilr i)ltlic :txis ligLrr.-

r,vith ar almo:;l slraihi i:ogvrc eird e ier'. hrighi oransr. re,l


alrit trlu(: isrislutir:riir cLttYe::- F;{,-st g,lriirls. hriwci,r. vield

poiirlv dcfincri figur.::;1,r iuil iti sltrrtv alV:ri ill.'!-lg .silrinr


di:;persion

i: arelv

!,i!i hlL' .ir

ileilil:rl

:;rrrcics.

Elott-Vtttiort: Eiilier rositir,e i'ncr:rlilir, ln zoncrl er:rin:; thc


rt:rltrc mlv shilw a tlitiet.:tI rlofigiiiioil ii) thilt al lhc orrter
laft.

Distirtgtti:;hir77 eatllr:s: Hiuh

relie

l. rlorninentll pris

natic or angular hal-'il. rale r-(llou:; irLi riltr.l lronl:rlous


intclferorcc tints aitl di:.,tinguishing r:linrzuisitc f rol rniire ral:
outsitlc thc r'ritlrtc grorrp. 'l-hrr lack ol sirong aol(lur arid
plcor:lrroi:;nr anil. rvhcn obtainlrhlc. a 1r,isiti..,c rpiical si.!:r hclp
tr distinrr.ri:-h clino;ri:;ite fr:ur clrid+tc. Zoisitt and clinozoisic gris ltrc n!t alr{tv:- {li.riinguisltatrle forr' cr^h oihr.-r. Ii
zoiriie espceiall_-v rrt-'crit.': diliirultie:; rii irle ntiic;rlior. t zriisitd
clcavilge fgrcnt'-' ulu:rIl-r vicld goo,,l lrrnlc bi:;r-cltix li-turc:;
witll sti{rtE tii::persicn anel thcir irc-iirrcne:c eri!iiLrrs;rfr tirt'p

iniligr; hlur ;n{l (iilrli vqrllts. -l-hicl: rrtil-it+ililrrl ltr.,'s'ri1c


ains rLrsarlrle e lirtozrri:;iIr. lrui thc,v :rre gcncr ally b:r:.;rl
clcva::e attitcnls- viclj re lie rl rcutr ltiscctrir ligur:: :tnil
trnal inig-tct-nc.' L.|l()L!r:.. Al,;ritc is r!ni\i;rl ln{1 h:l:. lop'rr
g!

Liircringcncrr. l.'c:;uvi;inilr sitow:; intclsir 'Licllirt

blur'. ptpl*

or rlull r.'cllttv itc'lercre .-olourr

nt!

!'lt

tq I I

E*lEEer:'

:':r.l,-''' ii,i i .t j! illi.{ i,ll,..r


ir, liti,- lti;r:.:irrl I i

itt
;i!i
it'!
i''
I

-=:==

F,

',=
::'.

I 7li i 7'ri
i.lll, i 1.'j !
| 1,'+ I liti
i,{}l'; lli}l'r
Ilj-;i!"

-=:===- =

'1

li!riri i! .';t'iir'li:;. i i::!ri li;r..,i: ;r iiti.; iirrlr :!it'! ;t,l :tt'


.!l.'i
nro::ilv it!:stti:.:tri,ul:i. !:(lli:ttti;rrl! "()Iir:lii(:. i,l;r'i
('r)r'rcr\;!rtl ilar'ili:rlii'r: ii;iv llr::;ilioi!t t:ti iv:llt:trit,tt i'tt
wtll Qrltri|rl r! :;il!(:!til !it;tili: ;ttt il{}i r()illltt}li. :-'illlltl"'
r i:tit:;,,i ir rikcl rillli ,it;!l i;til:::,- ,i(',';l:;li)l:lll1.'r'ilr'{iill! ri l
i;irirl:r :t.ifa!:;11{-::- t,llt:i etttlx-iirlr-,1 it :lir i:. i;l',' lt'
iicttti-'tti itt r'i'l:tilt ilit;tliiL llr itt:;irr:: :ttl ilttitl lllirlrill' "'
riiii(li!i l:rllir'i!::-. :tliili ;illti r!ll;!li
(

.::.:
:.=
:::":

'lll:r. ilrirt'-i ;rl*:!::-, ir :[:tir:r ir !i r ! :;rr;rllt r:-ll rwi:lt


:ttr:!'i (i Fr;!1: 3l!'r'll. i ll:i!tt' lt;ll r:,-ililii ilct,.ul;rt L,,i',tt
ili:.i ilrriii:.

=:

,::---:;1-

ii ,ii:.iir l:
i' t';'!r:i:';." !riiir
ri{ ll()ri t! !lri,- c { !t: fi.::r,'ii"ir Ycllr'il, -,'iv:i..

.1lq
.,,

i. ,.:. r;rir.

ilrr:i::lr r'l r'r:r

-.= .:

.:-:=::.
:'a:.i-:: :
=

iii'iri;L:':.''-- f'rjrii :ir. irti r':r'::r-:' !' ':lrrr!iLl rill


!!!i! i! r,']r'! r'iirrt: :ir' l illi;ri '.' r;il ;,i
iir:lt,:i i .r'
ilriil,'rrlt ii!i: ri ..rr.-ir sflr-rr i: :r !l!!iiitti!!!l '.li:r-lr !tttL
it-i{ r((-({iliir! l;rri'-;r, r iillr'i fa!.-('!!iii itl i(atl itl;t i;tirltl'
:ti;rirr:Lirr!ri , i!!i;ri!irl ir, li..'iri ii', Eliii!' ri:til: ;ii!rr:;t
ttrrii::!!-r- i',iL'! !! i:! tvilii"lr ir'i i iiii' ,-lo':"r'r! lrri:l: l';lr'
..;riiriiL::t,,,t1.1iiliii'.1!!1'1';
1;i,,'t:riiai:!i!lirltirl,l;rti.i,'rt
Lliri:--'-iil:; ic iitr::,i r licl'i';lir

j!it:f.

;'.!;t

t':i::i;ii,

i,;!'- i:'rr' r;!:ri!fl i; r;!'.' r::i;rllr'l

! t:it( iiiil

. ', l c : ' j t ..' ; r ' 4 . r r , i r i l l , ! ' 1.. r i l i !: ' r . . r


:r'! : i: ,:i'iii,'ir- l:ii:, ['li:;i i iirr--r g]{r'.t(i( .'l'ii,
;1;.;j., ii11r : '.fri ;! ;!t:i :i;risii i'.:i',,r ':!!i i!!lii!!.1 lrr.
!i!!!ir ! l!r, .,! :r'i:i ! lii !- rr! ! r'i
!;

i '

i :'

.r

i;ir-l!

E'!til:i:r:l:ii;!
..:r!.itr1

::r,;tii

:,'j:'il!{ii.r:

il,:' . i'.,i.

:(

j:'!l!'

i irtri"rlrrrrt

i j.t::::,::.tii;;a.;: ::':!i,:;.'.i i irri,'r. L ,!;;.;:.., ! :.. :iL.t


<.lir.i., Il::r'ir.i..iii ::t.,-.:,,-l:r::::::iii illr'i!.iitiii ':: r...r l!:.
i:ri;:l: ::.::rrl:: :r,,irii,-i,i::y ,i::::ti::ri!: r';:!! !-,! ,r rri:'
ii:,
,r.'.1 i, l'r. .". r, . : .1 :'i.i ::!:!:i. ., ,"
',,
.l!ii:rii', .::;1".
,rtr,i rir r :: r r ;ir:t: i:,ii::r't::.1: , l.iii,,,
"::ii
ii!,,,,.;. il.jr,.rr.:..r:l!,.,
.:.!
ir.ii.lrr...,!.!i,
i,.,'.',.:.:
:lt.:rv: : t::iir :tt! iil.r ::i :iir' ! i!i!i! !l :ii i!::. :ii;!:
ir: ,, , rir. ri', :,:. .:rr..j:r
. i:l i' :ii :, :r:iri i i. tiii:r' : ;1, i,. i! irl! +i itr,.i. :,
'"
..ir;rir': :i !!:ri'.1 :'r'r':. iir:: ilr:::r i:!: iir iii;t!::L'i: :.r.:!!
, it.lqL 'rt , i,.i:, !',.'..: :, ii. i : ;" :it!r:ii:;::ir: iil;c'.
iL',-!",i, !!'.!::rir'. i i:i:i:ii j:i.! i :i:!: !! '':!;i,'.";:tii!;:,,.i;tJ
r<:!;i'- !i:r' :lir'i :i iit, :r : !r:i;l.,rriL
i: ii,:ir
..;:iL.iir... .- li:it :ri ii: r, ;i!1. i!r;:;iir., rri..;tr:riii r li;:L,ri,
j!!!ii,.t:illtii.,.:i'fi:
i!i!?r.::r;r!.lia,iii;;::,1,!a!::f.-.-i,j!::iilr:
i:;iii t{ ltii t.-':1i !t!i
:lti ls!r:: ;r:ri i :i ,!i-,ii,

HEAVY MNI]RAL DESCIIIPI'IONS AND COLOUR PLATES


actinolire-epidot(r{hlorite zones of thc grccnschist_facies
rcsional metamorphism. It is assocatecJ wiih hornblcndc in
the albite*epidotc-amphibolite facies rnd is lrlso prcscnt rn
contacl melam()rphic rocks and in hornfclses. Ca_mctaso_

matisrn results in epidotization. In igncous rocks cpi<iole


is
more common in the lrasic types, but may occur in granites.
Hydrothermal processes form epidote in cavities, virgs anti
vesicles in volcanic rocks.

Rentarks: Epidote is a rvidespreacl dcrriral mineral. bul ir is


rclativcly unstable in the tliagenetic environmcnt. Howcver,

well-sealed formatir:ns n)ay contain cpidote and one

grains are occasionally encountered


menls.

Grains front:

CarbctnLferous,

or two

in tieeply buried

sedi-

North Sea (Mmt 1.662).

!:.
i
'

!
.v

62

l l-,to.11i:i-l!TF

PEerc*mi*
c;-(

N4n

t',F(j

'' .I ):AlLr.OFI[SirO?
nlon(lclinic_ liaial i -F)
tttL

1,7-11 -l .7().+

;rli

rY

l.7irl l.lil()

ll

-qiorI

.75(I l.it17

(|. ( ll5,-

j.ii

0.0rifi

i.i;l

-.

Forl itt :;eliners: Picrrrrtitc ocelrrs m(,st commrnlv ;rs


irrcculai'lv slrared :iirgul:rl gr;rins with ;r lraeturerl. uneven
surfacc. Pisnrtie frgftretts, rcl]tilluulilr i(r-rls urd sutrrriundetl irtrratlerl crtirts rnay nlso lrc cncounterctl. Pr'rfcct
{()tll } cle:iv;rgc is aclv iL:ir:r{rblc. Fluirl inclusions. r-r';rr)gr!l
plrrallel rviih the l ixis oi tlrr: .:rystals m:rv l.c frreseni.

{olur: Pale or riccp pink.

virle

t.

':

l'orvnisir riirk ,rl

brownish r'erl.

ftlelchrti.yrtt ' $tiiing:

viiilci.

rJcep rr,d:.1, tlecli

(r..

vcll()!v, orrngc vclkrrv: li. amcthvst,

reil, hrorvrist r'cil. Irright nise rirrk.

#ireJ'rin|t:ttt:.' fulodcrite

i(-)

slirrrlg lirr,'lrirgcrcc results in

lrillint sl--.ro!ld- nil ihirtl-rx'tlc' interlerencc tints. but hcsr


arc ritien i'ar;kcd lry intcn:;c rirtttal r:oltttt.

il,s:itt:lit: li is difiicuii ir) inasurc ihc criinction an{le


io ihr, irrcgullr latit rif- lcsi snins. Elorglrl*^rl

ox,irtg

agi-!1eis

lrnrl

rr

isnrs havc r;'ullcl

lnietJ.t:rt:nrc iigure:

r='xti

ncti{}n.

Fri:;rn:; l;ivinr

tn (lil{)) i)!'!)vrl!: a

ncarly c*nirrrd aeue ti::cciri:.: iigurc rviih lr l;rrgt

lV. isir

chrqmc,:;:rc crv,-it;bserl. rre-gulltr iiarnetrt-r lrrd,:le:rr:rge


illrkcs vielel liighlv .:rr:cntrir: igrt'trs. i'-:'v !)i t<v il:;pLrstiin ts
ilisiirct. Fitnlrntiie is hia:.:ial posiiive ivllcrras the ncg:rtirc
.,,t riei y is usrutl Iy,lcsignlrir:d
a:: .grlepi{ote.
f'.! t

t!

i t t

l- ii

lr,'i lrsil

r',. ,r rtr;r ir,..

lli:;tingui:;!iittg jL.iuri:;: lish clict.


F

inicn..:r: colrur urrt

iir(i!rg Lrlco.throisni :;ul'iier lor thc ,iiauno::is if nienonlifc.

'l'hulitc :r .:rie iv r .iis!ir:) h;:; !tiw-:r re r;ciivr inrlire:; ;rntl i::


iJefv i:li'c- iiigiriy etiliirti-"-ti lini! ;ir:rx:htriii: <l.nlrrtir:fiir-. ;rr
aesailhlc ;ir:rttoniiir:, li ii: pri:;:n;rtic hahii. :;tiaiior:; :rnrl
i,-rvei rr'iici i. iltt iotrei :!er!ic! iqr iir.iinguirli i irsr
l:f*iiirl!tlle. liiri;ilg!';:ie;-chr'rir: ii.Ji!1iir_.is !i!:eEy iri ir
r-nirr:;i'il r..'ii1 !iir-'l{ii'ri'r,:. irui ii h:r:; l$rvtt i{ n.i hii..ir rn.q
t'rrre-:r F:1ici ili!.n:!triia it!:!lcf:i!lri ii i:: riptic:lll.; negliiaL.
EEvrrr:;'rhtrir i:; g:lc:ir..!ttriir: ir r.iritrit-c rti iiirk, 1:ale ltrlr.,.rr eirr!
Irl... r .rrrtl i:.,i11:,..1li i( iiltii,..
rq'E'!i

l'iri't',

!'r, mrrnirlt'

qrr

.ii i lii g:;l1.. i,.i,rtr;rll'

!ci:tofg^,il(!:;!i-i :;r:lrisis- *itcg$as:itri ir .,,r]:;icles ailii iis:;rc:, si

:riij vllc;nit- trr:1,:;. ivlllgiinc:.:c.icl rirnio*iiic:;;tr:r.;i!


!1
il!!lg:rilti:,.: ,lu:r4-ri5, -ii ttrrsrlitiic o' litrirotherm:i oigir,
-':ri:;.fi-e.ir;,'.' F{iv+i:=rril. !::i:r:. E-'rri'r:

(Fli !.rirll.

tli

a....=

!.;\W.'l(i'F.lll'tr
L*wsq!mEEe:
{-':rAl.lSi.{ ),1({ tl},1
orl!triltrinrbic.
tt\!.

l,(i

li;rri;rl ( I

a:j

'lr(i5

,---.1.?--=_..-==_=:

rrl\ l,r7l Li,76


il',' I .r)$+ l.{rsi
ir l.( lll I
.r.{}5 i. ll
^

..

=...- -:,

. . :':- : .:

!'ttrn it :;i(lit,,tlls: ! ltc slt;trc tl r-lctrirltl l;trvsonilc rt:ritl'


iftr Irelcr-:t I l{}{)} clc;rvaur: lttlrl thcv (}rutti iri
!rlaiv an:tlitr, ctuitlitttettsirinltl. irrcgttlllt r)a rl()llliic lr:igienis. lhe etlgc:; ttt;tv hL: ri)lllrtlctl. S,itttclitrcs;t cttttlilrlu
cuhc,lrtl crv:l:tl :tPletts (u1irer. ;r). lilttiil irclLrsittis. (ltllrinlv
{-l():) lrc r(}1 lln{jrrlit(in.'lwirtrtittg ir iii:irrctrl :rtt,-l is cilller

:irnplc !rrtncll;rr.ot ntttltipL: in lwo tlirtetiol:: ( [);la(ttlt-1 irvitrllitlcl


krvcr). 'l he tlrill tn'irl lltttcll:te ilrt: s.illla{illlts l)(:lll.

i-'sltur: l,;riv:cttilc i:; eolt,tlale-.s rrn,-l li;ts:r higlr lrrslr,'.


trrv ,:rltil'it r [lLti:;ll tinqc. rit te !itle vtll. 'w.

'!'llicke
r.i:iiitr

F!:'thrtisrt.' .. Pule hlLrc; Ii. !rlLi:;h grecn;'i'. Pilltr vLrlltu


roliec:rtrlt ritlv rrt vcrv tlt(-k !lt;iirs.
lirtii'inr.ttr'.1-' |.irw:.rlriirr ltts; lr rvt;tk lril,:ilitg.,lcq: :rntl iht'
iiltriLrrencc Lolrrtrr:.;itc Iirrt ortler 11111:. gl.t'v or r;tle vt:llrirv
'ilrick gr:iiii:t r-li:llltv inlcn:-ive:c(liilql ()r.lcr ol;lIiil(-. lrlltr':tntl
'L

rtlf5.

l',-tit-'iiitl: j l(){}} r:lcrrv:r!-e ll:ltuc ih(ltv:vliletietl r:liI

iirti. I hrtl ri

LrtgilLrrliirl lrirgttl.:rti:;

Initr.ii:rt;ttt" .iittiri::
Ltnitd aruie l)i\(j{-it:i

i:

i;rrall,,'1.

I lliii] r k'ur,'ui:L: ilitkL-:- pr(]vi(,li-' ;r wL:ll


tgLtt..: rvilh big.hl i'.1,--l,ttl;tiit-: qrtlrvi::--

rr:.tr;rll.; tli:;c,-,1iblr: trlv in iliickr- ::lir:;. :tnil :t cle:ti -l:.itir,lign- i:ri:, tii:.ptt:;irrt ii rlcicr:i;thlc-

F,iitttitiirttt: i'rsiiir','irt trv:;;tl: eliittq:ttcrl ol t;rt,l


rlrtrrlri, irl;rt'-r iri ihc (lirlrcii(il1 ol Lhc lottg rliagrrtllrl.

! )i,ri iitguishi il,i (il Lr f.'.\ :'l hc rllriv. gencrallv :rriuLrl;rr


iornr- ltiglt lLt-*i,' t.l irririlt rtc ili:rg.tto:;iic rl l:tu'r,tli1r'
l iliwrrc1. iltie!:r r:liils:! illi:ri likr:l! irr irL: llii]it1l.el1 i!i
r:liri:ii:-itc- rsicriirllv iii ilti:r: t'lrr, li l;rtl ir
itl,rl:lltl:

"hr'

irierier:rir-'r- LokrLrii. lr)$(:tu. {'lit(,tt)i:;ir: it:t:; ili:licL! t:,iir-:iir :iri rr:;rlr!l:,i,ir:lai:,:i:i (iliL:r:.:i:; iicrr ili:t'-i:tirlri

r::igrie. r',llet:r:: !:rw:rii, ,li:.1i;rl: ! L!(:;!i rqitir-: lti"r,-iii:'.


i1,r' I lr, :r,r:riilllr iiliL r( rr'r!{r'rr'l0tl.,,,i .."i..ii, i'..i.i il
ii . (-li.,irfi(ii t!ri !iit1,':;!iitif. .+tilllu:,ii,-: i.; li;tri;ll rr:,:rii..r
:iitrl rlt*i:ltt<i!r: ir -;iltcl,-:., ci riir. :tttrl i!:ii. ,l-r;t rrrt: rir:titit
:!:- iir:rltliif. ihir:l:. :rittL:wl:i iittilctl tr eirirrrrl ttit:; tti

Il:;:nrtll.,:.11.''. I'*rrt,riri;t:iot:i;t::c.rr;ir:".irr,:ltrt!ctl:tcliLllr

i;rllr it iltr lt,--;iir: i:t,:iiiir. tt;ii, llr' !'oirlrr:;.:ii qilr l:rq:i,tiii.


trut tlrri icliei i: ,-'rit',i,i,-tlrli' lri..r'rl
q".{ a j,'-ji'li il, ! .rq:!!riIr i:: :r r!i;riir'':1it tit.;li ii tll! lti!'ll
lti:;:-i!!r il{i:t{li!lli:::rll iittl: ili hltt,-';r:hi:;i:-. illtli:lrllhiii
iiir: :trl il ",ttrt,,.,,,:iririt.r.

ii'tltk};- !ilr:r :rriir!tihti!c ir iit.: h.::r't itilr:tl ltrLtir',il


rrirri':-iit;rl i!-rr'tiiii;rhiliiv ilt:ti lrtri,iit i:; rrr::.eit1.
i ria!iii:; i'iliit

.1

==::a:__.:.. .
:

is rlelrrrrirctl lv

.-1

::.::--

=====_:_=:-=

f!:(-l

-*=

..,.'--i:=
.:==

i.rllr!: {;!} !.r}!rc I\'{ilrlrrr Litil:t:;'.c.

btirr

-l

.:.

1-:'

III..AVY \1INI:rttAI_ I)trs( lUI,'l t()NS ANI) C.()l_()liIt pt,A.t


holc Slrror,-l().1. Il.l2 nt [:r:ltcc: (h) ()ligoccnc. I]rrlcnlc
Il;r.in. Irl,ll,. r\lrtrt L5X).
[-oucr: ()lilocenc \lolassc, S;rvov. lrr;urcc (lr{nlt ].5Sl).

66

I:S

PUtu{l'F:.t-YlTi:
FceraepeEEye

car( tug.Fc.r ' ,tuin l( Al.Fi,-r ' .l'i),{ X llH ) -ls.-(1,l.


lsi( )4 ir.-lFlri )
morioclinic, iri;rri;rl ( 1. )
ilt!.

1.671,-t.7..1;:

frli

t\

.75,1

.7.';-1

l.fiil l.7tr4
(i.0l.i t).i):l
.r. ls--j.l-l

itllur: V:rrirrus :;lrar.lcs ilf grcc .:olotrrs :trc dotttitt:trti


which ranc l'r'tlrtt ltale vellorvish glectl l() tlerp hluish .qltrcn.
Sionre greins sltirv ;r patchv r:trkttr tlistrilulirin. lJorvt.
llorvish-blorvn

iif

cokrutle:;-s gt:tins

ittc inlr-cqrrcnt.

Fl:x:hri:;L' Prricllvitc is hiLlhlv ileiichriiic rviitt: tt "i.


colourlcss. nle .,,elkxv- rlle gt-cctrish i'elkru,l [i. light glecn,
dccp bluish .::r(jril. l'r-vstlls arc usualll' r-:llgatcd liarallcl ir v
(y: {i) arl ihc dcel trluish-gresn i)r grr,r,n li ttltxittrul
libsrrrption is wcll displavr:tl or manv deifital gl'ains.
irtt.frine'nt''.' !Joth ihe thir:kless rl the graits rlrrl h
oricntaiion ril thrr iihrcs iilrrcncc tlte intctrsit-v ri ihe intcr'
lercncc, crlours. Ihr:: ir;rv be iir:;t=rr'rler rvhilc rr veilorv ,tt

ilrin gr:rins.

[Je,:ause

ril slrrlrtg ilispcrsion tii tltt rtlttic

ltsr:s.

i]()si ilurllplrllviir r:'lhilii: ;rnom:tlt'us hr(ilrl il) vcll()rvish :l.ld


gt'r:yish-lilur' iriciereiicr r--(l{)rl.:1. 'i-hickc' g;irs sho*' inteLecnre eilrtrs ur tc sr:trtntl ortlcl vclkrrv. ()rartgc attrl l)lurt.

il.riirlciiorl: Wiih!l hc
tsiircriii ili th irdvidual

q-lustrrs ol' libr,-'r rr l;rths. thc


liprroxintrielv p:rr:ilcl.

r:rv.cirl: is

Inlerjert'ttt'r: .ii1ttt't: Prisn;itir

.:ari,-'tir:- nr:ry clisrlriy'

;r

l'iistcirir iigurc trtt;r blttislr iitrkl rnd sir{)ng ! r'i


ilispcr:;i,rn. Bro;rrle i!r'r-:s','icLl(lii r:r:rii'rr irltrtircncc !ietrrjs.
cg-nis-d ecrrtr

Fililngutiitit: {irrrinronly

rreg;rlivr- rr-'e;l:.io;llv r,isiii.,,r.

!Pi:;tingui:;hi.! .-::.ti1fi.,r. !ho- iihrirrr fahit. qrltcr i:rrliallv


ir n,jedlr:- rhar:reici:-iir rlerchroi:rti-:rittt

:lr'rg-:i! ihq::;

iniricril,,r: r:iilrut:: rri gcr,::tllv ilr{l{ivr: r:iinultiiorr


itrr!!t.itic:: ft ihq rli:rgnori: qii irrmFc'llvie Thr
ntii{l.rii!tl'!. hirh r,-lici ::L.'ivl.':; i{}.listin-r:ui:;lr ii ir,.rlr:ioigll
tltiurt:

e rcliahL,'

plcrr-'hroir !-!rLrrilr Prrnticllvilt i:; iitu:.,i like ll-

aq

trc lri:.,i:k-tit

iirr ihr rrirliitt tit:rl:.,. iji11,',,'1. ii:; iihiou:., h;rtit. iirrvc il


di:;iitret rlerielii.iir:;c!et.: {errecieliy ii:. !liti::h:tlarlt};rld iirr
:im:rlou:. nli-'lri;rL:.:iil.]urs;!r;:;i:,i in {lie tli:.,iiiigri:llitg
lurFc l lvic iriir i hrr iim.:i- grori'. Fii bri u: ;r nrrli i iroie:- :.1t,'rr
lrighe orilcr'!!1trafuL:lL'c i='i;lottrs. lafg.-r t-:.;linctr,rri:trigl,-':titd
!li:iiiiva rlorg;iiicrr. Srnr.-: puirF*li,viit: :rggrcg;rtc:; ic:;rirhle
glarrclnii, lrtrt ilr r:iic s hc l:!ii.ii is li.v.='f. t]rirm;iie

lrlarellvit.:; :rrc :;inilr

.,.rridi.-" bui holli

air

yerv

ii iltr . t-r inrlalll:riia v;litirr'r i:redirrctis.

rlcilital i'unrrc,llyiit: i:an l-'r: rur! in

N''1,)rLr tl-:ilil:: cr
Fvlltrr.lre-!l,ajeik1 ii

(]trc'hiirisli I IilH{rl.
{-.tt'

t.!fl{it{';::

iouiiipr:!l-il. i:;

.':i

.,,: =:, .'


:: ,.:' j-F:' ..:.''-

Farn in setli'.irctls: I'unrpc!lvitc {}ccrr-s irs t'adial ihres


rrarrgcil cithcr ivitlin it flttr-sht:c iirtrt rr in rarlllcl ltr
sttblra'rtllcl crorvtlt- rlso as cltstels ol rtisr:tir:-likc ncctlles.
!.l,lcil c:'vstals and rltrt-sq: uggrcgltc:-. Wcll-iiirnrcd pri:ttls ot'
:utgill:il ur:lins ;c \('tv r;rr|

ye

: :

. i:i

"::::r,-'i::r.r:::
I t r::4.

ii .ltilr:rttrri,;ii,' iir.'rltl

,ri

,a

'

IIr^VY MINrl{/\l f)l:S( ltll)ll()NS ANI) (()t.()t jt{ I't.AII:S


blLrcschislr lrntl !rcclrsclrisls :rrrtl is thc inticx llillenrl ol llte
low'l:l':ttlc ptcltttilc'-runrpcllyilc l;rcics. l1 is crrrrut,lt ll
nrellrrtttrrrhosctl ilrtrtsivc rocks iln(l lnlry lr frrlerl hv
I

httlrolhcrrlirl ;rcli()n in ;rntvgtlirlcs iutrl in vcirrs. r\:lygrl;rlcs in


brrsirll. :rntlcsjtc :rntl spilitic blrs;rll nlry trlso conlitilt rrrnrpellyilc. It hirs lrccn rcl)()rle(l 1r()tlt n'lcl:t-trev\\,:lckes :nt(l
siliccors qncisses.
G r u i t t S./fr,rltl.' l-orvcr M ioccnc M ollrsse. \'r,e rrL

in.

Su,i I ze l -

land (Nlnrt l.5lt2).

6ti

I{ !trif\1,\i
'B'<:ca

q-EEaaEEB:

grFE

l.!:i(

fui

ittEt rt t,

;!'i!'itl iirirul:r:

I i. n I ). i l,.i :i,,i i,., l{ iii ), i r( i ) ! l.l


ltig'uil. rri;r:i:l { }

i lr: lrtr:tlir

EE

rr.. tui ir.

g.i

lf.lt

a.illl. {ii!l}

:tr::;

ilttr-r'

r it ir!

ii!!i!rj:;itil irilf i'i It(- r',

'i
ii

Ltr i:; !.irI


l.rl( l.il.ij
i).{tl | {l.ii ii

IrE l.l:;

;ti'i

iirn lrirr rr;llitr I't' : lri

c(iiptr:.ili{t;l

;.,,ill

intt Lir5r .l-,


itl |.,15 l.ri(l
I il.t)li {!.{l l:;
1 lli ll)
i

lilhiilr;i i(rririllie r illr;ir

,'i,!
:ti

:.

L{}ii} iirtia
ttl:, lr,ll
(' iltT i| lr
i.0t I lt

!ji:viic;rrtl:.rirrrl-;.-. wcll;r:;:-rlr,l:rl cllr;rilc. loiu.r


i-,iniiiiu('u:- :iirl :rllii,'tr :r'tir':;- Irui iltrtc i ;t iiiir,-'illilrlv
:..rr i'r'irr, r t , il';rr' rrr,l ,lr;rt tl,'

4"it j' .;'!ittts'tl!.;; ! lrr..,. iir.i:rrl lr;r::ir: lr;ilri: gir, ir.,


i(i r'r{ifilr'11., '.,;tfiililr' iL'iiiltl lii!llrigr;. ! !..-.. :t(,.: .ilr!l
rl. :r-it ti:;ir:; *'iilr irrtuii;itioi1: :ii rilt. {}! ;lalV, ;rl lrlll
rii:; i r:rl' : :t i- ,'ir lr-.tl i!.--; ;!!!xt!!l! : :;1-:;irL'rl lt;t:;;tl
.,r'r'i!{!1:;.:liri{!i(1-'r! ilV Li!!:r!'lL.:riiit('!(i
iliiiiri{ {lrlll-!!r. ir;iilil c)
;tt:,i ,-ilLti;t ir :l-i Lil;t :!sr,'.{itr-':: ;rrii;rii.g ir'(ll(
i!rillr!'r:rl). fl( jir-rirr.rr:r'l:rL.!rrlqitrtlii;riilr'irrlte
i.lttiiiig::,:<liiit.::ll:iir:: !r{ifia'-.t i :iir' !it:.nlr ii.rtiLtrt rr,,,iLt,itir

. .. .t =::= :.
a

5,

-.==,, '

--:.::: :

:rirrr;r1ii-ii:l-'ilr'i::;rrrl!''lrl;t,inIt!!:t {a.jtlilialinl!:ils()r)irl
r:riiiclc:;- .ijlirll ii ii!!n :ri:rin v:u(iui- ila!.isr-'1i ii iu(liir!'.

=...:

jiirrirri,-il -j;li: lr,-,-,,!r' .-lg :ii;rpcrl- lrnq rlliP:ritl:ri rr

:;rlrri ir';ri (::cr',irrri !r;t:r' irl-\'t i. l !r'!r{r:;il:r iriilt rlx!'(l i}r()\'(--!t


;!--.-' iil;tV i:!!;!iti ;! l:t:.lt' rlti! r! .,i ,)ilitil,rlil1r iilr'tlllr(il{i*\'.
i l, r.. ", r., ii!!!rjrliir, :r, ir.., ir, rl!i :11:tiii., .,r'tt,.ritti...
!':jirillii ::iii;iiirit:;. itr'l!tr{ii::; :tf i !ttil{il ;ti,1 .':lrr irq!i,;li.'
:j:i:i'- t:l:l! l:i:i1-.rii::rq'::, irr:r'i' iirr:1 iiir' ltar'ijtl ::i!i., : ,:i
..!"... .,. l,.1..,i...!iq rrir tr' ,: :.rt'tr. i!!, .j,.,ti, i
.,.. ,...:! !a.
,1. i,ili:!.J i:i:,!iii
!i:,iti.
liljr:r.. :)li:iii(
::!r L!.;r-:: ilticl :-ir;!ic.,:iiLl 1':ril-i!;il:l!.'!iri:; ititrtiiiiir':, ti.iririrl
:;irr -rirfili:, r','r':rri,iir::, :;r:L{ral r:l:l!' :{i*f i !!i!1rr. iic(.:i
i.'!-ilr';i!'., r':,-it ii .ittiriitli:{' :11;it:t:; ! itr':,i- !i'ii i-iil. r
:jiiilirr-:lir':ll! iir!ri!!! .i:1.!':it:.,i:; riil :r' i:t ririir':rl !'riri!iiil!-:
.'!i ilf:'i;:;i *i-'i i;.;lr- iiii:iriiii;ii!'ii ilv ir'rt ,t i;t!t(l!i!
!'!il'; i . i i! yr'i i[] s;:! i!l ,rLi ; i::l ii'i ;;:liri':; r i :,,,'rii r':!:, :,:,.!i!i
tiii(il iii:it'!ilit|ltit
lirir;';ri:!'i;rl!!!i:;!t:::!l:tir-'it
+ii irr ii.':irrl :j:ii ! hr' il!iL lli\ fr..irft! !r'r' itrriitliir
:ii!' ::lil::,-'.iii('ii i!-'n!; i';lif gilr-r'iillai lliigr' !!:!.'i-i : lll i ir' lrrl'
;!1(1.:i..L r;i:iiiiirir-'itiI
r;;t;g;ii*ilr:;.,.:r',.ilq;i:riiri!lt{';i:.:
,t:: i,.it, ,., I r!! 1!t' rtr",
! It' r'r. rrr,r',ll ir':rll:. :r r!r,.
ii iqi ;i i!... ;:::i:. ;ii,i iiri:; i;l iirl;ii :i:r ii.. i:. !rr':.1 -r.-r
,' ii.,.1i 1,,j-. iri:L i!. ili!'.,, it!l!lr'ii' :tl i!lr' .'iial i;ti !ltr.
:;;iiir:iir.; irliL-;qi;rliil
ir liv ltlii)
!lr:r r!!f r:ir;rllr,
.:! :i.; ti, i:;i:'.i!t. ,'i '.:rli !!!!r'.r,li,ll iitt,!tt, .r , r,t!rij
ir'rii: r,r,!ir'i:r-:!siii':!rr'!irrii....ihl.'ilq'il;rl:1r.il
Q

HF.AVY MI Nl iRAt. t)E:l{'RIlr! 1{}Nsi ANt-!

r.'{ l.r -}l r l::- E'1.^ !

i:-q-

!l..efr {i blur:, bttt strnlctilllcs


ih.:v lai:!- aol(,ur'. Ttie overgtirvlh:; are u:uallv iveklcd to iht:
host glain Lv :;rrll '1!{}i:;" Tirv frequcnlly t'ilclusc rllitluta
bur' their c!l{lut rs usuallv palc

mpu rit ic:;. f-lcrtain featu res rcsemile tiveigrr-rrvt tts :i trrl thcsc
leed t.J [e rc,iognizetl in iirtler 10 avoir] crnfusiriti. Gt'uin:;
having tlisconlrnrrous riptic:al zorine nav ;rppcar similar iri
hcse witt trvcrglirvlhs, lrri ilistinr:iion L-lln hL: mad.i bv lh.
laek Lii- 'ruLrts' Gn tlie f$irrer. Fr:ilrturing anri thinning of thc
grain:; ai rne cnd. rr srmetimes ecllctrtirrg ntcrill adhl:ring
it: tttr grain, cn b{; nistakcn hr:rri {r.rergrriE,th. lrut tlr* lattc:r
i:; in optiea! diseontinuitv rvith ihe tourmalinr: grain. '!'hc
i

=
--:
-:==-::--:

tOlr.tUf : '!grtrntlin clisplav:; ;i rvirle illinge r)i r()l{lr!:r ail.l


thesc:trt. in g.^n.-'ra!. inlirratirn:; rt c.:;!rir{rsiiiiill. Irrlt]-lt-;rin!'
ttttrnalic,.; it!-r- vcf! tl;rk (irri:;i iir:tilrrc) or ilecr ltluetltrailes have light tir dctp hlr {indinriitc} n<l pir}.: {trtrtilitc) shade::. arl dravitc is darL: hr,.iwr, ycllrrtt o! rllosi
c(l[ourk::-\s. Llnusiil tiltl: rrr: rrr*-lrrcctl hv Vu'iou:] rciitllic:
ins. {lcku zoning is frcrur:rri. 'l'hi:; is visihlqr cithcr ll:; oninc_
ahrng fhc -l;ri: or:s cokrur hand: on thc lasil Jrinacoitl,
Vu irriltiufr:d t,-ittt ttalirtcs iirc !r()i ulc(-itlmolt. ltt lhis itslrtcc
the cokrur is patchv iir onc portion oi thr grain tiispllv:;

Fleo,i:llrttisrt'

-sldc:, ir-

-r =--:-::-=
-::==:.--:.:-

tlre ith:r.

-[-ourm:iliues"

-rpeeially !e irrir-[urriur
varielies, havc slron g and disti retive ri.-'o.-hroisnr. Mt xi nr r utr
ab-rorliirrrr appe:rrs rvhcn iht krng aris i:; lving pcrcnrlieular

tc thc vihration cliteetitr oi llre rrilari:r:f, l rrrc ,-'asc:rfragme nts oi thc ba:;:rl rariing shriru rcvrrscd nlllirllr!nl
ahsop1l. [t'on fturntiline sh,rw rleoclrroi:rn r:ithcr lrrlrr
vcllorv lrown to pale yclltir'; !!'lonl dcclr hlrrr. tlarl: gr.ccrr trr
plc ycll(]w of crl(urlcss- The plcochroisnr cl rrttglrcrilrrr
tturnalines is in shties ri rale vr:lkrrv. liihiurn iounr:lincs
lrra: )lourlcss in the . dirccticn tnel h:vc- tiil.^r int:: rii lht.ir
nrlural colotr (i.c. light lrlur. grern rir rink) in thr rlircction
of nllxilnttrt absorption. I-iasal l:rr-firrgs ()r griin:r rrirrrtcd
accrlrding to thrr hasrl Linar:oicl usuall.v laek pll-.r!-hroisnt.

iretringt- ttt-c'.''lirurnralirrc h;:: sf rrilu lrirefrinserce rnd


high<rlclcr intcrlcrencc iiits. thr--tr:h fhcs* irc usu;lllv rrlr
scurcd bv sttonq trrilreral cokrur. Nuncr{)us nilrro\v polari:r:a=
tion crerlour bantl:; :rrc best sccn in pale rrisniatic craitls. Bisil
seetiols havr- dull inlcrftLcncrr tinI.. arrrl s(!nc :rpltca! llDlost
B

isotropic.

Extitcfiotl:

Irrisnrs and fllignrcrris ekrngferl on r.

itve

rarallcl extirrrrtion.

lnErferen|e ligure:

Tournralire is uni:ni:rl. lut pri-rnrs.


fragmenls und rounclerl gntins errncrirll! vickl hi5ixl ig,;
ls shrd()w: of trvr istigvre-' lc;rving lhq: lit:kl ut-.,t
()n stagc rrrtirtion (siril:rr tr lliaxill li;tslr ligrrrc-t). fjootl
ccrtred uni:r:ial figurr-s alc crhiliii:d bv b5 s.cti.l:i_

ohscrved

Elttngatirtn: Nrq;rlivc.
Lrasal plirtirrg-

L:xc.pi lirr sonrc lr':rgilrcnl:r ol' th.


whicli nray- havc prsitive rlonslrlir:.

Distittguishitl-q .ir!furel: Torrnrrrlin.:

i:r

lrc iil tlre

cortlnloir anri c:lsilv rerrrgni;:;lhli: clct'itlil niirel;rls.

rir(i:ii

ll

i:;

rliirgno:crl hv nroilcratc lclir-f, highly v:rri:rlL: rno'phrrlov :iril


coliurs, :rs q,ell lts nirk-L:(l rlcoc'lrroi:;m, l;c::rtivc rkrrig;ilr,rri
rnd

lck of

i:lcar,,age:;.

{ tlturlc:+ {f::ins

nl:rt.. lr: rrislltkcn

a:.=:

- ::==----:='

Jeriial nrinr: r ilr: nrcleu:; c lc secrtaitred [v exritrtut


ii urrlcr higlr magnifieaiin and ihis u:;uallv re veels iilr lbradcd
srr.tirtc-

st!'ikillg,lv eliffercr

'==:-

=='.:=:

iul
7{l

-.

TOL]RMALINE GROIIP
andalusitc. topaz or sillirnanite. but a clear uniaxial figurc on
their basal plane assists in diagnosis. Vcrv dark grains can
casily be orerkroked as opaques. In this casc insertion of thc
rccessory ctrnrlcnser uslrrllv rcvcals colours at thc thinner
crids, or rollinq thc grins onto anothcr facc nray yield lightcr
colours. Grccn prisms are most likely to be mistakcn for
acgirine or for certain amphiboles. Thc bluc varicrics rcscmble alktli amphibolcs or rlumortieritc and the brorvncolourccl orcs rcsemtrlc brown hornltlentlc. Aegirinc hns a
hiqher rcliei. rvcaker pleochr()isln, strongcr interfcrcnce
colturs anrl shou's clcuvages. Tlie revcrscd absorption of
amphiboles iln.l dunlortierite, thL- positive elrrngation tf nrost
anrphibolcs (except sonre alkali amphiLrolcs). as wcll as the
roocl amphibolc cleavages, aicl clistinction. tlypcrsthcrrc hus
higher retractive indics and is lcngth slo*. Sonte ycllorvishbrorvnish angular fmrnrcnts of tourrnalilre rescmblc staurolite ,
but thc lattcr has a hishcr relicf and lorver- birefringencc. The
rliagnosis of rr c-ll-rountlcd toururalincs prcsents no difficultics.
as other colourccl ntin!.rals (prt from rutile) seldo!l .rtt:lrn
srrch cxtensir c rounding. ln acolin sedintants anrrhitritlcs lnci
pvr()xenes nrr'be sintilurlv rotrnticri, but clcalaqe tnrccs ol
thc former iind the highcr relici of thc lattcr help to tlistinguish
t

he nr.

Occ'urrcttt'e: Tournnline cnstallizes in granites. qrrnirc


rctrnirtit*s. iir rncurnltttrlitic Vcins and n er)nlitct- t)r rciorrlully nrctuntorphosetl rtcks. In schists, gncissL.s and ph,,llitcs it
nlrl lirrr lr nlctltsorrrlrtisl ()r ()ccrlr lrs |r:crrstallizcd clctrital
{nrins. 'Iirurnlrlincs oi thc sch()rl clbaitr: scrrcs are lounil in
t1rrritoirl r!)cks. [-ithirLr]t tountlrlincs. tltcn ii'itlr hi-qh r rri.rti()0 ()l ct)lr)rlrs :lft(i c0lttrttsiti0rt, itra lrcscnt itt s0tnc
pcgnlirtitcs iln(l liita-stilgc grtrrtitic vcins. Nllrqntsiitn t0LrrttLrlincs occrrr in s()ntc rnctant()trhic scltist:.
rocks irntl in ccrtuin trtLsic igncotrs rocks.

in ntdtsr,ntirtir

llclilk.s:-l',,urrnalincs arc uitlcsrrcud in rll tr'rcs ol


dctritirl scdintcnts trn(l ltre Lrltrastatrlc lrotlr rlcch:rnic;illt. antl
clttnticlrllt. I)olvcvclic toLrrnurlinc !nrins crtrrlcrl frtrrrr Irccxisting silieielrstic tlcprrsits lrrc *ell to relr rrcll rorrnrlctl irrrti
ilrc itss()cilltc(l \\'itit e(luillly rrcll torrntlcrl zicors;rnrl rLltilcs.
'l lrt rrrirrclrlogic;Li niltrlrit\ rrl t s'tlilncnt
clrn lrc crPcssetl lrt
iitc zit cott -tottt rri,riirtc-r utiic ( z t H) irrrlcr ( F{ultcr t l9(rl).'l itc
stu(l\' ()l vrrricllrl trPcs. rvhich trinrs lrt tlistinguishint \irri(,u\
tnot rltolirur . colorrrs. zortirrg arrrl iltclrsions of totrrntalinc
trirrs. elrrr rcrcl significlrrrt trcrrtls. ('h:rlrctcristic tourrnalinc
tVJlcs rllll\' pror,c irrrrort:r|rt l()t c()t fclirtir)g ecrttrirr slrrrtl b()ilies.
tracing scdinrcnt sourcc antl rlispcrsal (p.19). i\ conricrrsctl
rcvicu ol thc totrrnlalinc qroul) in sctlirrrcnts was [rcscntc(l [)\'

Kryninc (l(116).

I:st psL- u[]pcr: (a) -l'crriurl . North Sca: (t)


Jurassic. Nurth Scal (c) Atrritanian, Ncrthc-Chairr. south ot
f"nrncc: (cl ( arlronilcrous, trrrcholc \\'ciuch. lJ-ll nl, Srvitzerlurtcl; (e) Oligocenr- Nkrlrssc. bortlrole Wcich. 5l rn.
S*itzcrlarrtl (trlrrrt 1.5X1;.
Sccontl prrgc uppcr P()lvcvclic grairs frorn various lnrturr

(jruitts Jrotn:

sctlirncnts ( \lnlt l.5lil I.


Sccotttl plgg lowc: (irairrs lrrc frorn thc [-orvcr Cre tlrccous.
norlllcnr -l'unisilr: (ir) rletitrl gr:rilrs *ith Lrthigcnic ovcrgrorvthsi (h) gririrr rvilh rotrrrtletl ovcrgrorrthl (c) atrthigcnic
ovelgro*th intergro*n rvith tuartz. (tl) tlctuchctl authigctrie

ovcr{Ir*th { \lrrrt l.5ltl.

lt

l:irAr.rY trc!i![:i?'=.i'

iiE::,:l'::--:.il]l'f

iii.J.'; .'ii'-Ji,' i'{

aaEEEe

ii .r hiri i r i . ii.li" . .l:.,,. ',


ii:i, I'i;i::lri !
i.'i
i',
ii'
:
i

.ft li

i r'Ji i 'qll
;r.:i! 7lt
i l'ii! /lli
t.txl!: ii.{}i

i li

r.

Jit

-=.
i'1ir'iii iit :;.:!li?i:iii,i-

r=1:':iliir :iliri-:itf:- ii:r irr('ri!l - !'.liiil


!ii!'!:rii;,:. trt!v il:rii()rd-:lia-rrrl ui;r: '! hr:i! r-'it!!l!:f:r lri

iiqii iliitlrla:ii

i!r-

ilir i-i',,slal ii!f{:r tr:irtr'li!',:,hsre:;i:ti!

inrieni:airt:.,- ,:iel! l:1.-:t!r.if :tii!E! .-crcioiii:l !:t-:iii,-':r. !'h,:


di:;iiirci { !i{i} clr::',,::gr nriv ilii ai..'('.:i:!llr =:ii'r''v::i:!r';tr
{r!ir!i1!l-! fi!iii!: :rl ctl .-vr-rl!r-i: ::hiilli :;i-:-t{r:. !.,i1!Ll: liu flq'

irl:qigi!:.('ii i

::t1,.1

gr:rili:; {}n;rttii' it(i ;t.-\r::l:i!!iij :itiliir:l!

ircltt:;iin:: iif.r ir!-a!u.li.

4\itur- !:;:i:1iri airri dir!! vr'l!+tqish bror..n, u:;u:rli! rtiilt;l


;ui'rlisl: htl,:. tr: itra it.intI{il}c:ii:',llll(lcts lli:irilli'tiriill5;!iL
Lr()lot!ilc:i5. o violci" :i:rl il!-tsr {i ill(' r!:tngalli:llt !.':rticir.:
rlisplrv v:llir.:- {-}}:illg{j id tirrl L-qr{ri:; i l0ur.r0rillg ilj;rv llr'
lIL-Sr:ll:

Iti

:it't'ti:;t-- lli:ii!:t! :r:riii,-':. ilic liril{.'t'iii.-lf iir*chlri

wlh :! iir!-"rii :;liglri -ir'ri. vii)1.'i oi rrrrrli::li: ii. vlliriiv il liglii


rrrrplish hrorv.l'i. hlrri:;h o: viilei botli, T. l);il!-lt!(i1vi. illcl

vitlci. q

lrq1..,i1-l i:r-'r, !

Wcll: enri iirc iiri'1cr!r'r L'!.r!:r ii {!r'-v.


ii lisi-orel* !'(:ll.jli,. {!i ilrit f. gilrirrs lllr' eokrurr r;lle
tF li) :;ceiirr{l-0rtlcr itr:ing.' (ii f-rail irui tlr v ;rr,: tt:.turll'.
t!r-ckL:Ll l;v ilrr raturl crjltrLli oi ilit- iir-;1.
fli.,-t--rin!!-'nc'.-

1,l1i1q:

{i.tiirtiitt: !ciirril

ir r-'leirv:r:-' i:r-r-':;. lir si:riri:-

rriirii i;ril

lo c::tirgrrisi i 1r,' pcsiliiin.


!ttrr.f/:rl:rt<'t' .figurt,. '! h!: !iiir ilv )l i!xlii(: gfilltr !i\! i!!
*rll-cct.:ic <i-tiic :r;ri:; igrrrr u'itir il na;rrl'r' sr;rirhi tr)r';r!. ! h!
thir:kc: g;,,, :;llilv :evei:ri i:;ir:lt'iiics :ti(l ::ir(n9 .;--i
cl

isrer'..;iiirr.

EIoEtltitn: LongiirrtliriaI:;ctlion:;
llistiitiluishinE

.fr't!t!ra..;: Iiigli

lr:rvr: r<i:;ilive ri{)rrirt,}1.


re

lirf eouplr.l rvih

liir..,

lilr,lriicnce, rltrll crrkrurs rrl {hcil rinkislr Qt lurl}lish tillitu.


its lvcll lls Ittideriite rlcOchroisnr. ilrrt chrr;1,,:lriri:;lic. 'l llr rcliei
:rl llroryr liitunrilinc i: lorvct. ii is slrorigly l)lr('!-llr.)iL' ;rir(l
Uninliiirl. 'f'hr: plcoeh'ri:;r oi allrrile ii :;tr()ngcr. Sl:urrliic
has hrightr:r i'rlr:iLrfs tld il()fe lllierl:i..,r-'inicrictenc*

liltts.'l

ht:

l;rr{r' !'::tinciitir a!lgla irl iii;rri:rrrgrie. iosclhq^l rvitli it:: !rigtrilr(lci irilLrflat'eicc eoiour:.. scrulj ic iiisiiitgLisl ii iiirl

iiliiiiir.
j''ufftlt::': ,riinit.: rs il ('litiitcict:tiiri illnci:ll o .rtitt;t!i
itlcl;ilriillha: ;1!tf(lr:- ireirt:ei {iitalrr!r1;!ic ocl::; lrrr! g;rriitic
iniu:ri..r-':r- lioctut:;:i:;iiilvcilr::;!iiic;rr-';i!(::irri:iiiir:::.rii;rltr'

iiiti tt:;ivc:- ;riil

ir:rs;ri1.

iifai1..t li'r.' lir:rh rrriti. i:ll !ur:.

irr..;lll. l:ircl:rr

lh/rili l.r'r.l).

r:

!1.{

-:tl!: i'l

.'.,

i!

P)'ROXENE GROUP

PYROXENE GROUP
General considerations
Pvroxenes are onc rrf the ntost important rock-forming
nrincrals. lut of the nrnv menltrcrs of thc pyroxenc group
ttnly a fcrr ()ccur cotlttonlv as clctrital grains. Pvro\!-nes arc
chcrnicalit unstable in sediments ancj thev tlissolve at un early,
stege of diagcncsis. -l-hcrefore, thcy arc fountl onlv in eithcr
rrell-sealctl ncicnt sccliments or in l-oungL'r cle-posits. trut in
both cases thev are valuable inclicators of provenancc-.
The chcnristry of a prticular pr foxe nc- s|r'cics pro\.idcs the
basis of accurrre idcntication. Chcmical data plottcd in the
triangular diugrant ol Polden.aart ct Hess (19-51), prorosecl for
the Ca\fqSi,O.-CaF'c.Si.Oo-Nfg.SiO-Fc',SiOn sysrcnr. rvill
cnable anv l)\,roxenL. species to be namc-tl (see Dccr el a/.
1975. p. 3) thus providing useful cluc's tr provcnancc.
Within thc' pvroxenc sroup r$o principal subdivisions exist:
orthopvrosencs *ith orthorhombic and clinopvroxenes *,ith
lonoclinic svntntctr\'. Bascd on crlstal chcntistr\'. p\rr)xcnes
r!'clrssitierl s follo*s (Deer cr l. l97E):

Lithiunl pyroxene spoclumene hrs been reported from secli_


ments (lvfilner 1962), but it has a restricteel paragenesis and it
generally forms as large crystals_ Therefore, thc chanccs of
finding it in amounts sufficient lor positive iclentiflcation arc
rathcr emote. Its cL-scription is omittecl front the present
book.

l\lqnesiuln-iron pvro\enes
0rthopl rorcncs (cnstatite-orthofcrrosiIitc')
(Nlg.F.r' ).Si.O.
Pisconitc. (Nlg.Fcr-.Ca)(\ts.Fr, )Si.O.
Ca{citrrn pvrorr'lcs
l) ioirsitle- l lctlcrrbcoi

Cir ( flls. trc: - )SirO,,

Ausitc (Cir.lvlg.Fcr'.\l),(Si.Al),t),,
Frssuirc Ca(Nlq.f:er

".t.c''.Al)(Si.Al).O,.

JLrharrnsnitt ('a\fnSi,O,,
Ctleiurlt.sltliunt f\ rr\\cn(\
Orrphlcite (rqirinc-usitc-)
(

Ca. iriu)( Nlg.Ft'r

*.Fe",.\i;Sr,O,,

Socliunr p\ r()\cr)!-s

Jltlcitc NriAlSi,(),,
.\cgiritc Nirl;cr'Si.(),,
[.Jrt:r'itc Nrr('rSi,O,.
[-ithirrrrr Pvro\crrcs

Spotlunrcnc LiAISi.O,,

()l thc rtrovc thc'follorving

s.:ccics htrvc bce n

rcporterl frrnr

se(lillrdnts:

Orthopr roxcncs oI thc solid solution scries cn.sfatitr.-<rthoferrosilite u ith intcrntetliuto nlcrnbcrs brorzitc. hvpeshc1..
lcrrohi pcrsthcnc tntl r.ulitc. ln cuscs rvherc gruins arc
tliagnoscd onlv lrl thcir of)tical pro)cttics, thc colourlcss antl
()pticirll\ positir.c f\roxL.ncs rc iclcntilictl s enstltitc and thc
colourcti. plcochroic and olticullv ncgltivc spccics as hrpcrst

hcnc.

C'alciurrr p\rorenes: Certin nrcnbcrs ol thc cliorsilc. q.


ferrosllite hedcnlrc'rgite solitl-solution scries. lurtl cspcciallv
ruilitc rrinerrls, irrc prescnt in nttny dctrital se(lilltents.

Calciunr-sotliurn pvroxencs: .\cgirinc*augitc nt:tr' lrc inport:rn1

locltlll.

Srxliunr p_!roxenas: In isol:ttcti oceultcltccs aegirinc has bccn


rcrortcLl trLrth lrs tlctrital lrntl rs iruthiqcrric.

73

!l

A\,'1'

L4

lNIrll=Al.

DIISCI-I.I

FTl{rNS AN !l --r-!i.i {-l l< l''LA i F i:'

EsaEe
Mg.ISi_.,1

oiilo'l'rl-.ic. biliil i +

-. -.::
::,

li)-'
1 .<..:i l .t7 i
i{'1(l

!t\t

tl

'

nfi
rt'i l.{:it l.{i-iti
tl (l.tXl7 .{1.(ll I
:,1 3.t-\:l
^

.4::
:!

ll! .\t'alllr.'l!1,\. { tf:lln:;:llr (lrtllnilnll\ l{rilrr rti !lltii


unrpr,, pri:;m:;. i'regul:lv lcrminat.-tl pri:m:ri ir l r:rgrnr ir i:,
eLtlv;tE1L' ftgne!l:; {}t .nitrL- rarr.lv anhcdr;i delrri::- 'l-hc
clril:; rl srne graitts tnly l:e runderl- !i=l;r:atillg a:rsa:r
liic:; cl'tr:r liavr: a vcllo*,'sl:ti lecrttsr'ri ri.riciaiio ol'ir.-rr lrr
Fc " . l-'i:;nlaiic clc;rr'rgc:- :olutioll gl!l(]"./c::. '!:!di::ir!14 tL-rfdtlll

:ri

minatiolt:;' or scrleniilriziiiir (hnown ..; hasiici r' frt'


quirnllv c;ihititcri. L.irne ll:ir -ciruciufe i:. fhirlv conlitn, lvhir:h
is ;iltribul.rd ti cxsohrti(n i a r-linopvrorenc rliasr ,.rt 1:.i
tl-lrsletior gliding. sorneiirttes twinning, Thi:. sil'ttctrut is hcs;i
ohservcd undcr crossed prtlarizer: wht:r ihr: rnairr pari oi the

rc

mirrr'ml is in cxtnirliolr rosition. lrtchsions m:rv lre nrag,irciit..,


te rnd :irc-iin.

:r1'llrti

dlolour: Enstaiiie i:;


tlrir:[:el glains nrav hav*

niiallv :rilrtrttless. Slont.: llrrge


pall] grrrcl Iiric.

r,sse
t

Pleodl.roi.st1.' Not visibl. on det!ital

-spceiL--c.

Bireti'in-qenrtt.' f)epends rn thc Icrrous irtn conir,rri ird is


l0 tlr)drlalc. lnlerlercnLra Lrol(lurs il'tlrinncI r:rairrs rIu
llrst-onler whitc or vulkirv. lui lhick gr:rins trhillil a rvide
Iiulg{: (tf toltrrizatirltt cr}lours ,rf sccond-ode grectt, v,:ll,rr,v,
w.,ak

nl:luvL :rn(l lrlil(

Eftilt:tittt: {lf

prisnrs and lrnF,itutlirrl r:levigr, litignrcnis

is r;rralL:I.

e t i4u re : Aeul r' lri:r:,rl'ix figu lcs alr: Pr ovitlccl


Prisnratie faces usuallv yiclcl fl:rsh or
ccccntric optic :rris fiturcs.

I n t r: rfc

r c nc

by basirl seetiots.
Elttngatirl

tt

P.si1ive.

Distingtti-thirxg features"' Enstatitc is cliagnoscrl

moderate rclief. lack

of ctrktr, prisrrialic

bv
morphokrgv.

cleava.qes, frequeirt lrntcllar structurc anrl r:rralL,l extinclirxr.

f,'lronrian spincl. serpcntinc :rncl olivinc in thr: hcavv ninclal


lraction nray alsu indicrte the prcscncc of cnstalilc. l1 is
rlistincui:heci l'ronr hypcrsthcnc lv thc colour irxl l)lcoch[osn
o[ the latter and fror1l elinorynixenes bv its parallcl cxtinclion.
Dialliigc has a platy habit. exhibil:; p:rrting anrl :r ehamcttristic
optic axis liuure. The tit ol anthopvllitic amphitroltr is lolvcr'
turcl is usuallv oplicallv neglrtvu. Silliuranitc hlrs strorrger
trircfriirgcnc'.' ;,rntl nnstly a long slcrrrl,:r rrismalir: rnorplrology.
( ) t:cu r ret ce : N4lg-ncsi urn-rich ort hopvroxi,nr..; ari: thi: chir:f
constitucnls cl rrllramafi: roerks suelr a:r rclicl.ilittr, ryrrrrcrrilc,
harzburgite . lhr:rzolitc, scrlrcrtinc, :tc. 'l'hcv arrar irr sorne
nct;-m;rfic ocks irrl rarelv in granuliies.

Grains .front.' Lowel light: bcrch slintl, Kvn;ncc {tr,c,


lornu,ail, tinglandt Olher grains ;rrc fror a lrctr s;lrrtl.

f.

::rulhcrn'l'ilrkcv (h,lnli 1.5i2)

HYPEtis' HE.lfr

F{ypersErene
(Fer' .Ms)rlsi.o,,l
ortltirhrbic. bil:irl

b.='
(

ne 1,6(-1.75.i
rrfi l.rt74" | .16:j
t! l_irti(f 1.771
) {1.(t i-tt-(il(}
1 .l.ll .1.v6

Furn in sedirlent:;:

E{yrerstlrcrrcs

ol' intlusivr: rcl

plutonic roeks;rc irrcgularlv shared lr;ignrcnts of lalgcr


crysluls. r-lcav;rge picces or sholt stu[)t)v rrisrns (b). Sonrc

---'l_:=a.
.-,,

ii:" '
=:a

grains mav be scrpc.niinized (bastite). Hypcrsthenes sourr:cd


by cffusive iocks ;rrc ldng slcalcr or sl{)ri prisnrs, brrikcn
culrcdral crystals altl ihosc tl l]vrocliistic tirigin iiften appear

i=, ,=

-,==

as complcle cuhedr:il ctystltls () and lr s()nrcIes sur=


rotrcle,d bv irtrthy vrk:tic glass or nrtri- (irains:r'e tithr't
sharp, angullr or thcir L-rlrnLrrs nrav hc 'ounded. Eteh pirtte rns
lrceuently rlLrvclop irn lrll types lrnel:rrc sccn s hreksarv
icrnrinatitrrrs. dissolulion voids. grorives, or sLlnlclir'lr:s nllnlillae (c). lnclusios arc conrl(tn, cspcciallv i lh.. cllirsive
typ,:s.'l'lese iue opaqte rarticlcs. zircon, araiitc- lcklsgrar.
lumcr()us tluiil gLibules or gas. i!4iriufc rlatcs irnrl rorls cl
ilnrcnitc, lrrikite iirel titarrifi:r'rirrs nlrgrrciite inclrsions. oltcn
appearing in parallcl arrangcnlclts" ae crllcd Schilbrstructure. artd :irc ititilrtttt:d io maierial cxsolveil with -skrv

EE

= *.:
::

-aJ

j;

:i

ctiiilig.

{tl.tur:

Siriicl*s

Plett:hroistt'

of pink. pnlc r.(l.li-\h hr{}wn

:rncl grcr:n.

Disiirr:t arrrl slr,rn,s r,:rryirrg iiilcnsities.

li

rna.v

hc vc-v slrilng ir giairrs iii'v.il!-;lriL'origin: rr, palc rctklish


ttrtnvn, rurple-viol,:t, pink: [i. palc.greeni:;h lrrown, p:rlc
ir:rltlish ycllQw. :alC trrrirvn, Vcl(tlv: y. lalc gLec,:rllrikV
-qarcn.

:':
=:

grey-gff L-n, grcan.

BirtJfiilgtft'i:

fuiride'aae

i(i str()rg.'l'hin prisms

and

uv:rg'- fr:tgme nts rs tr,rll ;rs { (l l{} } faces havc iirsl-orde


rvhite . yclkxv lllrl ()l.:llge itictiiclcrt llours tvilout crklur
batrls. Tlieker grains c:rhihit i,ivitl :eciinrl- ancl ilirl-ririlcr0larizaiicn col()ut: ivih !lurlierLus coloui lirds, a'r:tlgetl
parallel rvirh ile ii()gaiiun rif lrr: p'isnrs.

u.'le

E-riirt:i.tlt: r-]f iisrrs ;rntl cie:rvlge irasnrc:: is p;rr;rllcl.


lcrasirnr| hiis.t! riLrrriii-i!l,c lttt'c :.Vtnicliictrl L:riiirction-

*:;tt:t jit?rt'.'

nk:n'j't:t

riicn

itlltl

l;rrcs

altl

l.!r'iiis

rla.::. whi!:i

l;-ritleL i1)it!l tlnd lotvft--!rtlei ;nieiicrran{:!l


toltu:-- .,'ie kl etriu-d tctl! rrlrllttari :rctite hi:;criri: iiqr;rer
iviifi idtgr l\i'- !:;.rgii'{:: arr: w:ll <lclie,-l ir:i vell,rrv ur.llii.'
iickl. l-srchftme:;lre ciilcr ll:lriti 1i:iir trppetrr ir ilie
p

h:1.c

i11q:,1,

iii

ihe ilcLl. ,riic' se e ii(inl, :ltl,v *ccr:ntlic olltia


=i ilispr-rsitrn i:; rrileraie io :;'riongu.

;!:-ii5

cr iltslt iigtrr*:;. v

il I t g

i i,.t

tl

l'.,ritivr,:.

llisringuisllirryl 't!ttrr::;: !'lic


Err'rcr:;the

iir

i:: he rlar:rcte

irri::i i!iasniisiic ir:arrr- ii'

risiir rltochroism. 'l-rigcihcr iviih

iht cpticallv cgliii,,c :;ig.i. ii :rcrvcs ii <ii.Jirouici h*re i'siircrie


ir.rn cnsixtit. anil iliallagr. C!in('pvrrrxuic:r hav:c: llrrc
*xtirlctiolr :ul'!:lc- jlrd;!lsire (rlclchtoie ir :;h:ide,c ul ritrk iitrd
rflli m:!y lc isi:rkcn iiir lt'vrei:;thu-nc. tiui ihe fofnei h;:; e
itir.r:r relict. i-s ltn-eth i'a:.i arcl ha.: rrrorlv dlricl()F!:.1 clc;lvugcs?

=,-

t_
HITAVY MIN:ltAI.. I)lrs('l{ll/f'l()NS ANf) ('()l-Otilt I'l .,A1 I:S

-iemontilc has highcr rcfractivc indices and is optically


vposilive. Tourmalinc
is uniaxial ancl is length flst, whcrcas
le rclief of honblende is lowcr, it has inclincd c\lincli()n
and more cnhanced clcavages.

Occurrence: I{ypcrsthcne is conrnrolr in both extrusivc and


vllrusive basic to inlcrrnediale igncous rocks, such rs gatrbros,
'.orites, basalt, andesite and dacitc. It appears in

some

and syenites. Hypersthene has been reported fronr


retamorphic rocks which include charnokitcs, hypcrsthenc

\ranites

\ranulites,

hypersthene amphibolites arrd gneisses. It fornrs in

rme hornfelses.

.jrans front: (a) Grains re of pyroclastic origin frorn


beach sand, southern Turkcy;

(b) ophiolite-derivcd grains,

.-'each sand. soutlrern Turkcy; (c) Upper Miocenc, Hungary


/Mmt 1.5t32).
v

\:

76

!, ! { 3E::; I q i

ir

I I tr i,; I :F-j

i :

tii

!i

i;

: [i- {

::;

E-eEerpsde-Eeeceeefu ec"ge sefl Ees

iiaF{*lSi,t

l,,l

{ li'.i:'

irr''[(r(lrri( " iti;r:ii;rl |

;il| .ftfr.l l.iitli


iili l.ii7l 1.7(ll
;.1 !.iri!-l i,71
li r|,(i{)7 .{i.il1 i

lSi.,{),,1
)

,i! 1.716 l.7li'


;tl" i 7ll 1.7.i(l
tr'i .7.+i i.7il
ir il.{iiil 0,i}l{}

=1

.'

=
'=
j

Frm il:itlittlt-tit:;: tir;riri:;;re rlorriiunilv rii:;rnrrtie artil


allptar ciiiicr :r: siultlt! rri:;tn:; rii le:;:; ii'ctttenilv" l{iIrs::lLirrla.

=..

l,'il'lr: i,'(jl(tuf !u-cs cr' r:l g.


l,-'

lrlr-'r--iri( i :;ltr,l,,s r-ri-;15 gr-'i-', litisii gr,,.tt. ila: gcr:iii:;ii

iriir-rn tt ttl

.,1r-'

l|)\

::ar:u 1,

liirtirin-qr:tr:'.' lr4iiileltu- i.l:lt.()rtg ln(l inte riLra.:i!'c rr!!('ui:l


:rf(i Lt!)[i|t lii:;i- tr:;ccqitd-rrlci iiiik-. t'clli*':rri bluish i:rrt:
:;( lnlc ::rit i itfi tu;iV r:i h ih i lii::hi i terl r ,-rncr -ci.'rr l;rrlri:;!-l.rinr-'itl: 'l'hc ,,':tii,--ii,r :{le i:; l:rge . r:rnsinq trriw..i
.iH' ;rntl .+1.i". I t(l()l !riiiit!l I)iii(':j h;iv,-: arar':rllcl ,_'rliretitrr,
lnft:rft:rt'ttt-';: ji,tili'r.'

irlv lroily iiciiiicr! qr{rr.nitic (. ilir:rr

ii.uies i:;rir bc rlilli!:il itt

iicii'it:ii grrriiis.

liI t i n 3a ti cn : ijc:;ii ivr:.


i:;iirl6itisitir
:!gc1. lrii

gnrrslr:ri;tj in(irFliil.e.,'. !:!!.:i!1'


:! nt!tr rlcii nc ;i cliiiiir! i i t:-:etre
ijior::ii,ir: eder[cigiir: reiu:: lutic::itil'

:.: i,.4tit'a:;:

irg ;ttri la'gc e:: ainri ii).r

.,\.s iciilbcrs iii ilic


ii;i('dl pti-ireiiit:; it hn.: ri ;rr*iie:;. ilr ;iie iitcn iriliriir

gui:;lui-'!c

itrirr tir-it

<iihe

r ir1 (ilrlLr:t iil.j:iii:r. Wircn

',ri1

qptie:tl incihixi:: uc ii:.r,1 ilie iilaiifia:;:; (i .i(iv il:!lr


']fci
ri,-,irill cli:ipvri):iL'!L::; ;r t:.u;rli! irl,:niilic.i ::: iiiipsirl,-' r,1
tht- irigl-:!i'rl{ilriil=fd v:ieiir::; rr.; riugii,,- iE<*r'.t- ii i:; :1.:
:rr:irirti:tie i1t .l(ji1(i1r-' iliei :t:; .iii;r::iriit: (i i!t!::rii--riinripvrii:.rri:- i:=.,,:rniir i:; i;;iir':ill',' !(j::ltii'u :::iri i;r:; :i ('rri;tri:iir! {i
r:!crir!:!qf :i ii1- ir;!lii t i n .if:h i iir:lf :r.
-i{ 'lla':tr-'': i l;r.}i:i.jiir:. {ri iiii;iitlri;ii: i{:rfi:l:i:. il:.ri:r!!.i
r!ior:;iiiic iri =rniii.-.:;iiiiitr. iir:;irir ;ti(i :riiliiii i:rre irur
i,jp.:.li{iii ir,r:lk-:lii ir;:;lEi:;.:iri,-lc:-ir:;.:;ri-r-;;i[.rl!i: !!r;l:]::!::ii ir illii:l'':!:;!f, iiit1,-r:: ir l;a:;e ick:; Elr:L-'llrrijitc
:-c.ttl-! ii! r.rii:ir:lll:;!;!{::rl ril igi:e:rrr:; r{ir:li:r,.-:.r. qrttri:-:
trc:irier: rvJri.:; :i il('iiir:iqj!:illv qq:rirr::;. iGir:iclr: {;liir
litrri iii:;:liic:rrr: iiriil.:r-l i..'rtgir;l.ti a.ii:iirr:i rci;irll{.t'
lriti-ritt oi ':r ti.lt::q:rlir,'!i:.;rrrl;i!,i.riirili]ri in - a- ri,l L.'l::
irh :;t-hi:;i:: rli :tii irtr+li:; ;itrri :;r:,,iir:til. ;i<'l!:.':iiliirr i lir;

:ra !'li:cra;:ttir ri:-iilLr'i:; ti r'ii!:qi!t;l1ir =ir:k:r ;ti-l


ikiti-!:;. 1.,rir:r.:ar gr;iliiq::: ;llii zit.ii::sr-::j !t;:'r r!i(j a!!1t;r!l
iiit;t::;it-ir:.

.!.

l-i'itt:; _;'i'cjii!.' :,.:liciict:jrh:lnir..i--.4rlr:ii:. ir:ir:r:|iiwii:,:l ::i1: {- -}i.:t


ir,:ri ::;t;til- :i. r!iiiciii i!=hL'j

,rrtn', 'ii'l

::= ='
:==:

.:
- ==::
:::
.1=--=: :
:
-=
=
=l
,'-=-:

.=

-.
='
:: . -==

grtrirr:;. I.l-ouridcrl rdue:., :rttl coilre r:;, al:: i:rggitl icfrlili[1r]:.,


:rnrl i;hcl :;icr:; ,rl dissrrluiirii irac -iiier r:rlil;iicd. i'lr-:irvilg:-:i
;rnd rariiitr: ric usr:rll!: i,,eil {-lrvfl(llr{,1. !,:riteliili tlyitttiiii.[ rir'
ersolutioit llticllrr ,1 ,ihtrlr\r'rurlr Ji( sutlt ,r'c;trirlitllY.
Sornc gririrr:r irr;:y eiiilt;rin inelv distritrrtr-rl (iPiiilu. irclu\(,i]:..

F'lttrlrist.' 9ic-iich nenrhci:. :rrrl lerlei1c::iic ir;lv

- .-:'-

=:tr:,:

71

:;

=:E_,:

1^Yi ivlli{trFi.4t

!,f ,.5c

l, i

i,'i

}i--l.i i.t

-.i.!

Lr. [

l_l

1. t tl.-.

' /

--=:
lii:i!!.'!!t''. li::,:i:i!

II!

-ii"

'i-lt ;r:!i: tii;r!l:rgr i.; ;:;:-'ii,'i! iE L-':lr-:ir !iir.,ri:rr.ics (u:;rralir

;:

{Eiqii}:;ri:.}: ::q!g-isi
'-..,lriqh ::irr= i: !ir-rriiiijiti :irlri rl<::i:l'v :;1rci,.il

Fulii;r iii 1 li!i!l,

E-

irti:-iYf g.::rii::: i:r:r'q r.hir-."':;lig!tiv iilti(L-:r-1 (-artiir-:i:,.:ir'!i!-

g;;i!rl: r::til:ii i:igr.:tii rrl::,-::; + irii:-r:;ivc q:ielri!.. F.:::;<lrii;:


!;ni:ii:t ;l- iri!'v .'(:iiltii:i Eri:cl'; ili::i!br'r<'ii cr:riirc

,Jir:;i

::'.,4:- i: :::iiLt!.!i:1! i!tx irr:!(-c i{i ::ri'i:rirt::- l';ii':rl!c! !lil::-liL-:


iifi:iilr:. i!a'i.qiJ;r:: +ii .=:rrii:li: :;titii!!:ri; ilr-. f::lLil lir![tn-

l-'

!i I

P It

i.:ri:riei;rcrl g;i::: n:rv:;r] il{'fti-l1!ti.'rj!l

: i-i l u'ic:.::, ::rir. gi r:eii c:

l r

i:; r2.'

1-,;Lrl,j rvr:r

l: o

:r

:ir

lc vr:llor..,.

hsc-rt.

{iirti'f ingt:rlt:a-l' Fvlo!i!:ritl.: lr ilroilg ir(l irrtlrril-Lrr!:c clr1,.)u:'s


ir. I,r:ll. g!'rrli!il] !i,'hiir i! iilll"vcll(i1,r'ir llirrc g,r'i!itr-r- bLri
tl!litc illr t,- trilli:rl :;f.ir.l-.!.lLji i!rfil].!', rink :rrrri hirrr in
ih

icl:

:;rr'c-i

iitctt:..

at-..1--..i ,. .i
...
,.'..'if!14'iiit.
li.uirn Pl:ries i:- i:rr:rllt-i" Irrti cn rtilli:t. ihr'
t:ti:r:: i:: :l: ittr!:;irt lirlrtit,i otiir; llill)- ilir i;rrgr e:tirrrtiorr
iiitgir. ri:;irerirri:;i-ci

ciirrrpr,,fi:.r:!r::. ('ii!l

lrf

rb:;e't,r-'r!-

l r r i e rt n r-'r .i Xu rt': : !]:ir i irru rlriic: vicld ;r ek:r . ol 1 crrtr


r)!lia::ir: ligutr i.,'ith i:erv irtr_q:,11'. rvhiclr i:; r:l;ntr,1t-.rr:;li,:
h.l;rn lrrip.hi i:;ir'ititt1i: .rt!!vt-':: :rirplrlt ir llricker grrrr:
f-.i,

t.t., :

i,

t:t'

'tz

=,:.='=

=''

e -... ;..
!, -- ---.1..'irr! i.r inl.-rii.'i? iiii:r, ('t.i:ri:li :ti1:rarljE
i;t :1i-'r-:i:!i-':i!..,
ii!:ll!:ii' ! liii-'{i1}iriiri i: iia'!'!;rr:r(:i :fiL-:; id ii ri,:,-rti:; r:
!l!i!1Lr! il;1 l:!i;r pl;!ir:: r'.ilil ;i r.-ur-1.,' !tr:;i. ii !;:= :t
iiir:i.-,:rr!tul lr:tii.:,- il:r'iirit -rir;r'.,:rrr l'!i!r:!r;
i'riil-ll.j r-':i::'.:'. !::'(:r ttrQi: iliit:tiii;r: (1,i.-1.,r0. -!'lfitkct rt

s-acas'-:,

l', r.rrr,'

{}-.iitEr!i:ihilH j-r:ttit!r.::;-' l}iarv hrrlii. ir',:!l-rli-cflr!rtl


I li]{i} rrirrii!l! :rnti p;rt:tlL:i rrir(ili{rrl, ir)gL-tliL'! \riih :i
elrt-lrr-iq^ti:tiic (!Fiiir:r::i:. fii:ru.,;r,-'r-liilgnostie ol iii;rll:rgc.
llrlin:; rliiii prrrtl'v delired r:rriiirX rriay bc tti:i:tkcn fili
e:.1;rttr. l.tt lhr: iiinirIrrilf si(it ttisntltlii: iltoilrhol(]gy (]l'
Ih.: iilrlrr,:rrl ilrq: i:lt:i'r:i:;'rit 0lttir u;ri:: iigrrlrr rl ihc lrttri:rirl iii:;iiitrtii. i=-lrntc tliin riisrrr;rtie airllrorhvllitic illrlFltillril(:
iii:r1 .es!=nlbl(r rliell:rge, hut the r'licf tri tlte !ontrcr i:; !iitv,:L
rnr! ii laci::; prrlirr:1. Platv cclt:;tiic lrs uc;kc hire[rirrgcncu
:rnti 1:;ri.iittr i:. :th:;en1.

,:tL:L'ilifiili:r:: !-;irllart i:: ;r clulrtrriuiriie rinrrlr! rri r:rtia::egurirttrl g:rhhtti:;. rlilllrgiie:: :rnil sotrr rtlrcr ultrllrt::ie rrcks!:;:trti.:;: !)i:tl!:ige i.r rrolrll-,11, l1l(rac crilmiin in sr:rlitrenl:;
ih:i i.;e:; Frafi(iilSlr eriift!:il. i.r'.,i:: i,:; it:: lll!tv h;bit- lr;rlv
Irstr,-::;ti iir-litciilc:; iuiiriri 1;r;1:ilcc. il i:ltt lr: rrislirl:rr
!' srlrtc litririrr't:; oi iita tuli!;!1c g-(iuF. !,t:illitrr rti:lv ltL:
ti!iiLilltrlail i1 ila irir:i(.ar ci ql!tr.i PVt{r5enc:-. liolnhlr:ilc

:riiti r:r-ipr-t!iiiir:. gre;llll .hi:

ilr-. rirer:rl :;!ii.: i,lit;rlc:;

i';.,i,r !!ii:lr;rci, 1.,!t!!{r' i'r'1.r.


'.-;r:it:; fi-:-r4:: Li;:tr. t.rlr rii. !3r::rr' r,,,r.'. :oliltcri

'l rrtkr.':'-!ilc
{:ili:;: i -)ligtretrq l:'rrh :rlrirre i\itrl:r:,:u-. l-!r:;rlr:trei g. l)eii.-'i,ri;in.i i fvjnr !..-3:.

i-!iw!:a: lla:!.li r:rrl :!r11gr -!'tt.L,-,.. t,.

;=-u-j'

AU{;t't'E

..-:---.

Anagi*
(ea.Nig.Fe:' .Fcr'

i,, =

si.Ai )'( ),,1


nr,rnricliuir:. hiuxial ( I )
.',1'i,

Al

).,1 (

::

,.a.

j::

Nt l.i7l 1.7.15
nfJ l.t72"-l .711
t.i l. tattj,l.1 /4
r) ll.().lf--{}.(1.19
A 2.()G,l.5l

f:ornt in s,r!ittlLls: Augitc is tllc crrttturoncst tleilit:rl


pyrolicte. ln voleatlir: rr:k-s it is tlontitt;it1lv r:tlrt:tlral ltr
sulhcdral. ancl sririrts c-oilctl lhn tlenl rlten rl)lait their

'

:t=

-!

1==

-E

\-#=
\

.=

\:-

i .'

.'- -.

'!=

=::'

=--

iirrrn. oceurring :rs sltrrri cr l()ng slcntle r' rlisnts rvilh ie rmiltrtirlns:rt ore rlr lolh etttls (a, h), airl solll!]tillcs s(ll-litrc lo
.rrrtltgonal llrs:rl secfiitns. Villcanic ;rrtgitrrs ttrav show

tttitv-

rtfnls ()r corrosiotr. 'l'lrc riist c()ltll(tl tL:lritltl nrorpltokrgitrs


Irrr: stttbhy prismiiiic ft gnte nts. totttltlt:tl iir.rs :trtd irre gttlitt'l-v
-stuipe

pariicle

s. 'l'tr:se nt:ty shtrw

re

ctlttgulitr

trt-e

akage

paftcrirs, sotretit.:s rvith cttnchoitltl tracttlre:; ()r gro(ivL:s ()l


iheii surfar:e . L'iinr-xisitional riring is lli'lv tlnrtrr. 'l witrring is r:ithcr sitnJrlc or tcllr:alc:il. Au,ritcs tif rlutonic rocks
()fter cel()sc clisoltlii()tt lrtrellae ol rirlhr- tntl tilhct clitttiilvf.:icnc llhirs.:s. Acccssory nttrjriil :ritl iluitl itclLI-ciots:tre
'tcrlucttt. L'lcrv:rqrs in lctritlrl augitc:; al'c ll.)t pr()llrincnt.
{lrvinu t() thtr utstirlle trrture rrf artgitr' in sr,tlittretrts. irrrsttlcrositional tlissoluiiri frcrltre rtt l,v .rriiducts cir:hing ol lte
grains which i:: nttrifc:;tctl in 'ltack-calr'' erntit:tlions (u).
\rlvancrrd sillgcs ()i ctcltittg rtlitlut:L: skelllll lirrnls (l) [ctbre
ciirnrlcic ilis:;oluiiott.

qtlolllf: Augite

;r4rcirrs

il

v;lri()ur-i r:hltrlcs

ill grcen, llrl

!;drneliilts t)!0wtr cr .,/L^ll()u,ish briirv. Titilrttrgilr: is highlv


ctiiour-'rl in ptrr:le lJiorvrl oi villc'r [rrrittt (b. liiltirrr tonittu.
i'ctlttcnil-v:;eer iil v,ilcttic valiLriiLl:;" is nrrnilc'sted by llalcr
,1rt('\ iill(i
'lilt((t

rtllLr

,1rrnL

' ( l)

lj!t:tchris;t: f-r4g-rich ausiie:; :rlc ii(ii-l)l{iochr,rir:. but


in!rr.ir:-in! iron crrieitt resrtlts it ilccLrcr coltirr:;:tnil plco
rhrti:;lt iit rirlc ttluc. !1!aLrir lnti vcllorv grccn-'i'ititn:rtr.{itc is
distinctlv plcor^hroir-: tt. irttlc violet lrrovt'lt; l:i" r'iril.-: lil;
., hlui:;h viol.-t
iirr.:.iringt:ttt''." F'rfu)dcluie hrt ircc:r:c: rviili liighe r rt'utt
.()nicn. { lt}(}} priiings hivc k*v birii ittlrrrec. i-hc :;ee,nl:rrr,l iltit,-l iir,!rr irtcr*r:lc(: il!ilir':l lpiicii i:; baighi',/L^li()\t.
{itilltgc. rc(l

iirl lltta: :ltcrliLic hltriis rt

ittntL-tl gr:il:;. :ttttl

l u,'ith ihr ouili-rc , '1 ri i.i*;riit ;pecirnrrts. lilltlv


foirirriLrrl .,riiir-':: :iltriw :tlrtltll iilielii-:-crlL:q Llrtl.)li::
iirt;!r!sr: ,il ihr,' ls;!:ir r:i'tcr: of niliuaiil ri!r!ril t-()l!r!a

i;:ri-;rlle

ll-tiil tin. !hq: I : nllt:,imum vltlLtc. lcltsicr-l iiii ltll{)f


,,c..,. .,tg.,,, hctlvi-'cil ii"( trtl 4H"il. i-{.Et,: lilgnrg..iri: lr',,irg
trull*l i.t hr: | !{!{l} Erirritrg hivr-'::t.;tighi .itiieti. (.ir:'i.1{ ir

conlp(i::iii(iilltl ilni1g !;0!1r iii!g!L:il:; !itv:;ltiw nirilcrl


{xtinaii)il.

l;i:rit:r;:rlte'_iiylurt': At.sitc s::rir: i:ri'cl,,r,i.!il riPFr.r{'i:rlrl


l'lr:rv;!:e ia!itir!!i:i iltlii lir: rn I I llll
frt.n'i.-l* ofi r:.j11i-Lr iigttrr-:-. ttsu:rllv ivitll :;cvcrlil irtiltrrrtt;tiit:
rlli v.is. l l lll ) ! ttil'iings :;htiw tii llcenite optir ar:i-' i:urt-s.
itL:rlf(:f!*Lr iigtrri-':,

F-

Io

;tgttt i oit :

Piisi tivc.

19

LrAVY Ml NL-ltA l.- I)ES('R I P]-l()NS \ N I) ('()l -()t I lL l'l.A'l.trs

Distitrguishing featurcs: Irairly high rclicf. largc cxrinclion:rngle ancl grccn, sontclimcs brru.nish. crlours lrc
chrrcte ristic tlf augitc. Owing to coltrposiliorlil vlrriirliorrs,
only chcmical arr:rlysis can provide lt itccuratc tlctcrminalirln
of thc augite valicty and also a posilivc tlisrinction of augirc

fronr diopsidc. 'I'hc rclicf of augilc is highcr than rhar of


diopside and the

y : z cxtinction anglc trf {he l:rlte r is smallcr_

When only optical diagnosis is rnaclc, the nrlc augirc

is

gencrally used fo green or brorvnish clinopyr<txcncs, rvhcrcas


the pale green or colourless clinopyrcxencs arc tiesignatctl as
diopside. Hon,evcr, it is lrurc upprr)priule t() nante thcsc
species as augitic or diopsiclic cliitopyroxcnes. -litanaugite can
be distingr.rished by its charactcristic colour ancl
rlcochroisnr.
Aeririne-augite is highly colourecl, plcochroic antJ frequcnrly
shows ncgative elongation. Orthoryroxencs give parallcl
extinction in all longiruclinal sections. Anrphibolcs have a
lorver relicf, snraller extinctir:rn angle and erhibit bcrter
clcavagcs than detrital clinorvroxencs.

Occurrence: Augite is ividesprcatl in various ultrnrafic unil


intcrnrediate igneous rock ty.rcs ancl is particularlv connron in
gabbros, dttleritcs. andcsitcs and basalts. ancl also in sonrc
peridotites. It is less frecuent in nrct:rnrorphic rocks, u,hcrc it
is f,rlnd in dark-c<tkturcd gncissc:;:rnd pl,roxcnc granulircs.
'i'itanar:gite is rvpical in basic
alklir-.e rocks.

Graitts frorn: (r) and (c) Tcrtiary inlillins of

baurirc

pockcts, Ser,dischir, Turkcy: (b) beach santl.'fcnerifc. Cunary


Islands; (c) beaclr sand. soulhern Turkeyl (ti) bcach sancl.

Luzon. Philippines; (f) Oligocene, Barrnre Basin. France


(1t4mt 1.582).

BO

:1.

f.{ iEFi{f{t: i il; gl-i

4cgErEce,*-aa;g+
(

i-.1a.i'u )( 1-t:''

.iir' . rvis.Ai il :ii.i

r*'rr,r'lirir' lrirrri;rl 1 l{

1,,

1.7{il! i.75il
!{} L7ii0

ilt
jlr

! ..i

7.1,{i Llit}{i

i.(,.1{}

I ji{}

!}-(li{}

l i;

tn i n s: i! ! irr t t i :; : i ierc :rllv lcgi riuc-rrrrgi ie ilr.Lr i:i :rs


t- sirthhv ri i..;irt::, :titt-ttl;tt it:rgttri:. il' rt:c;l:iorilit'
sliultilv ,itttrletl !':tir:- !tro:':etlt eleltvagr:; ltti=' Irr-itietiilv
tllrihrtrti. {itins r:i' rtti:tirt tlirlilir- i!LLu!\r}rt tirir';i!
!''< r

:rltrit

trrllu:.ir :r ( r r i[';r' lirr' ;tiii rr:: ;l '-'',.

{'lt.ur: { irrrcn. vciki.,"i:;l rtL [;lqrrrtish t:recn. it:;u:tllv wiIlt ;


:.light irlrrish iingc. {-\rhul zr)rlitg. ilrnile::ierl ii tl;ikr:
irlteftlil ir()iii(tti\;rrrtl r;tl,:i rirhq:l i:",:iitl1,i.
Itlt,thrttisrt"
rilit'r gt,:ct: li.

Eii:'iirt-i; rr. Irriglii glcrr. l)lt!i:;l *en t()


Vullrirv

Iifrt_ rr;:]s gr-:tri

1,. t;rlc I,rcerr-

r:r1,,

lttcrvrish giccrr-

ilirt:.j'rinititt'.'

!-i-:ilir-:L :jifrt!1g,.

l!ii.i'ierrtLr

,iti!,Lrs i:rlsu

i!si ,!ict ic :;eciiLl-ide :.lta,!c,; :ti :!t.: ttsrtltllv


iuilsk*(l ilv !ir(i1! itllcclti niitcftl r:qlrrtt.
i-rottr rrprcL

-!'lrr:

f:.tiittiitll:
r.:.:iinciiii :rltlt
:tirtlnciaieitl it eio:;s stetic'lls.

.,.:rii,,':; i'rqrn i)''

ir

:l

. lrr1 i:-

!ttt:t'jt'r't:nti: fi4trr: i'iq;r-,gi itaurit-'l:: iii!'!(i !rrxtr !r!


irrclfr ii-:r!r:i- lJ-r;ll.; ;r il:rl ii 1!: .liiit!:;! i:;rtgyrc ;trpr:ti':.
i : ,,1;li k gi r,'r'il iir'lrl !!::;:ii :ee iior:- :ii'r lii ryiLr' hi:-i,-ii i:r
iigriir::: wilh i;rgc il, r -v rli:.1crsir, i:; :'ia(i!r,
l:

t ,t

t Et i

f'Jt'g:riirr-:.

llisiittiiti::ltist,r.

i'tuiurt':;:

Lirti-, rrlour. l)luriiili,'iirir.

:-t:ll! ,-'r,itciot :iiigh- ;iilrl !ritg,th-1;l::i !'!!:rli(liri !,: (illitn,'-..


:rlcl :.:;i:;t i iii:liiLtui:;iii*:: ricf-iii:c-rrrr-iir inr iilcr :--lii--

:ic:liiirtr griitt:i ;tt,: .:re!1.,, la)ig :..1,'!1lci iri:-rl]!.


trti rlpt(-':il !ri(iir.jiir:- iiqr!(: ilii' ill!iirrictrl iri r-ii:;tiltgtri:it
iri\'-C.- it ,',.i. rrrr' .rrrrl :;t'iii irrr' ;rittir' .1:( .Jti in,- itt:'ir, iilr i
,ii-tiiil:ri:;iir:d ir*in :unrhilrriic'; l't iiicii !ergth :;iit.' i:liit;lf!e!
:it.i i;riiia r:lL-';r,';g,1 ii :d! L:diillirl ii!rii: :iitiii; :Iitriiiir.il, ri-,r!i a!i ii:1.-,i: :i :liLl:-i:ril:,' riiiiri!rjii ilr:{irtttiii: 'i. lrr-!:.-'
il,r:rr.li:, j:. !i!i:r'.::rl. l:r', I i,'i'f,- ,,-li,-i. .i,'i:1, :'i,,r
Lhi{ii::ii .iri :tt}!t i'!r'iir,':rrf:;. ii-rr' ,i'!q,r ri tii-itr i.. :
rit:ilei=-i:;iie tr,:li!11':;ir !ri ir::i;L'iiii gir:rrt:- i:. ::ti;:rij$i"i.. ,'iti.{lti.,, ii-i'::lirir :qi ii .ii:ir!;l'u':: i:i'!.: rir i;ilr r. .ir.t
iiri:
ilr,ri(!::elr,'::-

i1!:,!ai'

gi,'ij.';i

.i!l-ir,

ir'!!rrr.;$..rqi.r

ir!:

rl.'!.,..,

cks:.rrci ::;::vrliilr; :!i r;ii,it: ilir';-ih.llir: r,,ix::. i-!;i i ir'il


r:giirtllv it.ji:itqialjl!(litii;rt-'k:t iti:ir,.:,iti:l!!;t.i!:ilir.ritrii!
r:riliie ii:t I'i;; iiili;i:.,r:i:ii:-i :lr;t{ llr,iti.i;a-if:. li. il:;ii:tll1
:,il!'i :'!fL i;, rr'lr..,tltr .tr;Itli',,1,-.
.-;,i"
r

li

,ilt.:rrqq :i

i,,1r,
r'l

r!|i..

11.'r'!

r.

iJ:

iri,rl r..-.,- !k,i,.!i,,1,. ! !'.:''.!i

r,l

I{

trA\lY

hr I N

l-.

liA L DlrSCl{l

P]-l ONS Af.i

Ii

-.{

!L-} U

li

!!1,41-Fi:i

Aegrme {accre}
t{a.l'c'rlSi.(},,1
nroniclinic'- hil:<i:rl
,l

ir=

=--+

.=l1tt-1 1Jt

a_i.

,4\

.7i0 l.lil(r

i)

,i0il-l.s_16
. I l:l( l-{ ).( }ll
3_55.1,{l

:==
:

Form in -gedircnfs: Acgirinc (acnite ) (teeur:r as cuhetlra!


L:rvslrl:r. thin long prismatie tr!.grnclls ir rarclv as gr:rilrs
camrosccl

oi

;
_-

=:n

r:rtJiaiing librc.... 1,Vir gntins ntay ls:i oceu.

Fluitl. opaclnc and rteeessttv nircrel i.tciusion:; re i'lkti


prc.scnt

tolour: Briglii grcc,rr. r:;urllv rvith i Fluisl'r lingr irain:


Ir-cqucnil'v rli:;plav c,.rkrur zeniltg r irrcgttlar cchrtlr disiri
butirn. Acrnitt is cli-qtinguishcd f'om a'-girinc ot the basis of its
ht(|rvn ('f lrtu'ttish-t.:rr'r'n rrliour
Pleothroism.'

is distinctivc: u, cnrerrl(l srccn. tlecp rcerii


grass grr:cn, rler:p greL-n: y^ trrou,nislt grcen. ycllorvish
blorvn. Aemite is wcakly rleochroic in r:tlc lir.lrvtt anel ycllorv.

L-=

li.

BireJ'ringencf .' Maxirnunr bircilingcncc is strong.

and

crttrcncc crilour:.: a re thi d- o' iiiurl l-iirclt-r' grccn, vcl krrv


anrl tlark pink. trut tlicy ilr'c tftcn laskc-i bv thc strong
i

nt

rnincral cc'ltrtr'.

E.rfincfitll:

-flre

crtinclirin an-{le

is

srniill. rangiug litirn 2" rri

I (I',

Intt:r.feretu:e figure: { l(10} aecs sh(iu ()ft-r:entrL, lrisce ti.r


figures antl {(ll(}} facc:: liicld ffash tigurcs. lsr;gvrcri apl)cal
solnL]whtt erbscurcd (]n ycll()w-grecn fie ld. CQkrur halds; :trr,
indistinct.
E I o ttgtt tir t n

is

frlgarivc.

ti tt gtt is h in g

uiu

re :r : Dorni rrant ly cuhctlral or slc

n{

l!:r

prismalic mrir''rhokrgv, r,ivirl ctkrur, distinct plcochrrisn.


cornbined with ortitrallv negativc cltaracte,r antl ncu:livc
Lrlongat(ln, alc tliagnostic. 'l'hcsr: prorcrti*i scrve tti dislinguish it l'nrn othcr pyr{xcncs. Acgirinc-augi1r: ha-c u l:tr.qer
exlincti{rn anglc- arrd is rrrticallv citlicr positivc or rrcgitivr-.
Howevcr, in addition to ortir:al rrtr,:rrts it is advis;rblc to usc
clrcmical rrr X-rav nrclhods l() clrsufe r rositive rliaen()sis ()f
rl'girinc. l'hr: lcngth-flisl chilractef tlist inguishcs aegirirte l lorn
anrphibrilrs. Sle ndcr.q'ccn ldurmalinc has :r w.rrkcr rl.liLrl'ilrd
loq,cr=rlrder i1iL-lcq:n:c crilours. Prismtie fragntclrts of
etidotc nav rr:scntlrlc at-girine , but lhc colorr arrcl pleochroie
sclenrc of cpiclotc is lwavs in a r-ellowish-grecrr -slrilde in
contr;rsl with thc rkrtrin:lnl [luish or trtorvrtish-gtcen cololrrs

o ar:gir-inc.
{} t ( Ll r re n t:: : dcgirinc erysallize:; in ul !: ;rli- ir:h i rtrusivr-r,
sucl u-s svcnite . ncrheliitc s\L nilc. l.vtni'r(- P.truriltilr utrl
al kali-r'ich gr;rnite. Na-rir:h r.,-!tionlllv ntelarnor'phrisctl rocks
rreeasirln:rllv contain rcgi'ir.:.

ll

i-s

unr:rrnrnrr)rr, lr1 rn:rv arreirr

r.)ckq. Ar''e artd :rcrttitt: l:rvE: br:-rn


rcportcd :rs authigerric (foliliiin & F-ugstr:r 1t).1). ljrrtcv rt
Michic l!,7ri).

in :rlkali rjlilrusivc

{iruins. .fitril: I'vt'rrcla-stic origin l'o llrr: l}tlaetteette


Thlrnei lrormatior. oll.chrlllr .!(illlh-c;l-si Finglarrrl' lrore hole 7(l/
7,4 57.ri n. irin it4r iiglii is intctgrtrwu rvith ;ttl'vctlsoriic
(Niri l.iil). Ci)urtl:-c] itl A. i'. M(trttlrl.
q_

AMPHIBOLE GROUP

AMPHIBOLE GROUP

The standard amphibole formula is:

General considerations

ALr B:CuisTiusO:r(oH,F,Cl):

Anphiboles are common rock-forming minerals of many

where

igneous and metamorphic rocks and are rvidespread in detrital

The four principal amphibole groups on the basis of thc


numbers of atoms of (Ca

I
2
3
4

by the Report of the IMA

Subconimittee on amphiboles (Leake 1978, discussed also by


Hawthorne 1981) facilitiates a rapid allocarion of amphibole

analyses. The nomenclature uses rvell-established names


u,hich have been chemically codified. Specific elenentrl
ranges are indicated by prefixes and adjectival modifiers.
For amphiboles diagnosed only by their optical prop('rtics.
the ileport reconlmencls that the assigned antphibole name be
made into an adjective, follorved by thc word antphibole, e.g.
tremolitic antphibole, glaucophanitic arnphibole, etc. In the
case of detrital arnphiboles it is olten necessrry to adopr this
approlch. In nrost instanccs, allocrtion of a particular subgroup crn lre nlatlc by optical obscrvation. Prrallcl cxtinctron
indicates orthorhonrbic arnphibolcs; intcnsivc cokrurs in blLrish
shadcs, strong pleochroisnt and r)ftsn nccative clontrtion f,rc
charactoristic ol alkrli amphibolcs; trelolitic amphiboles lack
colour; and actinolitic amphiboles are gcncrally fibrous. When
appropriatc, for calcic amphibolcs thc rvell-established nunte
'hornblcnclc'continues to bc used, but rvith an adjcctrvc. This
scrics is typi{icd by intensivc srecn, bluish-qrccrr and bro*'n
cokrurs (hcncc thc ol tcn usctl nallres bluc-grecn, grccn-brttrvn.
ltntl [rrrlrvn or oryhornblcrrrlc).
Arnphilrolc-riclr he',.,i' ntin,'ri.rl asscmbliigcs. in u,hich tire
.rrnplribolc spccics havc i,ccn l,rcciscly clctcrmined, cln provc

highly valuablc in spcciivins sourcc-rock lithologics

: Mg,Fe2*,lvfn,Al,Fe3*,Ti;
T: Si,Al
C

sediments. They constitue an extremely complex group in


rvhich a considerable variation of chentistry and physical
properties is characteristic. There is a strong relationship
Letrveen these properties and the conditions of crystallizxtion.
The chemical complexity of arnphiboles implies that oprical
observation alone is inadequate to diagnose a particular
species positively and, for a precise identification, chemical
irnalyses are essential. These can be performed easily on
detrital specimens, as concentrating amphiboles by nragnetic
separation or by handpicking for fr.rrther study is relativell
simple. Electron-probe microanalysis rvill then provide the
data for calculation. The nomenclature based on crystal

chemistry, and introduced

A = Na,K; B = Na,Li,Ca,Mn,Fer*,lvfg;

anrl

distinguishing or corrclatinq sand bodics.


[]ccausc of thcir krr,v chcrnicrl stability. in1l)hibol!'s arc
casilv aflcctccl antl elinrinatccl by rvcathcring antl dilgcrrelic
proccsses. Dcposits oltlcr than Tcrtiarl.tre oftcn devoid of
anrphibolcs, thoush therc rrc rcports of wcll-preserr.ccl
rilttr[ilrr ir nrrnt itncict]t succ\si(rn\.
I)etritlll anrphibolcs, usccl frr thc prcsent illustrlrtion. rrcrc
derivcd from diversc paragcncscs ancl h:rvc been sclected fronr
a rvicle varictv of ancicnt antl mocle rn sedimcntary cnr ironments. J'lie purp()se was to highlurht the rost comrnonly
occurring spccics in sctlinrcnts ancl, whcneler possitrle, shorv

sevcral represcntltivcs of u particular group. With a fcu.


cxccptions, all grrins hve lrcen idcntilicd and nanrctl bv thcir
chemicl contcltt.
ln thc folkrrvint classilication and clescription ol detrital
amplrilrrtlcs thc plinciplc of thc norncnclaturc cliscusscd above
has bccn atloptctl. Iror sintplicitv, only the chcnlical hrrmuluc
ol thc end mcrltrcrs are intlicatcd. []urther tlctails can trc
firuntl in the Rcport (t-cakc lt)78.

.t3

+ Na), and Na

iron-magnesium-manganese
calcic arnphiboles

sodic-calclcamphiboles
alkali arnphiboles

aniphiboles

are clcfined

as:

i-..!!1. i:Fi!E ,F-i !,r..!E:.,

ii,i...d l'i !;t!fiq:

{.

} r !

l, i

i :,= t :;

!'

l-.1:ii iicr[rr:::

i.

tr4:rr.-:ir ;1ilii ::ii'1:!!iir


I r: ri :ltilrriir'l!i,

l:'i::-:ji..i .:,,{
t;e.'i:,ir-,i

],.({ ! i}.,

I'rrlir

l-i:(

::i

irrill-.:!iir

iv'i: r:si,- r-ge d r'ii

lr!

Rl:rgtit:;ii:-li,-rlnx rii:;i
!;. tr ! h,litlur'-: ;!,'

il

Eir" i

,nll-i=r i..i:.

-: ;

l;4:..+l ,iii,,:ii -i.i.. -{ r. !! ! ) .


i:e '.,al,lii, nl-c..r.,ii! !i.
Ia;r1[r1. E , '. ll,;. ir! E ' i. !! !i
!.i .Fi:r,n.:;i.. ,..i :!.
F.i .Er-,^i.:.;i.,{ ,, i iE .

!:tirc geiiriii:
.]r rLlrt!!!-!iLr!r

F-.:!s

'

': i-Ji:i aii::ci!E:;rii ii: il:t .-i.:;t:i

r:,,t;E:

fu'l:t'!izi' .:; ",q.=qrr-iirri:,' iq,ir- il:!ii- h..


{u,nft,iegi!--grErtEr $t'!a:,:- i:i<lL.rihr: ;iebr:. :-- rrr:
titittgliliir rll\ {!-j.-jui lrrcltlli: t: ..r.r!iii!'!lir :;it,:.i tv ci!iitiil!!
iottilc-lr::iit:: :i!iritibiil!i!':: :rilii :.,irrr: l,-'i;rli;::i-

r'r:1.:,.

(iruieritc lirri:r:; i:rrg1.; iti iirci:::trorlilior-:i i!ii !i,lt.tli(!rl:.


'l'ltr el;r:ictcri:jic ir:1uf..{ri ll(:nir!':; iii ihi:;:;.-ric:: i:; li-.
itrtrltipL: ir,.;iirin:t 11-r j tllllf '.,iti ;l,.'ir ir'i i:lr:llirr,..
{'ittriiitieLtriir-"i:; riiit;llr,, li;li,i iri:;iti.,,r:urti g:rrirrrric i:
hir;ri:ri rrf:_:rlivr..
AcEEEcep3vEEE*

arad

HecErr

cihrriiiirlir. I'ir:.-ia! t ) I

it!. l.i!.1{r i.t+


ttl'i I.t{t:: !.71{}
il.i i .(r l:j L7i:
) t!.flt I {t.{ilH
i

.i,

.r.,/

i'Irr in :;'{!ffi"iti:;. e ir;rir:;:rr-r.itlrcr :risr:riic.


r:alill()sr:d

(ii

r,,nf1rr!:ilt' qriir::ri-'-l liir'_.::

hl:r(l!:.1 {)a

rrr firre rrre,:llc:. 'i ht

rrisnr:r1ie gr:rirs <ii.:i -:::!ihii r'ir:::: i:rLit,-r:,. !llcll!:jiltti:.. ili.f

tlitiitl.; rtl-:ti1 iiirruritic::.


l-titUf:

F-4t-lrrrfliririrylliie:: :lrc eoittnl(r::.. hi!i .*iih in


crcasing i'(in ci)t!:li !:r:!n:; nt;rv h_.li;!rt lou. or iiql:i
vcllrir+i:il lrorvr. {iedrilu- hits :;lr(}!tl:r'f ,:,i,ir!ts i!l 1t:rlt ltrorvn
irn(i clov.t litru'n (kii'-cr righl).

Plrocitrti:;tt.' {irirurctl v:r'iriits disrl;rv we:rl: i(i rn(xiriririf


pletrclu'tiisrtr irr: rr. r;rlc :rev bntu,rr: li. lii!\.rni:rit.g!.ev t{i rliit.
broe'nt'. lat!: irirrrr. *l'v" grcyi:;l g,',:rt.
Birt:.frintt'tti:r':.'
L:lt1!: l!d inte re

I:'risntillic

g! iiirt!,

h;l1:-:irriil
r

}irclringrnr: is

rrrcc c0liir:; ;i: i ir,,irl

r.!llcn tli:;p!lrr,'

11;1..,

ll:=!ilt'!i:t:

E,)l

!rtiriti:j

i:-.

..]acdnal-r-

lrti.glti nlr! lL.rrrr:e colir:

i:rr;rlle! rnrl il:ti oi lilrr,,r:; sr:ri*

r:.

!ndr! l:itiit'1,r.

l n f t'rftrrllt:i:

gu i i, t n

ril rt' : i'lr;rv:r,-' i r';rsiir!i:- rrtr.,,iiic ii;;:;lr


igttt'crs ri,iili *idclv .c!r;ter't! iso11vl..'::. { lll{!} l:.,:.-'s r.,i._:iii t[:lr
:eutt bisccfi:: ligrrrr::;, h4* utfh,irli-fliif:; !f !iFlia;!ll1 i!r"
ivt. lrt liiri:;.-' rtii!r irislre itit r{rrllfl! ::i1' (!lttir;rli.- It!r:.tli\L{icrlriiq hlr:; an opti+ltlly Fi!:,ii...e.rhilrr.r..a. irri !lltin:: i:r:lii,:rr
ticll ;rr iiritti,- rL itl iitiu,
.fi

Po:;irivc

i.'i,citgui::hiE .it'ttittrcs: l,ri:nlali. irthiiphvilit.i

is

,'l:eieti:rrl l-v ve.r,ir:rlc (tr lack of) c{)l()r!rs. irtnl)hib{tlc


cirir!1-,iig.is iitial liiti!!lel e:;iinelio. -lrcni<ilit.: slrarnglv .!st:iil1.-:; itnih.)PhVlliic. iu ii lies ohlitrrc cxlincf i(). '!'i.lc nt <il
cil:it:tilr is higher' |!l(l ii ()lirti crllitrif s L-:is{}luli{)n llt.,!lar:,
srti')rnliilt::rli{) o' iylticul rv.(},{cne etch-lc:rtr'cs eallcd
'ltcksitrv ternin:rlicts'. l)ilrll:gr: rlisplavs pronrincnl
r;rrting
lunrl slightlv inclinct! c;rliuclior. I'risn:rIic sillini;riie c;ln Ire
lont'rlsr:cl rvith anllro:rh.:i!iic. but ilc iir.rrrcr iacks ;rnrphihole
cLii!r..itf,

tr: rixl
tlcr iirris,

r.r,r,irl:

banrir gl::r'alir:l r."'ith liri: lrr ''-'i' i)! iiit-. ,-tv:.i:rl-

f:, i t., tt

:r. t- ibrru-s

c,

lotrrles

nl

hollhvl

itr

c:r

rloi

l.rt] disl i n_

gui::hl:ri Ito!l lh. i:hiou: sillinranilc vitriciv, Iib.oli1c. b.,,


ollii{-'iil nlcntr:: toite- !:':tlu-.aili)uif,{l iilll(}lthyllilr_.:; nr_l hrorvn

g,:rlrilc:-:ire, llrlwrvrr. ea:;il9 disiiirguish:trlc f.iil llrc;hv:vr:


arrl(-iattlr:i:: Iih r:lir.
{.}L':gr{-'.: arri!ro'hvllit,: atd J:t:qi!L= irr. vpi!.irll\ nr.I:i'roi-[]ii! ti1._'litl:; :tilrl i!rv :rrt,-.;ri. iri :rnrphihiilii.::" r:tr!.i\\ci

Irnti -g-nuliic::.:fi tvcll li:; ir rc.::io;ll\.,c1ittii)rirh{}sa(l


Fr'j-1- :tri [:'e-rrrt:r:-srni:tli:;r nav iir.tr :rntlril*c(l i1a il ilrr:il i;r,jert:; sL-{li mrn i !:.

tllb:tsir,' Iqra!,t::.

!-hlril

ii,' (t

t ti'iiiit:; lfttij.
j'-----:--.-

'-

llc A

'!'

Lliifrfi
rtrh.

r(r\rrr:

;inihorhl,lliiir

!iilhilrrilu.

DI: I -e s-rir1; [ ,Gtve r riqlri : {1,-rh it c.


ii.-.e ::;ql. f-)rnubr:. Flurtglin ifuinti 1.-ilj:i.
lvl irl

rie rici

I-]5

SODIC.CALCIC AN{PHIBOLES

CALCIC AMPHIBOLES

Orthorhombic forms
End members:
Tremolite
Fe rro-actinolite
Edeniteo
Ferro-edenite

CalM95SirO22(OIl),
ca:Fe25siEorr(oH )2
NaCa2Mg5SiTAlO:r(OH):

NaCarFe2.SirAlor:(oH):

Pargasite
Fc-rro-pargasite

NaCa2MgaAlSi,,Al2O2r(OH)r
Naca2Fe24AlsioAl2o22( o H )l

Hastingsite
Nf agnesio-hastingsite
Alum ino-tschermakite

NaCa:Fe24FerSiAlzo::(oH)l
NaCa.MerFesSi,,Al2o':(oH )l
CalM 93Al2Si,,AlrO2z(OH)l

Ferro-aluminoFe

tschermakite
rri-tsche rrnakite

Ferro- ferritschermrkite
Alumino- magnesio-

CarFer.Al2sinAl:o2:( o H ):
CaMglIie32SinAlrorr(oH )r
crrFe2

'FelrsinAlro2r( oH )r

Ca.Mg.AlSiTAlOrr(OH):

hornblende

Alumino-ferrohornblcnde
Kacrsutite
Fe rro-kae rsutite

CarFe2rAlSiTAlo2r(oH):
NaCa.lv{grTiSiAl:(O + OH)r1

NaCarFe:lTiSiAl2(o + oH)rr

Members between eclenite and kaersutite are describeci

rrithin thc 'hornblende series'.

SODIC-CALCIC AMPHIBOLES

The sodic-caicic amphibole group includes a scrics of monoclinic amphibotes containing 1,3 end-members. The chenrically
definecl names rvinchite. barroisite, richterite. katophorite and
taranrite are spccificd by appropriate prcfixes to indicate
elcmcntal ranges.
As (lctrital grairrs sodic-calcic arnphibolcs nlay havc Iocal

importirnce. lrut thcir iclcntity can only bc rcvcaled by


chc:::ical nrcrns. ltr a studY of st rlic ancl calcic anrphibolc-rich

ot tlrc L.rtvur Nfi'.rr"ne',vcstr:rn Alpinc Nlolassc


N'fanuc-Rajetzky & Obcrhrinsli (1932, Figurc 7) analvsccl
grains with chcn.rical compositions plotting in thc richterite
rnd ferro-rvinchitc fielcis respcctively. Nforton (1983) reported
magncsio-katophorite of volcaniclastic origin front thc Palaeolus;:en.blages

gcrrc

-[-hirnet

Fcrrnlation. England.

85

I i i:l=r.Y

+.i !

N i-.lEA I

lfr-:;i'RI P]-l{li.ls A t.j 1'{

E rr

}[ J I-:

'!

.A-rE:i

'E's=lmcce

itl.iu!!Llinif. lir:.-i;rl {
i

.i(_)q

rl\

.Gl: l.rf)7

l-:

.ijt

l6fiii

i(l

_7|it::

.:1 |.1'jt7

t.0l
Ftrn irl st-dirtni:;:

.1"+,!

--:-=..,.: . i

(iin:; nrosi rrrDrinlr,, :rpFC:lr

--

;r:i

lltin. :irrrl sunrpv or'lortt: slrrtrlrr pti:rn:;. :tral flrcir crtls ollri
slorv eiult li'aturc:. Sot'{Lliitt:t ;r,' r-'Ir-lo:;e or:rrrtrt irir
purii ic:;,
{

|IqIr:

{-'.r1.)u!-lci:!.

lrl.: lrevish i:i grer-'nislr rvhiii:.

It I r r' lt r t i :; m.' i.l.n rleoehloie.

I|irc.fi'ingtnct'.'Wc[: Iii 11()rlr:!lrIr-.;rn(l iilelrirrlcr irrii:r


irrc tirsl-ritclcr 1ri-:y. vcllorr ()i ()r:rrge. 'I-lrick-r,t' gt.llir:l nlir\'
uxhibil :-rac(ilrrl-oLrlL^r p(!lirrir:ltioll c,'hrurs.

F,-rfilt:titltt: {}n i{)l{)} scctitirr: rhc rrlirrciirr


bctrvcrrr

1,5"

(fir-llemolitc) autl ]1"

rng,lu !'iuiL-:-

(lVtg lr:nroliic).

Inler.[t:rt:tttt' .fi.qure: { l(lti} crystal iucr::: vi.:ltl ;r clc:ri ;.urr


liscctt'ir ligurr r.rith lulgc 3V. ('olour Irarr]:. :r'i' usu:rll.,,
:thstrnt.

EI o ngai itt tt : [rrsilive.

I)istinguishing, .l't:ulures:

Pisurlir'

hlbit I.geliicr

wi{h

lutlplribolc clc:rvgcs, l:rck oi ccklrr. irequertl r;rggr,d r,tlgcs


utrl lott'-orrlcr intctli'rc,rr:r tinls arr ,,1tgn,rslit:.'l l-r:nrolilc tnltv
lrt- t:rrfused rvith lrnthophvllit.-, bu thc t:xtinctiou ()l the latte
is pirrallel irtttl il tlisrl;ry:; rrtorc intcnsivc p(illrizirlir)rr frrLurs.
l)iiipsirlc ha:; higltt:r' ttt iril lr llrge c:<linctiort anle. ('lintr
zoisite :rrreirrs with a highci cliel anrl sh,ru's vivirl. olle,n
iltonralors. inlcrlL'r(-nrr(. crrl()urs.'['hc cxtiction rii sillinrlrritc
is parallcl. its hilcliingcncc is s{rritrgcr lul it l;t.-ks untrhiboL:
cle:rr;rgr's-

()<:t:urr:n:t:: -ll'croli1c is

nro-rl. Lr()llnl()nlv a rrtrrluct of


thcrnral or rcgionlll nrr:lrroplrisnl .)l silicrr()us tLiltlrritr:s.
Sre trenroli lc-hc:rring :rsscrrrhln-qcs ;lre ilss()cilt{c(l wilh l( )\y-

gnrtlc rcgitin:rllvmct;rmorphoscrl ultrlh:rsics. srrcl;slre nrrllif


1:rlc :rnlig)r-iic irnrl lrenrrlilr l;ilc schists.

(iraitls _fi"tltit: ()lisocr:nc. [J:r r-i:nrc l]asin.

rr

Frrncc

(Ivlnrt I.53()).

1i

rilE:

es'r*aemote.

+i'!

R{.!A{ITEI'J(l.I]-U.

! r1Jr

}!.i-t

acEnqEc

monocliriic. Ii;xial

.)

?c 1.5l!] i.iiill
nll I.ri2 !.()7
ir{ l.ill I.7i}5
ir {!"(}27 {).{ll7
4 .',.{il -1..1"1
Forrn in s(tifi':{ilfs:
e{rrllr)sl:.1

Actir<lite cr.irs

:r:.i

iibtots g:tirs

ol parallel, subr;irallcI rr rrclilIlv arrtr-gt.-! iihrcs,

sor}lrrtilucs intcrrvr)r,cn r(]edlcs. ilolrtutr rrr blalctl


crysi:ils iic k:ss c(lmm()n, [{ounding oi the gr;tilrs v he
discerrrillc. lrtin ore ;rrtd c:rtlrrrnacc()tls inclusills afc {}cca-

{tr

:;irnally pr(:s!rnl.

{tllur: l'alc grecr.

pnlc ycll<iu'ish llree1 it} hluish green.

:lltilt' (iistinct pie(lchruisl:


lkrwi::h grccn; fi. paie ycllrrwish
gfe(=.n {!r jrctln; Y, llL^rp grreni:jlr irltlrr. pillc grecl; trtltcLs re
non-plcr tr:h t,ric.
Pleochrti:;n'

Cer-tin snrin;

u, ralc yellorv. pah lrrorvn,

ve

BireJ'ringeratf.' Wek lo mrdcrrtr: :tttl !s itiirtcnccri hv thc


clrcnrisirv ol thc niineritl. lrtclccict *rkrus ric ser:r:rtlqrtrlcr vcllorv. tlecr onri.:gc. [lrrc anrl blrti-sh grt:cn.
1

E:ti.tlt:iitttl: {}u

r:rilur;r:iti

iurglc i:; hcirvecn I

lnt:rJer;:nrc

hlar-ler-l

rryst;rls llrc r,riitircticil

l" :rnd li'.

Ji4ttt'e

hahit, ilic, lineal,

:
it

.::::

Elcc:rust rl' thr-' dorirririly lihrous


is rlil'liculi tri ihirir an intcrlercirec

ligurU.

i:-;::j'
i....:-=.--=

:.:,

E lt i tt1ttiit rt :

irr si i ivc.

= :-..i:i

l!istingitishisry fflttlr{as: 'lle iilnus habit

,i :t:::i

and grecnish

coloul' :;r,tve io rJistingrrish aeiintilrl,: lrrt rrthr:r iulf)hiilr)lLts.


esper:ially irtrt ihr: gtrlLri h(rr!llilcnrlc v;tricii.:; :tntl lrelriie.
anil from ctikrrlilr::s trerl()litr- lr,rn riel actitt,rlitcs- ntcrgin',:
il ttrrt:ienrle- eetssilrt,-' eherricai icst:r !or ii iirt:,iltr,'
iilertiiiCaiirr. :iqt.rj aii-ha.l. ilsr:il(i-iitcir!s hlLtc gL.:.:it h*Lnblcniii nriry rescrrllc aciirrilitc. irri i:: c:;ircirin:rnglc i:;

iriger:rrtrl ihc ttdr irilitciirs elt;rircir,risticallv,-1t.,'ekl itt iilc


iti llf{)il!.::!!t rllLlilvlgr:1.

-liri:q:i ir

1..-:c'irrrrtr: i:tintliir, is; -rrie:raetl [rf iiirl-gi:rtlc ,:giir:rl


atanli!a!ihsit (sri:r-'::clr:t lr:i.:r:). ll irts it r:li:;i:r r-kiir.i-:rl
lir-iiil te:;ic irk:: :lnd :rlsri in higlr-l-e:;:it!rr );tat.qa!e:rr::
r-.lg,ciilri wiii blrrr:;udie liirrlrihdic:;. lr:;inc iii:rrri'c limu
:;ilir-:liir: iq:t:r lciinlii,-, i:; ri,-a-lirtt,-l irv ie:itc:ri iii f{int;t.
inci:iaitr;rriti-riii. Fibrt:. ee=lie i:. reii:riiii,- in ronr.;:iii,'l
lr-l is ii-rnrcrl bv irvdiiih(:!l;l tlriaiior rii :t-iii::ciic:;.

{.irails.f}-r?fir." :\riiirqliiir;rrirririb,rle- hi,'r,.',,,t.t. lii Fr,:,-'ir.rrrvtrl

- Eii::l:rirl t lviri

ilil

).

-tl

q.E{E
=
-LEF,9 g E,E
E
C

ff

,'JE:

il

!irVY iili{t:!i;'rL

?
E

JF.-

... .i..;,
! ririt ;rtrri!i:!!i.:ari.
i

i-!i

;ir ',t,i::rlli

!:r!.,!i!ii.r,il'-i'iii,-!.;rr.;!ii

i{:iili:=j !lr::gi:itL

r,,-itii.
i,::,'qr;r'.r'r'
r,ei,,'r:; k i

l: r:=i:;i'ii'r:r;

ai

l!

I ii:f

;li:tF,:.!iij

:r!"-lr;li:':!!l!r

r
k ii

t
I.6i-.,

.rl!_r

[-riij

l1.-- :.1!.:

!..;l

1.7,1{!

i!.i!!+ i!,!2:

i!.(l:1.:

;.i,i
ir:::ilrigsiir

u;.:vr1i ! h lLjiilr

k-!r-'i-ar,!

ii(

-r;:!ir:;ii:'

iii ntegtie:-i:!!l
l:r:ri irgsii* i

| .7?{i

i-{rirl l.{i{-!{!
l it-? 17il't

! fi7t|
i (r7:

^f

i _7'Jtl

I riri I 7{}

(.!:1,!i

{.t}tH

l.{rli{1 i.76(}
{} r}i!r {i.0ii3

t.t I 1l'l:

irt\

-t.a{t

{}_!t7(!

i.fi,.q!)

i.7.1{}

-,'.i,,'3.1t

h4cmlrr: oi ih l:,-rl>I.:itdc:iL:ilc: r'a th. llr.iSi rvialcsllrLr;il


i.lcirii;r! anrphibsrlc:.. 1!Arll:ri rlt,:ltiictl tii;llvsi:r i:; noi :t.:til:tbl,-,,
sdalirilenitv illirili{igi:;i:: ietd ii; disiiirgui:;h l!(tlitrlentia
v:liietic:- acr:otding it ihcir coloul. r'irthc! 111;1 1y irtlrr:t
Lrrilpcfticg.'i'hu:,.:rttei lli!l.i:l i!:; grecll-lli()wll. llue-tlrctrr alrrl
lry,,n (basallic. i :Vhgfn$cdr:) c{tillll{}t1lV rppa;li u
rlrportr oi rJ*t ri:ii rr irer! rr1.,':rc:..

Forn itl srditrrtrt!s: {-i::in:: :rrc cri,.'nin:ri1.. --lr-'irvr.{e


{ragmrnt:; rielemiirtd bv ;r:lle|i { I l{}l l}risnli!fic cl!:il\'lgc.
'l'lris alsrr grrl'err-\ ::rail rricttti()ft up(rl nl.)unting- -l'irc
nrorlh<ilogy vific:; ft.rt! :llr)t r!r' slclalai [)fisn)s, ittrgrrlar oi'
i'gl:ttrngulii lragmcnt:" io lEinl: ihil ilrkls. Scrr: g,!'aiit:r nriili hc
tlick and !n:j:ivr. lrl!tv or bladctl: tlhc':; :ric Failiirllv librcus
()r afc s)nlciirrle:i i!ti(-'rgri)wil will arOllcr:l[i]i-iliib()lc. rrarlv
with rylo;<enc phasc:;. 1-lrr: L:nls of thc rrisnrs :lie rlten
rortrrlc11, bra{lr{l []ul ini)si La)'!r!r!olllv, csircciiliv ir,rldrr
sLrdinrcnls. ihey sh,rrv signs of v:lii{rrls (lcgrcrrs rf clissrilriirrn.
'I-lti:. is rccogni.cl lrv ragl*el cdgc:;, vari<ius.jtch felriures ri!'
skel*trl fors. 'lhc di'eelions rrf trlc;ivrllcs lnd cr{}ss lracturcs

arc usuallv

r..,ell ,li:;plaved. Stri:rlerl

clyslill

lit.-:rrs

rrav also

alrllerr, {-jr:tins 1 r,,(:)lL:inc orig.in :rrc oftr:n culredral ;t1al Irtve


te l'ninalirins ll !l!tL: of tr0tll ccl:;, 'l'hosc 0l llL'illilln (l{ Fosts
r'c rvcll rounrlerl. lnciusiors of :rrccss(lrv nincntls" tts lvcll a-s
elridtt, iriotitc. o--c i]aftrclc:., :tnd fluid gl[1li'r.''*
clnl!niln,

{'elrtur: i,'lircteri:tir lirhlcrrlq: colorrs:r!..'' i:lrrish grr,r,n,


lrclti gtr.rri ii.i lrrir.,'n. 'l-hc tl;rrt-hrrrvil of tar{lalislr=b!-(irvri
iie:r arL- lct:; c()!t!!!{rt. COlout irnitry rrr r:rtr:hv c,rlOur'
ntr:1ngalt.lctt:! ilac- fcqurri- Verr: rlal:-lrrrti gt;litr: trr;ry
lilpftrt {ilrquc. D*coiiilr:;iiion il iron-rich r,;rritiie:; rilfcr
rrsults itt:r p:r;ti;;l irri c:ride cti:1in{.
vari ie

LESi til, l t

ii-js

I-l I { "'

il .i i

J E-:-

F!.+'I-F

::r,

ltlectehr*isL"
:irrd 1

Si.r'ring.

Th* :,lirrgi:;t ::h:;{!r'Fiiiir i:; !rr rirc l,


;rs s!':!;!i:- :ire ,!oirririaii!lv I I ltli

viliriliicri riircri,r :lnd.

-I'le
eitavagc iraqrti:ris- tr is rarelv tlistcritillc-

rieiichri;ic ,,a,at,a oi ihc .4r'i:ii't -itt

ii

t,-:;i a(!!rl(ii!

nl rtri::iii':;

i:- ::; iiil<irE:;:

ioktu ic:::;, 1:rlLrwisl zrccn, qrii!r vclitrv- .,'ciiir,.' :r,-r'ive!li:v. r;rle l:tur.,,i gire:r. lic-lti reei. rceii.

:--::ie

i:;tlu

rr,:tt,

hlLi-s[ *1,'c.

iir::t't teri*it.; ttsr;rllv :'hcrv :jir{rrig Jle{iritiii:. i

rt yelkirv

::lri,1,-':.

ir:tir ';:llorr'. gru-r-tti:;h vellcrv.

',tLt-,rtr,

iti:

q1:ai!:ih

lriila b()rvi, vcIlrrvish hriiu'r. ictLlislt lrrrtttl


!tirrwn. rlccr reiirlislr brix.n, irl htrrr,r,tt.

#irej'ringenti:."

iv-!ql;g

!:+i(tr!r. 5hlr{i.:s irflr t'iiei' u!r!)ul lilst-ril.i(:a. :;utlil anri !i*e'


iliiril-rriL'r iirri:;. nd:rae (ii{,'.rl):;ct!reii hv:;lr(}g irirr,,'i
ttirerai ,-'oicu
-l

i : :r r::iiri--lir:r illsi(: rlrirfiur!^.1 ilil::r


:i,,i .lii". i&-r;:icn:tl { l!l!!i 1:iriiirir :i..'. hirvr Elir;lllci i:iiiinr:ti.i- 'ihe ,-';.:iiiltiiit il;l*l(' r;i rr:.:-..:i'!,i
rges ir:ir..'r-'r
lile:rrl.-:

ir'-.

il'-

rril kacr'-ctrIil+ i:t 1" ll'1",

lnitrj'tt';:rlt'i: i:1trt: {;ri!ins g(:r:;lir; ;,;itrli! :rrrrr. hirr!r


.icrranirir iiscr:itii igut+s. lilt;rit i:rr::ytes rrFc:rr iri :r r:iii.
lark ieltl rviiir a ierv isrehrie,:;. iiorne {l{X}} :rrctits oi ii.-'
[Ltiivtr v:lrieti-::.; arri alsr il('ii!]iiir' itoi!1ill('r!!c ili:;rllrv '+r:ildLritilL:.1 rri' :;ligii'r1.", r!ilr'u-.!i!s

!. "',,r.'r,

",t

l!!'tti. l)is.riri: iicrrrrs

+... ;i..,..

l-ei:;iitgtli:;iittg j.'riit1'i.r:'!-ir,,, rh;riicisii(

iri:.,!::::,,

rncirliolog';- lttpirii-oic clc:tr':rgt. lrrti riritrg,--'ii1ri': ':!i-!

i'lti rlil:iir:ii:l: ri .
plrlieui:ri rerllrr siii: ile g.{)1rp irlli!ia:; e!cicrii -'
ii {;i:;v ili:!:t!{i:;i:: i i-hr, hrtr!lllq(lir :l!:i rjrt.

ilcrr-:t. !tict:,i-' :'iLr-r':; utrl itig,irr: :rl rli:;iittguislr !iriri1r-ii-'


ironr irn-ifcr';ltntl;i).)iLt..; i.='.{. lr:!(iii.'ltil;riitrplt-vi1lii,,!.

litr-lie;r:itriritxiirs;rrr tistt:ilv irlr:.:ll::r:,icli v;ri{:li{i:i!


k-:ngit i;rsi. t'qrti-r-sirii ir;r.: eiise ii'ir: iire :t::r;rhl:rr.-:':!
:iGmr h{}rill)ls!.!c g!i!r:r i(i i1]llt !1liiliir'- L:iiriL i".'iii:rri:, :, .rr
:icgirine The iittr ira(!itji:J;itaii.i:: *r:rv hr: :ri::'r;il:: r::
:il;riir":.'-!t-li!t:irt ir; rili:;.:i::i. ir:ih i::l:ri:tl h;r: ;rrt;:
{:i!::v:lgc:;, ii:r ::iL:iLrt :ih:rrliiri;rrii i: iitiil:li ir iirr :il.rirrr
ilaiittl-ilir!ilr.:riei:'i.i';:L:i(lillji:.:(:lc::itirr-:';irr{-:t'ii'i
:t l;'gcl .::::iit(:ii{; :ir::lc ei t:;:; rii:;iii aia:rc:iIL::-. ,r't!r!r('
ir::: high,-:r irit:iciivi' 1tirti::j. it(i(liri i--ir;r.J:iir: ;nrl is ir-'ii!
i:r::, 'l-lit nqrliilig.: i ::il;riri.: i: ::i:;ilv rel:ul:rr. ii E::i::;
-irl rlca.,.;g,-::; ;lri ::; ; :lkriiiv iigit r:li,:i.
,1

,,, ,
!-'ill!i'lrilt't'-

rf br-' !rri!cle :.:'iie:. iir :


!riiLr iltev :r !lr,':r.!ii :! ; 1;:iri
vl!iiriy Qi igt!r:i;tr:: itid !:Irriit!ilrltir irr,-:k:;, {ii iltrsr. i}tr
a-

:tide i:ng!: iii

F=!i-rl,irt:

E:'.8'daa!iairi:,.

;ltr il!fii;!if,l ilr',' !l igsic(i!:: a,'ri;:;.


i!r Eircsii.:rrl i: iiiir:!!i!,:-i:rirr. :rciii::i:;lir:rlin.:
e,q rli,ir'ir:;. gt:irdiorii,=':.,. irlrliic:;. rrc:ii.rlirr.-

C.!nni!! i]t!i'-r!: rlLi,:r


,rble,lcs
;tiLtts!..t-:::

:';inii:- r:;sr;ritr)- {i iriii::iit i(iL-i:;. hi: a:i!r:iiia: :it-


i:;clr:r:ll,.iic roi:rpil::iiiclr:; irir=' ih.r ir-in{ri-ii! ix'i'1! a!:il.r.r:r.
=h'ir:i:. l ,-:3rn;iiiir:s:rnrl :lkii illt!iiriers ir:i:;iirtgriir ilinrs.
-.:i ..'iir:rii::-. ir:r:;rlis.

il:rchitrs- :lrlrsiirs. i;iiies. lr;r:;rrtiirr.

irif: ',:ilrilin si:';hi!-rllli-'ntl.- 1':lliriii.r5 ''!i{l


iiiarirr-:icir k:r:'suiiir i:; gcilc:i*,-i in :ikliinr' ylrlt.i!L-'i
ir:i'if,::; :ii iht:i

'::
::.:r

1i==+a

[(! iitrqrg. i'sil;tiz:iirr c,riitti:"


rie :,':lriilbia irn(l lrgcly liclrellil ill iilicktc:;:; ;tnrl n:i;,:;;li

F,.';!l'ii:

:E:-r:=:+.

tLr:rwtt:

-P,

rI

=.i
=:
::E:Fi::

=:

iE-.^i.j1

tul

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}F,:i('i-:- I I''l t{

l.j:i

i i' i!

.{ i

I E=:

ll ri'i'l,:':

ii:i:i:.;l:;r::l!i:: ii-la-:r.l.jiii.:..;.ii.1!1j!j5:n(i:rll:;rlirhfolitr:;)
i ttit:ll'" :Efi:riii!ai;i:ii:;..!! l,,r'[... r.lli.!ll.!: iii,ilt 1](.,,.il:;alli::i

i:l{j.:r iii ilti,.!..,,.-' r;ti:!i i;r<.:l;!!tuli.,.i:r.:i-':-,:rril i


ilrilrlr:r{l!' :;t."!ri-: :ti' L.lrrtr *'t:li
iu:ri:; ! l:: ;ric iiir-' lq1r:iir;rl rir-E liiL: !ili:ii!l:r i) lh!-.
:!illFIilrilii.- ir-ii,':. '!!tI t11!:i f{i!'f;ai: nl!nhsi: t-.g. !rtr:,i
i;r1:;iir ii'i: i:tlrii,:- !,-.;.;::t:;ic,! irr ir :=rhir:; :lltri
:ia:1:i:ja!i;ii! r,,-'i::.,

,,:

i:':; !::-

i !4.'i;i

ijj.'.','

I 'i

iiil:!

:l:l!

irli.

i!rr'.

l,dflllLlr

!<,rtlci,-L' gl:rei:il :-:rrrJ. iv'lr!ov;r- lirvil;:t:i:r:ttl; liqi'r,-i


ri.:': i--4;rtrr::..i iiii.'il'-'ir(lf. g-i:r[: :;:u;iile, Po=i qi i-].-'it:r,
i.Jq

::mi-ii! r.-

iii::i l:it{-', liirij: E:( t'{r r'!r'i!i ir{ritllf{lf- !r,t. :-;r:i!! .::rl.' F !il-::i:: !,
i-i'r'rii il;::,,, rlF!:i: l::ilrgttr'::i+ hl:;ing:;iiii: irtirrrli:.
i !i.,,,,i.!, i.i.,i,,.',, l:,.,;j ; tla{.
:-,i-:i:(iiil EiirqL- i'.r'.r: il:r::iii:-::i,:.'E'rti.:,iriliilir:g rii i:;iu:.rii
r,r'1, i., ';, r,1s,.'llr. {rll.r'l
'!-iii:;
rag,,'. ir.,< t;ii:; ltii: Ft{;rlire:.i:i lr:ring,rili,: itil-:trir.
hiitleih nrtr,'ir:ii '!'r:ti(:!i l:ll-i! I r.:g i: (ithr-'r {:linr;:
[::ru^rsrr!

i!c.

hL:;Ll' ::;il

;tll rr:il:. :rr

^ l !'l!:aiir. i':rr:it v i :l:rtl:;

ciii;r-lri:-l i ir4t i--i-Hl.

lEG=
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e#
#
.*

{.,)(

il .A t JCO F il

i{a.h'lg,Al-.Si"{ ),,({

Fcrro-glaueophane
fui a.uncsio= ricbcr:k iir:
Ricbeekite
Eeke rm:rnnite

rrr.cc

N 11

F{

i E l tri-l

ke L tna

tt tt

Fcr

F-Jii.

r;\l.Si*rr(
i.:ii,r{

l..lir-ru,grFe

H )..

}.,({-,}l | },

-SiEOrr(O!

filit,a.rr:r tF-c

I)r

itr

r;titt

l--la

l{:r.M g.rFe'S.,{-},,( {-l Fl }.


i:ji*ol(oF! i.
NaNa,l-er.rFe

Artv-:dsriniic
Kozrriitr:

NaNa.,ivln.1( Fr:

itrgtf

I.Al)s,ri)rr( {JF!
)l

Gtaaae*phasEe:rehecE Ee seres
fulctibcrs: Cl:rueoltharrc. fcrrogl:tricophanc.

-:
:

glauc,4rh:irrc

..-r,'r:iiu,

irlrllrx:l

i 1

ic

lirxial

l.li47

l.5t].1-1.47

tiiirxi:rl( )(f)

l,6inl-1.7(l:

l.r',]0

l.7ll

I .'.i

i.3-i.ir.,(l

l.{r9(}

1.ll'i--i -i

t,3 1.7{}l

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1.7.|: |.1t.)
O.(]{X ti.i)lr
t.{E- 1.,i1

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1.1

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Frrrt i* :;*liwttl:;: t--i:riir:; lr, rlorlini*rily I I I(l I cle rvrr:e


rd ihel; :ippc:ii i:l :ilcltalt--r)i- :tirrpv pri::m:: ckiitgiltcrl
ir ilr, i,iicciirrn oi ihc 'axi:;. tr les:; i'rer+rcitilr, ieciargull
fraqrucii:;. tl'iii'ous rtilutit gtiils. aniri:l ti iil-e s and
il:icitlt':iggc*tet lsri iicLur- Small cr],,:;i:ri:; i';rt hc iiulri r:;
L:(rlslituctt:i oi :orilrri:.iic gt'liitrr: iirt'nred ,i clint;:,i:;iic. :lftile,.
!-lit-it" rtic. {lL:avltgr- rlir-c:: lltl f0:;s i i:tctur(:s r,-' u:;Ltllr
visihlr. R:tgger-l rdger;:ric loa J5 LrfonuLl!t:r:rl t:t r)!l r-l!lc-.ic
il:kcs

r llhitrtles.

tlllllf: {-ilaucclh:ne rk:e ir ii:; ,--rri-irirrrbi, ijiililil()!iiir,!t


h:r:t lighi irelc l:tteit,-ici cqilttt:r ,rvitg iri t liilv i'Lr{=:{rilir-'ii.
l':n rich gllrrr,:tiphnrtr-' ail oihr='r n.:nih.r:r .ri ihc :iclic:; ili:;fii:lv
vivid ,j,.lor:: !n :;h:ile:: ii hllc- rie t'e,:kitc i:., f:'i!:ht iiui:;ll
gicfi *itil ::i

etci!,-l

gi,:i;t l:iir- i-ic:.uitiitg irrt iicr-l*cni

ciintprisiiicn:il ::t;rrinu-, r:rilottr:;

i:ar:

ii'ir:.l :irfiltrgctl in e,tca;lt

.:

l;rytf:: uf tiir:r-':ri,,'il:rik-c; ri...::; wiili 1-;lsi ii:;.;i:r!'.'r,-,q'


1 ca:lit, {nirtr-'ir! t:iir-! :iic' ' :r a : i:i1i f i!i iiiii

l'!:ur'll*:i:tl. !ir:n:.i' h:i{hrii:;!-rr ir; r'ilulii: i:.iir


lr le :llir'rl i!q,'l,r' lLrlr.ril{ i:,:
r

!tt!il

li
i

r-iccir ilt.-:- iu!rlistr tr!rr:


llirtc- :rl:ur tlur. ..'irlri. cir:a' rrrt.

I ll ll!\l.l

!'ir:

ljt(- ,[!.(-.

t:lit.

l'l-ir:hci:l:.iii:
r:l

rrt'!ittrr..,q,.

1..tre\l

iara::nrlci

;!itil

! rl!t

!;tg.:::ic- ielier!-iie

. l:ll!i\l:

i!

i i_',

intiigo hlrr''. 9lrii::i rer:- ir:lia !;r)i!:i


Vr:

iIi

:r..'

i;

i(:a

=i-

'ie he ckitc
nrntrlinic

crtissite

ltrin(lL'l in ic

il

:]]:
- -:.=:

:iiri-ricf,cckitc. ricbcekitc.

rieterrkile anrl riehcckite"

I .

=_ .:'=
=:

therc is alsr ;r i-:onlplcte :;olid soltttiirn lieix'eett rrlirsrcs'i-

tiaxial ( -

.:i::r-=:-+r=:

:::::=l

::,

Al-F"-tr :;ubsiittttiotr ehllracterizes llLrlnbers of thi:; :tr-tir:;


frcin glauc(iplnc througl crossite to tnagncsio ricbeck-iic :trtl

F t{ I Ei.':
=

Ll F ),

NaFia.MguAllii.{ 1,'({ )H):


Nat'l:r.fier,AlSi,L)rr( l )l ! ).

fu5:rgtrc:;iri-arvcds,

ntr
li
ii^!
ir

Kil-L

Ai-KAg-g AMFH{E+{-ES

End rtc,tiers:
{ilaucorharrr

Fc

i:.

l'! !

+t:;' ! i :;!

!ja I lqi..'

!) I

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hc

shrrtlc

()i

ll:,\\'\' \l lNl'.lt/\l I)lrS( l{lI'l l()NS ANI) ('()1.(){Ill. I'l-/\ I}rS

llc{)chr{)isln rtirv vlrrv \\ i1l)irr ir Ft:rirr.


{ I I(}} oricntrrtiorl ol'llle gtirrtl\ trl)()ll

Ijorln:rliolr of tlt:rh (l sA)l)\ illiltorr

IJcc:turc (){ (l()nriililnl

lttttttntilrg. u is rrclt rlisecrniblc.

I)irt.fi'ittgcnc'e: Clo\ety rclirlc(l to cotttrosilion and

is

usu:rlly nrodcrale. l)ut incrc:rscs slirhtll' uith ltighcr ltlgcor)lcnt. Intcrfcrcncc cilorrrs of thc rirlcr vlrrictics ire in lhc
rangc of firsl-order grcv or 1'c)krrv. ltul lh0sc tlf thc tlccrcr
coloulcrl srccirncns lrc Lrsuiillv ltr;rskcri by ttattrrirl ntirtcr:il
cillour. I)atclry ncl uncvcn polrtriz;rtiolt cttltrttrs :rrc fliirll
c()t]t

E.l'

li

l() I)

tt t' l i r lt

Oruitts frttttt: l^ (ilirLrcorh:rnitic iinrphilrolc. ()ligoccnc


\4ol:rsse. Slrvol,. l:rrncc; (b) lcl lrr-qllrucorhlrnc. ()ligocclc
lolrrsse. Slo\,. I"nncc (c) crossitc. [3Lrrtliglrlr:rn Mtillrsrr.
S:rr,rr,. I r.rllic t\11't l.5Sl).

10 {)) runr:cs
crtt'ttrositiort lind is

l'hc crtinctiol ;rrtglc ntc:rsurcrl on

srnrenlr:r1 highcr ftrr rictcckilc. Clclrvlite lrrIn]cr1s nrtrtrrtlll'


hare ncrrrl' parlrlltl ertrnetion. rlhich is ollcn nrollled,,u irr.l
t() cor'nl)()sili()nlrl vliri;i1i,r.r.

Ittter.fcrctt<'a Jigtrc: {Il0) prisnrs ()f glire()hlnc c()nr


positiolr ricltl ccntletl rcr.rtc lriscclrir ttures ujt]r llrirll llrrgc
lV. u ncglrlivc sigrt lrnd slrortg tiisrcrsion. -l-llis ligurc is clc;rl lr
risihlc in griirns uhiclr shoq'lrrtlnlrl rllcrlcrcrlcc lit)ts. Slr()rlg
rniner:l colorrr rn:rY olscurc ohsclr:r1ion.'l'hc irtltrlcurlre
fruulcs ol lr.crttircrs oi clossile lo ririlcckitc c()tltlr{)\li(rt)5
rrsr;rilv consisl o1 rrtr,:!'. tlcllrttl ecccllirie irotrlcs. lV ol'
fr()s\i1c i: rrrt srrrlrll bul qo0tl hisccllix fltutcs lilc stltl()llt
obllrinlrlrlc. lhcreliuc clilr{lrosis clrllllol bc ln;ttle it) lltis lr:rsis.

I:lttttgrttitltt: l)ue 1o collrltsitiollrrl vitrilttiirtr. ro:ilivc :ttrti


nctlrtivc ckn{alions n'ril! lrltclr)itlc uilhirl :r singlc gr';rirt.
Ciilrucophlrnc is lcntth slon'. but th:it shich is close 1o fcrroglaucophrnc cornptt:ilion lrut hc lcngth fast. Clrins of
crossilc. nr:r[lrcsir-r icbcckjtc luttl liclrcckitc ltrc lcnlth frtst.
l.) i s t i t t gtt i.; lt i t t g .l ( u t t t t c.\ : lllue colorir unti churc1cri:t ic
nlcoellroislll. prisnr:itic or occlrsirrn:rllv lllrrous lttttrpholtrg\'.

lrntl :rnrrlribLrlc clcavuucs c!rsurr' iu) clrst dil{r.lrrsis rl thc sc ic-s


itsclf . I'le r 1in1s. \\'cirkdr Irlcocllroislr.r nti llrck of colour in thc:
rr direclion. generall p()sjtilc clongalion lncl thc tcrtlcncv to
vield good acutc biscctlir Iiurcs. lnav sufliec for lhc rli;rullusi:
of qlaucoirhanc. l-ints in grtcnish-lriuc shtles. stronq colour in
the rr clirection lind ncralivc c)ongation crn indicatc ricbcckite.
IJo*evcr. rositive identiflcation of the individLral mcnrbcrs
*ithin thc scics calr [re- nradc on]\'trv chcnricrrl means. lJluc

tirurmaline is uniaxial. has poor cleavurcs and ils grcatcr


absorplion colour is rcrpcnciiculur to thc vlbration direction of
the lowcr nicol. Arfvr'dsonitc displas verv stronq disrcrsion
anti usuallv abnormal interfercnce colours. The rclief of

clrloritoiil is highcr anrl it has a niica-like hairit. Bluc


clumortierite exhibits slronger pleochr()ism

in

I:ugstcr 1l()5()).

Il<'ttturk.s: \\'hcn clrcnliciil rrnrrllsis is not crrrrietl ()lrl. t i\


clrsl()nrirr\, 1() rcler lo ltchcrr ol. l lrc ulrrucorlr:urc-ricbcekilr
sl:lids us blue sodic anrrhilxrles.

hct\\tcn {'' :rnrl lJ' frrr tllrucorlr:tne

indigo-blue

shades.

Occurrettce: Glaucophane iind crossite are characteristic


mincrals of the glaucophanc schist anr:l gl:rucophanitic qreenschist facies in u hich magnesio-rieleckite nrav also fornr. Thcy
arc the sLl-called hiqh-pressure inder nrincnls. u'hich crl,stallize logether l'ith lau'sonite. punrpeilr,itc. jadeitc. r-tc. Thev
rre frequently found uith tlre sanre association in sr'tlinrcnls.
Claucophane is also present in grrnet-glaucophanc anrphibolites. Riebeckite crystallizes in a range of environments from
late diagenctic to mcdir.rnr-grade metamorphism. It is common
in alkali igneous rocks. In sonre metamorphosed iron formations it fornrs together with magnesio-riebeckite but they are
also presenl in non-metamorphosed iron formations. Aulhi-

genic riebeckite has been reported from thc Green River


92

\ t{rrvt rlr:i( ii'J ll-ll


A*vedsrEie
nlon()cilirr. liuiui

-)

n.t i.r)7.i 1.7(Xl


;rli | '1e l.l0t)
itl l-fts ,7t)
!r {t.f}{}5 {t_{lll
1- i.tlti.l.:,{t
Ftrn it s(dititr:ti:;: ilrai:. :ic gcncllllv

prirtrr:rtie

ilignrrt:r rvlich s!rrv .*cll rlcvek;rerl lilisttiaiir: clcivlgcs.


Fiitrous lirnlls trilv illf;o occrr- (irain: r'l iv1151i: ritigrrt
sorrrctiies roikililicallv r:ltt:lose leltlsr:tr:; rttti;irlttiir:.

{.tlolr:

jlavati:idiiL' is highlv cii'itt':'l ii :;h;tiies oi- [itlr';l


trluish grccn. {ir';rins n':rv lru 1,v,lltrti irltc. [totr til
itlnt(ist r1()tl-tfansplre!rt in iltc -.' dircetiort.

lntl

ft l t -' h r t i.t ;t-' lit r'nq ilrtieh rii:;r rvi t h v;r i 'i rig :rhs(i r l)t i' )rt
is chlnrcterislie of;tlvc,l,rottil.:: ir." tlcer hlrrislr lccr. ilrligti.
'yclloiv, rl:trk glet:rt: l:i" !ltccll, vrlltr$'i:;lr hrrvt^ gt't-'1. violct;

i-

r;rlc vr-:lkrwi:jh xieL'1. ilcel lr,:,-'tt. lt,rvtislt grcct,

ll i rtir i n g<' n tr'.' !Vc;rk i.) r()(ler ;ri-'. ! nict ic cncc colotrs :ti c
rtrscurctl [ry elcep nrittcr;il r:qilrrttr ;tttrl :tltsorPiirr. ttL:!ir:c gl;tlls
:jllt.w *Ntfcntt: vlri:hilitv ol :;lr;rtle:. rtltl spt:q:l1:11t colrtlt
chagcs frtir ''clltrvislt trrtrvn ttrl blriwl i(! vivitl gt'eet ittt

rc=

sailr.e tr)trti0n.

fi-ttitt'titttl: (lrvirp, itr ,{Ir'()!lg disl)crsi()rr ilL' .xiirrcti(!rr s


oiicrr incritrrrlctc anrl is vltriltlic evcn u'ithilt:t sitttle gt;titt.
: 5" i0o ior :rivctlsritr erltl 10" 15'- iril ragrcsi,,
:i

rlve

,-l:;i

iir,

;titrj,:rt'ttt-',.' iigurr: .SQ:tir-' r'lt:;tv;tgt' il:ti:r:::',icitl fllt:;h


iiqrr.::: iviiit vihle lV. llorvcvcr. mtisi gr;titt:: e:ltilrit
.:'e{jr-'iifii-' ,,1:rL ittittlctctcc iigit,::l leq:iittr rrl sif(in* illl:;.iiP
iiotr ;ntl nlir!:'ill .=r)l()ur v:=i ili:fc:;iir ili hc opiie :t:e:. ir
:;iii;rrg :rnrl rlctcrriin;rtioir ol iltt oriic :;igrt is dillicrtlt
l.I

i!:t

i,,t ; .*J,.:.,t ir r.

I Ii:;rrrttttOt,g..tiI!'r(-':;: Arnrhilrrilt: !r;iliit rrl ('lc;i'ilg.]:;.


:;irrnq eolrrrr. eotrrieil .ilh irrkcrl plcocltroi:;iri.:i:; ilcll :r:l
itrrilliir-'r:-iitciiot. :iir (li;l!rnii:iii-- -il:luc,ilt:tri i:; lcigiit
ilr,r-' url
1.i ivcii:'itii,-'
''iq'lr:t.
r:rv l-t :cinlirsrrl ';iii -;ir': krniji!r il::i l)iLrri t!ttirl!l-,rrf!:a.
.:;llur-iillv ;ii;hL,:rk!ir-.','li,-i l::l:r;r.ilif:rr rlroclrirrit:;fhailrIio'v,:. ih. ilr'(i.'!!aiirii l:!fvf{,1:i(i!iir-:rlit':ii:- rflt!(Lj:-:i
iii.*i:i: i:cicrr. :!irs;r'!l ir rrr:;i l;lttt ir!)lholr:-. i-1,i,:irrrl:iii:
h:rs ;r :.ii:;rlirr r:riitr:li ;!!:iri iiiri l:,, lc ,i!riir;rllv rl:.iliir'
t:rLe':t:riir: i:; pleor:ltti;ir: i litlr: gtr,'rl :!nrl ljrlLiii gfr-'r-il
:ttl ii:; r:iinciir: itirri(: i\ l:irri. !ilri,:-gi-rrrt i)itt'g:rai'
+rltiii,: o i:lirr-!::;i(i-il{}rll-.iqrl.j:: il'.'' sr:k,: rl.--,r-lrr,r:;it.

:l.s ;lrl ;lriicf:triic in :rhr-lcs ri

lighe-il.-!c:' ini.'tir:accL:

iitis tilt,i

t,i

tiiir,'r cLuatirt-

[]lt-'

iiutulirr' i:: tttialitl :r,l ii i;r::itlil ;l):r(iapirrt i: prl lu

,iiaitliif iri i!r,'filiaitictit -litrr,:iirr iii llrr: lrl;riizer'.'tl;e


c:rtiiriirt il rluiriiieiit i:. ir;rt;rll,'i- i sltqiv:i ltigltt-ttrl,-'
!.il-il:rrit::iii(!i rilii:;rti r rlii{tir:ii tl,:<tr'liirti,, :;clteiiir
d'd;iji1',ld' 1-.ii'.,,1r,ili, i.,:1,li,,i:,,,'\l' ,'lt,llrtr.ilr t;
,'irr;,rti, .llk;llr irr,,r' i,u L , rir:til\ :'i;rli( \. t.' ltiir';
rLrilhriiiic:;';r'iliir':; ;ri!l i;iri ;r:iir!:irtl rtiii;riir::. ii ixr'tl::
ira{-:lv in ll!,11i ir'!r .,r1,';rie.,, isiilir ' rl. ll'}7'i'l ;rrerirrl
l ]

HEAVY MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS AND COLOUR PLATES


authigenic magnesio-arfvedsonite from the Grcen River
Formation of Utah (usA).

Grains from: Pyroclastic origin from the Palaeogcne


Thanet Formation. borehole 7917A 57.89 m, offshore southeast England (Mmt 1.582). Courtesy of A. C. Morton.

94

MIiS{'{}r,/l

!'1.,

MTCA GR$UP
Malseovite
(inclurling othcr rvhiic mic:rs)
i.ll :;i,,Atro- | ( o l. I. F .,
norur:liric, biaxial ( - )

K,A

(1

1.55'l-1.=57.+

nll l .-ii2 Lr ll)


t l
l.5li7-l.il(.
\ 0.{).if>t}.049
a .1.77 2.8i
Furm irt sedirneflts:

b-

fulrscovite appcars invariably as {i}01i

hasal rlaics- usually with r toutrl. nlorc rarclv s,illt an


irrcgular. rutlirc. 'l he plates may bc br:nt, curled or havc finrr
{rained filrrrus,rr scaly muscrvitc on he ir margins. Llr:lusirns
of uragnctite. hemrtit: :rnd acccssory urin*rutls are ,iftr:t

prcscnt.

{'olou:

Crlourless, highly translcirt, brf nlrv bc si:rilterl

vellon,.
P lec

hrl

is

m.'

l-Jon-pleochroir:.

Ei'rt:f ringelr-:t:: Flusal plate s har: ',vcuk lircfriise re'-'


i'csillting in first-order prle :tr(iy {rr s'lritc irterfrrcncc c()l()uL:i
which range uFr to Lrale yeilow in thir,ker frlrtcr. Gairs tving
perpenili(:ulaf t0 ihc cleavagr- hrvc: strtg lrircfringerrec attd
sceind- or ihird-oi'der n1ef c rLrncc eolou rsf

E;tinicl:

Ncarly par:rllel iu cleav:rg,: inrcc:;.

I-1:rsal

plairr.

,ritcn :hr* r,yJvv !r! rrrlIlr-'ri (.liiitfiir)n.

initrJ'ereru:e .iigurt:: E};rs;rl irl:rlcs proviilc c:rcellcnt.


Lreiiire(l acuic tiiscctix iigures rvith well-deiine,-l isrigvrc; iil
r-!F 1,elkr.l iicld. iiu (lr ilvir isoelrr<nraiir- crrrve:.. lir:r;ri
nppciir'. rrsrrally ai iir=- ouic. pari iif ihe ligurr. ?V is ;iihi:r
.vari:rble rlcpcnding cri ihe criittposition arl :i'rauctut. r -i
rlispersirit i:r'Jisiirr:i.

whiit:

F)l,tngalit

;,n

Fsiiivc iri clcavage iLace:;.

Disiittguisfti'tg jtltrr::;: Miea haiii aui l;rs-k i cilour.


i(igeihc rviih :rn cxccllcnt intcrtircncc iigure , pr,.rvirle :rn r.asy
,-iiagirosis- Talc eselhlrs nu:;c<vie lrrri is u:.,rrall-v ,rrnrtiserl
i ine s:ril <r:cri;rp'iiig ::e:rie::. ick:; clnrplctc Lii!!!eiiii :i.1
is virtua!ly utrlii!.
q..iL'i'!!Ftr:ilL': i!,iu:...'rx:iie i:; ptc:;eiti iir:r *ir!,-'vaiitiv
'il'
iLriailc!illllic li)k:l t{J i:: c:.qtrciaii.; rllitttiit il :;ciii:;t:; rlrl
grtci:;:;c:;.

-rluiriiric r.ch:; ii rnr ilt =rilrriirj:i- iegm;riiic:,


iit hyriroiherm;ri ':c,is. ljeicire is irodur:ed iry iire

lir

;iriites an,J

hvrlrrtilcrlal altcr'riot tii kld::r;ir:- iii igitcou:. :rl reir


uurrphic i;cks anri alsii iiuring incianorphism qi inirrmcr!iaic
ad :cie! t;e!:s.

Re*larks:
gui:;h:Ele

F;re'ageieeie

uiril

tt:;e<r.'itrr

phengie :rre

arlri it

i:

oiie:rll1 irrdi:;tin
tc us{i ihc iclrr

.r!tnrtn

'ecEie mica' {}r ihe frll{lilc:j:i ti.r:ir ;ilriciic:; rvhcn l'urliei


:;;iiclrl distirrciic i:- r;oi pc::::ihlr. hc n;t::+'ieie is -lsctl tr
rlc::cr iir iihrtrrs. i,:rlv. f iq: giltite.l u:-u:rllv ::elird:rry riric;r.

iroin:; j-ro*t: i;r) Iiivcr

{b i';i-lcile rotr:.

I!-:

[-l:iirloor.

s:r<_|.

F.kifu -.lc: F;llit

:j liJ )_

F.g!;ttl

Fr

i-! !:J

-,,=ir

.!t
r:i

jr'

"

tul I i! E

li t. iiL:Sli' li l l-' i ! i

t-J

sr.rli

ii.ailll=:

lrl .^'E'r:,

'{--}-r,l

l-i'.!j li!

ii
r'!

{!.t!!+

{.(}i;(!
.::.

!i.-.

F'r.t';z ir :;r ilitFti:tli:;: i.ilrril'iir i; iiLtri i! hilh il. hL::!v!j


:rii! li-!rt iit!r,::tl lr:iii:;. li ili:.;l:r','. ii t {t:.i.lt'iirl!'r-':rti;liit:r
ri ritr!r:!ii=.,: rrl oi hv:rc:rl :rttrl ,:lr::ir:;il riircriit:
,ii-:t :irr. L::irle:-- prifi:j {:! ii!iir:: rii !i'r'drr::ri:i;iiiii.r
rr!ft)!i:r:.' iiiai.!isr-!ril ic::i:-- li!i iiii:'.qiii;ii ii::ririCiti: ilt:ii
si:uci!cii;ait(! nir,-,i:i! Ftiii:r;ir':lr Lr{}Iirnr(ii. il;lttr't'riil i'
rr:ri:rily e i.;riot 1.::;i:llitra. li i';rs :: pcr !rr:i i ir;it;igq: wirir'ir i::
,r, 1.'-irilrl, !: rL-li;;rl :t:iilr:

Llri<wr

Qrr.r!

Pl({tr:hl?5rt.'

l'hrr'!'.rr rr:ri:" :rre y{-'!'v iijr li

(lr ;rlrnosl or:rqrtr -1rutll Pi:lll:. irlld tlli!lua Illlgtltctrl:f:t'LrLi!


shinv qlillrrri s!;r-l-::; rf gr-cctt. :;i)ttle titttt:i ltlti:-:li o ye llowi:-li
!l!'cr: .='.llorrs. irnil

rrr

we lk-lv pl(:rirtllt ()ir-'

iti grerti ;itit! y-'cll,rw.

Rircfrin4tnt'i'-' Mocleritr-, i(r rrt.rrtr. iii:tcotii* ltr:. aggi,:'


g:rtc pcllariz:rtit wih :tL:cr)n.l-tttrlei gre,-,tl il!( vllll{)w iiii!
iirrcne iinl:;.'l'hcs..' ;rre clte1,-bst:tllctl hv ::laottg tirr:tl
col,rur arr! ;rre he:;i :r,:r:tr rvilh ihc stthsiltge eilltlelts,'f i)sr.,t'iuri
fi-t tit<' t i t t. l':r :rlie!.

lnfer'.frrenrr .fi1tlrr:

ol thc :tgtr:gil1c:i.

{.lrvin!: tr tirr Iii!'( vslirllir. siruciurc


Ll*Ititl gtiti!l:r :rql(lilri','icld iilrirlerrrr-'

figrtt'r:s.

El tt ttg4ik i te :

!!r:;it ivt:.

Distitt liu is h i n !: J:eelurcs : {'rlorr. nrrirrhiikrg-y :rnti ci vplocrvst:rlline slrudiurc :rrc tli:;liretive. illikrt'it-rs rtt;rt ar1:rriri iir
alt:rl:glle ltnt snlila; tt ulauttttit. tut thcil hitt:ititrgcn.:c i:'
-l'hc
vq'v hlw.
rocl,: !)! occrrrrLrr.rlr iil'le'thienie i:; :;inrilrr lii
thai ol glruc'ori1'- lrtrcl f he-v lrle intli:;ting,rrish;thlc r,tcglt:.c,rpieallv or [v orlic:rl rnc:rrrs.,'-i-rrv tliill:retiir olicrt evcirl:; lll:ri
urrirs ftrrrrcrlv itlcnlilicrl es slrrconiic are bcllticlirtc,
(lelutlonitc i..: sinrilr 1o glliuconilc rnincrls. hri ils r:hcnrir:al
composition is tlillcr-crrt rrrtl it is ot'lcn ;rssor:iltctl rvillr voli:anii:
tnalcrirls- liortre punrpcllvite rrgercgrrlcs nr;tv rcscnrblr glirrrci)nite hul thcir relir:l is nrirkcrllv highcr{}u:urr:r1::: {i!aueoritc arrcl I,'thir:ire ;c rr-'slir:teri it
the ntrrine crvifonnrlrnl anrl lrc iir'crl []v thr: rcirli!{rlrnl.--nl rrl
rniue rrltigically di{fe rcni ..jul),clrit{cs. 'l hLr}' lra} trinrllor qrrlrsti
trrcnts

ol

Fr(.rL:n-\ands, glartc<initic :landsl.ur:i. rl:uetitic

litlcstores ilrtd mrls, {ilrucorile rncourle'ttl in setlirrctl:;


rv;rs ciilrcr foimed'i .ri' ot v*rs r.ccvclcrl ii-orn prr:-r:'ir:;ling
gl:rucon ii ic setli nrL-nis.

R.ett-rks: fidi fu:ilic ( i9Hi) lirrixr:.ql ir riisqirirrrur


the term 'gl:ruciinile' :rnd i{i usc ir:;itad the tertti gl:tucon.+, lot'
tht: facies, and gl:rucnnitie srectite or glaerr-rrniti*: nie:: iir llr:
rire rrls. li lppeiltrs, ho!".Lrvcr. {ilrt lhc:.c l*rr:-; lirvLi .1 vcl
comc inio gl'ncrnl ir;rtiicc ;ttd the ri;tt ,:lartc,iitt i:r still ir

use. To ovcrcotc ihe rrohk:nr srnre ;rul!ols

'

gla uconil ir- n iltci'ix

l:;'.

re le

lc
i-] rit i t :; ji'r.' { lg,t..r. Flcthe

el;r

ir

"

!-

' r:r { fv'l

nti i ..5iil i

TI I.-A

VY

M I N L ItA

I,

I)L"S(

Ii, I P'I'IONS

rcstrictecl paragcncsrs, bu1 stilpnontcl;rnc is thc indcx rlrincr:ll

of thc ltw- to mccliunt-gradc nrctantorphisnr (slilpnontcllrnc


zonc); thcreforc its dclritll occurrct.lcc nray lurnish v:rlu;rtrlc
clucs to sourcc lcrrains.'l'hc b;rsrl clcirvagc of stilrnonrcllrnc is
less pcrfect than that of biotitc- ln s:rnrplcs coltluining fitrrous

or inrperfcct flakcs of brown or grccn nticas, stilpnonrclanc


may bc rresent. In this instancc diagnosis rcqtrircs chcnticul
tests.

Grains frOm.' Upper: (a) Carboniferous, borclrole Wciach,


'1393

m, Srvitzerlanrj; (b) N4itldle Anrcrica 'l'rcnch, DSDP L.eg


6; (c) Oligoccne, Brirrnlc Basin. Francc (1\4nrt 1.5ti2).
Lower: left-hand grain: Tcrtiary. North Sel; right: Lou,er
Miocene Molassc, Savoy, France (1\,lnrt 1.5t32).

98

AN

I)

('OI-()T

It

I'I,A-I'I.,S

.:EE

h4s,,lSi,{ },,,1(r }Ft)

inon(tr-lini.:. tiirril (

itL
rli

-i

' ,. {-'::=
, -=.

l.slit).

1.5i,.1

:j:

?-irrn i ,t'ilitrEil!.t: 'l':ric :rrrc;u:; is nrir':l-ikc riiuil(l,


riblortg tit ir'cgrl:rr {l}lll } [lrs;rl [tlitiL's. citllcr :rs llrin silglr:
shecls it ;rs eornrosilc f,lirics (i'snt;rll or.erl;riiirtg :c;rlrs- It is
ilier lirli;rted (lr'seer :ls:rggrcg,;ile:j ol littc ncerlle:: or lilr:.. li
ilr;r\ !1il1:til op:t(luc nclil:iirilr-

i'ttkur:
llssenti;rllv c()lorless, brri :;t;iirriirg e;rr ciiu5c
vr'lltrrvisl,'l lrr'rrnirll Irrl ;.
lj I t't c lt r; i..; tt.' i.ltr=irlcrch'oir:.

fiirt.frin;it:ttr:1,' it;sal pl;rtcs have kiv lirri'iin:srrru

;r(

tlull lirr.i-{)ri-lLf !:re!', ,'lric r)r !ral('-val(j\!, iifaiuacrr'u


colouls. i-rih'ou::;tnil corrrrosiic g-:riils () r;irkrlv r-icnicil
ilak,.':; hv,: :;ttrjt hirt:ll ingr:lLr-' ;isr:oeiair-'rl witlt :;ccrrrtti :rtrl
iltirul-trder r,r-llirv " ur;rqe lt lll rl lru in l rrf14ncc eokrrr r:;.
rli:-rl:ry

ir,-hi;ii,iy. b.,r-:i5 ()l :iUpc

impl::ed iinc fiake:;, hui rrst rflcr *rins fil i c:iir.rri::lr


:ilv pf:iitirill.

ir

l n l t rJ e: re n ct .i i' u r t : l !;rs:r l platc:... cvcn eom-xisitc e r i r:; r


iirr: sr:rL:s yic!ri lt rrlcll-rctltfcd :iaitic hi:;,:ciri;c- Iierr.i wiih veiV

lV 'll LtlLt;. i::gv*s i .lrir () :r/Lrll(irv iicki h;iidl,v


:;t:riit:rtr: ;!n.-l ihr fir:urc a.i.ieai's utiit::ilti. isccirr;lrfic battl:;
:ti,- t:'t;:llr rrir'1, iri ir! liir'kr'' r;ils.
::n;rll

':liln"1ii.jf: iihiril:: i!:rkes rnrl iillrL-:; iiv(: Fr(,il!!


eltiilriior.

I,ti:;in.gti:;hit4 i't!itrris: liirigle b;i:;;il l;ic:; ri r;lr qe:rlv


rescnble ..vhiic nli-;r, i'iiiii e'iiich tlisiili:iirr car !r,-. rr;r,,1,' !t-t'
iire virtuallv r!n:l:{iiil iigut',-'rii 'rle irinre , {'cnpcsilt: lri;iie rjis
f ri!,ell;i[]pir!r srn:rll il;tl:cg itr: ciai';cri:jiir il irle. hui .rr:
:r-'!v irrr,l ir ryiiit rir:t:;. lI i:: r!iiiir:tli irr r,li:;irigrri::ir :;rrieriu
iii.-rr ii[trs i:t!.'.''iilL] i{i:.;c:lllc:- pvripir.,,llitr:. i; iit: i;ric :;
irrlik-clV iq !:r i<;it<i i -:lli::iir ::erli65 ! r:!,: v l;r: ;i
!-(]itrilti]l iltrir ii;rl .qirr:its. i-,i! ::; iri.ihihiv ri::i:l:ii irir :.crierir-{i! !i,lii.-' :iir::e--6''.ra''.' !lrir: ii.''r::; ir.: ii-.ir'rirri!r.r:!!:!ir-ri{}!! t!i
irli;l:;i,' rek:- :r+ftci!g i('-iai :,-i:.,i:., ':!::a;ii::riirr i.

!r t*:tilq;!lir tie!.::- ii :; ir;i!r ri :t!r;riithcpl','lliir. irir


i.:tlrtliif :ird i:lle i:-};gilif :r-'iri:.:i:.. ;id :l=r i ihr::rllr.,
i!:ii!!1rrfrr(i:;eil ::ilir:.:ir:; iirii{i!ii1:r. ii .-.i';Foit.-::
:ruih iguil ir;!iv

i irgil,t,jicr;;1.' :icri

:;:rinrl<:

ii

r;.,, it r

iii;i: n ri.rri icclii '

;irir:t, i;unri ir>riiirr .;ll! iii::!r(':rri-:ririiuirhvlliir .{irir

..19

i;'"'"==;-

'.i11r:r r.1,irv.,,,

.j
=
r' : r:i
.: :
i:

.:F.:!-j:'
i:- .:

tr.l i.iH(] 1.6!!{l


i) l.r l:'
,{ l.:;ii l.3l

li.filt'ittn:

'

-;=G:-

1.5:19 L55{}

i
-:

i:::

..'.

:'

t--

==a

=.:

a.:

.J.:
=:l

:.:,

CHLORITE GROUP
!'

consolidated rocks may be coated rvith a thin film of authigenic

chlorite.

Grains from: (a) Lorver Miocene Molasse, Savoy, France;

(b) Oligocene, Barrme Basin, France.


Lower ro*: authigenic chlorites, Rotliegend, northern
Germany (lrfmt 1.539).

t{l

!ltrVy rili.lf:tiA,
Ser-pemEcee

i-ii]t!l{-.Fili..1{}l'-l:; Ai_jl}

,'!.!1.(lltli l-[,i!E.!]

gFEEeE
tv1. ,1-ci

,{

i,lt il

i.

1,r,:lirit'. Ii;r:ri:l
i:h y,':iiil,'

lizlr(iiir

;lrirg() lL

itrt l.-:,jl !.i.1!l


;ili i.::-lli i,5{'.1

i:-t= I _::;.1

i.5i:; i.i{r7

rt.:

i.i4

I .:;6{!

(l.ll{lr:

!!.{lt}F;

.:'.+5 l.a5{''
i; {}.(}l.i i,f}!7

i.i(ilF

l.:-;7

.5-- I .57J
i-i{:i {}.{X17
|

'.'1.i,"

'llrc ;rtr'v,-' 1ltLi: Frireil:tl p,rh.,trtorpltir v;!q'iic:. (ii lh(j


screiriiiir g!.)ttI iirr trsrt:rily qic:;ign:liil !:j s!:ll!:liillc 1!hll
r!c(it!t1(:!'.r(l iir :;erlit,-'ti;. hct';ltts-' irl)tit'i!l pi)Pe!iir':- ;!lt)t!'
;r!i-' i!ri.l.-:ilu;rlr iiri di:.lingrti:;ilinr lrtl$'.t'il thr il!c.- 51!t]i!:.
ilrrrin:; rtr;rg br: cetrlcrl !:r :;L-rpijtli!lr l!ti1.r:rl: c iiiglllrlrir
ol :.eiri:niinilr:s. 'l-hrir rler:;itr 'l (il :rt!gg.:::: !lr;rI tir, r
lrlqrrLi ic thc ii.hi n!cit! li-ircti'.it- li hci:;ttsL ()i'tla
(1][tll(!ti l]fes.'!li.]l itil: r)tf itclu:-iot:, ihr:'; lcld tr lr.'
c(incctltiilcal ili llrr h,::lvv tllilltlr:li iesi(lltc

__;-:::_.

F'rn in s(dittt:'tt!5: Serlcttliltr: !trcr;tll'; occrtr:' :t:; rl;tiv


gr;rirrs witlr l iorv

rtlir,l irttl snrortl

Itrcgular-

llatc:. !'oliaictl llltkr-: ol lilrtrrtts ltg!:rl:gile:r

iaggr-'rl

t()t!(l (ta olrlo: rrflitr

havi: also lrcn lr-;rtttti. -toitl.'grairt:. in;i,v cr:hiltit tlte shltpe .ri
lhc serrrittiniz!:(l lnirttr;tl ttr rr()ttiitt rclir,:; rll i)!r.)r\cre:; (r!'
olivint,. A..; lr bv-prrtdur:1 ol scrpcniiliizatitii. iror orr: iltr:ltt'
siols are r:ttfcnlr-lr: ai)nrin(ln. ;rtrl ofi*tt onlv l thi ril arotlnrl
:r sccnli!r8,!v ilpllqu. rrail itr-liccs thr: [rtlq:tlr:s- tti rt s,-'rpcti'
1irc: iineal {ir:ritt:. it;rc;tt ir':!tlslttr\-:trl vrrlll; glrarv ot r111'

lusln tltttltr lllt liirtrr'ttl;t


(ktUf : l'hi
()

1,.ilrrrlr'.

vrrv palc ycllorv


i() ligltt lttorrtt ,r gltrcn u'ilh

l'likt:s ;rc rrlnlost a(jt()urk:s:r.

ptl(: gcLrn. ht1 slr:ttlc:; tlLc!)L-!l

irtt rt rrsirty'. tliir'krtq's.

PlelhrttisttL' l:l;elv .rlict'rtl-lc. .'ilrttr tlltrl:tr cLrloutrrl


varietic,.;

rrx

hibit vcrv l ainl plcrich r oi:;nr.

IiireJ'ringcttt:c.' l.crv. 'l hiri l:rtc:. trlll)elr


,.rI rvhittr. ull(ic cri)sscd pol:rrs.

p1.r. .)r

(l:rrl: rrrv

With slt()lt!ler tllut:tl coltu'

Itnd incrc:rsitig thickrres:, inicrlcrctrcrr coltitr:; ratlJ:c to sr,ctlltrlonlcr velkrw, {-)rilriga. g=ccr in(l sonlctinrcs rtttlrltalotr:i [rlttish
grLre Ii.

F,xtinttitn: Wirvv. urtrhrl;rlrli!' (tr nr(lltlc(|. orving to tlif lcring oricntatitin l pliiti:lc1s or titrr:s rvithin lr siltglc gr:rin.fiiurt: lt is vct,v' tlillitrul lo rblrrin :tr
tlt('tlr'r('ltf! litttlr'. l.;ilqt r ll0Ilrr1]r'ilr-(irl:';tlr';r" rl :'(tlllr'l]l:lll\
Inf er.frrtnc't

trrv shorv llash figures.


F,)

I on

gc

i tt tt

f.sil ivc.

[]istirtg,uishiilE

.fuf

t!r't:;:

l.rrv

lr:licl i: .:h:rt;r.tcristil iln(l

lhe outline ol the 1linrtrr grairts nrra'lv ilisappcars

in;l

lqru,

{.}{L'Ufft:tlt':: S'clrcn{irre lililll:lal:; t.(-lrt1c(l esseniiillv hv

ilxlcx .t(:(iiun. {c.s. (l;rtlil(li! h;rls:rlt). fjlltt:1' ,rt iiltiitt:; h;rliii


and lhc t,L:fv (:rr1ll1r! lltrtscer ()l {}l}ilqur icltt:;i,rns;tri:
rlilgno:.1ic-'l-ltr lolvcr
fcrcnuL' c()lours

t'rli:1

scrp(:lrln!:
inte

tcgcllicr rvitlt ltigltcr-trrrlel ilt1rr'-

lrrllr irr i!isiingui-:h scrpeiriitie lolli

rsprciallv ll'onr chlcriie

bul thcit til

the :er'rritiiuizalirr ili lcrttittt;tgitt:tiiitr ltritlei:lls it uhlal:lt:;it:


rrckr. 'l'liev iicrru. bttl lc::-: ,:,-rttrlttillv. itl nrcilti.irtitllltic rrir:l':s
lrrd in ltvdrrihf,rrtit vcin.q.

tl lrir)litc:. !lirv

ltittts,

rtrhlr
ii-; higler;utd 1lev 1'trkl glilt!
Lrre he

r,:se

{}ruit::

Jt'ttttt:

(h4nri l.:;ti2).

ldrrrar ligufl's.

{t2

)ligor:enc. ja'rilntr lisin.

Frt!ctj

g!li tr ! l'-J '1'

FreEec-cEe
t=l:All A lSi :{ } r,,l({ }H };l

<riitr'hilric" bi.rial

(1 l.hll l.i.i,j

nli l.l-5 l.r4l


il.i .t.l l.rt.:;
h {i.i}'ll_{t.{}.i5
:-!,iG-1.91

^
Frn i silitflt'ttis: riirs rc rrrisi rcquciily, ir:1-;lclctvagc fr:rgmcnts rvhich :re ol'ie ri crintrcsed rrl s:rll
irrcgular cr iriangular-shapcd sccti)ts. Tler;e ttiv lre fr,rrtiu:<i l;trgcr crvstals c;ghibiting ch:rrecicristic 'irqrrv=iic' sir uLrtutrt.
5hcf like rrggiegrtcs and elu:rlcr:l of larlillv i'ilngcii il-c:
muy also trc presenl, 'fhe :;utlaee oi'ilrc glains i:r usr-rally llik.;.
$onctimes iine lamellar trviniring s rli:;cer-nihle . lc!rrsior: aic
minutc iuitl gl*lrulrs r]r iictolil*s.

toltttr: Frehnite is clrrrlcss. lrr!! ire.lucni


silillitlg Ptir(lttcrc I Yelli;wi::h tingc.
F e sti' r i:;

rtl.'

Birr:fringrnt'.'
firs- ii

iqr

':+
.;rid-'

F'iriir=iileoe!:rriie.

I!4oderai:. llic:lcrcr:i,' i:iilerr:t rr,- rrpi:r

)waf sr::onrl-ortic .:lrdcs. rt:rt:llv r!ttliraicd irv

tcllcrv and orange. Srime grain:- mav L,;rltiLil li,r;ri


'llltltrrizai;o1 r:rhriis.

E-Uitt-!it-tt: Plrali,:l ti 'i*:::v;rrc

i;r-r-':;,

l!ri rltri! wrr;v iii

ineomplci*.

Itttefj<:rtznte ji.{11F-.' lrsr:urr-.ii iry l iilrus


naturc i il-tc
L, l t

*ti

it

qrr c!!ir!F{stIr:

ga!ii:;-

tt." I rii li,.r r r;itir t. (t ilr,u;ii

i..

{}isiirz'l:ishin4.f7afurt:,t. P'-hrris ' irc,'gili.:ti ir\'fl!r,,"

.ir

Lrltty

lt:ibit tnd iltdctate rclicl Thc

pr.,-sr-nce

:;rti!

iartir:ulari.r' r:haacie 'i:;tie . iV;r', r


Lrxlinctiii. !aneli:rr irviirning nii iiakv:lrflr:c *:iiso lvtic:rl.
It cau he nisirkcn ibi eilkiurle5s pumpeilvitc. hu ih,, hiicr
fu -t pro;rottlr-etl ;tot;1,us ittlc'ireircr rolc,-rrs-

sectcr:; rviihir

:r'titr

is

{}CtUfrcn.:: F:hniir: i:: :: iliaqt:iie :icr;i <;i' !ir,.=, si.:i(l(:


rgi;niilv iriciamoiph*:;r--r! -:rr:hnii'-, Fuitpr.llviie t3LiL-!: ra!r_'l::t.
rvhrie ri,irr irr::.,t!s. ni iafui:i i,:r:;iri!:i mnrc itt
nci;-gaeVlvai.:&-es. Ffehiic i-; L1iiir!i: ;t iiiili !1ii.-iiilt crk-:;,
:i(lrlc hVlrr;ihclt:.tl .=,ti:: il in .iini:ici ll.--i:!*!iilhc
ii;l-rriLC,:atltond[f ri]c!:,S.
Ei --^,.---l-..- - fia:illiiF;5.
..=:r i;i ::. EL= it.,r:!F:1ia- lraiiiiiL i!:t:; ri..i l:r:r.
pr.-viortriy er,rilrql :r:: : ii.:iriir:! li.,:!. !i r.,:r:. itlcrtiicii in
le :;ar,lsriorr,s

i iic

*:rrriig:iii Lllpa

Lilie

i-,4c1:rss.' .ri

lirvirzcrlani :ii :r-vl:r:l l<n:riit;n:;. !t orct:: iclrriher ri:iii


Dl!!Pellvitf in:l itiri..'iji.;r:r:;c iir;i-t.,'f!{j i!rria a:-:;cmh!igr-h!:gr'E-l;iiiir: .il i!h,:rh:,i.,li i.tif'!-:!tqi !:.:t!r!r iiiq'1i.:it ;!i
!!('c.!lli:rir'.'ia

rt la lf:rii.

riri

;:r!t.t,

,;rr,r'

;'.

nr. lFrt._ ts lt

eiiatiiln ei]r:rta+aa iri-iir1.,-:;tl irirl: i-vE:t:... icctrri!I iirj!: 1rt


: hrtrJ ,.:L:la- ii i+ill :l+batrir :.,= iirtrii in ::-:ii.r :i:

- if!ii:;
il:!if.' -'rqrii ir-=:r: !;sl:ir !;1.:-i:i.c ilu'.'i;rl rir'frsii
ri lc F-i,:t 4iv+. i.ia:r:r:--j...,'ii:,,:erl;rl: {,!ihr'a fa::iF!r: i-rr\\Lr

it'iiriC-rg- F"i<ia:;:;e. Yi,i,.iiri- i=i:,vi!:,tr!:ri iFr.,ii:t


drll

i:,H:

tllr\VY N4lNl:l{At- Iilrst'l{llrl l{}NS il.F{!r {'4} (.}llli

lJI g:!

{}X-EE}ES
iassere
:-;rii

icirc-oi:rl. rni.riai {

tt l..iltt! .1.(i{
ttt I tltrl .:. lllt'
i 0.tIrtr il.lItli
a {r.r.rH 7.[]l
lltnt

iz :;'linf

lqrl:; :rntl

nls: !l!:it'iiiil

c:;::iie r iic:. hve ;

i:g-l:rr ii-:rgn:snt:;. rtsullr: rvilir rrE

rrll

rlivr'rsiir,.ri

illcv {tcrrls :; crrlri:il;l t.v:l;rl:;, ;ti.i:nr:riir. !ir rl}iri


rlt.,'a,i.-:

i.crrrgh:;ul:rr.r..::

ili tiutdetl gr;rirr: - iri'hiitlal lr:leiulc:


;t-i :.iiie- r:rr;tllel lc thL Ftincill:tl :::i:; i it rV;iili.!: i:lrr:-:nl itrir::l f, ;rlr'. \rrrur' :'r:riti.. !i.t! ;tlit1.;!t rltrrl,r'.
: :,.uborn{l!:tl

{lltlr: !:xlrr:rrr rrlitl

:rrrl rcl:rriiit ('i.:iuIttilctrIiir.Irr:;iic

:ite clr:lrirclcti:ttic. lt c-l-hilit:: :r r-virl.: trg-. (il f,()lLrur:; lr.(trr


trrloutlr.r. tr) l.!illit vrtll(i11. sul,ier vellcrv. tink. t.utl, tl,_.r1r
brriwrisl ct!. [rttirvi:utrl iln](i:ii rtpirqlre. lrrcgul:lt'c(jl!]u
llrtle'1:i:rrc lt(r(lilclt, !yhich appc:tr i:ilh-: is r:riiorri;tiitii11 rrr
;rs; drtcfr-eol()Lil(]d:lr.l llc:'tr:hr'Qir-ir::lchcs lrllcrrtitg rvitlt
erilrrurlcss or:ilto:; op:rtltrc Fortiqlrs t_';iitirt;r -rirt.rle ur:rin,

f-"lettr'lZftislt' V;ilir,:. ihrough y(:rti


rirngLrs

$,,errL- io stlr!ng
ti(rtil c(!l(jrtri(-tis o dcl:l) rcd. pin[:.]a vfl()\i'.

-i=

=:

t(l

Iiirt-fringent'<': Ve rt strorg !r&: i<-'rrcr colrrrs :rfr


crcccdilrg!v hiclr and lriglrt. lut rl:rf le lr;l:;keri hv tle ciron'
inh!:fl:rtt rlincr:tl r:qrkrLrrE.f

ilt'litl: Liu[,,'rlral crv:tll:r;irl irismtrlic

prr:rllc:l

r:,1i

...+-:----=:.i!ilig:--

ll;rqrrert:; fu;lvr:

=@==3+
-@=---:+=
*-==::-:+_1

inf tii)r.

Ittte:rfcrtnt-'t .fi4trr.: 'l'he nr:r joritu til rlcrr.it:rl g!iiiils :rrr


:rtoraLruslv biirirl :rnrl crhitrit ;rr ircrfcrL:ltcc ligrrru rvith
rvi(llv sl)rcc(l iso*\-,rr:; () i! \d,hite licl1. Sriru li.:rsrlert:;.
wlirh shrtt rveitkr-'t L:flettleq L'rl!)ufs, r.,ieltl;n ()ll,.cr(t.c
urliirxtl lic.rtrc with dersc isrrcli.orilit{i('L:.!l0ur lt:rnrls.'l'lrc
dctcrlrlirlliolt !)i fhr (iptiritl sign is rlillit:ult.
E l o nxa i t t tt

!@.:==-==
-,==$:F
ia
G-:a:

-l:

*::

=?t
\G;==---

:+

: Po:itivc. [ut rlifficu lt [(] ()hs!:r v.r.

l)istinruishit1 fourrc: F:i{rcn]t: rclirt :ntl hircf r.ing


ettcc. :trllrtt:rttitc ltsl'e. rlct:F cokrur t.)tlclhcl. rvilh rrltet
i:gtrlarlv disllihutccl col1i1 p;r1.1g. arc {i:rt.lnllic. l)ri:llrl!t.
rulil.-' strringlv r*sctrrtrlcs cssilcriar:. hrri the lrrrncr has :
higher rclicl-. slt()ngat' bircfrin::r:rcu.' irl(l ltirs:u L:vcn e()l()ut.
rlistrihrrtirrn, {';rssilrlitc ..ill lic enf'uscrl wilh
Pl.i:rrrrlir
fr;lgnlcnt-s (i1 r.'rrn,:rlthrr{lr tlic l;l{r.li;l: lorv,,,r rit;ilrl
hircfringcnet. tts we ll ;ls houriurr..ot!s cokrrrfs. lit.rrkite lultl
Stl1' hiaxi;tl rositir..,';trrl slrrv iltcn:ia. illc:ll inQtrl{lus.

inttril'tec..' fint-c.'lhc hir:liinqtrnce ol ;lrr;rl;rc i:. l()E ;ultl ii


uniirri;rl nLrgtiivc, Sphale|itr' rl'seihle:; clrsicritr lut ir
isrri

::

i:.:

is

iorir'.

t'Cltfrttt'': {-:rssilc.riie i:: ll r:r:;iiirrr:rl rl hi-glrlr::ilie:t:,rrrs


itrtr:otr tric[:.r. ln.gti!tlitrs. hr:tl-qlllrrtt:rl pt!rer-s'e:r gcrr!.:llc
s';rssitulilt. lrut \lttt( 1t..\ il ir:t itrirrr;rrt ;tr.(1.\lrit\ ,rl ltirIilr..\.
Itt grci:;ctt, gtiitiit pcglililr::., lrrrrl it ltfl.!(!!luil;rl r,,cns.
cassitcriic i:; r i:rrnrrr c{!il::iilileni- iVot,1=iin i:. lirrnturl hv
l{lw-tcnl[]ar;ttu!'r ,:olkriil;l lrieeiril:rlion, { -;r:;:ilr:riir: i,c higlihj
i

{):i

_:

. _=-

CASSITERITE,
rcsistant to s'eathering (Hails l9i).

Grains frorn: Left of diVicling linc: Kinta Vallev tin fielcl,


Iltalaya: ILiglrt of line: Bcach sand. St Ives. Conwall, Englanc.l
(NImt 1.663).

I05

iil::::i. illi-.lt:i..1t !]Fr:;-'i{ll.l'!s.}tr:,

.,-"=f--l-i

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g=.-------====-:

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ii i:'i:!- :i::-:i;!

tr.

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ti;

i' ii.iiiil i!,{}{li:


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i tt!t:i

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ll!

il!l:i

:il:ti!!l!!. :;lrittlt,:lcri ;i q'ri::tsi<':ril.; r.:'.ii r'rtir.r! l::,tlil


iii:ii!:t gri.,:ii;l!L!':, ir:iti,-:ri:-'jili:: i.r.::t:ii!i:r! t'trllit.: iltiil
{-r:,-'ii:iii:E i:qitrr::: :;i! :,;:ii iii{-i.-ii;1i;.!i:' :i! r}iir:it

'-

;in;: trti:ii:i!

er-rlir:lr:::-:

1.:iti!ri!!t!

:i!r!l.ii.: il -;ii:ilr:: ci !ilir-

:t!;itt:: !!:( iii:ti l{ai! itl(!ii.-l :i:iiiL

rr'l,ru ril:,iril'rti!r,ii i , r l::r:ir ir

i:.i!q

ii

Ii'.

f.lt...!lrri..;1. '! llt iirti:;ir.,, j :!lrrr:hiiii:;ri i,J:tfia: ilq,!r!


i(i ir'f-::'-i(l!' {'- !l;!la (} ilt'i-:r hltir:. :'. qrlriflc:;:;,- i:tlr
lliii:;l grr:r:t. i:. !ail'iar;li.rr iii i'r iiccr ttlr,-':ttlr! lr,rJqlisli Filll:
lll:v :rili-i.:rE e'iiilin i-i!r. giilii!.

ts,e:il:

ilirt'_!t'iit';'ni':'.' 1ij":!:. lt L'ii;r! r.:iii:- illnlt's! lhev :lrr-'


1r!:ry ihi l;lir:ri:;i.:::iriiii:irrnr:rlorl.lv li:li i1i,,,ic.-'1.-,.-'
colnur:: ri iliiil triie.'! irr::rrteiir-':.: irtt:ii:c lttleiirl r,r()lillrl
rir:r rlt;.1. ilr, iir, i' r r,i iiir

Etfinr'litt:
ll;r

l:!i:rr::rtr:-! i;:r:riti:rii: ;rtrtl

rliiiinl ir!iiirj:r

h:1k'

ili!! f ;.:i!('iilir,

! n t'ifi' r'<'tcrr' i i:tl rr' : I'ilir;rl p;rrt inr 11l1i(:i [ri(i1]i.l! ir gri(){l
urilr::iri iitrleicrrr-r lilrrrr ii : !:,,lii. 1.1. irrtr:.r:lr tr;rir:
ril{e!l !L:ld :rir.r!;ilrrr:rli' birii:l itt,-'tier,'nc(' li:ur('s rritlt l;uge

! :. I i t n iu t i t t tt

l-!c!:ri it:t:

llislin,qi.:isltitir:.i;:t!ir!r'(:,:;: iii.!rl rliri, llue llqiu. olie r iri


i rrelrr. rlirtriliuiii:. 1!(l Pl(:il(:lta(]i:r1l :if Lrhiti':tfif! i:.ii{j
lligll ,-rrrlei-inierleri.c ciilorrs c:hilitr:l h1,rrilrrliri l1r;rir.r
iilc inc.lr:;.c1rri rviflr tlre liiu,'liciiirg-i:ncL.' 0l'ihi:; nrirlr:airl iill(i
(hi:: i:: ;rlsi ivilraal l{rt ar-rt rrirluni. Ap;riic lirs l0rv.-r li! llrtl
lirr:iringencc. sr;hitit.: i:: hiltxilil. l;l:;

;r

:iir!!rs ,li:.rrisiori ;rrrl

is ltrtgih:-l,rrv 'l-lrt.elc,i ili:nirtisr i:i lrigliri. it:: shrPj i\


rlonrinnl.lv rcet;riltul:ri :rtrd il rhrrvs \,!:rv lo\v'o!ilLr! ilttctlar('ncc {:i)li!l!r!;
t-orr:ilrlunl i:i llrii:;.:li ii l r,;rtir,lr rii iock ivpr::{}c'tlfr:il,'t:
bri ir; ii:.i l):r!:!c!::iiie ol Al-rir:lt. iii-lrrol ,ick-.., lt fcrurr ir
sr,,r: iic:: rttd tlt:ir pccnreiii iC L-(ll! i!illrIi:- :ritl ;rl:.Q in tuirrtrilL:* p-glil:!iiir5 r',,lrir:l l:t::;.-'r:i Ullrl1ir Irictr:;. (--Ulri:rr-- lilril

rcgititt:rll1 ::rclirnli)!rh{:r:{iri 'r'ek-s- r:.itt.r;illl llros: lrtir,tri


lro't;lurtit!:; art a;!Lll!nirlf:cilrrni:;- co!lii!il.rift!tiililllt
nti ii tr:r't,t!lsqr li!tit i ic:r or cllr.ii.: r;clir:t:r. i--.rft!llrltrrl i:;
.l!)ll lllit! ei lr\1i I u!-'! . i !- iilC l 1 l1: r'r:;i i S,
1

Ri ltarl,.;: {- ;ririilu;lrlull nl:rr,, riilil:riin:ric :-;rnrrlc:; rirrrinr


llrL'il;ifri{ll et!ti e;rt lr roniir:;rrl .-villr !-o-rrrlut. !:![r('liri!-,
the lirrrr: lrl'-: l li::llr: .-'li.-'i :t<l itpl)uirf.:;i:- -tlt:ur- i:r-iurrrl
p;lt'liela..;- (ilar -iili :i eorcliritl:rl i]:riLr,r ;rr(l it is iil:lir:ltllr,,
tiltia:ii:l ::-ii ivu.

i;ui;.i.s.'i'r.rl;a : E< ighi l'ia:;.:tc, irr)ri he ilr Tu il isi;r


Lr'll I rllllri l1!(ii{'lrj $.,esfn i lrrrrg:rtr., (r'l;).

{l{"

I hJ

nrl

iiti

l]

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EEEE

'l-{

il

iL:iailgrri;i. ririial

{I

:t l.{15 l.r I-l


iii. :,i=:!.i( I rr0i
;r lt. -.:.ir l. l,),,
a +.ll i.:ii
i''ts71 i7 :;{r!iii'ii-r: i}etrit;ri rutiles :ii: *rjrr:a;rili, i.rlilll
{r'xirs iviicli rerc'iv t:ieccrl l!lll !{nr. iJcLitusc (ri *}iltutlul!:.
liiglr 'cll':rciive iirlicc:;. ;r thir:k hl;rq:[.. hrrli srr r rirrrtl:; i hr- gr;rir r.
Sultrounrletl io rvcll-rorrtli:i iihlrin:l fri n:; lrrrl :,iicar: ;rii: ihr,
tttri:;I ffrcrtrrrt- Ntrr rourrleri :r;rins :rre eiiltcr tuircilr;rl. .-viilr
rvr:il-dtr,el0tretl .lvr';rrrtidal icrrit:rtirls. ()r:;lcn{lL' liri.,r1.,,
prisnratic ii':r11ren: :rrrd :<inlclinc:; il:rerrlerl !-rrii.:. l.,lr,irvirl
irrtgrrl;rt <t corclrrirl;l lre:lkage p:tlc!i:i. 'Kirce:;hlrr,-:rl'

=j.=-::

=4,-== =

t :'.F.-=-

rl) :lrt-l Ii:r lllcl ir-v:.i:rl gr rwllt: :rre :;orrat iirr+- ecou rr
iai:(1. {iriiirrs rrv ltrvc nrrlii l;ritell;rr ir',,iititir qlir:rr ir lrrrr
!iitlt{iirtns. tfa:l*!:{l rii;r!:r:;r!l' irr l(.ijii'!'ir iir('< {c)- oi :rhrrrr
:;tri:rii:; rnll['l'-',,ii!r il!Lir l!il{ ii:i::.
t.,virts

qt!tc;:i-,1:rrir'.,,ii,,,l,rrrir:l:,,1,,1,i,1,,,,,1r,-,1:rr,llr,,r,rrirlr
rtr,l (ltiil;lFa rr.!.. itciluciri ir:;r-iiircri: ilr;ir hrt;rvri:;h lil;c1,.
.;cl!<irri:;li itr!wl!,;!!lirc i liclei llrwti -rloril:; iiglti).

?t:il'fur<listL' !.i:iri!1.i, :ri rr:.,il:illl ir:ilrii(.:;i!:(l it1 ih!:


-lce[ctiu ri

ihc rcii. vu!!iw

sia rirwi] .;li!ii(':i.

flif;:j'fin;4Lilt'''.' l::..ialrll( - lrul rlrr lrr!:lr.r'i,lr tiitcilcrcncr:


.,oiott:. !i' !:err:llv cl:;r'trar',,i hi:'lh(' :]i!it!!: ittlr.'rli lirlr:';l
+rlrtt. 4ir;tir:, 51;1!ll,tiisrl;rr- .etlrii:;li 'lhie. rcrl. ltrrr,rti:.lt.
1' ll,rrt i:,li iiti( ! ;. i,. ri,.r' r tr.,.
E:-!l!ilr-'ii:ii: !;ilti;il!!:
.:{ ii ii{-'i (t

;1r-i

#e

:-=':=i

rir,l-:ii:iri'ti gr;rir:; :;irr+

=-=+
=*F

:;til.1

i;tie:';jtrt'a;';: t'i',t:tt: !'irirnr:r ii!itfr r,'riirii:ril..,.-'ir:iil


':iitr i;[r i:iiciriinr:riir' lr-l: ir
:t L-(l ia vr,iiq* iiclrl- El,.:.-r.: !iui_i lliltlt l;lrr lti;t:i;;l
ri:r';riers *ilcEl it:lv !r-' :llrr !ii rvilir 1ii ilrilinl;titrir.
,rvell rjr:nl.el rni:t:i:i iigrrit's

',ilt:!irtl:

iii:;ii(iiit i(-r':ti,:i1,-i rii.l hirr-.irrirr


iii.-. i!Fiirjri q.{.i;iir:!t i:i .iii.irli i}{.
'l
t+:;itiv: i:l:r:l:iiii !tiiir L.-' rir:-rri:ri il!t !r;!r:i.-!rrr<i
{ii.,,s-

+r-'::. ,leireii..i
v:!

i!:iii::r.

lEi:;i;tt:z:;!t!< i;:lt!!,-;':!: !-.i-r:ilt i:; iiiii::r,,i ir-i, !: :..-::i


fiigii :,:iii!.1iirrl i'ci:Dt:: illL'!:r!li{ri.-!!;lrsl r:':ir.itr.ti, ii.
.ilr:i- :-:,ii:ii.:ila: G-i:riii:i_. .:vli:t r,::ei, :la:!:;,::il;;iiLi

i:;i. fir i!.,, ii;ili:!! i!1 ..ri;! iL!ii. !::tir !.:.:;iil:.r:l '.rl::;::ii.'i;ii', irri i!t ;i i;i it iliir i:; !c....:;. ii:., iriqr ,t.
:;frii-+r: i:rirl:.,' ;ti:';-!:I!j!!{jiii :ulii ;ir'r' tt:iil:; l;i!. :t '!t::;!,:
:!.1F.::iq:!. !':ir:ltir,.-;ti !:c:i:iit i:: ilti::. iq! i:r;::i:-i 1q,r.
:lbit::: I i I ii !'airitr:i: r: :l :r : -

.e.''::'i-'':

!irlilr i:: :r .;:qi':,!!,::ii ;!irr-:r::li :rir;rl

jr

rrai:tii(!alitr-' i!rfl-:; !:iai1:ul: !"r; ;l .:rii:;i:-;. :ti!r:i:r:rr-, .!!!!


:lniiiriii<.:;- ia !:: !!:i;:: rigr:iiir;rir r ig.-'i;r:. rrl::-. *ir.r. i
i.-i='ltr; ;t itqirlr::iii: r:!i! iliiiii!.'i::tr::i;i:l iri rs::i::ii,.., ii
:i::tli:.,!ii.' ri trailL: :-':1iiiir:i!-'i: Eirir-t-' i !i.)i=l!!l 1i:lrt1.:.! ihii! :!i,
::{iiii!:i: .1!'L.: ii! {i( ail;tl :rriiii:;:r rictlcrriiri;tiiii! ilt: ri iigi

,'.r1.,.,.1,,,:il! :ir'i.tri,:alil.:.,r',i,. ;..t.,


!:--uiiit ir:r:; iir:r:; i,r1! ir;.1.':;;:lli,c :!!i:ii1,'.iiirr:i11"

i:!.

!ti{r

1 EE:EE:H'

'l'i{ ),

iritiigol;rl. ui;r;\iirl

4ttt -l.i6l
iil l.'iHii
ir {l o7.l

.i.s-l .i.q7

'

Ftrrrl irt sLiitirci].is: rl:rt;rsc l;r:.;ir c.rtrcre rlicistrllrcilrilic lr:.lte :ul(l it tccrtts lrr{lt:r r-letii;ll s;rit:;;rlrl itr
ruthigciriL r:rv:;tlrls. 'l hc :rutlti.ertic iq'rtir. rr. ritini'tultlv

:
:*.
=::#

'i-'trry-: Sh:rtlc:; qri hlur, vclltu :rr(l );ll(-I)arirrj: (1ti(irtal!':i:;


iiils

:t

r' llllr'r)tiiiil()li.

Plttn'h*tisn.' [lrclr-c()l()r!r:ri ilir:k:rrr:il:rsu- rrr:rv rli:;pl:rtr


illlrr,rll(iw. riiik iir'lrlrre : :,- lrlrre . ti:r k lrlur,tt

rl'-ric-lrrriisitl i,)"
{}frilgf.

nr'.'

Iti'':_'rin:1t

f-'lor lt;!:::rl

iil;rif:- ll:rve :jtr.lns hirclringrirei-'

wiilt ttiricrrr,- iiti: ii irLtilt=rrL-'t $.'itir. :-li,-.v ;r,,1 liltk.


lJ:l:;iil !^!l:rtL:: hrr.,,'-' vr:llou" irii il;rrk ilrev. hluc rii l-(i!yrl
irrl:riiz:riiirir'-'rrLui: :r rtr-lrici ilrlri.
E-l ti
L

tr-' i t

o;ri

e!itl

i :t'tiiiriiic:rl

iqr aldri':rg ii:lac:; :lii!l

t:;i:l i:rcr::--

r.i'r rr :t t' <' .t'i tp t r,-' : E:3;r:r;rl rl;rir:: ri'iilr iri i itt,:iicr rr,-'r
tkrtrts rr:;t:tllv riiivitle :,riiil rrrtiriri;rl )r:il!'fr')(r' iui!a(.rS()!tlf .il!!rti( s ;y iii-'lri bi;ri;rl il:rsl iiertru
!ttir

E ,i t ; t git i i i t it

i=l(r:liriin,:.

i,ei;ivi,=;l!rt:

.:.'i:irt'i.i:

r:.rIr'

t ciiri. h:ri:i ri

rrriiirr.r :rr iiilc,::iir: iii:-iir'iit: ii r.:r'' i!uiii!-alir- ;i:lai


.ir'i!ii;ii ii!ria:!ir i:-.:;:r,:!c ':ilellr i:-, ili-iqririi!il('.r1,'i iiu

r';lii:. Eitr;!-iir'i:: iiti:ri;l ;rr:-iii..c;:rEl:rlt::;i:i'..,:rr:;':ir'lqi::;


!1ril ff!i!.ri :rei!i!r ii:I-r!'ii:i iigLii', l li,' !i a:i :,ii'l !:: l:u'r::rl i:. !r.r''rqrir. c-'iiririltI !:i::;r i0ri:':i rliti- iliiii':rr
!;iiialiri(s',i:r-i iri:lirr iiii.iirj('ita!: -'iri.-. il!i;!t
t:i;l;..iri ',i::iii..'r :li,l t;-:i:iii: :.'r:i'\, :;iri!! lit,:i-igr. -..E'

i!!'i'q'i!.'t'. i;r.iirqi!!:i:!n{l ::irrii!r!:[rlii rr-ii;ii;!i;i:,,

!t-

i]-

i.riiliririui!' f-'ilirr()rfrh ,i i i{ !.. !i i:; ariirrrir rr


..trlit i:; :ri(i i!n:;
rrir!i(ii!!i!!ti!i itr|19arf:illij ;ii iir
.r.:!li:re ti r:;lllt!,: I i lt-'; itq ittf!;!:: ii i:: ;l -lr:;iiitrcri rl
iitr

lr..",'

lLlijl;::-aC.
it1.-:,it.;

...::.ili:;

iic::il;ti;!i:!:if rrtr!t'..1!L !,rt!'-L'l;rir;l!1

'-%
tl

llrhtrl:r. cr:i;rrgtrlir l':r::rl lil:rtr:s (upln:r). Sevf,riii rii illr::;c nrrv


l-!r :;trl)cr;nrp{)srrl fli) Qr ;rre itctgtoutt. iitnilr: rt LiititroriIe
gllirr (e). --l.drtirg ot !]et']rciric lliiicnls ltc llciltcttilt'
ilispllrvcri. lrt;r:;e :rlso arltats t: slt;tll. ;tltttii:-i or:titte
:rggeg:c:-. i-ictri-r:rl gilitth {l()wd-)" ilr,ittglt thev;lte unc(}trruon. ri;rv le elurtlticctl lts r,urrlc.l b::;rl ll;rte:- ot ;[ltui
tlull. r-luskv ir'rr-:gulilriv sltrrr:tl gr:riit:-. ()eca-citrtallv l)v!irrri(liil
()t airrlirll(:rlrirl (li)\y!:r- l()F lelll :-i,-'eitiietis ;tFtc;rt w!ti.'lt ,i!1.'rt
hl.,,c :;tri;rlcrl l:ree:

ut

:=%

l'.,,

!i !tri:iriii)lr r,rL:; :r:. ilrr lrir !;r::ilr :i;iiil'.,iii


iri :i{--rl,'!ii:-:!ir i!i!i;lii! !i:.iirir'rrr--rIli;ig.

{ i;;ti:;.lir,';;i'
irl;inii: {!} lri iii !i,i!ir::rr'ri. rrtairc.
i;fairi:iir: {e) I rii;..,- 1l:rrili .'''r:rii;: (Li :ii!ii::ri.i\iiri
E:i;r....i, i.,iirrrrri 'r ir:..l.r;i,l lIiiri .,i']].
I lF-j

*:

IEAVY MINI.]ItAI- DESC]{IPl-IONS AND COI-OL]R PI-^]'IIS

Lorvor: grait.ts top lelt: rivct'sand, Val Scnrcglia, Srvitzcrlancl;


Other. grnins: Buntsaudstcin, Tiassic. borcl.rolc Weiach,
9S2 rn, Srvitzerlaird (Mnrt 1.662).

ll0

:;1mG:1"1

:&

::a:;::a1raHxF,$

tltti{!F.il
#r+ekEe

Tiri.
orihrhrrhie. lri:rrial (

,tt l.5l'1-l
i4i l.5H.i l.5str
it)' 1.7{X 1.7+ I
(). It7 0. l5ti
4.{lE '+.lli

^
Flril il sttlitt:tl:;: []t,kitc

hr:-

:i vcrv hi.lh rcli,,:i' ;rntl

()L{ut:; it.'t itll)rlltf (tr irrcgttl;rtly shltpcd gr:iins. sotletitltt':; rtilll


a gurr,crl rrtrtlirc. Pisnratie l;tccs ntv cxltibit slri:rc plltllcl to

ihc : axis. liloolitie also ltple:tts s soltiervltltt 'duskv'


hriiwtrislr-ycl ltiu, :t ggrarg:ttes

II

ur

lorver).

Yelltrv ish briwtt. httlrvtr, :l(tnlcl i ltlr-r rulilisli

Fleochntisrn' 'l-le *'ek ycllorv' titltttge atrl briwl


-rf

slt:l';:-

gr;linsllll:o!-hr{ri:int trc ratelv visi}rle trn tlctrital

fi i reJ ri nyi nt:'.' tlxtrenl lii[h bii cii irrgerce i:; tlisl ii rctir''.
lnt.:!'iL'renee r:-rktfs fa tlrtirtal hcc;ttlsc i stiitg l:li;tl
(ili :-i:gtr a(rl;rti!rrl
rl;rnr rlirtltetsii;ir- St.-'.-t;tcrrl:tr col;tlfs eltag.:
rotr'vcll,rrv, gl-ael i)i irlttr ""iilct iri rctltli:;h rink or or';iitgc.
Aggl*gltlris Ir:rvr !righ-onici hrtl tlulle r ctilotlt::' tlt'l lll': colotli
,-,lutrg,e is it(i tlw;tv:; ile i,-,r:tllc.

ilrrikiic usuallv l;rils i() .iiillr-tt:lh rs ;lrl\

Exil'tittl:

)rr:;iti(ri. Whcr extiiieiior is i'isil1,-'. it is trro:;ilv 1l:tl:tl[:l io iltr:


tlireci rrr oi ::iri:riiitis.

ii,qurt-: ii'i;rnv g:rir rt'iir.'itic rt rr:lirg.'ti ;ictlir


rviih ::i{!Itg Lrf(}sscai ar:ial-1illtrl.- ili:-prt:ictr
I siaiti'{ illt:li (: i;anil: v:i iy ihrn :.airv t{l l.til!-.

lnltri;:r,.:itt:t

hisr:er-ie ii1ui,:

{il,tlttlittl: l--Jegaiir'.,, hui r;rrelv rli:;c:cnillt: heclrrr';c


:rra:;kii.tg cilccis iv iic:;ivt-' iiil;lii:-':;liic:r rtiltil':;.
f-listin4iti:;hirt| iurrts: c''()l.tti. cxirtitrt rr:liri

1}

:rril

h!i-eriirgcn,:t. L:(;binc.i rvilit:ring (iisFLrf:ii!)!l lllr':l illrQrri


tt:.v
:)1,-riLr c.iii-ciir. rrre di::itnciiv.: anrl iite,v- :tssi::i i :
diur::is rii l;rOok,iit-'. T!..-' r"-cQgniiir,l rf :lggieg:lles i:i ii!1)Li
.-lilictrlt errl it-'v {j;r ilr drirl-u:jc,i rriih:r:tt:t:e, {}! ti(:il()tL:al:ls
ilk-islvr. r!)i.j tlrlile !fs{jiliblr-::; hrrio[:iie. lrtli illc qiiilur
i-rL:!lv !l:; :i pri:-iri:riir: iii 'ri:'l-iiiri(lt-:,-i lr!tttlilgv' slt,,u-:

h*inr!:rrsti:. i:iritrr-net ,:clq:,i:, :iill i:; lri:t:':i:li, iic .:!ici'


,,i:.Fhr:tc i:r lce'e :r:ti ia: i,rt!itt:::ifa il:tlt-: r-it;t iht:;i:,-rl
i-' iiiikiia.
,;'-

lfif'j.'

Ej.cr,;[,.iir

ij :l :,j,j,'rt:r,;i-l

rrirr::ri

.;i

:iir-:;i:tl

igE!ttl:; iiali$. ilrli:;i:1. talci:-:r'e:; .rtl !lvtiatiil'rii;tl :,-'it:-. llr


qr-i

ii

n1r

ii

:i

i:-,

i+

r i l lt

r' I

;r

ti i ir i i1r

iI

!r:

]rlii:; ji";.,;;i.' ttp-,,: :r! El-i'.,r:r iiiii!. V;rl iir;ii tg,lilt.


S'*ii,rr.!aii. (ll! -i!irt*'.,.-'. ii:irr ll:l::it i i:itir:c:
l.i*'J).
lr'; !t!i:r:,:,t' '!r,iil "-:,-i,n,
',
l-crvt : E-lr;i:,:ilii:;i!-ir.'fi;i:.:;i'. l:icitll l':isi, . !(ll in.
.'j'-.;ii;:,:il:rqi i ldnli ! .rrj i-

it
rt!

ltihl"Y toill.ii:iiil lilrsi':il!'l-l{ll.Js; AN: i i.f}! jll ii.^

! lr:;

Ss]meE ssFrEEtE
liprrr:! i-,ci'it:;

riri,, l-.

f irirt ii.i1,
'1(!!llf!!.-

'!'le,r1r,, r'.,iile::f,e;rrl \JLrfi(':.

iilc:! i:: ilir:

(ii ilr,::pint:l::aiii::::t:: rli:i'it:i


i'r rii:i hrct'riir licriic. li ii; i-r! rri!'lierl lii ir:.

spincl. or lrrrirvtt slritirl- {-,iihrl ntL:ntl-rt:rr: i;l'"'r: isiil:t1.:il


iltil:ir- srtlv oi !oc:rl iiriiti:!i{!:. Frlr-'nlllL'5 itl ihL
:rrinc! srrir::: 1'lrr'itientilied lrv thei high ic!ic!. r'iiliiuiirloillrrrlo\.' ;tnrl isiiiropic chlt:tcic! -

.:hrrrr.'

{i.lqr{tt'fr:itr:r-::r

.#

:::--:.%E!-

ilhrlitt stiil:l: r.l.1lll. a- 5.{)t'! iir;i:: {uFF }:rc,-l;r1..


tqilli::!r lrrrr,'i o eli,!r !lat1:,'. v=--'i:ir;ttJt:tnet!l:ti. i!i-':tlii
li-;ignreiii:: r.:liicli lrtqttr:ttllv ::lrit"' clllr:rricri:;1ie erirulriel:tl
b-c::ll::tge i-!itlict1::- i'hicker !t:litt:;lrr.titllsi,P;urr ;ti ollr.'
thc lhin eil.rle: e::hihi1 r:rilrillf. l lr::c gt:titls ;tlr l,r:r:i :;r'c r'.ill,
tltc accc:.:;ti'r, ettqL't:;.-r irsrieri- ,'l:otrtiltn :;riltcl i:" tlttlv
iso

:j,

--

lotic.

: n. I I l'r. A. .i.55 ! I ;ppclr-c :r:- grreil io bl1q:-gtccti oi


rrrl- rrultlcti ,x:llthcdr:tl grtiris ll'ok,-,n ihinnrr ll-rglilellts ril'
the grccn vilreiV f(js(,'llrlll(i grcarll g:tlllct. ltti llteV l-.:

S t i trcl

(iIpk-tclv isritonic.

H c rt r- n.i ie : r. i .ti 15 A - -i..1(l ( ir'ins ( lonc i ;tr.- rL-d. rclldi:ih


vcllctl'- llue {)i !:fcL:i!- irlrl iia,- l}'cr':L-ni iii se,tlitert:. ritlre ;t:r
rtttt,le,l reirlcrl;l gt'ltitrs or:ts ltokrlt iairrlrrilt:; \!ilh
chantt:lerislir conchoid;rl il;rcitic:;. [ic.-l garncl nlltv bc cqtlt
lir:;cr! rl'ith rrri fr,-'cvrilc" lui ihc Iimer olirr crltibil:isrl'ripisnr lrnil is usrrllv spe,-'kled !vitt ileltlsi(tti:-. lVhcn

sullicir:ni gr;rin:: arc ;rv;ril;rllc, X-'lv ii .-rluc'r.)n nrictortithe


r

r I vsLts r' i I ! ctin li

nr

tle

iIi

clr

i r

n.

{)t'-'Uff(il-:t': {llllrrriar :tPicl i; l .r()r'llll() :lcc!:ss(!rv (i!


rllnrrr:rlir: trcks su(ih !5 !erid()t1r:; anrl scrrrtttirtitcs. ()thc''
slincrl rr;it=iciic:r :iic ,.:rinlitlc,1 1o Itigh-gr;rdc ntcl:tlttorrltie
lrlLrtriltrius sciists. granilic gr:rnrlite: rnd utlcsse5- l: u'rll;ts
etnerv rlcrrr-rit:; lrd rotit:rei rlettrn(rr'lrlr c t tck:-. .tilti ticl:: ;t r,:
f(-:-ci-sl:rnl io tvf ithafitrg :ttl nry ;it:r:ttrulrtir: itt gr"nt-gt ttvcl::.

Rmurks:

('hr'<imi:n spine i is frrirr'.'nt it sctlilcttts sortrccil

[rv rrphiolitic lock:. 1'hc gcrteciollic sir:niliculce ol detil:rl


chr.lrtilrt spittel (brtirvtt spinr,l) rv;rs rliseussr,tl bv 7-ittlnlcrlc
(l(.llt-l).'l'he irereasc ()1 br()wrr spin.l ir slrrlinlcnls (rviih or
withrut scrpe ntiuilc fr':rgnrcnls) in rrogctric rcriotls is cvirlcn{
in thc gc(tklgerl lccord. lrrrr e xutplr- it ;rppcar:r cottttttonly
rluring the {'lrrnbilrn iul(l (-)r(l()viL:irr (lrlcrkiti:t rrro.:lcnv),
rluring lhe l )cvonia lrtl ('arhiilq'rius ( Vlrifican ot ttgcnv)
:rnd dtrring {lrr:lrceorts l!!r(l'l'Lrrliarv (Alpine rrrrrllcttv). Iltrr.-,t
sgrirrcl is slrblu- liotl nr!:chari.rilllv inil chcnric:rllv. rrrhich
cnhances its sigrrilic:rn'-c rs l tlrt.ki:L nrirtr'r'1. lts-sistittc irt tlrc
rcc()llstrtt(:ti.)n ,rf tlre rlilacrrgLr()gf:tpha :irtrl r;rl;reolertuttir
prt:riiion oi rirltiolitr-trc:rritrq ::it ueirrr:rl rrnils ir itouerrie lelt:;.
t ip'r:r; (l) ()lisor:rinr. !:i:rrritc
(b) .lui:r:r:rir- Nottlt Sca {Nlnrl l.611li.

i-irlins fi'utft.'
l-rrurcci

:..#EE@

!3;sir.

l.orter: h'Lxrii;:i1e :;:rtrl. lrili (fo1nri I ttrl),

il:

_,,:_;,-:F

SFHilEtil

l-.

SEIE,FHE*ES
ts*EEcaEec'EEe

ZiS
isr)itLrt

ric

1..17 I i()
n l.l(l
F't'i i :;i:ilitita'i is: {ir;irr: luvr :r vev hiuh clici :rrrl :r'r:

lir'i. !rtti
tr:fithr.lf;rl.,ititl,:i:rrh.-'rllrl rrrrl otrrclerl qt:rirts, as u,cll ts
r:rirl.; r:lultr,;rgc ll;ignrcnt: u'ith:ri:rrgrli itrcguler

sPh(:liLt:i r)i gilllrrilrr !YP5. li:rve :rlsr [cet r'ep()ftcrl (Ul)l)ur).


elcervage {in six tli'eetiiriq) is
r;iilrstcil ilr an ir(-icrte li:rtteril r)ir ihe:rtt fr:u ol 1lst g:lilrs
(low.:'). ()plrtrr: irnpuriiic: iaV trc fLcscni. I)r='tritrl :;plr:tler'-

'lhr rr!)nr,leie rkricelhcdr;rl


ifc

is ciiltc'-L-lc:!r. tr;rririlrccrt

or"iluskv'.:i()L'iirn.\ ()pll(luc.

dlttlolf : ljll:rrlc:; ol vrlk)w^ vr:llilwi:h hrorvt iii ::rk: tlrou,it


;rrr riio:jt lfclUrllt. i) r iili,=:iurt-il rrrrl-;rrc ilic aiil(jtll ilirv:jl(ilv
:in t acgulili tli:;trii;trtiir. - ilouile:r: gr';riri:i ac ;tlsr) dril!riil.
iiirtJ'r!ttgt:nre'.' ii;ir;ilcriir is i:-oiriirir lrui tlir.v::hq;w

rvr:;l:

:;trail trirrriir{eiec,

ili,riinitti:;lrr
lr'L::-(,'il(:c

.itulitcs:

\,'crv !righ rlir:i. ilrr: u:url

{ii intrieiic q'l!:iivltgL-'llitiiLiir:;:rnil i-riflpir

-h:r;rclc

:irc ili:;tircfivu. t';r::;iic'iie mey lt:rvr sitilar' L:liL:i ;rr-i rrrlot


hui lr:r:; liigh-rirrlci ntcflcflr!lr'f iini:;. ivllr'c':t:;:;plutl.:ritc ir
i:rrrli;. t:.il;!i:,a ial: higlrc .:r lrtrl :r rhirr:r-leri:lic rplrolotv '!-lre rtiiteiivt i,lt;: oi g:lrit('i i:: Llw.-'.

jt' ut'f:t,''.3ph:rleriir i:;olnori in livrilr!lirm;i uc;ili


eirrr:: rr-:ii:;.

ir r-:oii;rr--=ir,:i:iriirttriti,,' !!)r-rk:, ill(l il

cpl;1,-:c

iircirt iieriisils ir r:rthorric scrlinlclis. li ir:r:; :rir


t,"ilitrilt
:.rittlr' rltriii!f '! !r:l q:rthrtll;i'rc rrlttlctt:t.
-|ruitp..:; .f';'<it;!: t-)7't1t'.t:.!-rias-rrr. lr{uith licr (l\.'1irt
!ttr1t.l:sll('lt.';iIlEr.l;Illdllil\.J;!lli.!iIl;lll(l{li}l-Irrtriilr'
irllr iirr ,ri I i li \iilr''

lr(il};

Lj

E!!:nV! fi,!!F!!:;:-41 li::ii'!i!!'i'd!f-l:=l nHii


aiE. rE

<

i!i-{: !-ii-:

!-i -.. It:

,EFggix'E'Elt;
E9

.i
E E

EE:
:

i;'-9 !,

rlti!.rlrillrilrii

liatiri { i

_--..-.

I r,ir

I r,i,
l.(]17 I ir+)

,.trr

.':'i

ll'
it;' lJ7 l'+tl
il tl.tlll

,'1

.+.5{}

F'tri i :!r"!iiri:'t.t.'l'lif fo*lnUrir::r! !i!ril i::,,lirii!i iaLi:ilgLtl:r- !{: l:t1!: tritiitir:ril ir., rellfr:l iiliil

irr:gti:rr

--:-'

clL:;vilga:.i'.rl.'il:ll:ruihigr(lli!ifia::;:('lt:;Lt:ill'rilrir.'ir\!iri\
ilrhrrl;r rii {l!lll | :rnii n!r-itf l;!!flt -irrrli: r:i:-ril:. lrlti:rr- i,'.
t-or.,,). l;eciule{-i {i 9iiilUl tiiirlirrlrtrir':; iiiiii.' h!' r'rlrtiri

-J

in lle:rvv !ili!i'fiil:t!iir::i ril l;lt vle--'iitrtij{:i!l!l:;iiirr::: (!(tEa }


l-l':ifvlc. (nln-!{rl'; rnq:lc:;c-r iLiitt o:rirlr- ito !iviltii:;iilL:.:,trlrltid,

iilt(lrittlitfi!'lIiliL'r:rn(,:r:::trrrlli.gr:tiit:itllett:lPlx-ir!lllrl)(l
{,-lrtlt:
t

I l e t x-' [

{-rilqruh,:r;:;.
j

' 1 ;;

t:rrelt p:rlc vrlhr\r'i:lll- lilui:;h or

. Sr'ltlonr,rhser

r,,:,,1

ln

L-'i

iit

grc-v.

g rti rrs:.

SireJring+ttt,r'.' !.rru,' lrrl fir:-i ,rr-lcl rvhit,:. rrr'1 rii p:rlritnli il illirt ctrit:. ittl
-l'li,
h, I:irilt:. rvilh
ruhedt!l r''v:,ill:; lvig on llrr: pin;tcriitlrlillicnt ailicliilli()1:how lrtighi VCllrtrt. rr.il1[('illlil:;r'L-r]llLi
or(le r e rl rrntl gri:ctii:tli-hltr llolit! ;:tl i()il doliur:.
VL'lh)w inir-'rltr-cilcr cokrur. ;rtrr,:lrt

fixtilt'itl: F:rlicrl:ri rivlt:rl1 or tlt l;r:;rrl pin:rt:oii.l h:rr:r'


1i:rtallcl cr-tirtctiutt.irtdh;tt()ili:;lri!ie gi:tilt:.i::-r'trtnr,'llir--:tl.
lntcr.l'erentt .ligurc: {'lcirvrL.e l;rgrr:ri:. rror,irlc ollccrlirr-'rir fl:rslt i-gutci" lrrri i:litins lit--ving ritt:rl[:l it ( l{}ll} vicltl
:ln ircute lisct-:tt'ie ligur',-'rlitlt tli:;tittci i:;rigt'tu:;irl.l rirL' l\Y(]
Lr!)l()lt! []Ilrls.

Elttngittittn: I'o-silivt ()r r!'ir\rrlr lr;rg,!lr11:i. l;Lri etvslrl:;


lr!l{;!url {ir r sllrirv Ic:liilit'c ('l(]ngi!t(i!
I ) i s t i tt ;4 u i s h i t !: . ti! t t t t''.s : N:iorlclulc rcliel. sh:rrr :rrrrul:r i
l()nn- frrrluL'lrt ittclusiors :rnrl usu:rllt [rriglrt tttangc irtrl lrltte
intcrlf,rL:nac c(iLiru,\ irlc tlistinclivc. ('lcirVirgc llirtrttcrt{s rri'
cclcslitc lrti: Iik.'lv it lrrr rli:;lltl.:crt lt lr11,.'.. htt llr:it rl i:.
'l'o crt:;lrfc ir
-toricu'll;rl lorrct
ro:-itive tli:g-rto:;i: ()l llrcsc lw()
sPcr:i('\ ii i: teccr:;rr\. tt rtlPkt ;ruriliiuv :rtt:rlyses. e:;pcei:rll-v
firr thc itlertilicaiirrr ol celrsiobrvle (:;ec celcslile. p. I lrr.
'lltlrttlat errlerlr-;ll b;rtvtes tl;rv rrserrrllr
rri:,nt;rtie ;rp;rtilc.,.
l);rrliL-ulltrlv ntisleltiling hr:irtg lltti..,-, rvlti,'h,,lisplllv rr-r;litq
t

cl(ngitti()tr, As;tIilili':. {illr!t -!h1r\1';rrrint;rlrLr:; hi;rri:l [rL'rrirrr


irrlclle crer figulcs- thi: nlil\' cnh:lnc c{inlr!:t,i{-til. llo*'evcr.
irll!riitr ii. lt,-':'r:r{ori;rl ;rtl lt;r:.;l lillic rclicl, l lc l.'irciringence
ol ;rrrlrvrlr'ilr i:i g-L'irlei. i1 ll:. bellcr clelrvrl:e:; ;uril rrtr'

llll( ll\L li'ti:liTirli'rll ' ril'rlll.,

ilt ffe!-r': ii:rrvie rreerr:- in nrci;rllilr,,u:; livrlr,rtlri:rl


vcin:i lrul 11;r,, lie trcscrtl iri c;r..iiier oi irlrirru:. tot-k:-.
{--!tn(-'trjiril!- trrlulc..; il vriti; ril lt1'. iri!'rrrlril!!n in
c:rrlrori:r1e

rrr:k: :iltri {-rf!:irsrriirll\, iri r:-i,!rrrl el;rv.

Sirr.-t|lrr.-'

it is thr crriinii!g tcrliuir i!:irnrl::l(nc:.


lirn rls:

!'lrr lr,;rrr ririer;rl ll:rLiiit:- rii rli!l.crrllitl

il4

-.-

:=

BARYTE
samples are often llrrrrl,'rl rvith the finely ground baryte used
as mud ad<Jitive in rlrilllr,rlcs' Grains that lay on the pinacoid
and show first-ordcr |r'\'l!()larization colours greatly resemble
detrital apatite, anrl cv,'rt cxpcrienced analysts find it difficult

to distinguish thcsc lrr, minelals. Applying oxalic

acid

treatment, used for llrc rcrttoval of iron oxide coating, (p. 12)
proves useful in tllcsc t':tses- After a ferv mintttes' gentle
boiling of the heavy rrtrrtctrtl fractions in the solution. apatite
grains clevelop a hrowtttrlt stain and slight aueregate polarization, which makes itlt:tllrlir'lrtion simple'

Grains from.' U'x r 1:r) Buntsandstein, Triassic' borehole


Bttstein, 315 nr. Srvrlzcrland; (b) Rotliegend, northern
Germany; (c) Buttls;rrrrl:tcin, Triassic, borehole Berlingen,
Isre' France (Mnrt 1.582).
: ( r I ) li it ersand,

2309 m, Srvitzerlarrl

Lower: Jurassic. N(lrllr Sr'rr (cn)'

l,5

lJ ir,'1

Vi'

rul

li-l!'.r,! E-!!::-li-lill'g'l()i!!t /..i!,;

d.

ii! lr!:

'! ii.

i,:.

E rg4E sa

l-l

l-i

(i!ilr.iri.ihir ii:;.irl { i i
t\i
rli
:^i
ii
.4

.::':r-

| ('l! I.r,j-'
l.('l.l t"11
{r.11 l.i.11
tl l!!l(!

: .l l:l':' .

t is

t.'

Wcr[:,

lllrl

gr-e

l-'.

E-rlinttitttl:
cle

itrterl:tr-:lrr(. cr)1.]urs :r- lil:;i


tlis;;l:lr''

lia:::i! plttti::; ::horv svllrlr.'iricr! criitlt:lrotl l{1


ilvitgcs;. Pristtrtic l ;tErrtctls tn,l lill c:; h;tv,-

I)rrlllel exii rci iol1.

lnlcrJcrtnr'e .iigure: B;rsal rlur::; vie ltl irtt :cttlc bisceLr'ir


-leirvagr
ligure ivith hrorrl is<i{ytcs ott a u,llit,-'ot vullru licltl. (
I r;.{rrr r i:; rr or.,itL: ecectti I ic ligu t.:s.
ElongaIitltt: (irais rlorl{rtrrl or. l1;"'s .iosi1ivc rl(tlt;lti()tt
olt f' :;hrrv citlrr,t tt,'g;tlivr: itr tttstttrr

ncl llrose elortg:rlr-'r-l


e

longatirltt.

I) isti n;ui:;lt i tl !: .fut tt r(:; : ( )rving lri v:u ialir,rs oi orl ic;rl
Irnrl plrvsical ptrrlrr,r'1ics.:t rositivc icletllilie:rlitrlt ol crlcslitc
gtains i-r dil'ficult. l-|:tslrl plrrlcs. slttrvirtg tll()rLr'lr(t rcliri,
svnlnla:{ticl cxlinclion. lou'-ortlcr ittelie'tcrrcr- crilortrs:tltrl;rl
-l-lese
Itctr{c lrisectri:: ligure ;rte lltc ritsitrst 1o tlirtgtrose.
tl,rilr.
trav le;rrl 1o the trcrrgnitirir r1 r'lri0ts ()lllcr i()rttrs usttitllv
prescnl irr lltr: s:iltc srrnrple.'lhc rclicl rrl [r-v. is ltiglrr:r rrntl
rrhv(lriIc hrs strorrqc lrirelfitlgcnr:r:.

(lclcstite is isrurrir'ihorrs rvillr hlrrvlc lnql iirrnr:;;r colrrrlclc


s,)lid soluti,rn with 1.'l'hrr llllc lartfrcclcstitr.: or crlcstalrrr-vtr is

::=9-,:,

;ni

:l:,+::

ltil tltiriiiItittltll'

{fr:v ;rnil rvhiie (ril tlliil liaglcrls. l lrirl:cr glirirt:


lrighcr lirsl ottlct arlottr:;.

()r(lL:r

prism:rtic

i;;lt

Abs.- nt rrr,-lci tllu I grei rt:.

llirrltingcni:1,'

r-rE

pl:rne

h
:-:=l::-!:
::-::j.l=.

'nr

{iltur: { irlorrtlr:;:;. vct'y palc llttt,.l


turbirl rlur iii intpuriti.-::

c:
d

:".:+,-.

l--t:r* in :;i:iffi.:ti:i: {-'rla:;iit('irt('L!!:- is i:linltitter! iri:;


rr:liic i;1rrri-:!li:;. ;lula i(l{}!} plrric:- [l]. it.t.tglrtl;ri r:rtlir'li::r
(ill. iiiiriir:. iirgmr:iii:; fb) fii ;Jgfrg:iiq'-- r',)liPrl:;iL 'sltrlli'
i.,rltf ii!i: (:r):riit! lr:s:: iicqilr!tiiv ii:; uile(l!it ('!v:;i:!l-c
{ ir giinic nliritfr' t:i.: hr: lrtsrti :ntl i:- r:lilt-' tlisi i ilrri' i
ir'r'cgttl:tri'; (ri ctt!( (!iirllr(l il iltc ciri: sti lltr slil:; F;'litilit'
fluiii inclu:;iii:. i!!::;{}tlefiriii::r;ttilrirgeii itl l;tr!lrl:-lil.s'. ir
lrvr tlireelit:- illfLrFtL-eiillL' ;i iillrii:;i rir!i in-glLi:; o ll- l;r:;::i

P te r h

:.1\}

,.,:.-'Ul

givcn 1o -rlrrirttiur lir:h llrlvtc:;.

ilccttrrt:t:e: i'lcstit. ocerrr:' prrdrurir:ntlv ir sc(linlL'rlt:rrr'


p; ticrtl;lr lv irl c:lrb{}rr:lies itttrl er':t1rr;tiir: rk:rsiis. l:ttl
llt:lv itlsr! lrr l()ultrl ils cct!r.'n1 (ii \!rl(lslillrl.. (-t:lrsliir' ir
pL.js('llt in sonrc liyrltQiltenttl i'.:itl:;;ttld les:. cQllttttlV ls
rocl's.

ciivlv lilling in r:rlculir tocks

rrt*t: ial !iurtir-;lrntlslein. 'l-r'inssie. bri'lroL: ll:ril.f


lH:,1
n1.Sr-vil7:!-rl:r!.1: {lr} {}!igrr'.-'nc N4ol:t:sc, lrrltol.nitu,
l-'uur:ignv-1. l(llt) nr. Fttrct: (ri ;rrtrl 1tl {}ligoertrr N4ol:issc,
Grail,t

S;tr,rr- Ft:rlir'r'(hlrrrl I iSl)

{;'i I!:;t

lL,i

j:vFsecE
{-irS( I

.ll

i.(.1

onriclinir:. hilr::iul (

,tu.
;rl3

l.:,

ltl i.5':i

1"52.3-!.ilt

rr-J i,:'l(l l.i-i

ir

-i_"-!-*rint h;i:: a iorv

t)

{}.(}l
.1.:l{} :.:17

d(isitv un.l it is rctuincrl

ir.i

thc light nrie;l

l'r;rciirit. (-irairs contirting aburrlrt inclusions t,1s


e:ountcred irr llie hcavy nrirrclnl eiirluc.

he

!"onn it ,tr.ditilr'its: J'lre rvitl,,' ran{c r)l gvpsunr h:rhi{:;


ili:lurk:.-uhr:rlr:rl r:rvslrl:..llrieh arr: ttsuallv tahullrr plrrrrllcl iri
{{)l(l}. clc:rv:rge fnrglncrts, ili:rrnrntl-shrptrcl gttirr:;. clrtslcrs ol'
liblcs ot linc rteedles. anri :;rlterttlitir: ot gnutttl:tr lvrcs. iirirtte
grain: c,llribit :;irttrk: or crln{:rl:t ilvirs.'lh.-'v ircrlucttlv cncli,sr
inclusiotts ril [litt,r. ,'ltvs. i-,in olitle. qrg;rriic iri:lit1. rir'.
lleltrsirns nltv be:.rlllv:rntnrrd []r-'c:rLtse lrl ihs lrrrv lr rii
{vllsunr. it:; tirrtline olte r -sinks' ink ihr ('rrntl:r h;ls:rn ,
:imilirr irttl,:r |lrc,liut. {(irits iir.r hest olrs.,,l iit irleirr
piltt-izctl ligh^ ciiltcr b1 ohlirue illunrit;riiot tt hv illr-:rt';r::itlrl
ihcir reli(jl try r:ii'ii:illv r:lisi.ig thc :ubsilgc rliarhr:rgrn.)
{-'llour:
i

':7

{-irlourle:;s. srrllteiinc ittbitl trctrtusc r)i nlrtqr(iu\

nt:l tt:;irrs.

ilirt'.f'ringt:nt:r.' L.dlr. nrl i!rtcrir'Lrn!:c r.'oltiur:: urt' i ihr:


i'ingc ()i liiu,.^r iir hiqlr.r iirsi-()r(lc iilis. '-lclctriitl: rr iitr

'Llickttrs:;

oi iltt

gr;rins.

i-s-!itlt'!itl: {(ll{l} rehlrts hrnr:rl rrtirction;rrr:le ol :rlitirri


li". ( i':ir: ticvcliir,,.l :iccrilrling l!r sh(ilv irrllcl ,,'riiieiiqrrr

Itttr.ft:rt'ntt' figttt'r::

ir;rin-s tlis[]!ry

prir iIriirrrc,:

iigure:, .{{lltl} larcs yiciil ii:rslt iirrrc::. liliortg .li:;rclsirir-r r-,


,;tt'.1\' \r:;tlrl, rl l.-itri;ri .,!)r'r'r( r-

i )ri:niaiittn: !iltiirs:rtiorr is rithtr lr-riiiv o rcgutivc.

i-)isiinguisltirrg .ett!i'{:;:

\,urv hrlr lclici :rrrl're:rk


i: :h:rr:lcttrisiie. {ir:ri:r:; ir lc lighi irrrii.r rrrv
iiii ilriir r;rgrrrrirls-ll.lr!:rit;.- bui: liaekLr ir:st.sill

1it*irigr:il--e

ilc

iti..rirli!:r

rr,'t:;i :r riqhci -elici ih; ilc i'i;trl; [tti:rlri !ir ,-u:rit;i:rnil:t


l(iwr:t (i!lr-r irii gr:prrrn. l h'.. !;!ii i:ll-,ilc iril :l!kliii irliLt-;rrr.

ilirii ii'cirtctri !-1vtiriitg;tit,l ici,lst:rr rleii,:pe::, ;i:; ihc: higlr.-'


ii iiitri 7 rili,-ive irlii:c:: ri! :llii,-. itr:li ,listiilriir.
i]t u'tirr,'7t-'r', tiri:uiii

i:; : ,-'lcrii.::llv rrr:i:irii:ricrl rirrrrrl.

rti::cut ttr ;r v;rrieiy ii :;i:rli:r.:!:r.,' .,'lr-.i!-.r!l{'{ti:;- !t:; rrcrrrr


ta!i itttt:Uft{jli{jq: i: rinlineil iri i:vliriit'iir: alq:ll(t-!ii:, ;r},i it :rl:;t
fs i l;v:r lrkr:;. s:il rtt:r;rlii iicr;r-1 rriiL;. iivlilrrrii litirv
ic irriltlLi itt:+Uilt: oic ir,ril()sit:i li!i . i1:10l::t:; wrll ;i:- i

lllc:rie vtri:

ilrain:i.'i'l.r;;'!.'

ii:e-.sii;tir r;lr:r.riL!ii(1

. i :rlriir, iri:i-'lr.

liulv i l--,4li i J-lt!).


.

l.r'

i:\ fiOSi'!

&:

.Farqsu-'

h_.t,.',{5(, r}.t( il
irtgonal. uni.iirl

I },,

uit l.iil5 l.:jl(l


tt I 7t3 l.7l-i
i).i{}l r).1(}:
;t llrt
Forn kt seili*ti-lis:

.Furosiic istrirllv (irnr!; 'ir .:i' t.l

Tlic riigc:;
of sonc gr;iitrs nlty lic cuvctl, smixthed, t :tr(: :ttlroutldc,l
hv s.rall fllitulcts (li stt[]sc{-ltlc1 grtin'tlts alil sometitne:; {v
:lPFerii xs Lrilhc(lr:rl r;sls rviiir ;t he s;rgrin;tl hahil.

seaiv or iitrt'ous aggrc:i;ttes. trt ills{} iirrtrL:: :s fia]tiltrttl:: oi


cuhedrrl crysil!!s. finc rtggrcgate:;:lttl ciuslets l ii'cs
lieeau:.e oi ilisiiet bltsal clcavagc. gr;tins aprear ll;tkv.

j:

titntsctl plirtcs. Zrtnin.'q i:; t'rrrv r:illtllltnSeciot t*inning, c(ttllll(lsc(l ol sii :;cgntcrrts. ;5 (tfIL:ll lctcc-icrl
(r basitl illrke:;. Or; !rnJruriiics ri lirtonite (ils:l {lrcorl
Erosiiion pftrduet) tfL c)mlltoI.
shrwil{:evcral

sute

{-lltfir: {irti:; :rrr l{ililLrl v.:iicE, ,r hit"-! vclltrv. ('rktr


zorti.lg is.,,isi1.le ! nirr.,'grailt:. rncl ii is t:riicsir.'tl in:r
crlhutlr'rs rrti, :ltrl il icll,!1\ i!Lllr'l fili.
F f t: ChraiStt.' -larisic rrisrn: h:rvr ltr:t'n t crortcrJ stroglv
pl(:ochr{)ic. bt la-sl tlltic:; ;tntl :rggr(:rtilrs lltck pleochr,,i:nt.

Eirt:.frryrni''.' str()rs. :ind rr-isnulic li;tgntctrt:;. :rs{Lr{irirs


nl iibrcs :;lrorv r,ivirl high-olde r rollirizlrti<iit cikut -s- lil
il;rk-es rxhihit ltirt-order rtieriLrru!tc tini:- ivhiclt ;lrr' r)ttctt
lasked llv :iir(lrtt tirtcI colrttr.

Ljline iitn. Pir:rlir,l ir crvsll i!-r:i:rrl i,' iilt.::r. F;!i:;l h:tsl


::L:eliQ:i:;litv wavV c::iir'Litri,-ltc i,r irvitirg or i;til irr
ijr{ii i gr!i::h ccm-letelv.

inie:rfer+'nr:t .ii'4urt: L3;:r! :;"^c-ii(iils provirlc i1'ell-ijlli.r.1


i.gu: cs ir ;i vclltir.:i:;h-grce tl ir,!ri rviih t iciv ir,r
:lt-;rcs or n{)nc- ilccasitiit:tlly. biaxill ncgalive i!.ucs ae
uiaxtl

iliaincd,
E ; itit t it t tt

t':;ir ivc.

{.li::tittgui:;hin: i::til:-r::,:;:.tarrisiir i:. di:r::it:;:ql lr.,irr;;


:::r;nl iiir:r, pl:riv ir::ai hrlii. ,li:;tirri i:ii::;il rh::ii,:lgrr.
:erisi ir:iacit!: exi irv rt:i;.,il ',:ii:r;rr:ic. !-ibrrrs
r-l .rrtlr-:1,:lir:!i .!!!l ai:;liiie iimr- :lr: ir::rr:riiy iiirtitr!
=r:tiis
{r!:-:th. .+iih cu!eil:ri qr:rit-q. rr:: 'i:riri!rc iiir,:iiiirltltt:t.
i-wii i ihc !i:!:r; !:ili. i:rr:ric ic:i:i!!ll('i rir:::;. hui fhrr
,li-qi;ei!r' Eri.{he:' i,:iiei- e,rlqt: :tl ir.vit:tig :;iiii:i: 1 ii:;iin
gui::l ii ir,r -1r l:iir:.
it:q!r::n

i-,9:-'-'iffnt';:: i:lqr-ii,' i:. : :-ffii]!-i;lrii nir.:r;ri :rri i:, i!irn*ri


iv iirc '-r-irl:titn ,-ri ia:r-irc: itr: :.rrlphiilc itiL::;, WhLrn crc{ul

ir:rc,l in:::leil:;iin::-:iri:-it:ilc:; i !:; tts;tllll!,,ilr:rilr..ntiiin


:',lltci,'i :il;tr.rllti iiti,, r'r,:t:iiL:r',i,
r.

j*itls

#{!i;?.'

J'airi:r::ir:.

*rrlen !r:ni:;ie (, :i,

ile

iii:rl1ry
5r

- EE

F:' EF

=_ /-= e= e F:_

,P

= -=

ill.ll:i,:_;1!_ l_rii:ji.::,lf=-i.t{Jr-t:!.+r,Jii .i.}!.q_}-Llli !-t.....9!,=:;

-E-E r
E EJL:

i'.r{ '
l:l.r!i:l titii.it:!! !

;i! .+ii' l -;.f!


:!i !..iil ,7+{l
;-, !.!71 1i iili!
rr= I7l- i.rJ+
{ ;!tir.: i:; icril ir i:-il tii' i.:vr' ;tll hr lill!i i!tiiluiiri
Itr'ii: I !ir :re:'rit ri{i:;.tf,ii(i d::l:; t;rli' siilr "1:rl i il:i:r!
!i:,:.-'l i;li,-:iit: ,-r,lii!-r. bicgi:i-- ;ri si:nir:titr! ritii:l li:1,-'
:ti!i!.r .ltrt i:: i!i L ii,{1'ltiii.il-

in .r,":jji(-;;-- -rlrii: :::ir:; :il( rr,:r.rt:iEl,: :rsil;


;rlj:r:l:lt ql t.i.:iilnglllai cl.ii"':1gi' liilillLji::. ljLti,'i:l lnii
rortrirtrl .gii!ilt:; i) :lgg.,:-g1i!-:; :ltt ;l!::tl t'11!ll.1i. lut tlriililt
lr:l+r:: iit illlii'{-li!rri, l!t!cri rlr,rrrililr'tlril r'le:!r'ltl:r i"
sclr.:fiiies yi-ciil!- L:t:rell:r i.-riri is q:it;i:teicri-cttr- ii
!''ir

e;leic. lu! ii:1rr:;erliitg t.i imeli:e . :tcci in tliti stt itri\


' lr(: lu"ii-!lac:: ttstlillll.' :ilirirt
:lr'.-: :r*lili)ri iil !ci ii;'! ll;:gitttrl.
bluc r: ;it1= iirts 1:.,ilcil tl.' tliirro:;(-'a[]i' :ri.cl(' i:; ii!1al{-'t!

i.t!.ill': i'ilourlrs:-. lui iirl; tii.srt:sr:rl iiirruriiir:; rriictr


qtitusa,- r

iuf

llirl iltlilriit

ij ! e o t' i I r i :; : -'

i-.1 <.r

inq(t.

r !rli'c.'

ri':

Eirt'.fi'ing+tt:<'.' l:.riiriclr.'higL. Wh,:ri iltt- trtir:toscorc:;iart


thr tlicl shrilv:; i! pr{t!r(t!llrr:rl r'l;rngi: ('ir':irll-litl').
ln rl<'ulir +icav:lgr li'attir:itl:. high rcliel:rPlrrirc \tltL'i th
lrrng tli:rgon:rl is rarall.:l t llri'l'iltaiir rlirr:cti<r oi tlt-'
i:r r.)ilirj{1

p-rlaliz:r:t. lriL:r'itrL=i1r!- cttltttt's tfr ltigh-,rrtler r:tsftl littls rrtlti


lltr tlini.:r r.'dge:: rri ilrr-: gtlti:; tirity sliow tlu!ll!:tiitls irllei
'i'lieke {! iin:: ittll-i.ili rltosi rvli1r:
fe rrncc=rtrlott hnd:;-

ui(lcr.rilssc(l ircl:rts.'I'ltris.: uvhicir ieil tr crlinuuish ilr

ltntr

po:;iliitii:-lritrv t1,raillitl hluisl-.,'llriir: illirlfifL:llrri-'!-ol()t!r:i-

E.:liritn: Sylirmetiic;ri r itclincri l(i

clr!i.,r:rr irrac:; 1l!'

iu'it l:rncll:re.

lncr.ferttte

.iigttre:: lictril:ri

,--:rlciie:; usulrliv r.'ir'ltl rrn

oll'

cenlac rni;r:i:rl iletletencc igurc witli tlcnse. thilt i-tochtonrirtic lirr:.s. Grains thirt iail i,r rxlinui:;l :utrl sltow rbot iitl
p(lriz1!1!rn di)lr)L!r:r hir,rL- rr itiaxi;rI ligutr.

filon.qatitin: lil,rnlrlrr:rlrrl fr;rgrnr:ni:; :ic lentllr sl{}1y irr


tlrc dirrclirrn (ll thr sllrlrtrr Llotb rlilrgonrrl. brrl iec:rrtse t{
crircnle lirclrirr!tr-:rir:c tlrtr si$tt t! !-l.lrgaliiln is r;rrelv tlisc!-l

lr

ihlc,

llisii;tiHi,rhitt!: .L.irrft':;- E;itle !i.

lirt;:'artrl vfIy high-(i!.,cr itrlcrleretec

ln gr:rirt

ouri.c

l-rilr:l irgr:nc:e " '1rviik--

a(-rl(-illls

ie,iitIn,slic.

ii is ;tlnrtisf itti:iis:ible lr rlisiitirttish cirlcilc

il'int rlLlil.:- ;rni:etiic, rt! ctinirlcllcllltr! l.chlli(lues (:iitrih


ir-: s1init-r:.i"
r.,,o inie,-ltotrc:rr1.,'.::) iii'!'rteces:;:rrv l(,
-!
"!
er:llrlt rlitgrtrrsi::.
!i: lr;rlrii (l (Ltl(inlitr is trorr: t'otritti!
rhrnrh0hcrlr;rl" liui ir:'intrittg i .::rl.=-i1r' i:j rilofc a(ttllo1 li1lill
tltLri1c. {-'llei1. i:; soiull-'it:i,r:lic lt.:irl;rnii il iiilr1r cqrlil
ll(ll. ihelrli'.e- ctlri1., iir:tls r-'tillinl: it iltr: Iervt'
c-:irlrrr: ltil.l:ri:iti ilc:iltlcti;rtLi nii'i'likelv s lrr: qrilhc-

tkrlcriiiir: :rnliatiir rr :;rler'iir

l:rt

CALCITE

Occurrence: Details on thc occurrencr. of calcite in


scdimentary rocks is belond thc scope of tliis work. Calcite
rresent in sandstones, grcywackes. etc., is usually the ccntenting agent, a fissure filling or a replaccment of other mincrals.
I n igncous rocks calcitc may (rccur as primary mirtnlirtic
calcite. It is present in hydrothermal deposits anri is

secondary mincral in crlities or anrygdales of mafic volcnics.

Calcite is a common alteration product oi plagioclasc. In


nretamorphic rocks it rlay be the principrl constitur'ut of
nrrble and occurs in crlc-schists rnd gneisses.

Grains from:
(ltf

Oiigocene. Barrmc- Basin.

France

mt 1.581).

121

EEir.:vi' f'4iNl,i'iA!. iiir:ir-'!=:-!11EE. fJS ri-l'-jl


Sagee=ge:

ii

,i

i !

qri;;i t!ir:l:ir:!
ll'l

t|

i:r/r

/i

4.1 r
1.!1i\

r,.ii!

1.11{r

i';r; i s:,'!!ti!';i:;- iiirl,, iir rrliiii::

rs r:rlrti'r .,'

!i;:ilrriil: ;iti! :;ilr'iiii!f:: i:; airr.r:!:i: !i ritlrriet!


i:rc:i:;. i'iiilttlr - l:r:ciri:! :rr! ri!iii:ir ii::
:;r ;r!'.,, i!,1rl r: :!-. :, :i!! t':i,.". ! .r ill': i'i,lilili

clr-:!v11.'

iho{tqi !liri (1!l!itrn- iiii:: l-!r' lr.:;ali}':- =.: :tii irig-i;il:il t:rrhc
rtt::. ::i'-1,-Lir it:!:; ;r !r{-'ii,-r!'i lorrlqhei::i rlc;tv:igi, ,rii: r!
:t:;rii <i {!:i!ali!iiil! ir':;tlrf;tir'0! lr t]:li::.;i!( t'l!i!i,r;t!f
c:,:li:. ;i itfit:i: :;l,riir.i o ::i:tiit,ti 'viiir :t lrttwrirll: ili;lcl:
:,rir:;i; tir'o:

{|II;: t-tlt,tfli:s:;
P I -'

.:

IIr

i :;

rn'

l-{

r'rr

<r;

}'rlk,wi:;!r :tiii ltiorvrish yeli,t.'.

Pl cr r l

ii,'

3irt:.f-rifi-qr:tr-t''.- ljritr:r hiciiite.:tt.-'c i:; -:lra;ciu'tstii:. l'ht


ieliei cliartg,r:, iit :;1!:!,' iil!i;i: 1'tt"iirkiilrg'). sinrilarlv fqi
c:k:ii,: rii .lolttqii,-. lt ir iqw=itr:ic: rst:i it:.g. {--r1,t
l:;rl:::rrrri ilii:;

i:.:

rii

..; w'-'ell illgir-ttla:rral i]Lt!:r(j

ia: lt.,vt tl is

hiehr, illn ihal i!i ilrf tttrmer::ii:: tl(:ilitlrll. lltietlttr-'lttt'


trtkti:., ali: .-.i!ir r) lrj:ii !'rfv. lrti l:ilY li'. tr-rqk,.tl lrt' lirt'
r(inlir!r liirvti:;!r :;t:riir. T'i';rirspltt'cn lllit it:rgttreiii:; ili:.pl:ry
Iti{l-r; iltrr sh:de:; r.,,ii! rlrri:;i:' $ lgl ilL:airrcncc coiot!i b:ticl:r
on lhc erlgr:s,

iiXtil.ii: Str:ri:iit:lrl ii rk:rr,;tgr-, ir;rr:c:: :rrd rlt,lrr


irr ihr- (liar-{}itis o1 thc llrttrltc!rcilrir L,i-si lrr1r vii,,i:rl r iiiliihi,-' :;irit ii.':; i:lil it urlinui:;l
hcdrrl l'r',':. ;rni1 pat:r!le!

lnl<:r.frrt';lt't'.iigurt': F:honbiilier,lral grairtr."ii;lql c:Lrrlrc(i {}r


till-t,:nl( igrrrL-s. u:rt:rllv ri,ill tt;trl' lint: isoeltioirr:riie
rittgs linri hrr;liL-nintt iso',,r; lo\qjiia{ltr iltr pct iplrri y oi llt,:

slig.htlv
ligu rc.

!-1 ist i nguis hi il !: .f':i!i uri::; : !{horrlrolrrl rl ol sphclrrlilic


lol. ail lelllrclive irrrlir--s 1;1 thtn thlrl of the (lan:rtla
b;l:;:r. :rnrl {u:;uallv} hlorvrr strrir llll sen'e 1o rlisiinguish
sidclite ir,rnr r'irk:ite lrrti iolonile- lt i:., rtl;tivel.,,insolulrlc in
rcelic iciil arr.l i'! r-'.)kl ttilrrte Il{ll.

iltturrtrt't::
llidr iir: is :r:;socilr{erl rviil Icdrlerl sedimcnt:rry
rle-rosils. cl:rt'ir()rlst(!!e:.. bltnelt,rl r:hcllv iin-e:trhott;rIc rock:r,
::idei itc itrrrtlsttliies. silllilst()nLr:r:rrl :;idcritic linrestrrcs- It irlso
ltrrrr: Iivririlir! ntill\.' irr ntrtllllic vriin.r. [;is:;rtrr-:; :rnti cirvities itt
l:i:;: l i. ;rrdtsi tc anri rliai;r:t nriv (-r(iti l it i !r s;ir lc ! it r.'.
{.-}i'i:i;ts j't'pttt. () !l--ive r:;ri. l:;i'r'c. Frccl (h} liiitliqrgr:nil.
'i-lrc i..lrtlr'lan{l:,. (c.t i}ligcr-r-nr-. iiiritinlr llin. !-;inr:r:
(l*'irnl i.5:i:i.

ta!::

i {- tli

{=ti

ll:: !'L..f i L::-

Ir{ }l.t",lI'f
ilje

E q

er

e-:

ar

ke

r t

rrN{g(l-'{),)
t

ll

f-J ':Llr= [

SEE-EES

Ca( tol.Fc)(CO:)

rigrin:t I . ui:rsi:l

rloltilrifr:
,r,r l.67r.1
rL 1.5{}(}
0. l7!)
11. l.fi(r

'

:ittk!:r!tc
1.6!r(| 1.75()

l.:'it}

1.5'+S

r).1()l
.1.

lil

'l'lcre i:.:i (-ri)nlirirt(iLt:i tcri:rerin*nt o{ ivi lrv Fe e'itich icail:;


Lon-

dohrnitc thtouglt ir-'rt:ttr dtlorite t(t :tllicrilr. !tr ur;rin

iil()r!1ts. lrlLr!ll)(:fs
eacir ottier.

0l tltis scrir:s:r.c irltlislingtri:;ltil1,-,

fLtrti

Frn i n :;t: tl inrcn i s : !ihotrrlihetlr;rl ltntl iirlrttl' ttrorplit'logies :tir. ihc itt(ist c()tlttllrt1. sl-irtils occasiiilt:tllv hlvtr
toulclttl c(ifrcnj. Llriloniic: rvitli lt itct:tgol;tl h:rlit r

il'egulal firrrs rl,: r'clv r,ltcouticl!r(1. (ltvstills sornctittltr


cnclosc rrgirlic iitIcr, rvhich nlv bc ztintilv lr'i':itlgeil.
Rlrrlbohcrlral .-le:t."'egcs lrrc cltlrctcti:;ii.:;ttttl -L:ltv;tgt
it:rccs oiicr irritr:jcci in oblituc;tnrlcs.'l-rviitctl.lrl<litt:
g-:rins :ifc ini'reqttetrt.
a-iluUf : {irkUkrss. {re y or illrbi(|.
t I t'tch r

i,t

t.' N,rrr-plei'Lltroic.

ili fi:J'f i f t gtttt'a'.- .ll\irctt. :rtirl giltin:'irvitkL" rvlle tlre


inicr,rscope :;a:r::r i:: o:tied. F ligh lclie i liplclts w'ltrtl tilu krtig
diltg,.rn:rl peilrllcl:; he vii;r;iior ,-liti'i:tion iil ihc ptil;ttizcr'.
irteric'crr:r'colrr!l iu'rr peerl.gLr:v or n'tite. llrighi iitrrth- rr
oi'r-lc rastcl tirris ttv !r,: ttiiict;tblc rtt hitr ,:rlg::;. llasli
scctirirt-c israllv :ltrn it.i 'rviriliiiitg' ;ttid disPlliv '-'cv bight
yglhis,, inicrie t cna. culour:j iviih ir P:l,j [lt.: !rLrc- l hcse {rliin:
i:til io,'riir::ttislt r'l :urt ln*.iii,,,l

ilil

l'--t-ilt:iiierl: .{yrritrlr!r:lrl isi ilt,-: l!rnrhrihr.llr; i:tcc:; altl


riifill lel

io

it:.'-lirgirrtls

ilt:'.f'::r:;tt:.t'igur,:: Rhrmlr,.ihril'lrl rri;:;tal:r vir'kl liir,:cnic itttericrrlt:* iigtrts ti;tsit! ::"-q-iiol:; h:tvt: rlc!l-:-enit,-'l
'ihL isr:vf(::i
rnir:;i:l iigrtrr-:s *,iih tav i:;rir:hrr:tIi-' igs.
:;itrr' cl;rrreieri:;iic ltq;rir-illg- iii\y:!l(l:i itrc lerillteiv,'i ihr'

tigrtrt- (trviitg it ::illti:. iitiliiiiqr:

3;1i

hui; :-:itr:rll lV.

Eit;ti1tt-tit'tl: !jil'g;rie,l lii*:; i::uellv !r'='r:;tc!::aivt t!c:gi


iii;r. hr:i iir lrili-i:.i!c iirirrie!LtllL: r:rlrr:; l;tk,-, rlr:rt!---:rtiri
lii ir:rrli.

!.ji:-;ir:::li:;ili.i .;ii'l';.' frrrir!lrqr:i ciri..: ii rii',


f,:iitqrr!c l,iitiririllcc,: ii1rl fhai!iiit{ii'tiii i-ri:l'rli;!:tr:ita
iir'. htr riil'.' .(!triliric:ifv iL:i::ilLlittr; .'ir i-,i.Yf :t il:-iiit r
!detiiiic;riirr i ieiiit;ttr; rii' iir. .i(i(!!ilic :tri.:critt :-:!it:- ,'
,ii:.irrgrri:;li itr::.,c irit rilhLr r-:aib(!i;lii 1nrri;i:". .n:: l:tL-ii.:

i:

::ltbir: i erti.j ;rertl rri in .-iilutt qlrl i!-'l- i,::iritll


a:rill{:;i.: g:tiir: :tilrr :!i!l iiL:!rime!t} i'. lili.-'ii' !ii irc
ioittile :l1[:e:iir ii ::iclciie !i-it,itiic,i:i !i lle:i-irs{lltl
itiiil ir nrii,- i,'rir'ri! *i rili;tii,-'ilrl il e:rl i;t.;rii i+illrrt'l
i:; li:r,-: ir,:ii,:ti ir ihr: !lriir-- liitltitr-'ii;:-:r:rligltilv:-iiil1s('i
:rliri. it.-'rrrtr:i hiriii:1 .;,t,tt*. :iri it:; t,*r :t i:l lrirlhr:i ilii
iir:ri ri ihr: { ;:r,-i;i l-:rl:.:li. l-tiui!cii e:irr !i,ill itllllrtitl(t:i
itr-:ii!-'i.iifi' f1iiiiti ili!1: r::rll[!,: :;phr:ttc- iti he l:rti. i:
l-'i;r-:i:l

!:1

:-;lrR i LS

lll..\\

) \11\l Ii \l I)l s( ltll'll()\s

()tt'tttrcllt ('. 1)olorlilr'is rrirler.tr';ttl irl ltlrltosl;tll lrrts ol


.erlinttnl;rtr lorls ( (]tt1,t(1 (] titi,,lt;tl I1l(1.r11)i)ti)]ll\lll I)()
ilLi.cs rl,rl,lttllc ttllrllle llitttt tlrrl,rlllilts ()l lll;l!l1a\1.rrl lllll('
\l(in(\ l1 ts loittrl irl;,liclttl ttlll;tir.trit l,rtks. irl ill,il0llltllll;rl
\(r,t\. lr1 irrrborlrlilc: rrtlil ilr Ilitlllr :rlkrrliltt ,lr Ler' I lre
(icfulldlt(t,'l rtltkclilt ir tl'ltlle ltsltitlttl;tlltl l1 tlsttltllr .lllllc;ll5
ll: reirts:iltLl c,llcltliIlt:. ltt)tl occltsiollllll\ il\ r't'lllalll jll f:c l'i.lt
scrlicnts.

Ortlitt.s .frttttt: 1t) [)trlorrtile. l{,'tlier:tllti. rl(r]1lr(rrr ( j('r


nllrr)\: {l\) lil)kclilc..lLrllttsic. \rrttll Stlt: (t) illlktlile. llirtll\irnrl51rirt. I ll,rsric. lr{),(ll()l( I'lrrllllrtt. Isl.l rll. Srrllzt'llrtlltl.
1ri) (li)l{)lni1(. li\ct \irlt(l lstlt. I lrrlltt. (e rlolottllte. ()liurrtcnc \lrrl:tsrt . S:ir o\ . lit;tlttc ( \llrlt I 5Sl ).

l-x

,.\\l) ( ( )l ( )l l{ I'l \ ll \

APA'fll

i h{lNFR.:.

FH*SSFSTflFi
Ap*e rni$eras

-.4_

lr5griltttl. trnitrxial

=
: -=
':::
=

( i

l'{) r } rl-'
llttririrratitr,
hydlosvapalit.r {---i!.{l'{)rl+}ll
{':r -,( l'(! ) ,{'l
r:h lot axti ik:
'
carhiitaie ;rplit.: ('r.:(P(l r{'tir(-)! l}.tF.t}i I }'l

.:3-

::=-=
.=:.: :-.=:.

=-

r=';r.(

a:
::

:-L

:i

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i=l
:i

l'

il(t)
I .r.1-l

1,,

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6''l{r

.: ::
:.:
:;
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.:=.:
-:=- -=i:-..-

l..1.1-l.r)53 l.ir-17 I '54


1.65(l-1.r(r7 l.{i'17-.!.h{r5
l.6il
l.irlli
ir {).(t()l {}.t)(}7
A 3.ltl-i..35

:.'
1

.'

-:

_,

P;o'tt itt siliTta.lf5: Ap;rlitc u:;ttltllv rrrttcc.ltai'rs r illt

lincr gr:rtlcs. ftuh.'tlral tr-vsillls ltte sltort:;irtttrv {} ltinq sh}n(ldr


prisnrs r,i,ith eitlrcr sititlilt: rvr:ttiiitl;tl iL:rmililtioils or il 'otll(iccr:hirurlii,rr rri the blsl! riiuteoiil at,,1 i;vritls {trrl':'r)'
irinallv rveli=dctclopcrl hcrii[otltl h:tsl platr's:ttr'cnc(]tllltrlL'(l
isct:ontl illlgc. rlpt)()r. :r)' ll :rlso {-rctlr:- 'ls trrrrkert Lrtisrls :tnil

rectlttrgul;tt or cimciitles iregul;l iilgllcliis' Ilorvet":l'


gtaitrs ost cotllilttiitly c;rhilii 'trtrtttling u'hich nlav he

incirir,nf- -crl:n il:l snlot)lh ill L-ulvarl leLttrinaiitls (rf Lrll{cs' lrtlt
llte in(ist itcqttt:iri :tir: lhl: *li-:sii'eiv olttiictl. eEg-sl.tlttttti iri'
:;phcrical rnrit .iltologirrs (scctrntl illlge , rlpPcl. rl ;rttl Irlitltllc)'

t''kiv:rg*s lrrc irtxif. licltsirlts ltrt nt:tlnctitt:- tililtL' altl


;iil.-t1.:ls w*ll :s i-lLllsr itrilruic grt-v i.i-o[]ialtl('ccdles rvhich
:rrc oticti:iteil lrltlL'l ic tlg^ axis- Sir'ings rrl lltliil gloltle:;
rril :iiiltion:: rre :ilsi erltllil{!11. Alr:iiii gLltitt:; itrltY ellclti-tr il
'crnokv' ,-lt'k Flcrichiiic dft. i:;fr:aid lraga' r!rpcr. L') { !v[r
gou,itl or dr-iii:tl;p:liif.:.;:tia rilltlv rprlitr(i. lrr::rttitltblv

-" - -=+-.

=+

-=
::

;:
i!
lr
:-

til -/rr!ttls
ititl i()i.rnr:t!lcr- !he {i\,rrllf{}wil ;t'c either :;nr:tll rh;tri
iriittEu!;r irl oiet:iititts :tifilLhcd it !:cri:lill ir:tfts (tl lh* {t;liil +r
'rlrcv cncli:* ihc dctrii:l gr;lili ci)nllrlLrttlv' cvolvilg irri' rtr
tret;ttt:;r' ihr-:v :tfr: nti r:; reiditv riisr:crnitr[- :ij ih()st

e u

ltciir: l tt.r:-:t:tl . Aq-coftlitg

tr

ortr oirscval

-==*=
-."

==--=

ts=--.

ins llttt oVcf sttirvl lt

irt(is i(j iirnt;ttiurlti ihc hsal :inaetiirl. lVhcn it is irrllv

llc.,,hjrc.l, lhr: glain i!t:li:r : ha::.ilg-il:!! h;rbii. ::lop'ing tlt.'


r,-.nl;in:riicn:: oi ih.-' lusal tin:tctiirl :ti-l sh i -'vlariri:;- Wi hir
hls iirnr ihc rrrttr!r-:ii an,-l piic.l.:i(illlciiilu:l irit-orill
pi1rritr:nterl, .lciiiiJl :r:tlil rrttlLlLi:; i:; q-le;llv ;i::ilrlr' l'lrt'
ii,qgrr-r*t!i ic ; rrFi iLnl rrtiriiiiy '+iilr ihe l'si l:in tri ii:; r-:i
:'.iihiqeltr-'llllv
ir:li ir: !ir.hr . i:riiic;iiirrg;r

'liiteiii!.:i:clti-:tiv-

irirlci! iPiit.:- ilic grri.:!.:ll! ilt:::rgi-ill Ft:lit':: ThLr'f !1:rY br'


.:ilneLl q:i1criii ic;tllv :!l.i rliv!qL:il inic :;i: :;ceir!:: {::r:i:'1i ga'.

liwe.lli.FaiiI.::artiri:liufililvLt!!iitlcd'ur:iiic!tlst;ile::iriI
*iiite-ir-; Jer:tt:.:rti:r'i: i:rlt :iir:. it.!lill:t.i;n{l iiii:cii rljc:r.
+r irt holkrv:.i iin.l r-t1-itr'il':r.tlir-'ri;t,-L't: il; tir ::';i i:-cr:ciri
ii:r{f. l}!iea- !l inll i}.
i-'1,:luf. iitits;rit Ll:;u:tllv eoltirtle:-:.- iriti !:r:t-':rttr;r: iri il-I'
tt iJi'':!'il:;'
a't'L-srilcql iii tt;tlU:,1le:.c. L'tiiilts itf it:riir: ii;i:-

::riiltc:lIi:t'riia:i ;lr: !lr'r -git'-vi::h-'rt::nir.h +r ir]il!isl]-i-'rrrr!


iilr-: ir![]pe. hi.

;'rl,'r.-j";rirt ii, iri'ir t 'it;tr 'i i;i'-'ilt':' :r' 'ii"iii''ii'-

iiL:.i:lttriic ii rt:lt.l,:::.i. i!!. lrlilL- r!lli::i t- velliie'i-rlt hi{-\iir' i '


!rl:f,llll.: rl!'.ltlL-\ 'liir r:'li!ll!
ii;i1,, tl=!rirvi. i lrl'ilrr:'i-frlit\
;is-crir: ii:r-

ll:,

!!i:VY h'ilI..ltr!.:\! i-riiSi F:ll'!

!{}F.JS

:l{l-s {'{}i iit-ll+ r

f i

:=:

i"fi:.iri,?::i'if.,'.' i'j!!t'!!Li:t ;iriir:lr-'rcr: i:; r:'e;lk iii }l-tit'


.!lr !iL!iL.r:irl frlr,r!;:: :f ii'l >ii!r ri::tl: :Irv rtt r:ilr
1:"ihiii:;h ri1.: :c'r !irt- :.:i:i!!iir aii:;ri;!1 li-s qilri 'r,,-'lh,i't it
i;:irc i-ll-$:: i,i ili,-i il:ir-!:i:; irtir: ltarl 'r:rii l Ilt,- -

!:rilar

.--:-- -,
t-.:.-l!i! !ilii.

lirrr

r;:i

iji!:I;rirr

i:,.::i:i1:- :ti !iltt;r{!r:l

;lliii' griliil:-

;i!L'! .'':i:iai!.i.

lzii'r.!rrr'itt'r' !i'#r': ft.qii t!ilitiLi ::r:ir:;::!ti,1r itq)ri'!rt!:h;ii::i !i!iir'ir:rrrt ii;:tr':: r.';iil rlsitir:r-' si1ri i lr-'tgril
b;..::! :;,a:ii:i:; :::(: iii:i hifil;!Fuil! i:ii!ii:: iiiiu!liri,l i-'i;;tl
ir ir, i!i !:;ir;:ii inr.:i:iiii'r'i,:ltl rvr'l! r'riirti ttr:i:t::-i:tl lisrrrr= t
;; ii;:1. rr'.. i:,
l:.

! e:

tt

t-

-qi

:iit;:

E,i

r.:l: :: i,:!i!1,

:.;tlri

.
i-J-'::ai :''.

--:

f,.tj.s,',t.1:tr.irji:.f:'i:rt'.";: h/inf;iir-r!i iri!i rr'!!e" gttrr:trE


l:lcl:,-i rliir, r'!r1:::i.,! ir!{:i:ici.}gY:lii r"',';rL hir-:friilgc.:i. :rri' ii:;iiciir:.=' {-}i;lii:1 li:. ; .-'rr::iri,::tl! lrir't-:t i-'lir:i.
'l lic g.rriii i;:r::rl -le:r..':igL-:. !t""r'r rrlicl ai,-l ttstttiiv irrihicr

it{rierr:rrr roLtr!t': ri

log-:::--:

tii:;iiitgtti:;h il il-iiIir :!r;iii'

-i::-

li-:r.Jth :;i.i* !:,ii:ii,- !;:: tighe' relicl. :;lt,rttg ilis;rr:iortr-risiiiv,' rlti:rgliiion :nil rltcr ,-lisir!i.: :tont;tiot!:; itierlc,, tt.-r
Lrlliii!s. f lorrrlc:;:; iultuiittc Illr:; l trtketll! :;ii.!1gr:r
hirrl .inr:lcc. ltrrng:i l hir :tll)iiir r!lci iil.'; tlrc irighr:::t relici
!! ( llor;ll):riiri nt:'r ;i,i J.lrr. ir!ri

'lhr: di:;ii:ici,-ir ui ;ir;tliir- grin:; 1litir l:'vir it hi:vir:


e(!ni:iiri!lill(:(i rlt'ill-i:trtiir;g:;rnlFle:. i:. dc:*'tilr.:tl Lri!lL- hirvle.
{ :rhii:rie ilu.alatii: i:; :::iier! t-s'aeqdite (ttrpr:t. c) ;rtitl ii
uc!-:Lti:i i ifair..,!i 'r,cilorvisl-r:tLL!fr,'.i sphctlcs, lilrle:; tr
lcssii rci;lai:cnrcnisr i :iltot: iirv oilr iriitt=icrctct' tittl" lt:
rvrli a-: nririrl;ici'J Li:lirl'li.)r, {ierlFoph:itre (ttpPcr. h) i:; i-rclt
;ii rliti,-'. qlotrullr .l h{riV!.id:- ii i:; i:itttticiv:rt;rilir,-- url
:j(itlrtF;r:,

{}t:lLlft(tt-i'. .p;riiie i.r ir filrr!ilr('rl :l{t'r'"\rrl\, tttitti-:tal rti


;ll! 1-r,rr-':: rii igilt:,rii:r riq:l::;. ittilgsi fhu :P:rliie
lnta:iti. liuci:F:rliI!- i:; llrc nii:;i :rl.uild:rti :rtrd i-. rrsrrrllv
alm-r:;l

cl;ti.l{l 1.i gr:lrlitic riir:[::;, t-ilrIrirrp:riilr

:.

r]rofu Lrrrrrrrii irr lrr

ba:.ie tvpc:-. A!r;ti1r:; iir nr iri e;rt[trrtliitc:]. hvrlt()lllcnral vr:irrs


irriri ,-'rtiiit:;. i:; rrell i:; in [<rth lht-t'utllv luttl t.-'giiirlrllv
11111iplr1i5q:d nrt:ks. Apltiitc nt:rv liirnr :rLttltig.-rri.^all
(Wei:;sbiti! & l.l-'hini:l: ltlHt- :rtl gl'itill: :lrorvti in liirvc. alld

on tlriril lilgc).
Af:rlitc iiiiner:ll:- are rvidrsrtrati i s,:lit.:tl:;. l'hsv iiccttr
rkriirr:rttlt ;: rlritl r.in:i. ljril !lllrtj llc lltc' r'cnlctltitttl
nrerliun: ti :;;tillrttr-':., pf thcY fiLtt l--lcnti:lllv L:colrolliic
-:.

t:

li<:;zgri:;- A,r:rliir riis:reiltr-:' ril ariii:-: tl,-'riirc. luritll


lrrl!lir ilr.:l:irirlioE stii!ii ;i'iti iai:;irls-ri slt(iukl [c ;ivt)i!iL-il
{:. i I ;. Llrnli--r ili,i:p btrri:rl i-I-alir -1. I ) a;:rtiie i:':;l;iie: ii lrl:r'"
'r,:l1 rt! ILtwa!-kiis :rld is ciiniti!ctn in :rttett-ttl
sci-iini:ri:;. i!:c;r!i:.r ii i:. ur:;ia[it In lr-'iiis. ;tL-irlie geoelictiic;rl
r,ri|i!r1r'is iif(' {iiiL:ii i!e:leieii ii ir;rfiir:s (Liiiitrilr l9fi-11r,

.=='
'F:.'
'=3:--'

1-1.-:iyg .ar..q;11

l.lii{r)

.4l;iii.- i.: u:r,-i it it:::;iit-itlrL rltiit- l;tl-tr

i'ar11r-'r:v:

ilr!laiii:!!ri i:lrrr..: ii llre lirlii:: rtl il g:i:ratirr i lvtltqic:tltrtt


.,,,r!ii,- 1)r'!.. !!:;1, iIl,'\t- .,r,// i'l:'.;)

dirt:;tt..; ir;::t?

!-ir.-t

F;.L...

uPl'ri: l:

[-1rti-'i

F.octnc tull

I
.
:.

I. --h

=:_
'_=-#.
==E-:#,

A-nil:rlrr:;ii'i:.: rl,:oi:hrtiir-in riitk:rlrail.-':. h:ls i lrwrt !{!.;li


ii |eg'-r!lir :niir piroliil.: erttl f trrrrtnllv cnektsc:t r-':trlt.]n:lcc(.'tts
inrpurilic:.. ili bit-.:it'irrgcrrc l! :illitrtritr- i:. slr{}lrrel ilttd 5

phrsnh;rte,Jr;xr-ril

i-t:

-ffi

Pi\'-lTll
horizqrn, lossilnr.

ltaly: (h) {}ligoecrre. B:rrrme !3a-sin.

ll{ N

l.r:rncc.

Sccond ra-g, uppcr:

Jurassic. Ntlth Sea:

(;i) River sand. Isere. l:r'ancc; il)


(c) Oligoccnc Molaqqt-, lrrirehrrlc

Rinrartcts- l. lFic)() nr, Srvitzr:rlandi (tl) Rotliegenrl, orthcrn


Ccrmany; (c) CtLrtaceous. I-unisia; (l ) IJurlsandstcir. Trinssir:.
blcholc Ririkc. 3l I r. Swite 1rnrl: (g) inrnq:olitr: and (h)
coll()phae. C)lisoccnc. Ncrthe-chuin. sruthcrn Fr'urce.
Sccrrnd pagc, lorve, a: uthigenic grlins, Buntsanrlstcin.
'l'r-iassic, lrtreirtile Krcuzlingcn. l5.ll m.
Srvit;:crl:rnrl. ( )thr:r
erains with tvcrgrorvlh: RotIicgcncl, northern ( irrilltany.
All erairs rrc cnrhcddcd in fuItt 1.5.Sf .

17

f-l

f<^ L-';

lllr\\"Y tvllNFl{Al l)ljs{ lill-''l{}N5; Aldl,} { {}l {}lil<1 irl ;:T-lrli


R/EqpF!:Cifge
{

{-r: ' I 'll '.1'h ) []'{ i

nrr.ln+cl11i{-'.

I'i:llli:l ( * j

l.i7+i.t(iii

ittt
l!
tii

ll.(l'll ll.(l7i

iir5.1

a.777 .fitll

i..!1.5 I .Hi

F.jiil i11 :;(i!fi.:'itls: Mlr;rzitr h:i-r ;: higlr elir'1. ri::in,.rur;


lusic ittrJ i1 atr"^:ti-; r.,,itll r d;r[: it:;ttttilt!irg il:: orriliiic.
{l;rit:: ;tr tlolnir;tnl'r, rvtll roul,1.:rl. gg-:;h:r:,;il or rl;lr-'iir::il.
Srrb'rrnrL:il tir cultetlLri! gr';til.; h:tv.' hecii ti,rotir-:tl ftiitir
Itlltt.:ili r-ir_cr1i:r1e:i (irPprta). l-Jesr:.ti'lier riiiirri: or:t
vr--llirvish-lr0rrrr:iiiii'! ita rllq:r ilcttctiltlr Soltlr: g!ltin:; II;!!i
cnclosc zitct-ttt:rttrl rulii..- int:lr:;i,-tit:;, oiiiirl.!{,. sllh:;l:trrce;ltl
llui,-l gli!trulc:;.

{-tlrruf : I'lle vcllorv. ltosi i:rltrless, lirl,-' ;rthc. geenish vcikrw nrl rtclv ht.rw.

[]lcttclti:;t'

I)ee;r-c,rkruictl thicke graiirr rril tlisrlar


i)l vcll(iw (tf. rirrf,lv.. g-rrrtl

rvr,ak ltlcreltrois in slratle:

Bire.fi'ittgettt:{'.' ljr-ots, attrl iic11cq:rt.'a critour:; r;!nj:(i t(


uppcr thild- r' iirurtlt^rrrtle' rultrl rvliitc oi vr,lkrtt. 'l-hc rrr,llror rrrlc,rJ gr':iins sh!)w

tlislincl i ritcrli rilcr cljl!)u.

E.rlintlkfl:
ru:;uall1'

h4arirun (xiincl(!i i: 2'' 7",li


liri! t(' sl()\y :r complelc ertinctioi!.

llir n(l:.

-L-'it

it:l {litit'.;

Iilfrlrj.(r(tt:( .figtre: {.iluir:; lvite ori tltr l:r:;al liuiinr:


pliura Irec()gtrizcd lv iverket inietlctetrcc ctilrttt: itll(l itrtrrtti
pk:tc e.ttirtr'tiort) viekl cxr:clL:ttl rvcll-cenlretl or rte:rtlv eenttrcl
tt:ttlc hisq:cirix lirtrr.-':; s'ilh smrli lV.'['he rvr,ll-tle litr:rl i:rigvtr='r
:r1rre:rt iri a vr,'llriri, rll -gtc!irli rvliitc lieltl- is0clrr0til,-':. :lIc
cither fr:rv ()r ntnler()us. Lislcrsiott i-. rve;k. d'lr:rvirgr
It:rgtttt'rrl:,

rit l,l ll:rslr lirlrtt,

s.

Elotytlitttl: !l(x)) trces clorrs:rle rar';rllel uirh i h:rve


lisifivc.;rnrl crvst;l it';g-nrcnls clirr:ltcd rlt lt h;ne ret:rtite.

r,lonllation.
I )i st i n 14u is lt ittg, .f7lurtts : Miiruzilc is; tli;rgnri:;ccl hv hi{h
clir.[. colortr ;rtrd milstlv rorrtdetl nrorrlrolop-y. -lhe lrerucrrt
brtrvnish stain uld surliie:c pitting :rtr rlstl cltirr'rctelistic. 'l'he
ilnlv rlcllilrrl nlncrrls filr wlricli nrorllzif.: is lik.-'lv lo be
rrtislakert:rrc vcllorv zil-con. xcttotittte ltntl. nlrlrc nrrdlv.
sllllcne.'l-he rclicl ol zircorr is hi-ehcr.;rlrrl srrl;rcc c{ching is
ullc()r'tnr()n in ;:ircrrn- Shcnc h:rs ntorc intcnsc rolltlizltl ion
cokrrrrs. slront tlispi:rsiorl rnrl highi:r r.'lr aciivc inlir:cr:;.
licrriitinrr. rvitlr u'hich nlonlrziirr is iilt.:n assr)ailrlLrrl in sr:,li-l
nrcnls. st()ngll rrrsertrtrle:; lrrrnrziicr. lrc liirlnc rlisrl1y5
higher=order inlcrlrcncc tirtts arrl is uniarirl. r\ ru:ilire

rrorirzitc ;rrrl il: ili:linelioi lrorrr ;*enrilinru


[v nlr:n-s oi lr 'poi:kcl :,i]Lrt! l],\cr]pr-" ( Acl:rnt:
l95.1.Srnilh:rtt ltl5i), llq:tinit Z-inrtcllc ltlt-i). 51ritelrtlrl
driuble. lcss cornrrrotrlV triltlc. ;rlr.rrirlriiiin lin,,.s in llt(' \'(:ll($l
(catsctl bv neorllnrittn rrirel:rtnrlilrerl hy rt:r:cotlvtrtirritr)-;r
lri|11' striug tantl in lhtr grcc!" a!r(l lcs:; r:omniorlv irr thl' llurgrecr. :rrr tli:1nosfic ol ttrrtliie (see ilstr ttntlur :rtttolinr.:).

irL:nlilieirlicrr

an bc

QCi:ttf

ol

n1;irlL:

ftnt:e:

h4rr.ite i:; lir ilccc:.-rorv nrirrr:rI

ri srriti.:
I

-'r

1\IONAZf

I'E

rocks. Lrr{cr crlstals ()ccrrr in granitic lncl srcllitic pcgntiltitc:


etntl in Alpinc-t)pc vcins. lt is a nrc constitucltt of nrct.Lmorrhic schists. gncisscs ncl gnrnulitcs. Nkrnzitc is ltrirlv
resistilrlt to scitthcrinq atrcl diagcnctic c()n(litions. Conccn-

triltcs of monilzitc arc knorln front lluvial lntl llcach sant]s.


ancl it also occurs in tin placcrs.
C r Q t t.s J r o n t : LI ppcr: [i.ivcr su rti. C'cntor.l [i. Srvi tzcrlrntl
(NInrt 1.661); itlirtllc: IlLrntsundstcin. -lriassic. lurnpf. Su itzcrlanri (Nlnrt i.h6l).

t29

{tt .\1\' iltNLtt.\l

lil.5 iiti-f [{ _!t{:, F-{l,t {'i,"i.{ t }j,

"t .1

l't::-

tse*cunee
1
El'E.;g-i*i;rt.

EE..t

},
u*i;r:i:rt

::_
*=
-+ = -==-

E'{

t.lfe+

t*

F=-F':
-+=--

I _7?+

i Slfr t-Fiif
ii fF fFi'7 -+i.1tri
\

==

'l i'!

F-trrte n se:tirttts tlrtritrtl 1tce:ir:: tx-'ctir :rs 'l'rll-lv


:,tu;npl etrh*.Inlt jsYs-t;l:j tviiti a ::itFle llabt {}r}
shi' trEe:.- g!-.:Engtlkr * fractrrrcl irrg! l i:tgtlrr-n1::trr.al irts (c! trd ri*rtJetl it t-r!1 rt*ttrl.:cl gt;iitr::. l ht-:v
eEtia-r!tcd

-?5---

cxhihit ;r high r":lie !' **<tusir'+:: are zircon itllrl 'iPlq'rq


rr:tptiriti*... :;tftij gia;ili nrav tli:;it:tv ztirrilg lJn:rlt-t:tl

-L
-a

:c*tric;rP)ri*ts it+;+ hief tr:'r*s, viaetlt+: lu:.i'.-:. lru


ltL'al:+-:! Fif i.:r '-rF :;r.-'cLlcd r'.'itt !'iR rilh
e}eriin FrtEJttL-t:: rvhiel: a[:;tr a]Fk'r in lE'liisi(tn'-:rilL
'F:r''L:;

'

-i

_-, :..i

.---+=5'-'
:- - :5

=:

gr*ln: fri*v tlj

<*

arid t* irrc.Ltuttritie:-.

'tliclur':
gree

-rh-trqtrs- !rnca vr,:t!qi*, lritr: trorvtr

ilr v*tv ltl,:

11.

Pkthrr.tisttt-'

1Vq,:l--

grle**:hrtiisitr

i: rlse,nitrle in rt*clrct-

crt.trcc* v:ririics: eir. p:*c velhrt';- ralc !'ellttt'.'t-rowtt. l;lrle


frls=-; F. Fr!": vctltirvi:h grecE. yaltlts". gret triitrvtt-

Eire:ftircgt:rte'i'.' VLr:; st!*tle ;tnd 'trrirrl-ling' r]f,!' r[pt]ilr .rt


lic*'eretu": r-ttuur= rc frigtt<rrtltr lir:lr $'hliL
er ltitlL. siriJ:tr tr il+ts' tf (--ilsr;ie- IlltEttsive llli!L'r:ll {1l(tlr
+rn mlsL thc itrtr,rfcrene.: iini:;- T-hitrlcr e<l::c:- soltctirtrc:
rtispErt' trrigtrt trarrt*v ini.'rtcrci!a!i-L-ol(!u I l;: n(ls.
:;l:r!,' t(r11;rB-

E -z i

ttf i o tt :

Ftr:liel.

lncerJertnrc figtft'.'

*rsl.n;tf--

!;i.'-: give frint hiarii llslr

figurn. Blt:;:ri tqrtu:; ( suel t5 str*rvn i e'l vithl

crcclle ni
r'r'ttred trrit.::il figrrres with r'ver:tl tlcnse ttai folv isuchttlllc:.
-Eturr- gr':tirrs ur*:rItv trit t{} L::itatl{ttish atrtl rlispl;ry bltrish
vet[olr rihrizatirt] crrlt*f:. ruL'nr-trilS:il sl'cti()tts illtsl s(]lll(j
rcrrklc! grairs rcvidc rit'r-cere-'ttritri;ri lr hilt:riltl figrtres
rith snrall ]1j.

Et t rt gitt i t t tt : Rrritive.

) ist i nguis h irtg f'izl.tre: :'fir.: :;inril:trii' rif xdnotinrc tt


zifr'atn. nrrl;rritc ttrtt s*rctirttr-t to sl)h(,:tlt'. c:tlses s(rill!:
rlit'fir'uttics itr diagnosis. iVh*i r*rlv ortic:rl titctlttitls arc
rrpptied- th* simptc tulrii if the *trfrcltt gtititts ctitttr;tr.'d lo
ttlf,i of *trlrcilr;rt ?if(-{}t}. :ttral rttliti.tc's krr't:t -r:f:lctive
ir*ic,-:, high.'r trirefringrl1.!- f,n(-l. whcn prcsrttt. hrorvi.sh

rltcruti*n rrrxltrts- :rid qlistincairitt. Xe rrttitc strongly


rcsentrlt r*rnarite, and pxitivc iderttitit:tion e:tt lrc nttle
iilty lyhcll ; larntrc(l irtet'crcnec figrrrc i: ()httirl;ihlii. ;rs
rorr;zit.'is lri;i:it *rI r<,ttrtitr.'' i.u uri;:iul. a. l\: ril'
nrr*uiriic i:. sltrtt :trrl itr *ff-rtrtr* iigues ltllv rl'rrtnt)l(,' ila

*ff-ctttrc ltgur* cf rlni:i:tt tineals. cnttatrcinr r.ltllltii(iI.


fl*wr've- tltc ";r:tv trigti-rrtrltr inteltiE:naa t.t'ltiltls rl rtrtinr* hc:ttr di;igniisir. Srhcttt har : stt)llgcr rtliri :tntl disr.o-i:iori antI i:; hi:r::il.

{'}l the rruFlenteiltri:' rnethttts tlsttl iirt itL'nliiie;rtisrn^


Ifutirrn !-(t+7I ruggL::;{ed v;rr;.}tlt at}ncrsiolt ttrttli1. lrr lrt'
simrlt, qnir:k rlrd trest rr:tirtrlr tpFt(l;lch lqr.thc iiltttiilii::tiot
rI r*n.rtiEIt, :rnt1 for tlisii*gtrirritrg hctrt.'r'rr \alllrlinrc, lll(illa

l-l{}

XENOTIME

zite and zitcon. is to use a simple 'pocket

spectrosc()pc'

(Adarns 1954. Smithson 1959). This, by revcaling thc disrincr


absorption spcctra ol xenotimc and monazite, ensurcs a
positive diagnosis. Hcring & Zinrrnerlc (196-l) calle<i rtrcntion
to this method, discr:ssed its valiclity, and gave data of the
absorption lines of monazite and xenotime. Xenotirne exhibits
a strong thick band in thc deep red and has two or thrce faint
lincs on both sides. A strong double line appelrs in thc grccn,
and in thicker grains a fint line is visible rn thc clcep blr,rc. It
has no absorptitn lines in the

vello*', in rrhich monazitc

show's

broacl clouble, less conimonlv triple lines. Zircon fails t() show
any absorption lines. This method is stronqly recomm!-nclcd.

Occurrence: Xenotimc is an accesson. ntineral ol qrauires,


svcnites and cranite peglnatites. lt is also a constituent of
quartzose micuceo-rs qneisses anri of some Alpine-typc vcins.
In placer cicposits it conccntrilfcs r.,,ith ntLnzitc, cussirr.litc,
cold or diamond. Xenotime is fairll'stablc in seclimcnts and is
probably nrore w'iclesprcacl than reported in hear,1'nrincral
anal"ses. Monazite or zircon-rich assentblaltcs nrtrv signtrl its
occutrencc.

Grains front: (tt) Bunrsanclsrcin, Triassic, N.fumpf. Srvitzerland; (b) Oligocene. Nerthe-chain. southern Frlnce:
ic) Buntsandstein. btrchole Pfrffnau. lEll nr. S*,itzclancl
(ltrmt 1.662).

t3l

it ,ii'1 i{lF-Jtrli!. l,}li:;{-lig'!

l{,F.J:;

i-.Jii (

i}l {!llH il -lt:.:;

F-,Fj-lE:-lE,E,A-FjFl{-E=Ir=
FFEEfEEE
c-'ri,?'{ }:

1q:lr:lgilli1l. tii:;.'li:tl ( + i

rit
tti
i
A
l':lrnl it :;:!iirl{ns"

.!?tH l.+l{l
l.tl.]4 i.ul7
ti ttlG {}.1}17
i !4 :.1
'l

e-l';ii15 l..,.';r

hirh rliri

:riti rrr'

1:

1ii'isr:ttii'. i.'gt:lar. :jt!ll()t!t(l|r{! . Uurrder-! iiL]ll(:iilllr,' illfl.


;ria tiricli i!rr! ctlrse i:!iri!r!,:.-1. ['.ii:t-iiteci:- ;!r(l i]tuliilll'r:tnti{l:ll
lLtrriiinaii{}r:;- sinila ic lhse, e:rliliir:<l lv'Jilrrti-;1 !r-rttr-ti
()1 alL-iritel :lIiits. Sqillrlir:: -ti'i:tt !r! .]!{ii!llga i:!fci: 1!f
vi::i lle

:!:-

#=
==i

ve lLrrv q' htrwiish. L4o:;t


ilins lirvr :r srntewltitl tlark.'tlu-sl:v' irlllt!riri :tlee

t
I I c t c h ru t i :; t1.'

lrion-rlcoelir'iL.

llirt-Jt'ittgt'ttt:r': N4;rrirtttnr bir.:lritiEencr is rritL:rll,


rcncr, eokrur:r rfr: grlr\, (rr vivlrl i rllorv. llttt

itctf.e

crirtrsrlrt. rll:fx:n(lirg on ihc ihicknr:s:;

[:]-riinclitt:

l-,'.1(.)ngatr:.1

iii

lfrc

:tntl
;r,i

g,titin:.,-

fr:strrtl:: hrvr' !ittllt:l L:xiincli()n

l nterj'ert:n t:e Ji gu rt= : { ir:rin:; usr:rllv y'.ickl urr rif i-q'r:nl r r:


urliilxial figttri: rvilh br0:rd isQeltttillitiiL ctlrvrl:; ilntl shorv l
clcar lrsitive sign.

li I t t n,qu li r ttt : F.sit iv,-'.


Distintuishitt-q.ltatt!rr's: Fliglr i.:licl.'rlusk\" ur-rc;rr';rnee .
irequcttl ctclt-tr:r'ts lt)gcllicr rvitlr vivirl interlrlcite,c ctkrtts
rrrc dilrgr()sti!-. ( ll:;site lilr rrsrrhle :; sclrrclitr. lrtrl i h;:; lr
higher relir:l and bilr:lrinerlrr. (i:rnL:t is isotr-nric ;rrtl iltc
iu't()nralousl\,anisritttiric g;rtr(:(:; l;rvc iltll krrvirclcr irtctlcrcnr:c rrilour:t :ttcl unclullll otv crl irtctior.

()ct'urre nce: Schte litc is lirrnre,l irr pr:snlrlilc: irntl irr lrighlcnrpcralurt vr:irs. l1 is prcsr:ttl 1 ri)nlrct-rllclirnrorphir: r'ock:;
lrrountl gr:rrilir: inlrusivcs. :rrtd
nlcl afit( !f []l(t$ed irtrput

Rt!rnilrk-t: I'ur,:

litilcs{

it

:rrrtplrilxlilrs:rnrl region:rlly

Ottr,-s.

-schc,'lilc :ihour:: ;r ehnretq:ristic btue llrroi-,s

ccllr:r ir! -shtrr! wr,c t i\'-ligh{. N4ri-b:j1g ::lr.:.'litc h:r:: rrhil.:


lo ,ellorv llurrtcstrr:rlcc. l1 lrerrrosc5 in H{ 1. leavin.rl ii vL-ll!)w
powdcr.; rcsirluc ol \4/{ i,.

{irain:; .itttttt: lliver :-;rrrrl. {-'citovall!.

==.= =-:-=::=
=_-:-:
=::
:

{ltiltu': i'olorrrle:;::- gr'r-v. rlrit


gt

=:--:

=:

S,rvitzellar,1

(l\4ml 1.662).

I t-?
! r--

-::-=

:=-;

-=

FLL'ORITtr

Fluorite

-- ::-
:

]j-...

L--aF1

isometric

i.4,j3-1.435
3.18

:'i=

::=: -.

:='

^
Forrn in scdimens: owing to its low refr:tctive index,
fluoritc appcars with a iregative relicf evcn in low-intlex

=J. -=:'=:

rounting medi and its outline is surrounded by a palc yelkrrv


rim. Grains are triangular, rectlngular or irregular fragtlrents,
usually with sharp (more rarclr with curvcd) edges. Rounded
grains are rare. Flutrite is relativcly solulle in crrbonated
waters and the surlace of the grains n-ray be etched. showing
triangular facets or crescent-shaped indentations. Clleavage
traces are rarely noticeatrle. Iron orc and fluid inelusions may

:,-.

,/

be present.

Colour:

Colourless, pale violet or pale pink'

Distinguishing fbtures: Negative rclief together with


isotropic eharacter are diagnostic ttf fluoite ancl distinguish it
rom all other tninerals.
{}ecurrenc.e

F'luoritc crimmonly occurs in hydrothcrmal'

pegmatitir.: and pnettmatolithic veins, in greisen' in cavities of


granitc, and rrcctsionally in cirrtrr-rnate rocks and phosplrorites.
it is found somctiRres in saudstones and rarcly, it lorms their

ccment.

Rerntlrks: Fluorite iirim drilling


|g1,y mineral fractitns

nud ean eontrtninate thc

of drill cuttings.

{irctins frttm: 1a' Bc:ach sand, St lves, Cornrvall. Englandl


(b) Llpper Eoccne. Brrrme Basin. Frrnce : (c) Btrntsandstein,
'l'riassic. torchole Bottstcin. 314 m. Srvitzerlncl (Mtnt l.-519).

1:33

RE,FE,RENCE,S

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3934,
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sedi-

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of

Blatt, H. 1967. Provenance determinations and recycling of

off Newfounclland.

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55,69-75.
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2o

l-80.

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T. A.

1916. Regional perrologv

of

Wrgeninqen: H. \'c'c-nmrn en Zonen.


Baker. G. 1956. Sand drift at Portland.

the southent N'orth

G.

Victori. R. Soc. \'ictoriu

1962. Detrital heav ttrinerals

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in

Illining lrlet. Proc.. no.

natLtrl accutnrles.

1.

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1.

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1414.

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Me S #r//. Geol Soc. Amer.78, 1055-60.
WanpKh. & P. D. Komr 198-5. The sieving of heavy mineral sands.
l. Sedim. Petrol. 55, 179-82.
Weaver, C. E. 1963. interpretative value of heavy minerals from
bentoriites. J. Sedin. I'etrol. 33, 313-9.
Weiblen, P. 196-5. lre5tigation of cathodr.luminescence with the

Tan, K. H. 1986. Degradation oI soil minerals by organic acids. In


Interactions

A.

of almandine
garnet. Geology 12, 6374.
von Erffa, A. 1913. Sedimentation, Transport und Erosion an der
Nordkste Kolumbiens zwischen Barranquilla und der Sierra
Nevada de Santa Nlarta. Mitt. Its. Colombo-Aleman Invest, Cient.
7, 755-209.
Velbel, lvf.

Yurkova, R. Nl. 1970. Comparison of postsedimentary alteration of


oil-gas and waterbearing rocks. Sedimentolog' 15,5348.
Zeschke, G. 1961. Prospecting for ore deposits by panning heavy
minerals from iver sands. Ecor. Geol. 56, \25O-7.
Zimmerle, W. 1972. Sind detrirsche Zirkone rtlicher Farbe auch in
Mitteleuropa Indikatoren fr prkambrische Liefergebiete? Geol.
Rundsch. 61, 11G39.
Zimmerle, W. i984. The geotectonic significance of detrital brown
spinel in secliments. lyitt. Geol.-Paldont lilst. flniv. Hamburg 56,
331-60.
Zinkernagel. U. 1978. Cathodoluminescence of quartz and its
application to sandstone petrology. Contrib. Sedinentology 8.
Zussman, J. 1977. X-ray diffraction. In Ph)'sical methods in
rleternnntiy'e nneralogy, 2nd ecln., J. Zussman (ed.), 391-473.
London: Acadcntic Press.

of relative grain frequencies

in hcar.y mineral slides. Geol' liinb' 41,35143'


van Hilten, D. 1981. Refractive indices of ninerals through the
nricroscopc: a simlle method b"oblique obsen'tion. Ant lliner'
141

Identification table
o
@

.9

MINERALS

a)

o
o

o
.o

o
o

zircon
Cassiteri.te

:)

E.

n_

o
lt

o.
f
o-

a)

c0

C'

Schee

anite

Tourmaline

corundun
Anatase

.j

o
o

o
o

o
o

Dolcmite-Ankerite

l]

Prehni
Brooki

Ea:yte

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

te
te

C\T)sw

Anydrite

Monazite

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

Olivine
Chloritoid
AIlmite

o
o

rine-Augi te

Anthophyl lite-Gedr j. te
Hornblende- Serie s
Ri ebecki.te
Ch)-orite-Group

Vesuvianite

Kyanite

Andalusi te

o
o

Dunortierite
Ep

j.dote

Axinite

lypersthene

ri.ne ( Acmi. te
iremolite
Acti.nol ite
Aegi
G1

aucophane-Cro

Arfvedsonite

si te

o
o

wbite Mica

Cl"auconite

Biotite

Talc
Serpntine GrouP
Commcn colour

o
o

Celestite

Aegi

o
o

opside

Augite

Pienontite
Lawsoni te
Punpel l-yite
Enstatite
Di

calcite
Siderite

Diallage

o
o

rosi te

GU

*l

o
o
o

o
o

lite

Statrrolite
zoisite

(!

Ruti 1e

cl inozoi si te

.:+

(6

dl

sif limanite, Fibrclite

.:t

Sphene

x+

co

Apati te

:o o;

Xenotime
ve suvi.

(l
c

G
'i+

-g

.g

Spj.nel-Group

Sphalerite
Fluori.te

Garnet

.s
c

o
v

o
o

o
o

lnfrequent colour

l-igure

3.5

Cathodoluminescence photomicrographs

(A) Zircons extracted from

an orthognciss. Grains shorv blue luminescence and internal zoning. Notc- the

cunr-tl terminations and rounded morphologl

Africa). (C) Zircons rvith ycllorv lumincscing cores and non-lumincscing overgro*th (Cretaceous, northern Tuni:iia).
743

Mineral trndex

actinolite 87
aegirine 82
aegirine-augite 81
alkili amphiboles 91
allanite 6,1
amphibole group 8-3-94

alkili

phosphates i25-31

disrlnne 52
dolsmite-ankerite series 123
durnortierite 54

acmite 82

piemontite 63
prehnite 103
pumpellyite 67
p)'roxene group 73-82

nstatite 74
epdote 6l
epidcte group 59-72

riebeckite
glaucophane-riebeckite series

91

calcic 85
iron-magnesium-manganese 84
sodic-calcic 85

rutile 107

ferroactinolite 87
ffuorite 133

scheelite 1i2
serpentine grouP 102

garnel group 45
gedrite 84

anatase 109

andalusite 50

anhydrite 1 18
ankerite
dolomite-ankerite series
anthorhyllite 84

123

apatite minerals 125


arfvedsonite 93
augite 79
aegirine-augite 8l

siderite

glaumnite 96
glarrcophane-riebeckite series 9 I
gpsum 1i7
hedenbergite

sphene -14
spinel group 112

diopside-hedenbergite series
hornblende series 88

sillimanite'19
sodic-calcic amphiboles
sphalerite 113

77

staurolite

idocrase 47
iron-rnagnesium-manganese

calcic amphiboles
calcite 120
carbonates 12G.4
cassitedte 104
celestite 1 16

jartrsite
85

amphiboles

SJ

talc 99

titanite
topaz

I 19

-1-1

-53

tourmaline group 69
tremolite 86

kyanite 52

larsonite 65

vesuvianite 47

mica, u'hite 95

white mica 95

chlorite group 100


chloritoid 57

rnica group 95-103

clinozoisite 60

rnscovite 95

xenotime

*o$azite i28

zircon.l1

corundum 106
olirrine group 39

diallage 78
diopside-hedenbergite series 77

55

sulphates 1i.{-19
sulphides I 13

hyrersthene 75

axinite 72
baryte 114
biotite 97
brookite 1 1 1

122

silicales 39-58

zoisite 59

oxides 10.1_13

144

130

85

91

General Index
References in italics are

basin analysis

abrasion 4
absorption

line 128.

beach sand. lateral movement of 29


Becke method 17
bed configurirtion -
bedrock mapping 3l
henzene 13. 16

131

acid

benzol ll
berthierine 96
binan plot 27
biotite 97. 1-11. Table 3.1
blue sodic amphibole 2i).

digest 11
environment 7
leaching 7. Table 2.1
acmite 82, 1.11
actinolite 87. 111. Table 2.1
activator 22
aegirine 82. 1-11
aegirine-augite 8i, 1-11

brookire

lll.1l1

pseudrr-brookite

digest I I
environment 7
allnite 31. 6-1, 1-11
almandine 7.4,i, Table 3.1

carbon disulphide 11
carbon tetra;hli:ride l.i
cirbonale 1 1. 17. l:t)-+
carbonatrte 22
cassiterite l0+. 1+1. Table 3. I

alterite 18
aluminium l2

ced.rr

91

an ke ri te

chlorite 100.

dolomite-ankerite series 123


anthophyllite 81. 1.11
antigorite 102
apatite 6*7. 11-12, 15, 18-:.9,22,125,1:11,

chloritoid

Araldite

2.

i,

ce nt ri

seperition 1l-l-)

chronrianspinel
chrl-sotile 103
1

3.

11

dolomite-ankcrite 1l-1.

1"1I

2.I

ferro-edenite 83
elt ritc 6o
electron
microprobe 20, 21

nlicrr'sc:lc. seannrng 7 . 20-2.

-1.

enbedding
I.

Table

2.

agent 16

partial 16_17, 19-10


111

l-ll

cleaning 1 l-12
Clerici's solution 13
clinozoisite 9,60, 111

17

barroisite 8-5
baryte 12. 114,141
barytocelestite 116

,57.

diopside 78, 111. Tables 2. l. 3. 1


diopside-hedenbergite series 77
disaggregation I I
discriminant analysis
linear 27-S
steprvisc'muttiple 28
dispersant ll
dissolution b-7. 9-10
intrastratal -1. 9-10
post-depositional -1.6, 10, 2{)
disthene 5l
distilled ir att-r 9-lt)

electron-probe microanaly'sis 20

-5t)

Ill
ll
chloroform ll
clar'

3.1

arfvedsonite 9J. 111


asphalt 12
augite 78, 79, 111, 3.4, Tables 2.1,
aegirine-augite 81
authigenic contaminant 12
auxiliary techniques 19-26
axinite 72. 141, Table 3.1

1-1. -1.2

chemical stabiliti 6*i0.32. Table


chc'mis!rr'. mneral I9-2ti, 30

chiastolitc

-5

edenite 83

iuge

tLrbe

diamond placer 3l
differential miireral transport

dravite 69.70
dumortierite 5-1. l-1[
dust fallout 3l

oil l6

celestite 1 li. 111


celestoban tc' 1 16
cement ll

27

3.1

blue sodic 20. 9l


calcic 20, 85. -1.4, Table 2. I
iron-magnesium-manganese 8.1
socid-calcic 20. E-5
analvsis, data 27-8
anatase 109, 1ll, Table 2.1
andalusire 6.50. 1.11, Tables 2.1,3.1
andradite 15
anhvdrite 12. 1 18, 111

presentarion of

deep burial 7. 9, Table, 2.1


diagenesis 4, 9-10, 18. 20, 32
diallage 78. l.ll

dokrnitr'

cathodoluminesce nce (CL) 22-3, -1.'s. Tablc

amphibole 9. 15. 19-20. 8-3-91


Tables 2. 1. 3. I

Tables

31

calcic amphibole 20. 8-. J.4, Table 2.1


calcite 1 l. 110. lll
Canada b;rlsam 16

alkiline

analy'sis of 27-8

diluent 1i

9l

bronzite 71. Table 3.1

12

data

bromoform 1i

alcohol 13.19-20
alkili amphibole 91

alkili

crystal structure 20
cummingtonite-grunerite series 84

29-30,31

brstitc 7"1.7.i

spectrum 1-31
acetic acid 1 1
acetone 13, l6

agitation

-1.

to figures

clove oil 16

cluster analysis 28
Collodion 16
collophane 126
computer analysis 27
concentrating table 1-5
corundum 10, 141 , Table 3.1
counting. grain 17-18
crossite 91. 141

145

energl', environmental 5
energv-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) 20,
enigmatite Table 3.1
enstatite 74.141, Table 3.1
entrainment 5
environment
acid and alkaline 7
energy of 5
epidote 5, 9, 61, 141, Tables 2.1 , 3. i
group 19,59-72
epoxy resin 17,20
etching G7, 9-10,3.4
ether 12
eth'l 16

2.

GENERAL INDEX.
facies analysis 32
factor analysis 27-B

hypersthene 75,141 , Tables 2.1. 3.1

fayalite 39

fluorite 133, 141, Table 3.1

idocrase 47
ilnBnite 5, 32-3
imrnersion 17
liquid 16, 19
ndicolite 70

forsterire 39, Table 3.1

intrastratal

ferroactinolite 87
frbrolite 49, 141
Fleet method

17

fraction, heavy and light 12


spliuing 15-16
fractionation, heavy liquid 12-13
francolite 126
freezing agent 13
funnel separation

iroo-magnesium-manganese amphibole
ironoxide grain-coating 11-12
isoamylacetate 13
isolating grains 19
isopleth map 27

13

garnet 5-7, 9, 13, 15, 19-20, 15, 141, 3.1,


jadeite 73, Table 3.1
jarcsite 119, 1'{1

Tables2.1.3.1
gedrite 84, 141
gelatine 1
geochemical methods 31
geological exploration 31
glacial terrain 31
glauconite 96, i,+1, Table 3.1
glauconitic mica 96
glauconitic smectite 96
glaucony 96
glaucophane 91
ferro-glaucophane 91
glaucophane-crossite 141
glaucophane-riebeckite series 91, Table
grain
counting l7-18
isolating 19
mounts 16_17
shape 5, 12
size 6, 11-12, 18
sorting, selective 5
gravty settling 12-13, 3.

8.1

olivine 39, 141, Table 2.1


opaque suite 32-3
optical analysis
preparation for 15-i7
optical mount 7
order of persistence 7, Table 2.1
orthodichloobenzene 13
oxalic acid 12
oxide 104_13

o'hornblende 88
panning 15
paragonite 95
pargasite 88

ferro-pargasite

88

embedding lG17 ,19-)0


freezing l3-14

kaersutite 88

katophorite 85
nagnesio-katophorite E5
kimberlie 32
KOH solution 11
kuazite Table 3.1
k'a*ite 5-6. 52, 111 . Tables

lau:onile 65,
2.

8-1

gypsun 12,117 ,141

pedology.l
permanent partial embedding 1G17
petroleum
distillates I 2
2. 1. 3.

141

leucoxene 5
ligbr fraction 10
linecounting 17-18
lire

dixriminant analvsis 27-8

liquid immersion 16
lithcstratigraphic unit 30
lizardite 102
luminoscope 22-3
magnetic separation 15
malcon zircon 42
manganepidote 63
me{mict zicon 42
me hylene chloride 16
mer&ylene iodide 13, 16

erploration 32
resen'oir 32
phengite 95
phlogopite 97
phosphate 11, 125-31
pie-diagram 27
piemontite 63, 141
pocket spectroscope 128, 131
pore ffuid 9, Table 2.1
post-depositional dissolution 4. 6, 10. 20
prehnite 103, 141
principal component analysis 27
prospecting 31-2
provenance 5, 10,29
province, heavy mineral 29
pumpellyite 67, i41

pyrite

12

p'rope 45, Table 3.1


pyroxene 5-,9, 15, 19-20,73-82. Table

mic

hand picking l9
hastingsite 83

group 95*103, Table 3.1

qfute 95

HCI treatment 11
heavy liquid fractionation 12-13

quencher 22

microscope
scanning electron

heavy mineral province 29


hedenbergite
diopside-hedenbergite series 77

ptrographic

Q-mode factor anall sis 17


7

2V2,

3. 4

rare earth element (REE) 31

19

slides 1G17

stereotrinocular

19

micmscopic identifi cation l7


microsplitter 16
mooazite 5, 3l , 128, 141, Tables 2.1, 3.1
mc*obromnophtalene 16

hercynite 112
hexane 12
high density liquid 12-13

hinterland 4, 32
hornblende series 5,9, 88, 141, Table 2.1
hot cathode luminoscope 22-3

hyacinth22,42
hydraulic
effects 4-6, 18

moulds 20
mouoting resin 16-17 ,20,23,37
mo{$ts 16-17
muscovite 95, Table 3.1

re-ntrainment 5
refractive index 16.i7
remote terrain 31
replacement 6
resin, mounting 1G17
epoxy 17
ribbon counting 18
richterite 85
riebeckite 141
glaucophane-riebeckite series 91, Table
2.1

NaOH solution

equivalence 4-5

fractionation
atio 4

17

patial

grossular 45
grunerite Table 3. I
cummingtonite-grunerite series
gum arabic 16,37

17

observation

oil infiltation 9

dissolution,4, 9-10

sclution

iilumination

.:

5
0n

llllllll llll lllll

11

eedle 19
percentages 18

lllllll

';er

ru

146

magnesio-riebeckite 91
rounding 18
rubellite 70
rutile 5-6, 9, 19, 107, 141, Tables 2.1, 3.1

GENERAL INDEX

11
1i
saussurite59,60
sample, preparation of
sampling

scanning electron microscope (SEM)

3.4

20*2,
scatter diagram
scheelite 3l , 132,1 4 I , Table 3.
Schiller-structure
schorl
Schroeder-van-der-Kolk test
sediment dispersal pattern
separation
sericite 95, Table
serpentine group 102,
settling velocity
shaking table
shape-fractionation index

27

78

69

7,

17
29

12-15
3.1
14i
4-5
15
5
siderite 122, 111
sieving 1-12
silicate 11, 39-58
1

sillimanite 54, 49,1.11 , Tables 2.1, 3.1

11
slides 1G17
size reduction

12

spindle stage 17
spinel group 32 , 112, 111 , Table 2.
splitting fractions
stau rolire 5-6,9 , 19-20,55, 141 , -1.4,

13

12
graiitvs
spectrometer,X-ray20
spectroscope. pocket 128, 131
spectroscop), energv-dispersive 20,22

1-5-16

Tables

ferro-tschermakite 88
tube rvithin tube method 1+15,

-1.-l

tungstenwire19
ultrasonic disaggregation
uralite 87
uvarovite 45

2.1,3.1

discriminant
28
stilpnomelane 97
stratigraphic correlation 30
sulphate 17, i14-19
stepwise multiple
analysis

varietal study 18-19, 30


varimax rotation 27
vesuvianite 47, 1,11

viridine 50
volcanism

31

sulphide 1i3
talc 99, 1,{1, Table

taramite

85

3.1

tecronic activity 4, 9, 20.


Teepol I
tephra layer
ternary diagram
tetrabromoethane

thin section

85
12
12

sodic-calcic amphibole 20,


sodium carbonate solution
sodium metaphosphate
sodium nitrite
sodium polytungstate
sodium silicate
Soxhlett equipment
specific

19

45
141
sphene31,44,l4l,Tables2.1,3.1
spessartine
sphalerite 113,

31

17

30-1

27
13

washing

1 1

liquid

13

weight percentages 6, 18, 27


uet sieving 12
\uetting agent 12
white mica 95
winchite 85
ferro-r,r'inchite 85
wollastonite Table 3.1

thulite 59
time-strati-eraphic correlation

79
titanite.l-1
toluene 16

30

titrnaugite

xenotime 130,

141 ,

Table 2.1

X-ray
diffraction (XRD) 20

topaz 6, 53, 111, Table

3.1

fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) 20


x1'lene 16

tourmaline 5-6, 9, 18-19. 69, 141, Tables

2.1.3.1
141.Table3.1
trichloroethylene 12
tschermakite 88
tremoliteS6,

147

zircon 5-,9, 13, 15, 18-19,

1'11,3.i,Tab1es2.1,3.1
zoisite 9,59, 1-{1,'fable 2.1
ZTR index 9,43,71, 108

:l-i.

31,11,

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