1.

AC and DC current
In alternating current (AC, also ac), the flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction. In direct
current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction. The abbreviations AC and DC are
often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they m
modify
odify current or voltage.
AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences. The usual waveform of
an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as
triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of
alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery of information
encoded (or modulated) onto the AC sig
signal.

Fig: Alternating Current (green curve), Direct Current (red curve). The horizontal axis measures time; the
vertical, current or voltage.
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by sources
such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator
commutator-type
type electric machines of the dynamo
type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion be
beams.
ams. The electric current flows in a constant
direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was
galvanic current.
Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a current
current-sw
switching
arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical
elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be made into
alternating current with an inverter or a mo
motor-generator set.
The first commercial electric power transmission (developed by Thomas Edison in the late nineteenth
century) used direct current. Because of the significant advantages of alternating current over direct
current in transforming and transm
transmission,
ission, electric power distribution is nearly all alternating current
today. In the mid-1950s,
1950s, HVDC transmission was developed, and is now an option instead of longlong
distance high voltage alternating current systems. For long distance underseas cables (e.g. between
countries, such as NorNed), this is the only technically feasible option. For applications requiring direct
current, such as third rail power systems, alternating current is distributed to a substation, which utilizes
a rectifier to convert the power
wer to direct current. See War of Currents.

Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic systems, as the power supply. Very
large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical
processes. Direct current is used for some railway propulsion, especially in urban areas. High-voltage
direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to
interconnect alternating current power grids.
Direct Current versus Alternating Current:
Batteries, fuel cells and solar cells all produce something called direct current (DC). The positive and
negative terminals of a battery are always, respectively, positive and negative. Current always flows in
the same direction between those two terminals.
The power that comes from a power plant, on the other hand, is called alternating current (AC). The
direction of the current reverses, or alternates, 60 times per second (in the U.S.) or 50 times per second
(in Europe, for example). The power that is available at a wall socket in the United States is 120-volt, 60cycle AC power.
The big advantage that alternating current provides for the power grid is the fact that it is relatively easy
to change the voltage of the power, using a device called a transformer. Power companies save a great
deal of money this way, using very high voltages to transmit power over long distances.
How does this work? Well, let's say that you have a power plant that can produce 1 million watts of
power. One way to transmit that power would be to send 1 million amps at 1 volt. Another way to
transmit it would be to send 1 amp at 1 million volts. Sending 1 amp requires only a thin wire, and not
much of the power is lost to heat during transmission. Sending 1 million amps would require a huge
wire.
So power companies convert alternating current to very high voltages for transmission (such as 1 million
volts), then drop it back down to lower voltages for distribution (such as 1,000 volts), and finally down to
120 volts inside the house for safety. As you might imagine, it's a lot harder to kill someone with 120
volts than with 1 million volts (and most electrical deaths are prevented altogether today using GFCI
outlets).
One major (maybe the major) reason for using ac rather than dc is the need for long range transmission.
Transmission line power loss is proportional to the square of the current. To keep the current to a
minimum while keeping the energy transmission at a high enough level it is necessary to use
transformers. These raise the voltage to a very high level and lower the current accordingly. Direct
current cannot be transformed so transmission would have to be at the low voltage safe for customer
usage.
What we use in our household and why:
AC which stands for Alternating Current is a type of electricity commonly used in homes and it alternates
its direction in a back-and-forth motion. DC, which is Direct Current is electricity that flows in one
direction through a wire. AC is mainly used because it is readily changed to higher or lower voltage

levels, while it is difficult to do that with DC voltages. It is also easier to convert from AC to DC than the
other way around.
2. Air conditioning
Air conditioning (often referred to as aircon, AC or A/C) is the process of altering the properties of air
(primarily temperature and humidity) to more favorable conditions. More generally, air conditioning can
refer to any form of technological cooling, heating, ventilation, or disinfection that modifies the
condition of air

Factors which affect human comfort are following

Temperature
Humidity
Air motion
Air purity
3. Air conditioning details:

Khurmi-824
Humidifier: A humidifier is a household appliance that increases humidity (moisture) in a single room or
in the entire house. There are point-of-use humidifiers, which are commonly used to humidify a single
room, and whole-house or furnace humidifiers, which connect to a home's HVAC system to provide
humidity to the entire house. Medical ventilators also often include humidifiers for increased patient
comfort.
Damper: A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, VAV
box, air handler, or other air handling equipment. A damper may be used to cut off central air
conditioning (heating or cooling) to an unused room, or to regulate it for room-by-room temperature
and climate control. Its operation can be manual or automatic. Manual dampers are turned by a handle
on the outside of a duct. Automatic dampers are used to regulate airflow constantly and are operated by
electric or pneumatic motors, in turn controlled by a thermostat or building automation system.
Automatic or motorized dampers may also be controlled by a solenoid, and the degree of air-flow
calibrated, perhaps according to signals from the thermostat going to the actuator of the damper in
order to modulate the flow of air-conditioned air in order to effect climate control
4. Air fuel ratio:
Airfuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in an internal combustion engine. The AFR can
also refer to the volume ratio for combustion carried out in industrial furnaces. If exactly enough air is
provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as the stoichiometric mixture, often
abbreviated to stoich.
What Is a Lean Fuel Mixture?
A lean fuel mixture refers to fuel which contains an insufficient amount of fuel compared to the quantity
of air. The main aim of using excess air is to increase the efficiency of fuel consumption. However, this
fuel sometimes leads to a rough idle and, in some cases, stalling of the engine.

5. Air vessel:
Modi-1032
Definition:
Air vessels are a closed container, in which the half part is filled with water & upper half part is filled with
compressed air. These air vessels installed very near to the suction valve & delivery valve to avoid the
separation.
Purpose:

1. To obtain a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate.

2. To save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance in the suction
and delivery pipes, and
3. To run the pump at a high speed without separation.

6. Airfoil nomenclature:
chord length length from the LE to the TE of a wing cross section that is parallel to the vertical
axis of symmetry
mean camber line line halfway between the upper and lower surfaces - leading edge (LE) is the
front most point on the mean camber line, trailing edge (TE) is the most rearward point on mean
camber line

camber maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line, measured
perpendicular to the chord line - 0 camber or uncambered means the airfoil is symmetric above
and below the chord line
thickness distance between upper surface and lower surface measured perpendicular to the
mean camber line
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil.
7. Alternators
8. Amplifier

9. Anemometer
10. Angle of Attack:
In fluid dynamics, angle of attack (AOA
(AOA)) is the angle between a reference line on a body (often the chord
line of an airfoil) and the vector representing the relative motion between the body and the fluid
flui
through which it is moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the body's reference line and the
oncoming flow. This article focuses on the most common application, the angle of attack of a wing or
airfoil moving through air.
In aerodynamics, angle of attack specifies the ang
angle
le between the chord line of the wing of a fixed-wing
fixed
aircraft and the vector representing the relative motion between the aircraft and the atmosphere.

In this diagram, the black lines represent the flow of a fluid around a two
two-dimensional
dimensional airfoil shape. The
angle is the angle of attack.
11. Annealing
12. Auto ignition:
The spontaneous ignition of fuel when introduced into the combustion chamber of an internalinternal
combustion engine, as a result either of glowing carbon in the chamber or of the heat of compression.
The auto ignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will
spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed for combustion. The
temperature at which a chemical will ignite decreases as the pressure or oxygen concentration increases.
It is usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture.
Sharma-181
13.
14.
15.
16.

Automobile
Ball bearing
Basic gates
Beams:

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span
and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but smaller
structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural
systems contain beam structuress that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.

Classification of beams based on the type of support is discussed in detail below:

1. Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support
supp
at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending. It is the one
of the simplest structural elements in existence.
The following image illustrates a simply supported beam.
Simply Supported Beam (SSB)

2. Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end. It can be seen in the image below.
Cantilever Beam

3. Overhanging beam:
A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports.
It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears as if it is has
the features of simply supported beam and cantilever beam.
Overhanging Beam

4. Continuous beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length. It can be
understood well from the image below.
Continuous Beam

5. Fixed beam:
As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Fixed Beam

Classification of loading:
Loads are usually classified into two broad groups: dead loads and live loads. Dead loads (DL) are
essentially constant during the life of the structure and normally consist of the weight of the structural
elements. On the other hand, live loads (LL) usually vary greatly. The weight of occupants, snow and
vehicles,
es, and the forces induced by wind or earthquakes are examples of live loads. The magnitudes of
these loads are not known with great accuracy and the design values must depend on the intended use
of the structure.
In structural analysis three kinds of load
loads are generally used:
Concentrated loads that are single forces acting over a relatively small area, for example vehicle
wheel loads, column loads, or the force exerted by a beam on another perpendicular beam.
Line loads that act along a line, for example the weight of a partition resting on a floor,
calculated in units of force per unit length.
Distributed (or surface) loads that act over a surface area. Most loads are distributed or are
treated as such, for example wind or soil pressure, and the weight of floors and roofing
materials.
Shear and Moment Diagram:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_and_moment_diagram
17. Bearing
Definition:
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion and reduces friction between moving
parts to achieve the desired motion. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear
movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by
controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving p
parts.
arts. Many bearings also facilitate the
desired motion as much as possible, such as by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly
according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied
to the parts.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear"; a bearing being a machine element that allows
one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into
a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other
bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings
for the most demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the
highest standards of current technology.
Function: The main function of bearing is to reduce friction for rotating shaft which rest on these bearing
. There are various type of bearing which are used as per application . Criteria like load and rpm are used
to select a bearing .eg ball bearing , thrust bearing , spherical bearings , cylindrical bearings and needle
bearings
Bearing are manufactured by fabricating cages and manufacturing the elements by casting the balls ,
cylinders which are made of hardened steel s.
These bearings are used specifically to support shafts of rotating elements .like automobiles , motors ,
gear boxes etc
Ball Bearing:
A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation between the
bearing races.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It
achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. In
most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g., a hub
or shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are
rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were sliding against each
other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings
due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some
misalignment of the inner and outer races.
Plain Bearing: A plain bearing (in railroading sometimes called a solid bearing) is the simplest type of
bearing, comprising just a bearing surface and no rolling elements. Therefore the journal (i.e., the part of
the shaft in contact with the bearing) slides over the bearing surface. The simplest example of a plain

bearing is a shaft rotating in a hole. A simple linear bearing can be a pair of flat surfaces designed to
allow motion; e.g., a drawer and the slides it rests on or the ways on the bed of a lathe.

Plain bearings, in general, are the least expensive type of bearing. They are also compact and
lightweight, and they have a high load-carrying capacity.
Roller Bearing:
Roller Bearings are a type of rolling-element bearing that uses cylinders (rollers) to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing (as opposed to using balls as the rolling element).
The purpose of a roller bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads.
Compared to ball bearings, roller bearings can support heavy radial loads and limited axial loads (parallel
to the shaft). They can operate at moderate to high speeds (although maximum speeds are typically
below the highest speeds of ball bearings). The lubrication method must carefully considered during the
design phase when using roller bearings.

18.
19.
20.
21.

Bearing material
Bed
Bending
Bernoullis equation

The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy principle
appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term "Bernoulli

effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of
pressure in a constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you
consider pressure to be energy density. In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy
must increase at the expense of pressure energy.
The Bernoullis equation states that For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream,
the total energy of a particle remains the same, while the particle moves from one point to another.
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the
fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION: for Ideal Fluid Flow

Assumptions:
The fluid is incompressible and nonviscous.
There is no energy loss due to friction between the fluid and the wall of the pipe.
There is no heat energy transferred across the boundaries of the pipe to the fluid as either
a heat gain or loss.
There are no pumps in the section of pipe under consideration.
The fluid flow is laminar and steady state.

Bernoulli's Equation is basically a statement of the conservation of energy per unit volume
along the pipe.
Energy Density or Energy per unit Volume (SI: J/m3):
For an ideal fluid flow the energy density is the same at all locations along the pipe. This is the
same as saying that the energy of a unit mass of the fluid does not change as it flow through the
pipe system.

22. Blanking and Piercing:

Blanking and piercing are shearing processes in which a punch and die are used to modify webs.
The tooling and processes are the same between the two, only the terminology is different: in
blanking the punched out piece is used and called a blank; in piercing the punched out piece is
scrap. The process for parts manufactured simultaneously with both techniques is often termed
'pierce and blank'. An alternative name of piercing is punching
23. Blower:
Blower may refer to:

Air blowers generally use centrifugal force to propel air forward. Inside a centrifugal air blower is a
wheel with small blades on the circumference and a casing to direct the flow of air into the center of the
wheel and out toward the edge.The design of the blades will affect how the air is propelled and how
efficient the air blower is. Blade designs in air blowers are classified as forward-curved, backwardinclined, backward-curved, radial and airfoil.
Forward-Curved Air Blowers
Forward-curved blowers are impulse devices with blades that are curved in the direction of rotation. The
blower accelerates air to a high velocity while rotating at a low speed. Forward-curved blower wheels
spin at relatively low speeds and produce high volumes of air at low static pressures. This type of blower
is incapable of operating at the speeds necessary to create high static pressures because of its
lightweight construction. Still, forward-curved blowers are the most common type of air blower because
they propel the most air volume in relation to blower size and speed.
Backward-Inclined and Backward-Curved Air Blowers:
A backward-inclined blower, operating at roughly twice the speed of a forward-curved air blower, has flat
blades that slant away from the direction of travel. This type of blower is highly efficient (low
horsepower requirement) and has a rugged construction suitable for high static pressure applications.
This type of air blower is best used in locations where the air is either clean or mildly contaminated.
Similar to this style is a backward-curved air blower. The blades of a backward-curved blower are a single
thickness throughout and curve away from the direction of travel. These blades are sturdier than
backward-inclined blades and can be used in corrosive and erosive environments.
Radial Air Blowers:
Radial blowers are designed for industrial use in small exhaust systems. These air blowers are capable of
handling air that contains bits of dirt, grit, lint and other foreign particles while still maintaining a highpressure supply of air for conveying and cooling. Their use in particle-laden air means that this type of
blower is generally designed to be self-cleaning. Radial air blowers have the lowest efficiency levels
because the blades have no curve or lean and are perpendicular to the wheel's rotation. Think of a
paddleboat racing a boat with an outboard motor. No matter how fast the paddle spins, it will not catch
up to the boat with the outboard motor.
24. Bode plot
25. Boilers_Working principle of common boilers, boiler mounting and accessories
Definition: A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not
necessarily boil. (In North America the term "furnace" is normally used if the purpose is not actually to
boil the fluid.) The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating
applications, including central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.
Water tube Boiler: A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated
externally by the fire. Fuel is burnt inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the steamgenerating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separated in the furnace, while

larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate
steam. Babcock and Wilcox boiler, La-Mont Boiler, Benson Boiler are examples of this boiler.
Fire tube Boiler: A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through the
walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam. Cochran
Boiler, Lancashire boiler, locomotive boiler
Boiler Accessories and Mountings:
Boiler accessories and boiler mountings are the special equipment which are preinstalled with steam
boiler in order to maintain the safe and satisfactory boiler operation. Boiler accessories and Boiler
mountings both are used for different purposes, but boiler mountings are more important components,
which are used to ensure for the smooth operation of boiler. So, study of different types of boiler
accessories and mountings are very much important.
Usually boiler mountings are mounted on the surface of boiler, and boiler accessories are provided
either inside or outside of the main boiler tank. The overall efficiency of the boiler is partially depended
on the performance of boiler accessories. That is, proper maintenance and operation of the boiler with
each other and that is why special care should be taken when choosing and operating those boiler
accessories and mountings.
Boiler accessories are provided with the boilers for better optimization of the boiler performance and to
increase the longevity of the boiler. These are called as the additional components of boiler, because a
boiler is able to run without the boiler accessories. But the boiler performance will much higher if
appropriate boiler accessories are installed with it. Therefore boiler accessories are the optional units
which are installed to increase the efficiency of steam boiler. There are various types of boiler
accessories which are used to serve various purposes and they are discussed as follows.
Economizer: The name of this accessory somehow approaches to the word Economy. And this unit is
installed to help the economy of power plant. After exhausting, the flue gases goes towards the boiler
chimney and after that they are released at atmosphere. The economizer recovers some part of waste
flue gases from the chimney and this collected hot gases are utilized to heat up the feed water (by heat
exchanging method) before entering into the main boiler. This pre heating of feed water saves the fuel
and in this way, economizer increases the efficiency of the boiler and improves the economy of the
plant. It is installed at the waste flue gas path and just before the air preheater.
feed water pump: The water is converted into steam inside the boiler. As the steam boiler is a closed
vessel, so huge pressure is created inside the boiler which creates a problem for feeding water into the
boiler tank. So, feed water pumps are used to force the feed water into the boiler tank with high
pressure.
Air pre heater: The function of air pre heater is almost same as economizer. It collects a part of waste
flue gases from chimney and use those hot gases for heat up the air before entering the furnace. In this
way the surrounding air of furnace is preheated which leads to save in fuel and this high temperature

also helps in combusting low quality coals. Preheating of air also helps in rapid combustion and produces
less smokes. The air preheater is installed in between the ecomizer and chimney.
Steam injector: The steam and feed water both are located inside the boiler in very high pressure. A
steam injector lifts the feed water and forces it into the boiler. The size and cost of steam injector are
small and the operation is silent.
Steam separator: The generated steam is collected from the top section of a boiler and used for further
applications. But the steam should be pure and free from water particles. Steam separator is used to
rectify the steam from any impurities and the pure steam travels towards the steam engine or steam
turbine.
Super heater: The generated steam sometime consist of impurities like water particles etc. But the steam
should be dry and pure before entering into the steam turbine or steam engines. This necessitates the
use of super heater. A super heater is a U shaped equipment which collects the heat from hot flue gases
and dries the wet steam by applying those hot gases. After the processing, the volume and temperature
of steam increases, but the pressure remains constant.
Boiler Mountings
Boiler mountings are the essential part of a boiler. These mountings must be installed with the steam
boilers to ensure the safety of the operating personnel and to maintain the satisfactory boiler operation
and proper function. According to the Indian Boiler Act, Boiler mountings are the essential part of the
boilers and they must be preinstalled with the boiler. Various types of boiler mountings are discussed as
follows.
Pressure Gauge: The steam is stored into the upper portion of boiler and they are collected from that
portion by a valve. The measurement of steam pressure is very important to ensure the safe operation of
the boiler. A pressure gauge is a pressure measuring device, and the view panel of this device is installed
in front of the boiler. Pressure gauge is connected with the boiler steam zone by a tubular siphon
connector and efficiently checks the steam pressure of the boiler. Operator checks the pressure of steam
and takes the necessary steps if required.
Water level indicator: The accurate level of the feed water must be maintained in order to ensure the
proper functionality of the boiler. This device is installed at the junction point of steam and water. Two
water level indicators are installed with boiler and the front section of those indicators are situated in
front of boiler. Boiler operators checks the water level and takes necessary actions if required.
fusible plug: As the boilers are constantly deals with huge amount of heat, so there is a chance of
overheating specially in case of fire tube boilers. Therefore, fusible plugs are installed with the boiler and
this device acts like a safety fuse. This device is an important safety device and must be installed in order
to protect the boiler from the adverse effects of overheating. This device is situated above the boiler
furnace. a fusible plug is made up with a gun metal plug which is fixed in a gun metallic frame with
fusible metal. When the boiler is operating normally, then the fusible plug is totally covered by the feed
water and therefore the fuse metal is kept intact. But whenever the water level is getting low and

approaches a safe value, then automatically the fusible plug becomes uncovered and come into the
direct contact with hot flue gases. This temparature rise leads the melt the fuse metal. In this way this
device protects the boiler from overheating by sensing the heat.
Blow off cock: The feed water of boiler sometime consists of several types of impurities. After the
evaporation of water, some part of them are stored as sedimentation in the bottom portion of boiler.
These muds are accomodating the useful parts of water space and therefore must be drained
immidiately to maintain the proper operation of boiler. The lever is locked in normal operating condition
of boiler, and it is opened when needed. When the valves of this device are kept open, then the high
pressure of water flows out the sedimentation instantly.
Safety valves: Boilers are usually capable to withstand high steam pressure. But a precautionary
arrangement should be provided for safety reasons. Therefore safety valves are provided with steam
boilers and they are generally mounted on the upper portion of boiler shell where the steam space is
located. The contacts are closed when the boiler is operating under normal operating condition. But
whenever the steam pressure goes beyond a predetermined safe value, then the valves are opened and
realeases the excess amount of steam into the atmosphere.
Steam stop valve: The generated steam is collected through a pipe from the steam space. Thereafter the
steam is used fore several purposes. But there should be a controlling valve of steam, by which the flow
of steam can be controlled. So, to fulfill this requirement a steam stop valve is mounted on the
uppermost portion of the steam space. This is actually a steam regulating device which can be operated
either manually or automatically by a implementing an electronic controller. This valve is considered as
an important boiler mounting as this device controlles the steam flow efficiently.
feed check valve: Water is the most important thing for boiler. The water level is checked by the water
level indicator. But additionally a feed check valve is mounted on boiler by which the water is fed from
the water feed pump. This device acts like a unidirectional diode. A feed check valve opens in a single
direction. The normal water pressure inside the boiler remains constant when the pump is off.
Thereafter when the pump is on, water enters into the boiler shell easily by the feed check valve.
Difference in between boiler mountings and boiler accessories:

26. Boiling
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by
the surrounding environmental pressure.
Film Boiling:
If a surface, heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a
thin layer off vapor, which has low thermal conductivity, insulates the surface. This condition of a vapor
film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling.
In distillation, boiling is used in separating mixtures. This is possible because the vapo
vaporr rising from a
boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid.
Pool Boiling: When a liquid is in contact with a surface maintained at a temperature above the saturation
temperature of the liquid, boiling will eventually occur at that liquid
liquid-solid
solid interface. Conventionally,
based on the relative bulk motion of the body of a liquid tto
o the heating surface, the boiling is divided
into two categories; pool boiling and convective boiling.
Pool boiling is the process in which the heating surface is submerged in a large body of stagnant liquid.
The relative motion of the vapor produced and the surrounding liquid near the heating surface is due
primarily to the buoyancy effect of the vapor. Nevertheless, the body of the liquid as a whole is
essentially at rest
27. Boring
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already bee
been
n drilled (or cast), by means
of a single-point
point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for example as in boring
a gun barrel or an engine cylinder. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole,
and can be used to cut a tapered hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal
internal-diameter
diameter counterpart to
turning, which cuts external diameters.
28. Boundary layer concept:
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a
bounding
ounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant.

Fig: Boundary layer visualization, showing transition from laminar to turbulent condition

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body at
which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the free stream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid
flow). Displacement Thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a
deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall
would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The
no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid
temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly
within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.
The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is
99% of the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by
the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness. If the
Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer.
If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal
boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Brake power
Brakes
Brakes and braking system
Brazing

Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated above melting point and distributed
between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is brought slightly above its
melting (liquidous) temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows
over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces together. It is similar
to soldering, except the temperatures used to melt the filler metal are higher for brazing.
33. Break even analysis
34. Broaching:
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are
two main types of broaching: linear and rotary. In linear broaching, which is the more common process,
the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in
a broaching machine, which is also sometimes shortened to broach. In rotary broaching, the broach is
rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape. A rotary broach is used in a lathe
or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it very
efficient.
Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined
surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical workpieces
include small to medium sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though
broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for highquantity production runs.

Fig: A push style 516 inch (8 mm) keyway broach; note how the teeth are larger on the left end.

Fig: An example of a broached work piece. Here the broaching profile is a spline.
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the
tool. Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for semi-finishing,
and the final one for finishing. Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built
into the tool. The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The
rise per tooth (RPT), also known as the step or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material
removed and the size of the chip. The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice-versa.
Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use
it. A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after
the other; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.
35. Buoyancy and floatation:
Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.
Archimedes
In science, buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed
object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid.
Thus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom
of the column than at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate
an object upwards. The magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure
between the top and the bottom of the column, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is also
equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid.
For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends
to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the
force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational
field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction (that is, a noninertial reference frame). In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the
magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.[1]

Fig: The forces at work in buoyancy. Note that, because the upward force of buoyancy is equal to the
downward force of gravity, the object is floating.
The center of buoyancy of an object is the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid.
36. Cam
37. Cam profile
38. Capillarity:
Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in
narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can
be seen in the drawing up of liquids be
between the hairs of a paint-brush,
brush, in a thin tube, in porous
materials such as paper, in some non
non-porous
porous materials such as liquified carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs
because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of
the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion
within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container act to lift the liquid. In short, the
capillary action is due to the
he pressure of cohesion and adhesion which cause the liliquid
quid to work against
gravity.

Fig: Capillary action of water compared to mercury, in each case with respect to a polar surface e.g. glass
39. Carburetor: It is a device that blends air and fuel for an in
internal
ternal combustion engine.
40. Casting :

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for
making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods
41. Casting classification
Sand Casting
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Allied Casting
Precision Investment Casting
Continuous Casting
42. Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid i.e. small liquid-free zones ("bubbles" or "voids")
that are the consequence of forces acting upon the liquid. It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected
to rapid changes of pressure that cause the formation of cavities where the pressure is relatively low.
When subjected to higher pressure, the voids implode and can generate an intense shockwave.
Cavitation occurs in liquid when bubbles form and implode in pump systems or around propellers.
Pumps put liquid under pressure, but if the pressure of the substance drops or its temperature increases,
it begins to vaporize, just like boiling water. In a small, sensitive system, however, the bubbles can't
escape so they implode, causing physical damage to parts of the pump or propeller.
A combination of temperature and pressure constraints will result in cavitation in any system. No
manufacturer or industrial technician wants to run pumps that keep getting affected by this problem,
however, as it will permanently damage the chambers of the device. The vaporization actually causes a
loud, rocky noise because the bubbles are imploding and making the liquid move faster than the speed
of sound.
Inside every pump, there is a propeller that draws liquid from one side of the chamber to the other. The
liquid normally continues out through a valve so it can do another job in a different part of the machine.
Sometimes, this device is called an impeller. Even though the total chamber stays under the same
pressure, and the materials are temperature regulated, cavitation manages to occur right next to the
surface of the propeller.
A propeller rotates through a liquid and actually creates localized differences in pressure along the
blades. This can even occur underwater on a submarine or ship's propeller. Bubbles appear in lowpressure areas but then immediately want to implode with such force that they make dings and pits in
metal. A propeller exposed to these bubbles resembles the surface of the moon, with tiny, scattered
craters.
There are two types of this phenomena that can occur in the different stages of pumping, but both are
results of the same phenomenon. Suction or classical cavitation occurs around the impeller as it is
drawing liquid through the chamber. The propeller's motion creates the changes in pressure necessary
for vaporization.

Discharge or recirculation cavitation is the result of changing pressure at the point of exit, the discharge
valve. The valve is not able to let all the liquid through as fast as it should, so the currents' different
velocities create miniature changes in the uniform pressure. Even such small variations are enough to
create the ideal circumstances for this problem.
Why cavitation will occur in Centrifugal Pumps and not in Displacement pumps?
The formation of cavities (or bubbles) is induced by flow separation, or non-uniform flow velocities,
inside a pump casing. In centrifugal pumps the eye of the pump impeller is smaller than the flow area of
pipe. This decrease in flow area of pump results in increase in flow rate. So pressure drop happened
between pump suction and the vanes of the impeller. Here air bubbles or cavities are formed because of
liquid vapor due to increase in temperature in impeller. This air bubbles are transmitted to pump which
forms cavitation.
How to avoid Cavitation:
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

Central load
Centrifugal pump with classification
Centroid and Center of gravity of area and volume
Chassis
Chip classification:

Types of chips
The three common types of chip from a single point tool are.
1. Discontinuous or segmental chip:
Discontinuous chips is formed by a series of rupture occurring approximately perpendicular to the tool
place face each chip element passing off along the tool face the chip element in the form of small
segment may adhere loosely to each other and becomes slightly longer.
Since the chips break up into small segments the friction between the tool and the chips reduces
resulting in better surface finish. These chips are convenient to collect handle and dispose off.
Discontinuous chips tends to be formed when one or more or the following conditions exist:
1.

Brittle material, such as cast iron and bronze.

2.

Large chip thickness

3.

Low cutting speed

4.

Small rack angle

Discontinuous chips are also produced when cutting more ductile material with the use of a cutting fluid.

2: Continuous Chips:
Continuous chips are formed by the continuous plastic deformation of metal without fracture in front of
the cutting edge of the tool and is formed by the smooth flow of the chip up the tool face. Mild steel and

copper are considered to be most desirable ma

materials
terials for obtaining continuous chips. The chips obtained
have same thickness throughout. This type of chip is the most desirable. Since it is stable cutting,
resulting in generally good surface finish. On the other hand these chips are difficult to handle
handl and
dispose off.
Continuous chips tend to be formed when the following condition exist:
1.

Ductile material

2.

High cutting speed

3.

Small chip thickness

4.

Large rack angle

5.

Minimum friction of chip on tool face by:

Polished tool face

Use of efficient cutting lubricants.

Use of tool material with low-coefficient

coefficient of friction.

3: Continuous Chip with Built up Edge:

This type of chip is very similar to the continuous chip. With the difference that it has a built
bu up edge
adjacent to tool face and also it is not so smooth. It is obtained by machining on ductile material, in this
condition of high local temperature and extreme pressure in the cutting and high friction in the tool chip
interference, may cause the work material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the tool. Successive
layers of work material are then added to the built up edge. When this edge becomes larger and
unstable, it breaks up and part of it is carried up the face of the tool along with tthe
he chip while the
remaining is left over the surface being machined, which contributes to the roughness of the surface.
The built up edge changes its size during the cutting operation. It first increases, then decreases, then
again increases etc.
48. Chip formation
49. Circulation:
In fluid dynamics, circulation is the line integral around a closed curve of the velocity field. Circulation is
normally denoted (Greek uppercase gamma).

If V is the fluid velocity on a small element of a defined curve, and dl is a vector

tor representing the
differential length of that small element, the contribution of that differential length to circulation
is d:

where is the angle between the vectors V and dl.

The circulation around a closed curve C is the line integral.

50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

Clamping devices
Clamps
Clearance
Clutches
CNC machine
Column:

Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through
compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a
column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to a large round support
su
with a
capital and base and made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically
called a post, and supports with a re
rectangular or other non-round
round section are usually called piers. For the
purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other
compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions.
condition Columns are
frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In
architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and
decorative features. A column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes;
many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part of a wall.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.

Column design
Combined cycle
Combined stress
Combustion
Combustion chamber
Components of automobile
Compressibility and elasticity
Compressible flow::

Compressible flow is the area of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids in which the fluid density varies
significantly in response to a change in pressure. Compressibility effects are typically considered
significant if the Mach number (the ratio of the flow velocity to the local speed of sound) of the flow
exceeds 0.3, or if the fluid undergoes very large pressure changes. The most distinct differences between
the compressible and incompressible flow models are that the compressible flow mod
model
el allows for the
existence of shock waves and choked flow.
Compressible flow describes the behavior of fluids that experience significant variations in density. For
flows in which the density does not vary significantly, the analysis of the behavior of such
su flows may be
simplified greatly by assuming a constant density. This is an idealization, which leads to the theory of

incompressible flow. However, in the many cases dealing with gases (especially at higher velocities) and
those cases dealing with liquids with large pressure changes, the significant variations in density can
occur, and the flow should be analyzed as a compressible flow if accurate results are to be obtained.
64. Compression ratio:
The compression ratio of an internal-combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that
represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest capacity to its smallest
capacity. It is a fundamental specification for many common combustion engines.
For example, a cylinder and its combustion chamber with the piston at the bottom of its stroke may
contain 1000 cc of air (900 cc in the cylinder plus 100 cc in the combustion chamber). When the piston
has moved up to the top of its stroke inside the cylinder, and the remaining volume inside the head or
combustion chamber has been reduced to 100 cc, then the compression ratio would be proportionally
described as 1000:100, or with fractional reduction, a 10:1 compression ratio.
A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy
from a given mass of air-fuel mixture due to its higher thermal efficiency. This occurs because internal
combustion engines are heat engines, and higher efficiency is created because higher compression
ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer
expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the exhaust temperature. It may
be more helpful to think of it as an "expansion ratio", since more expansion reduces the temperature of
the exhaust gases, and therefore the energy wasted to the atmosphere. Diesel engines actually have a
higher peak combustion temperature than petrol engines, but the greater expansion means they reject
less heat in their cooler exhaust.
What is normal compression ratio for diesel engine: There is no electrical sparking plug in an autoignition diesel engine; the heat of compression raises the temperature of the mixture to its auto-ignition
point. The CR will customarily exceed 14:1 and ratios over 22:1 are common. The appropriate
compression ratio depends on the design of the cylinder head. The figure is usually between 14:1 and
16:1 for direct injection engines, and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection engines.
What is normal compression ratio for petrol engine: The compression ratio in a gasoline or petrolpowered engine will usually not be much higher than 10:1 due to potential engine knocking (detonation)
and not lower than 6:1.
65. Compressors:
An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel engine or a
gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which, on command, can be
released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positivedisplacement or negative-displacement types.
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An
air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid
through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are

relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and
transport liquids.
Difference between pump, compressor, blower and fan:
Pumps
A pump is a machine for raising a liquid - a relatively incompressible fluid - to a higher level of pressure
or head.
Compressors
A compressor is a machine for raising a gas - a compressible fluid - to a higher level of pressure.
Blowers
A blower is a machine for moving volumes of a gas with moderate increase of pressure.
Fans
A fan moves large amounts of gas with low increase in pressure.
Blower vs. Compressor:
A blower delivers high volume at low pressure. A compressor delivers low volume at high pressure.
The main difference lies in the "compressibility" in the volume of liquid and gas. Liquid is considered
"incompressible" (volume remains constant) when subjected to compressive forces, while gas is
"compressible" (volume decreases when subjected to compressive force). The word "pumping" connotes
"moving" a fluid (usually a liquid) from place to place without any perceptible change in its temperature
but with an increase in the discharge pressure. Compressors, on the other hand, aside from moving the
fluid, also reduces the volume of the compressible fluid (a gas), with a resulting increase in temperature
and pressure of the fluid at the compressor discharge. For purely "moving" gases without compression,
"blowers" are used instead of compressors. However, there is always a degree of compression however
small that occurs for blowers since there is a pressure reading at the blower discharge (measured in
inches-Water).
Fan vs. Blower vs. Compressor:
Fans are generally low pressure or low vacuum (depending on which side of the fan you are) and would
be measured in inches of water gauge. I would suggest fans normally generate less than 5 psi differential
pressure.
Blowers is the usual name for a device working on its own to create positive pressure ( above
atmospheric pressure) or a vacuum (pressure below atmospheric). The standard Roots design is a two
lobe blower and another version is a tri-lobed blower. The tri-lobed blower can be quieter. These can
create a pressure of up to 1 bar, 15 psi, above atmospheric and 15 inches of Mercury vacuum, ie a 1/2
atmosphere below normal air pressure.
If a blower is used in conjunction with a mechanical vacuum pump is called a booster. It generally is then
used to increase the mass of gas moved, cfm, and will also create a lower pressure (higher vacuum) than
the mechanical vacuum pump alone. Vacuum levels can be in the range of 1/000th of a torr. (760 torr =
std atmospheric pressure).

Compressors are used to create pressures in the range of 100 psi above atmospheric pressure (shop air),
and multi-stage compressors can create pressures in the 1000s of psi. Compressors can be reciprocating
type, often used in garages for tire air, and also twin screw type used in larger sizes for factory
compressed air supply and other applications.

66. Condensation :
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the
reverse of vaporization. It can also be defined as the change in the state of water vapor to water/any
liquid when in contact with any surface. When the transition happens from the gaseous phase into the
solid phase directly, the change is called deposition.
Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. Condensation heat
transfer, like boiling, is of great significance in industry.[citation needed] During condensation, the latent
heat of vaporization must be released. The amount of the heat is the same as that absorbed during
vaporization at the same fluid pressure
There are several types of condensation:
Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation of fog.
Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most
common mode used in industry:
Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the sub cooled surface, and usually
occurs when the liquid wets the surface.
Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the sub cooled surface, and usually
occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.

Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is normally

designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode
67. Condenser:
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its
gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance,
and will transfer to the condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very large industrial-scale units
used in plant processes. For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from
the interior of the unit to the outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical
processes such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling
water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers
68. Conduction
In heat transfer, conduction (or heat conduction) is the transfer of heat energy by microscopic diffusion
and collisions of particles or quasi-particles within a body due to a temperature gradient. The

microscopically diffusing and colliding objects include molecules, electrons, atoms, and phonons. They
transfer microscopically disorganized kine
kinetic
tic and potential energy, which are jointly known as internal
energy. Conduction can only take place within an object or material, or between two objects that are in
direct or indirect
ct contact with each other.
The law of heat conduction,, also known as Fou
Fourier's
rier's law, states that the time rate of heat transfer
through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right
angles to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing.

For many simple applications, Fourie

Fourier's law is used in its one-dimensional
dimensional form. In the xx
direction,

69. Continuity equation

In fluid dynamics,, the continuity equation states that, in any steady state process, the rate at
which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
The differential form of the continuity equation is

where

is fluid density,
t is time,
u is the flow velocity vector field
field.

When a fluid is in motion,, it must move in such a way that mass is conserved. To see how mass
conservation places restrictions on the velocity field, consider the steady flow of fluid through a duct
(that is, the inlet and outlet flows do not vary with time). The inflow and outflo
outflow are one-dimensional,
one
so that the velocity V and density \rho
rho are constant over the area A (figure 14)

Figure 14. One-dimensional

dimensional duct showing control
volume.

Now we apply the principle of mass conservation. Since there is no flow through the side walls of the
duct, what mass comes in over A_1 goes out of A_2, (the flow is steady so that there is no mass
accumulation). Over a short time interval \Delta t,

This is a statement of the principle of mass conservation for a steady, one-dimensional flow, with one
inlet and one outlet. This equation is called the continuity equation for steady one-dimensional flow.
For a steady flow through a control volume with many inlets and outlets, the net mass flow must be
zero, where inflows are negative and outflows are positive.

70. Control system of machine tools

71. Convection

Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is the transfer of heat from one
place to another by the movement of fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat
transfer in liquids and gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer,
convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of conduction (heat diffusion) and
advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid flow).
The term convection can refer to transfer of heat with any fluid movement, but advection is the
more precise term for the transfer due only to bulk fluid flow. The process of transfer of heat
from a solid to a fluid, or the reverse, requires not only transfer of heat by bulk motion of the
fluid, but also diffusion/conduction of heat through the still boundary layer next to the solid.
Thus, this process with a moving fluid requires both diffusion and advection of heat, a process
that is usually referred to as convection.
72. Convective mass transfer
73. Cooling system
74. Cooling Tower:
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling
towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to
near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.

Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, petrochemical and
other chemical plants, thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The main types of
cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers. The classification is based on the type
of air induction into the tower.
Classification:
With respect to the heat transfer mechanism employed, the main types are:
Dry cooling towers operate by heat transfer through a surface that separates the working fluid from
ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanger, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use
evaporation.
Wet cooling towers or open circuit cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporative cooling. The
working fluid and the evaporated fluid (usually water) are one and the same.
Fluid coolers or closed circuit cooling towers are hybrids that pass the working fluid through a tube
bundle, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer
performance is much closer to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage provided by a dry cooler
of protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.
In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a temperature
lower than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see dew point and
psychrometrics). As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water evaporates,
and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the remaining mass of
water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 970 BTU of heat energy is absorbed for each pound
of evaporated water. Evaporation results in saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the
water processed by the tower to a value close to wet-bulb temperature, which is lower than the ambient
dry-bulb temperature, the difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air.
To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called fill is used to increase the surface area
and the time of contact between the air and water flows. Splash fill consists of material placed to
interrupt the water flow causing splashing. Film fill is composed of thin sheets of material (usually PVC)
upon which the water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of contact between
the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer.
Evaporative Cooling:
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air
through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems which
use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by employing
water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through
the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation), which can cool air using much less
energy than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of
conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.
Air washers and wet cooling towers use the same principles as evaporative coolers but are designed for
purposes other than directly cooling the air inside a building. For example, an evaporative cooler may be
designed to cool the coils of a large air conditioning or refrigeration system to increase its efficiency.

75. Critical load:

The critical load of a column is that value of axial force that is just sufficient to keep the bar in a slightly
deflected shape.
The axial load to cause buckling is called the critical load (P)
76. Critical Temperature:
Gases can be converted to liquids by compressing the gas at a suitable temperature. Gases become more
difficult to liquefy as the temperature increases because the kinetic energies of the particles that make
up the gas also increase. The critical temperature of a substance is the temperature at and above which
vapor of the substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how much pressure is applied. NH3 has a critical
temperature of 132 degree centigrade.
The temperature at which some phase change occurs in a metal during heating or cooling, i.e. the
temperature at which an arrest or critical point is shown on heating or cooling curves. The "critical
points" of carbon tool steel are the temperatures at which certain changes in the chemical composition
of the steel take place, during both heating and cooling
77. Cutting fluid

Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking and
machining processes. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water
emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases. They may be made from
petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air, or other raw ingredients. Depending
on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be referred to as cutting
fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.
Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid, depending
on work piece material. Common exceptions to this are machining cast iron and brass, which are
machined dry.
The properties that are sought after in a good cutting fluid are the ability to:
Keep the work piece at a stable temperature (critical when working to close tolerances).
Very warm is OK, but extremely hot or alternating hot-and-cold are avoided.
Maximize the life of the cutting tip by lubricating the working edge and reducing tip
welding.
Ensure safety for the people handling it (toxicity, bacteria, fungi) and for the environment
upon disposal.
Prevent rust on machine parts and cutters.
78. Daltons law of partial pressure
79. Darcy-weisbech equation

In fluid dynamics, the Darcy

DarcyWeisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which
relates the head loss or pressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe to the
average velocity of the fluid flow. The equation is named after Henry Darcy and Julius
Weisbach.

Head loss can be calculated withh

where

hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m);

L is the length of the pipe (m);
D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the internal
diameter of the pipe) (m);
V is the average velocity of the flui
fluid flow, equal to the volumetric flow rate per unit crosscross
sectional wetted area (m/s);
g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
fD is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor. It can be found from a Moody
diagram or more precisely by solving the Modified Colebrook equation.. Do not confuse this with
the Fanning Friction factor, f.

80. DC machines
81. Degree of freedom
In mechanics, the degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of independent
parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of parameters that determine the state of a
physical system and is important to the analysis of systems of bodies in mechanical engineering,
aeronautical engineering, robotics, and structural engineering
The position of a single car (engine) moving along a track has one degree of freedom, because the
position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to
an engine still has only one degree of freedom becaus
because
e the positions of the cars behind the engine are
constrained
ined by the shape of the track.
An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a rigid body traveling on a plane (a
flat, two-dimensional
dimensional space). This body has three independent d
degrees
egrees of freedom consisting of two
components of translation and one angle of rotation. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an
automobile's three independent degrees of freedom.
The position of a rigid body in space is defined by three components of translation and three
components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom.
What is Six degrees of freedom
freedom:
The motion of a ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rig
rigid
id body, and is described as:

Translation:
Moving up and
d down (heaving);
Moving left and right (swaying);
Moving forward and backward (surging);
Rotation
Tilts forward and backward (pitching);
Swivels left and right (yawing);
Pivots side to side (rolling).

Figure: The six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship.

Figure: Attitude degrees of freedom for an airplane

82. Degree of reaction

Degree of reaction or reaction ratio (R) is defined as the ratio of static pressure drop in the rotor to the
static pressure drop in the stage or as the ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy
drop in the stage.
Degree of reaction (R) is an important factor in designing the blades of a turbine, compressors, pumps
and other turbo-machinery.
machinery. It also tells about the efficiency of machine and is used proper selection of
machine for the required purpose.

For a gas turbine or compressor it is defined as the ratio of isentropic heat drop in the moving
blades (i.e. the rotor) to the sum of the isentropic heat dr
drops
ops in the fixed blades(i.e. the stator)
and the moving blades i.e.

In pumps, degree of reaction deals in static and dynamic head. Degree of reaction is defined as
the fraction of energy transfer by change in static head to the total energy transfer in the rotor i.e.

83. Destructive and non-destructive test

Destructive: In destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in order to understand
a specimen's structural performance or material behavior under different loads. These tests are
generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than
nondestructive testing.
Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which will be mass-produced, as the cost
of destroying a small number of specimens is negligible. It is usually not economical to do destructive
testing where only one or very few items are to be produced (for example, in the case of a building).
Analyzing and documenting the destructive failure mode is often accomplished using a high-speed
camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be
accomplish using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed
camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture almost any type of
destructive failure. After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The capture images can
be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen before, during and after the destructive
event, image by image.
Some types of destructive testing:

Stress tests
Crash tests
Hardness tests
Metallographic tests

Non-Destructive: Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis

techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system
without causing damage
NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of
materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy to examine external surfaces in
detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical microscopy and electron
microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the
sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined with
penetrating electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays or 3D X-rays for volumetric inspection. Sound
waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample
may be enhanced for visual examination by the unaided eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks.
One method (liquid penetrant testing) involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for
non-magnetic materials, usually metals. Another commonly used method for magnetic materials
involves using a liquid suspension of fine iron particles applied to a part while it is in an externally
applied magnetic field (magnetic-particle testing). Thermoelectric effect (or use of the Seebeck effect)
uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or
chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of
individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as electrochemical fatigue crack sensors,
utilize the tendency of metal structural material to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage.
Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in
science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing
damage. The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does
not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both

money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include
ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current
testing, and low coherence interferometry. NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering,
medicine, and art.
84. Detonation:
Detonation (generally caused by fuel with a low octane rating) is the tendency for the fuel to pre-ignite
or auto-ignite in an engine's combustion chamber. This early (before the spark plug fires) ignition of fuel
creates a shock wave throughout the cylinder as the burning and expanding fuel air mixture collides with
the piston that is still traveling towards top-dead-center. The resulting knock/ping is the sound of the
pistons slamming against the cylinder walls. Severe detonation can break pistons and destroy engines.
Use of low-grade fuel can cause an engine to detonate.
Knocking (also called knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-ignition internal
combustion engines occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in
response to ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the
envelope of the normal combustion front.
The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's
stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum
moment for the four-stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging" sound,
and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential to
completely destructive.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition. They are two separate events, however, pre-ignition
is usually followed by knocking.
Pre-ignition (or preignition) in a spark-ignition engine is a technically different phenomenon from engine
knocking, and describes the event wherein the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder ignites before the spark
plug fires. Pre-ignition is initiated by an ignition source other than the spark, such as hot spots in the
combustion chamber, a spark plug that runs too hot for the application, or carbonaceous deposits in the
combustion chamber heated to incandescence by previous engine combustion events.
The phenomenon is also referred to as 'after-run', or 'run-on' or sometimes dieseling, when it causes the
engine to carry on running after the ignition is shut off. This effect is more readily achieved on
carbureted gasoline engines, because the fuel supply to the carburetor is typically regulated by a passive
mechanical float valve and fuel delivery can feasibly continue until fuel line pressure has been relieved,
provided the fuel can be somehow drawn past the throttle plate. The occurrence is rare in modern
engines with throttle-body or electronic fuel injection, because the injectors will not be permitted to
continue delivering fuel after the engine is shut off, and any occurrence may indicate the presence of a
leaking (failed) injector.[3]
In the case of highly supercharged or high compression multi-cylinder engines particularly ones that use
methanol (or other fuels prone to pre-ignition) pre-ignition can quickly melt or burn pistons since the
power generated by other still functioning pistons will force the overheated ones along no matter how
early the mix pre-ignites. Many engines have suffered such failure where improper fuel delivery is

present. Often one injector may clog while the others carry on normally allowing mild detonation in one
cylinder that leads to serious detonation, then pre-ignition.[4]
The challenges associated with pre-ignition have increased in recent years with the development of
highly boosted and "downspeeded" spark ignition engines. The reduced engine speeds allow more time
for autoignition chemistry to complete thus promoting the possibility of pre-ignition and so called
"mega-knock". Under these circumstances, there is still significant debate as to the sources of the preignition event.[5]
Pre-ignition and engine knock both sharply increase combustion chamber temperatures. Consequently,
either effect increases the likelihood of the other effect occurring, and both can produce similar effects
from the operator's perspective, such as rough engine operation or loss of performance due to
operational intervention by a powertrain-management computer. For reasons like these, a person not
familiarized with the distinction might describe one by the name of the other. Given proper combustion
chamber design, pre-ignition can generally be eliminated by proper spark plug selection, proper fuel/air
mixture adjustment, and periodic cleaning of the combustion chambers.
Detonation: Detonation is the spontaneous combustion of the end-gas (remaining fuel/air mixture) in
the chamber. It always occurs after normal combustion is initiated by the spark plug. The initial
combustion at the spark plug is followed by a normal combustion burn. For some reason, likely heat and
pressure, the end gas in the chamber spontaneously combusts. The key point here is that detonation
occurs after you have initiated the normal combustion with the spark plug.
Pre-ignition: Pre-ignition is defined as the ignition of the mixture prior to the spark plug firing. Anytime
something causes the mixture in the chamber to ignite prior to the spark plug event it is classified as preignition. The two are completely different and abnormal phenomenon.
85. Dew point :
The dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in air at constant barometric pressure
condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates. At temperatures below the dew
point, water will leave the air. The condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface.
86. Die
A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press.
Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create. Products made with dies
range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.

Diesel cycle
Diesel power plant
Differential and automatic transmission
Diode
DIS
Distillation:

Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility of components in a

boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical
reaction

Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to separate crude oil into more
fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove
impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its componentsnotably oxygen,
nitrogen, and argon for industrial use. Liquid chemicals for diverse uses are often distilled after
synthesis to remove impurities and unreacted starting materials. Distillation of fermented solutions has
been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The
premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery. A still
is the apparatus used for distillation.
93. Doublet
94. Drilling
Drilling is the cutting process of a material using a specially designed rotating cutting tool called a drill
bit. The holes produced by the drilling are always cylindrical in shape and circular in the diameter.

Difference between drilling and boring:

Drilling is the process of perforating a solid material surface using a drill bit to create a cavity.
The surface of the drilling is rough, and the edges of the entrance may be rugged.
Boring is the process of cutting the internal surfaces of an existing hole, where the goal may be
enlarging the hole or to achieve higher tolerance and finish in the product.

95. Drill jigs

96. Drilling machine
97. Dry and Wet bulb temperatures:
The Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are important to determine the state of humid air.
The knowledge of only two of these values is enough to determine the state - including the content of
water vapor and the sensible and latent energy (enthalpy).
Dry Bulb Temperature - Tdb
The Dry Bulb temperature, usually referred to as air temperature, is the air property that is most
common used. When people refer to the temperature of the air, they are normally referring to its dry
bulb temperature.
The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry Bulb" because
the air temperature is indicated by a thermometer not affected by the moisture of the air.
Dry-bulb temperature - Tdb, can be measured using a normal thermometer freely exposed to the air but
shielded from radiation and moisture. The temperature is usually given in degrees Celsius (oC) or
degrees Fahrenheit (oF). The SI unit is Kelvin (K). Zero Kelvin equals to -273oC.
The dry-bulb temperature is an indicator of heat content and is shown along the bottom axis of the
psychometric chart. Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as vertical lines in the psychometric chart.
Wet Bulb Temperature - Twb

The Wet Bulb temperature is the temperature of adiabatic saturation. This is the temperature indicated
by a moistened thermometer bulb exposed to the air flow.
Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb wrapped in wet muslin.
The adiabatic evaporation of water from the thermometer and the cooling effect is indicated by a "wet
bulb temperature" lower than the "dry bulb temperature" in the air.
The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature difference between the
dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air. The evaporation is reduced when the air
contains more water vapor.
The wet bulb temperature is always lower than the dry bulb temperature but will be identical with 100%
relative humidity (the air is at the saturation line).
Combining the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature in a psychrometric diagram or Mollier chart, gives the
state of the humid air. Lines of constant wet bulb temperatures run diagonally from the upper left to the
lower right in the Psychrometric Chart.
Dew Point Temperature - Tdp
The Dew Point is the temperature at which water vapor starts to condense out of the air (the
temperature at which air becomes completely saturated). Above this temperature the moisture will stay
in the air.
if the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is high
if the dew point is well below the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is low
If moisture condenses on a cold bottle taken from the refrigerator, the dew-point temperature of the air
is above the temperature in the refrigerator.
The Dew Point temperature can be measured by filling a metal can with water and some ice cubes. Stir
by a thermometer and watch the outside of the can. When the vapor in the air starts to condensate on
the outside of the can, the temperature on the thermometer is pretty close to the dew point of the
actual air.
98. Dual cycle
99. Eccentric load:

Generally, columns are designed so that the axial load is inline with the column. These types of columns
were analyzed in the previous sections (Basic Columns and Fixed Columns). However, there are
situations that the load will be off center and cause a bending in the column in addition to the
compression. This type of loading is called eccentric load and is analyzed differently.

Fig: Pin-Pin Column with Eccentric Axial Load

Fig: Column Deflection due to Eccentric Axial Load

Fig: Picture of eccentric load

For simplification, only pin-pin columns will be analyzed in this section for eccentric loading. Stresses for
the other beam types (pin-fixed, fixed-fixed, and fixed-free) with eccentric loading can be determined by
using the effective length concept.
100. ECM
101. Economic section
102. EDM:
Electric discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to as spark machining, spark
eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is
obtained using electrical discharges (sparks). Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of

rapidly recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject
to an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool
tool-electrode,
electrode, or simply the tool or
electrode, while thee other is called the workpiece
workpiece-electrode, or workpiece.
When the distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the intensity of the electric field in the
volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least in some
so
point(s)), which breaks, allowing current to flow between the two electrodes. This phenomenon is the
same as the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser) (see also breakdown voltage). As a result, material is
removed from both the electrodes. Once the curre
current flow stops (or it is stopped depending on the type
of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually conveyed into the inter
inter-electrode
electrode volume enabling the solid
particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating properties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding
new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode
electrode volume is commonly referred to as flushing. Also, after a
current flow, a difference of potential between the two electrodes is restored to what it was before the
breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur.
103. Electrical control
104. Energy equation:
In physics, energy is one of the basic quantitative properties describing a physical system or object's
state. Energy can be transformed (converted) among a number of forms that may each manifest and be
measurable in differing ways. The law of conservation of energy states that the (total) energy of a system
can increase or decrease only by transferring it in or out of the system. The total energy of a system can
be calculated by simple addition
dition when it is composed of multiple non
non-interacting
interacting parts or has multiple
distinct forms of energy. Common energy forms include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the
radiant energy carried by light and other electromagnetic radiation, and various ttypes
ypes of potential
energy such as gravitational and elastic. Energy is measured in SI units of joules (J). Common types of
energy transfer and transformation include processes such as heating a material, performing mechanical
work on an object, generating orr making use of electric energy, and many chemical reactions.
When calculating kinetic energy (work to accelerate a mass from zero speed to some finite speed)
relativistically - using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics, Einstein discovered
discove
an
unexpected by-product
product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed.
He called it rest mass energy - energy which every mass must possess even when being at rest. The
amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of body:

Where
m is the mass,
c is the speed of light in vacuum,
E is the rest mass energy.
105. Energy grade line
106. Engine

What is Engine: An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical
motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as
steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates motion. Electric motors convert electrical
energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air

What is an Internal Combustion Engine: The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the
combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber
that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the
expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force
to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle.
This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical
energy . Example: gas turbine, jet engine, rocket engine

What is an External Combustion Engine: An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine
where an (internal) working fluid is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall
or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine, produces
motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less
commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine). Example: Steam engines

Petrol Engine: A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in North America) is an internal combustion
engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. It was invented
in 1876 in Germany by German inventor Nicolaus August Otto. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air
are usually pre-mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinderdirect petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by
electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small engines where the cost/complication of
electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the
method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel
engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end
of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.

Petrol engines have many applications, including:

Motor cars
Motorcycles
Aircraft
Motorboats
Small engines, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws and portable engine-generators
Petrol engines run at higher speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods
and crankshaft (a design efficiency made possible by lower compression ratios) and due to petrol
burning faster than diesel. They also tend to have a much shorter stroke and therefore a petrol engines

pistons can move up & down much quicker than a diesel engines. However the lower compression ratios
of a petrol engine give a lower efficiency than a diesel engine. To give an example, a petrol engine is like
operating a bicycle in its lowest gear where each push from your feet adds little energy to the system,
but you still expend energy to move your legs back to the TDC position.

Diesel Engine: A diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal combustion
engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition and burn the fuel that has been injected
into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine
(gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which use a spark plug to
ignite an air-fuel mixture. The engine was developed by German inventor Rudolf Diesel in 1893.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any standard internal or external combustion
engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other
applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that
exceeds 50%.
Which is more efficient? Petrol or Disel: A engines efficiency is directly related to it's compression ratio.
Since a diesel operates with higher compression than a gas engine, it squeezes more energy from the
fuel it burns.
Auto Ignition Temperature: Diesel: 210C, Petrol: 246C
Can we use Petrol in Diesel Engine or vice versa? If you fill a diesel with petrol, the vehicle will run, but
very badly, with coughing and chugging. This is because the petrol will ignite very unpredictably if you
compression-ignite it. If you put diesel in a petrol, though, it won't run at all, or will run for a short time
with very smoky exhaust. This is because diesel is much heavier and much less volatile than petrol is, and
it may not even reach its flash point in the SI engine. In any case, diesel requires heavy-duty pumps to
atomize it before it can be burned. The fuel injectors in SI engines aren't designed for that job.
2. its a very simple concept. A diesel or compression ignition engine works on the principle of auto
ignition of the fuel-air mixture. A petrol engine on the other hand, rely on a spark plug to initiate the
combustion process. Gasoline has high auto-ignition temperature whereas diesel has low auto-ignition
temperature value. Thus gasoline wouldn't undergo complete combustion in a diesel engine and would
lead to excessive knocking and would ultimately cause engine damage..!!
3. The engines and supporting components are constructed differently BECAUSE the fuels are so
different in their properties.
Diesel is ignited by compressing the air to a very small volume. This heats the air up. The diesel is then
sprayed and combustion starts. There is no spark plug in a diesel engine. Some engines have glow plugs
but they are used to warm the engine and have a completely different function.
Now petrol is ignited by a spark (that's what a spark plug does). In a petrol engine, the air and petrol are
mixed beforehand and are then injected into the combustion chamber and compression follows. The
spark plug is then triggered to initiate combustion.

In a diesel engine only the air is sucked in and compressed. At this high pressure, diesel is sprayed in.
Now if you put diesel in a petrol engine, the mixing will not be good (because diesel is not as volatile and
will not form droplets and vapors as easily as petrol, in fact diesel is fairly viscous) and the spark plug
cannot initiate combustion. Take two rags. Dip one in petrol and the other in diesel. Try to light each one
with a match. The rag dipped in petrol would catch fire instantaneously because of the petrol vapor
surrounding the rag (and also because petrol is extremely flammable). You would have a harder time
lighting the rag dipped in diesel with a match. And that's the reason why you can't put diesel in a petrol
car. It just wont burn.
Now about petrol in a diesel car, I can't think of a reason why it won't work for a short time but I suspect
you would have detonation problems because of the high compression ratio. Combustion would start
before top dead center and the force acting on the piston wont be synchronous with its position. I have
to read up a bit on this issue.
4.
So, why not just inject petrol in the same way, directly into the cylinder? Well, this has to do mostly with
the burning characteristics of petrol: being a lighter, smaller oil molecule, petrol burns far more rapidly
than diesel. Thus, direct injection of petrol typically results in an explosive combustion, rather than a
smooth burn. This generally produces an uneven power stroke. So, although there are experimental
direct-injection petrol engines around, they are not in widespread use.
The slower burn rate of diesel fuel means that diesel engines cannot spin as fast as petrol engines, as
there simply would not be enough time for the fuel to burn properly if the engine were running too fast.
Remember, it takes a brief but still finite amount of time for the fuel in a cylinder to burn, and if the
engine is running very fast (at a high rate of revolutions per minute), the combustion stroke will be over,
and the exhaust valve will be open before the fuel has been fully combusted. However, this slower
engine speed does mean that diesels are much cleaner burning than petrol engines, since the contents
of the cylinder can be more fully burnt. This means that diesel engines produce less carbon monoxide
than petrol engines. Furthermore, they are more efficient than petrol engines (they convert more of the
energy contained in the fuel into mechanical energy, and can be 30% more fuel-efficient). Consequently,
diesel engines can do more work per litre of fuel than petrol engines, which accounts for the far higher
mileage per litre for a diesel car as compared to a petrol one.
107. Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the internal energy,
which is the energy required to create a system, and the amount of energy required to make room for it
by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and pressure.
108. Entropy
It is an important thermodynamic property of a working substance, which increases with the addition of
heat, and decreases with its removal. As a matter of fact, it is tedious to define the term entropy. But it is
comparatively easy to define the change of entropy. Over small range of temperature, the increase or
decrease of entropy, when multiplied by the absolute temperature gives the heat absorbed or rejected
by the working substance. Mathmatically, heat absorbed or rejected by the working substance, dQ=TdS
where , T= Absolute temperature, dS=Increase or decrease in entropy

From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics, the entropy is a state function of a

thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system,
sys
independent of how that state came to be achieved
According to the Clausius equality, for a closed homogeneous system, in which only reversible processes
take place,

With T being the uniform temperature of the closed system and delta Q the increment
incremental
al reversible
transfer of heat energy into that system.

That means the line integral

is path independent.

So we can define a state function S,, called entropy, which satisfies

109. EOQ model

110. EPQ model
111. Erricsion cycle
112. Eulers equation:
In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations are a set of equations governing inviscid flow. They are named
after Leonhard Euler. The equations represent conservation of mass (continuity), momentum, and
energy, corresponding to the Navier
NavierStokes equations with zero viscosity and heat conduction terms.
Historically, only the continuity and momentum equations have been derived by Euler. However, fluid
dynamics literature often refers to the full set including the energy equation together
her as "the Euler
equations".

In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible, inviscid fluid. They
correspond to the Navier-Stokes
Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they are usually written in the
form shown here because this emphasizes the fact th
that
at they directly represent conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy.

In differential form, the equations are:

where

is the fluid mass density,

u is the fluid velocity vector, with components u, v, and w,
E = e + ( u2 + v2 + w2 ) is the total energy per unit volume, with e being the internal energy
per unit mass for the fluid,
p is the pressure,
denotes the tensor product, and
0 is the zero vector.

Like the Navier-Stokes

Stokes equations, the Euler equations are usually written in one of two forms: the
"conservation form" and the "non-conservation
conservation form". The conservation form emphasizes the physical
interpretation of the equations as conservation laws through a control volume fixed in space. The nonnon
conservation form emphasizes changes to the state of a control volume as it moves with the fluid.

The Euler equations can be applied to compressible as well as to incompressible flow using either an
appropriate equation of state or assuming that the divergence of the flow velocity field is zero,
respectively.
113. Evaporator:
An evaporator is a device used to turn the liquid form of a chemical into its gaseous form. The liquid is
evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas.
An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning
conditioning system to allow a compressed cooling chemical, such as R-22
(a.k.a Freon) or R-410A,
410A, to evaporate from liquid to gas while absorbing heat in the process.[1] It can
also be used to remove water or other liquids from mixtures. The process of evaporation is widely used
to concentrate foods and chemicals aass well as salvage solvents. In the concentration process, the goal of
evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution which contains the desired product. In the
case of desalination of sea water or in Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies;
evaporation removes the desirable drinking water from the undesired product, salt.

One of the most important applications of evaporation is in the food and beverage industry. Foods or
beverages that need to last for a considerable amount of time or need to have certain consistency, like
coffee, go through an evaporation step during processing.
In the pharmaceutical industry, the evaporation process is used to eliminate excess moisture, providing
an easily handled product and improving product stability. Preservation of long-term activity or
stabilization of enzymes in laboratories are greatly assisted by the evaporation process.
Another example of evaporation is in the recovery of sodium hydroxide in kraft pulping.[2] Cutting down
waste-handling cost is another major reason for large companies to use evaporation applications.
Legally, all producers of waste must dispose of waste using methods compatible with environmental
guidelines; these methods are costly. By removing moisture through vaporization, industry can greatly
reduce the amount of waste product that must be processed.
114. Expansion device:
A thermal expansion valve (often abbreviated as TEV, TXV, or TX valve) is a component in refrigeration
and air conditioning systems that controls the amount of refrigerant flow into the evaporator thereby
controlling the superheating at the outlet of the evaporator. Thermal expansion valves are often referred
to generically as "metering devices".
Flow control, or metering, of the refrigerant is accomplished by use of a temperature sensing bulb, filled
with a similar gas as in the system, that causes the valve to open against the spring pressure in the valve
body as the temperature on the bulb increases. As the suction line temperature decreases, so does the
pressure in the bulb and therefore on the spring causing the valve to close. An air conditioning system
with a TX valve is often more efficient than other designs that do not use one.
A thermal expansion valve is a key element to a heat pump; the cycle that makes air conditioning, or air
cooling, possible. A basic refrigeration cycle consists of four major elements, a compressor, a condenser,
a metering device and an evaporator. As a refrigerant passes through a circuit containing these four
elements, air conditioning occurs. The cycle starts when refrigerant enters the compressor in a low
pressure, low temperature, gaseous form. The refrigerant is compressed by the compressor to a high
pressure-and-temperature gaseous state. The high pressure-and-temperature gas then enters the
condenser. The condenser precipitates the high pressure-and-temperature gas to a high pressure liquid
by transferring heat to a lower temperature medium, usually ambient air. The high pressure liquid then
enters the expansion valve where the TX valve allows a portion of the refrigerant to enter the
evaporator. In order for the higher temperature fluid to cool, the flow must be limited into the
evaporator to keep the pressure low and allow expansion back into the gas phase. The TXV has sensing
bulbs connected to the suction line of the refrigerant piping. The sensing bulbs give temperature
readings to the TXV to adjust flow of refrigerant.
115. Fan:
A mechanical fan is a machine used to create flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air. The fan
consists of a rotating arrangement of vanes or blades which act on the air. The rotating assembly of
blades and hub is known as an impeller, a rotor, or a runner. Usually, it is contained within some form of
housing or case. This may direct the airflow or increase safety by preventing objects from contacting the
fan blades. Most fans are powered by electric motors, but other sources of power may be used,
including hydraulic motors and internal combustion engines. Fans produce air flows with high volume
and low pressure (although higher than ambient pressure), as opposed to compressors which produce
high pressures at a comparatively low volume. A fan blade will often rotate when exposed to an air

stream, and devices that take advantage of this, such as anemometers and wind turbines, often have
designs similar to that of a fan.
Why does a ceiling fan only blow air downwards, but not upwards?
It's all about the way the blades are curved and the way the fan spins. Look at a ceiling fan. Generally
from underneath, the fan spins counterclockwise. Now look at the blades. From the front, they are tilted
to the right so they can catch the air and proceed to sweep it downward. If the blades faced the other
way, or if the fan spun the other way, the air would go upward.
116. Fanno line
117. Fatigue resistance
118. Film boiling
119. Film wise condensation
120. Fixture
121. Flaps:
Flaps are devices used to improve the lift characteristics of a wing and are mounted on the trailing edges
of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft to reduce the speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown and to
increase the angle of descent for landing. They shorten takeoff and landing distances. Flaps do this by
lowering the stall speed and increasing the drag.
122. Flash point:
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an
ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a flash point requires an ignition source. At the flash point, the vapor
may cease to burn when the source of ignition is removed.
The flash point is not to be confused with the auto ignition temperature, which does not require an
ignition source, or the fire point, the temperature at which the vapor continues to burn after being
ignited. Neither the flash point nor the fire point is dependent on the temperature of the ignition source,
which is much higher.
The flash point is often used as a descriptive characteristic of liquid fuel, and it is also used to help
characterize the fire hazards of liquids. Flash point refers to both flammable liquids and combustible
liquids. There are various standards for defining each term. Liquids with a flash point less than 60.5 or
37.8 C (140.9 or 100.0 F) depending upon the standard being applied are considered flammable,
while liquids with a flash point above those temperatures are considered combustible
123. Flexure formula
124. Flow net
125. Fluid
In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are
a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids.

Fluids display properties such as:

not resisting deformation, or resisting it only lightly (viscosity), and

The ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).This
container).T also
means that all fluids have the property of fluidity.

Classification:
Ideal Fluid: A fluid which has no viscosity
Real Fluid: A fluid which has viscosity
Newtonian Fluid: A fluid which viscosity does not change with the rate of deformation or shear
strain
Non-Newtonian
Newtonian Fluid: A fluid whose viscosity changes with the rate of deformation or shear
strain
Compressible & Incompressible: We know that fluids are classified as Incompressible and
Compressible fluids. Incompressible fluids do not underg
undergo
o significant changes in density as they
flow. In general, liquids are incompressible; water being an excellent example. In contrast
compressible fluids do undergo density changes. Gases are generally compressible; air being the
most common compressible fl
fluid we can find

126. Fluid flow classification

classification:
Steady Flow: Steady flow is defined as the type of flow in which fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure, density etc. at a point do not cchange in time.

where P is any property like pressure, velocity or density. Thus,

Unsteady Flow: It is defined as the type of flow in which fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure,
density etc. at a point changes with time.
Open Channel Flow with Uniform and no
non-uniform flow:
Open-channel
channel flow refers to flow with a free water surface where the fluid flow is driven solely by
gravity. Applications of open-channel
channel flow can be found in both natural (e.g., creeks and rivers) and manman
made structures (e.g., storm water sewer, sanitary sewer and canals). Open-channel
channel flow can be
classified as uniform and non-uniform
uniform flow according to its flow characteristics. For uniform flow,
flow the
velocity, depth, and cross sectional area are constant along the channel; whereas for non-uniform
non
flow,
they vary in the direction of the flow. The depth associated with uniform flow is called the normal depth.
Non-uniform
uniform flow can be further divided into gradually varied and rapidly varied flow, and they will be
introduced in the later sections.. Open
Open-channel
channel flow can also be classified as steady and unsteady flow.
The flow is steady when the velocity and flow depth at a given point do not change with time. On the
other hand, the velocity and flow depth vary with time for unsteady flow.

Rotational and Ir-rotational Flow:

Rotational flow is that type of flow in which in which the fluid particle flowing along streamlines, also
rotate about their own axis. It is that type of flow in which the fluid particle while flowing along
streamlines, do not rotate about their own axis.
127. Fly wheel
128. Follower
129. Force couple system
130. Forced convection
131. Forced vortex
132. Fouling:
Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces to the detriment of function. The
fouling material can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or
organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surface-growth phenomena in that it occurs on a
surface of a component, system or plant performing a defined and useful function, and that the fouling
process impedes or interferes with this function.
Other terms used in the literature to describe fouling include: deposit formation, encrustation, crudding,
deposition, scaling, scale formation, slagging, and sludge formation. The last six terms have a more
narrow meaning than fouling within the scope of the fouling science and technology, and they also have
meanings outside of this scope; therefore, they should be used with caution.
Fouling phenomena are common and diverse, ranging from fouling of ship hulls, natural surfaces in the
marine environment (marine fouling), fouling of heat-transfer components through ingredients
contained in the cooling water or gases, and even the development of plaque or calculus on teeth, or
deposits on solar panels on Mars, among other examples.
133. Four stroke engine:
A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in which the piston
completes four separate strokes which comprise a single thermodynamic cycle. A stroke refers to the full
travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. While risqu slang among some automotive
enthusiasts names these respectively the "suck," "squeeze," "bang" and "blow" strokes.[1] they are
more commonly termed
INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is
forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the
cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top Dead
Centre, the compressed airfuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline
engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward
bottom dead center.

EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre while the
exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).
Two stroke: Khurmi 594
Compare Between Two stroke and four stroke engine:
To understand the mechanical differences between a two stroke and four stroke engine, lets first
consider how the four stroke engine works. The four strokes are:
Intake: The piston travels down the cylinder while the intake valve is opened to allow a mixture of fuel
and air to enter the combustion chamber.
Compression: The intake valve is closed and the piston travels back up the cylinder thereby compressing
the gasses.
Combustion: The spark plug ignites the compressed gas causing it to explode, which forces the piston
down.
Exhaust: The piston rises up the cylinder as the exhaust valve is opened, allowing the piston to clear the
chamber to start the process over.
Each time the piston rises and falls it turns the crankshaft that is responsible for turning the wheels. This
is how fuel is converted into forward motion.
Of note here is that the spark plug only fires once every other revolution. Also, there is a sophisticated
set of mechanisms working in synchronization to create the four strokes. A camshaft must alternately tip
a rocker arm attached either to the intake or exhaust valve. The rocker arm returns to its closed position
via a spring. The valves must be seated properly in the cylinder head to avoid compression leaks. In other
words, a symphony of mechanical events occurs.
In the two stroke engine, all four events are integrated into one simple downward stroke, and one
upward stroke. Two strokes. Intake and exhaust are both integrated into the compression and
combustion movement of the piston, eliminating the need for valves. This is accomplished by an inlet
and exhaust port in the wall of the combustion chamber itself. As the piston travels downward from
combustion, the exhaust port is exposed allowing the spent gasses to rush out of the chamber. The
downward stroke also creates suction that draws in new air/fuel through an inlet located lower in the
chamber. As the piston rises again, it blocks off the inlet and port, compressing the gasses at the top of
the chamber. The spark plug fires and the process starts over. Significantly, the engine fires on every
revolution, giving the two stroke its power advantage.
However, at the lowest point of travel of the piston when the chamber is filling with fuel/air, the exhaust
port exposed above allows some fuel/gasses to escape the chamber. This is easily seen with an outboard
motorboat, evident by the multicolored oil slick surrounding the engine, but it happens with all two
stroke engines. This along with burning oil -- creates pollution and fuel-efficiency issues.
For these reasons, two stroke engines are reserved for intermittent use, where weight-to-power ratio or
orientation issues are important and where mileage isn't primary. Meanwhile manufacturers are looking
for ways to add advantages to four stroke motors, making them smaller, lighter and more robust.

To further understand the difference between a two stroke and a four stroke engine let us consider the
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of the two stroke:
Has more get-up-and-go because it fires once every revolution, giving it twice the power of a four stroke,
which only fires once every other revolution. Packs a higher weight-to-power ratio because it is much
lighter. Is less expensive because of its simpler design. Can be operated in any orientation because it
lacks the oil sump of a four stroke engine, which has limited orientation if oil is to be retained in the
sump. These attributes make two stroke engines very popular for a variety of uses from dirt bikes,
mopeds, jet skis, and small outboard motors, to lawn and garden equipment such as mowers, edgers,
leaf blowers, chain saws and hedge trimmers.
But there are other differences between the two stroke and four stroke engines that aren't so favorable,
which is why you won't see two stroke engines in cars.
Disadvantages of the two stroke:
Faster wear and shorter engine life than a four stroke due to the lack of a dedicated lubricating system.
Requires special two stroke oil ("premix") with every tank of gas, adding expense and at least a minimal
amount of hassle. Heavily pollutes because of the simpler design and the gas/oil mixture that is released
prior to, and in the exhaust (also creates an unpleasant smell). Is fuel-inefficient because of the simpler
design, resulting in poorer mileage than a four stroke engine. Has a high-decibel whine that may exceed
legal noise limits in some areas, depending on the product and local applicable laws. Before purchasing a
two stroke product you might check with your local municipality to see if any restrictions apply.

134. Free body diagram:

A free body diagram, sometimes called a force diagram, is a pictorial device, often a rough working
sketch, used by engineers and physicists to analyze the forces and moments acting on a body. The body
itself may consist of multiple components, an automobile for example, or just a part of a component, a
short section of a beam for example, anything in fact that may be considered to act as a single body, if
only for a moment. A whole series of such diagrams may be necessary to analyze forces in a complex
problem. The free body in a free body diagram is not free of constraints, it is just that the constraints
have been replaced by arrows representing the forces and moments they generate.

Fig: Block on a ramp (top) and corresponding free body diagram of just the block (bottom). For
equilibrium, the line of action of the three force arrows must intersect at a common point.
Purpose: Drawing a free body diagram can help determine the unknown forces on, moments applied to,
and equations of motion of, the body and thus help to analyze a problem in statics or dynamics. In
analysis of structures, free body diagrams for a component of a structure or, part thereof, are used in
determining shear forces and bending moments
135. Free convection
136. Free vortex
137. Freezing point
138. Fuel classification
139. Fuel supply system
140. Gas turbine:
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber inbetween.
The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that air is used
instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure.
Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a hightemperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to
the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to
drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft.
The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high
temperature or a high velocity. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most
desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical
generators, or even tanks.
Theory of Operation:

Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic processes. These are
isentropic compression, isobaric
obaric (constant pressure) combustion and isentropic expansion. Together,
these make up the Brayton cycle.

Fig: Brayton cycle

In a practical gas turbine, gases are first accelerated in either a centrifugal or axial compressor. These
gases are then slowed using a diverging nozzle known as a diffuser; these processes increase the
pressure and temperature of the flow. In an ideal system, this is isentropic. However, in practice, energy
is lost to heat, due to friction and turbulence. Gases then pass from the diffuser to a combustion
chamber, or similar device, where heat is added. In an ideal system, this occurs at constant pressure
(isobaric heat addition). As there is no change in pressure the specific volume of the gases increases. In
practical situations this process is usually accompanied by a slight loss in pressure, due to friction. Finally,
this larger volume of gases is expanded and accelerated by nozzle guide vanes before energy is extracted
by a turbine. In an ideal system, these gases are expanded isentropically and leave the turbine at their
original pressure. In practice this process is not isentropic as energy is once again lost to friction and
turbulence.
If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator or a turboprop,
turbo
the exit
pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is necessary that some pressure
remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gases. In the case of a jet engine only enough
pressure and energy is extracted
cted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The
remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel
an aircraft.
Types of Gas Turbine:

141. Gas turbine_open and closed cycle gas turbine

142. Gear
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another
toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most cases with teeth on the one gear being of identical
shape, and often also with that shape on the other gear. Two or more gears working in tandem are called
a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be
considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power
source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear; however, a gear can also
mesh with a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed belt pulley system. An advantage of
gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.
When two gears mesh, and one gear is bigger than the other (even though the size of the teeth must
match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds and the torques of the two
gears differing in an inverse relationship.
In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars, the term gear,
as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe
similar devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not
actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.
143. Gear classification
Spur Gear: Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk
with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form (they are usually of
special form to achieve constant drive ratio, mainly involute), the edge of each tooth is straight and
aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are
fitted to parallel shafts.

Fig: Spur Gear

Helical Gear: Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over sspur
pur gears. The leading edges of the
teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling
causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in parallel or crossed
orientations.
ations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common
orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non
non-parallel,
parallel, and in this configuration the gears are sometimes
known as "skew gears".

Fig: Helical Gear

The angled
d teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to rrun
un more smoothly
and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side
of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows ggradually
radually across the tooth face to a maximum
then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears, teeth
suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a
characteristic
teristic whine at high speeds. Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those
situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application
involves high speeds, large power transmission, or w
where noise abatement is important. The speed is
considered to be high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.[8]
A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be
accommodated by appropriate thrust bea
bearings,
rings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the
meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.
Bevel Gear: A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel
gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this
point, forming an arbitrary non-straight
straight angle between tthe
he shafts. The angle between the shafts can be

anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90
degrees are called miter gears.

Fig: Bevel Gear

Worm Gear:
Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical gear, which is
called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.
Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For
example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets
vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low
efficiency.

Fig: Worm Gear

Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large
(close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes
which give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at
least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a
'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the
helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the
same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature
applies: a one-toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is
called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the
lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.
In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the
worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock

against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to
overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be used to
advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and
then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of
stringed instruments.
144. Gear Ratio:
The gear ratio of a gear train, also known as its speed ratio, is the ratio of the angular velocity of the
input gear to the angular velocity of the output gear. The gear ratio can be calculated directly from the
numbers of teeth on the gears in the gear train. The torque ratio of the gear train, also known as its
mechanical advantage, is determined by the gear ratio. The speed ratio and mechanical advantage are
defined so they yield the same number in an ideal linkage.
In a gear train, the input gear, or drive gear, transmits power to the output gear, also known as the
driven gear. The input gear, which is usually connected to a power source, such as a motor or engine,
transmits power through any other gears that may be in the gear train to the output gear.
145. Gear trains:
A gear train is formed by mounting gears on a frame so that the teeth of the gears engage. Gear teeth
are designed to ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll on each other without slipping, providing a
smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.
The transmission of rotation between contacting toothed wheels can be traced back to the Antikythera
mechanism of Greece and the South Pointing Chariot of China. Illustrations by the renaissance scientist
Georgius Agricola show gear trains with cylindrical teeth. The implementation of the involute tooth
yielded a standard gear design that provides a constant speed ratio.
Some important features of gears and gear trains are:

The ratio of the pitch circles of mating gears defines the speed ratio and the mechanical
advantage of the gear set.
A planetary gear train provides high gear reduction in a compact package.
It is possible to design gear teeth for gears that are non-circular, yet still transmit torque
smoothly.
The speed ratios of chain and belt drives are computed in the same way as gear ratios
146. Gibbs function
147. Gliding flight
148. Governor classification and principle
149. Grinding
150. Grinding machine
151. Hagen-poisuille law
152. Heat engine:

In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to
mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher state temperature to a
lower state temperature. A heat "source" generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to
the high temperature state. The working substance generates work in the "working body" of the engine
while transferring heat to the colder "sink" until it reaches a low temperature state. During this process

some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working
substance. The working substance can be any system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas
or liquid.
153. Heat exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. The media
may be separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or they may be in direct contact. They are
widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants,
petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment. One common
example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car. The heat source is the hot engine-cooling fluid
(water in most cases), that transfers heat to air flowing through the radiator - the heat transfer medium.
There are two primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement.

In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel
parallel to one another to the other side.

In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter
current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer)
medium.

In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through
the exchanger.

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two
fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can
also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface
area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.
154. Heat transfer
155. Heat treatment

Definition: Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical,
and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat
treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment
involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result
such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case
hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term
heat treatment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific
purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other
manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding
Annealing: Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters a material to
increase its ductility and to make it more workable. It involves heating a material to above its critical
temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling. Annealing can induce ductility,
soften material, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and improve
cold working properties.
In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by heating the material
(generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly letting it cool to room temperature in still air.
Copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or quickly by quenching in water, unlike ferrous
metals, such as steel, which must be cooled slowly to anneal. In this fashion, the metal is softened and
prepared for further worksuch as shaping, stamping, or forming
Case Hardening: Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal
object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus forming a thin layer of harder
metal (called the "case") at the surface. For steel or iron with low carbon content, which has poor to no
hardenability of its own, the case hardening process involves infusing additional carbon into the case.
Case hardening is usually done after the part has been formed into its final shape, but can also be done
to increase the hardening element content of bars to be used in a pattern welding or similar process. The
term face hardening is also used to describe this technique, when discussing modern armor.
Because hardened metal is usually brittler than softer metal, through-hardening (that is, hardening the
metal uniformly throughout the piece) is not always a suitable choice for applications where the metal
part is subject to certain kinds of stress. In such applications, case hardening can provide a part that will
not fracture (because of the soft core that can absorb stresses without cracking) but also provides
adequate wear resistance on the surface.
Tempering: Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of ironbased alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness,
and is done by heating the metal to a much lower temperature than was used for hardening. The exact
temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the specific
composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard
tools are often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are tempered too much higher
temperatures. In glass, tempering is performed by heating the glass and then quickly cooling the surface,
increasing the toughness.
Quenching:
In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece to obtain certain material properties.
It prevents low-temperature processes, such as phase transformations, from occurring by only providing
a narrow window of time in which the reaction is both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically
accessible

Quenching is an accelerated method of bringing a metal back to room temperature, preventing the
lower temperatures through which the material is cooled from having a chance to cause significant
alterations in the microstructure through diffusion. Quenching can be performed with forced air
convection, oil, fresh water, salt water and special purpose polymers.
The slower the quench rate, the longer thermodynamic forces have a chance to alter the microstructure,
which is in some cases desirable, hence the use of different media. When quenching in a liquid medium,
it is important to stir the liquid around the piece to clear away steam from the surface; steam pockets
locally defeat the quench by air cooling until they are cleared away.
Most commonly performed to harden steels, water quenching from a temperature above the austenitic
temperature will cause carbon to be trapped inside the austenitic lath, resulting in the hard and brittle
martensitic phase. Typically, the steel will be subsequently tempered to restore some of the ductility and
toughness lost by conversion to martensite.
156. Helmohtzs function
157. Hot and cold working process
158. Hydraulic control
159. Hydraulic grade line
160. Hydraulic jump
161. Hydrodynamic boundary layer
162. Hydro-electric power plant
163. I.C engine
164. Ideal fluid
165. Ideal Gas & Law:

An ideal gas has the following properties:

An ideal gas is considered to be a "point mass". A point mass is a particle so small, its
mass is very nearly zero. This means an ideal gas particle has virtually no volume.
Collisions between ideal Gases are "elastic". This means that no attractive or repulsive
forces are involved during collisions. Also, the kinetic energy of the gas molecules
remains constant since theses interparticle forces are lacking.
The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation to the
behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by
mile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of Boyle's law and Charles' law.The ideal gas law is often
introduced in its common form:
PV=nRT
where P is the absolute pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the amount of substance of
gas (measured in moles), T is the absolute temperature of the gas and R is the ideal, or universal, gas
constant.
166. Impeller
167. Impulse turbine
168. In line engine
169. Indicated power

170. Indicator diagram

171. Induction Motor
172. Internal energy
173. Iron classification
174. Irrotational flow
175. Isentropic process:
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process is one in which, for purposes of engineering analysis, one may
assume that the process takes place from initiation to completion without an increase or decrease in the
entropy of the system, i.e., the entropy of the system remains constant. It can be proven that any
reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process. A simple more common definition of isentropic
would be one that produces "No change in entropy".
An example of an isentropic process is if a gas is compressed in a fully insulated cylinder without heat
exchange with the surroundings. Or if a gas is expanded through a nozzle so quickly that no heat
exchange with the surroundings has time to take place. The relation for such a process is:
176. Isometric projection
177. Isothermal Process:
An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains constant: T = 0. This
typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the
change occurs slowly enough to allow the system to continually adjust to the temperature of the
reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast, an adiabatic process is where a system exchanges no heat
with its surroundings (Q = 0). In other words, in an isothermal process, the value T = 0 but Q 0, while
in an adiabatic process, T 0 but Q = 0.
Isothermal processes can occur in any kind of system, including highly-structured machines, and even
living cells. Various parts of the cycles of some heat engines are carried out isothermally and may be
approximated by a Carnot cycle. Phase changes, such as melting or evaporation, are also isothermal
processes.
An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature. A physical or chemical process can result in
heat energy being generated or consumed. If heat is generated the process is exothermic. If heat is
consumed, the process is endothermic. If the system undergoing the process is thermally connected to
the outside world, then the outside world acts as a thermal bath, and maintains the system at a constant
temperature, by absorbing any heat energy that is generated, or by supplying heat to make up for the
heat energy consumed. So when the system is connected to a thermal bath the process the system
undergoes is isothermal. For example, most reactions of an acid and base mixed together to form a salt
are exothermic. If a strongly acidic solution is rapidly poured into a strongly basic solution in a beaker
(glass cup) that is wrapped with thermal insulation, the heat generated cannot escape, and the resulting
system of solution plus salt (either dissovled or precipiated) heats up. This is not an isothermal process.
But if the thermal insulation is removed from the beaker of basic solution, and the beaker is set into a
large tub of water, and the temperature of the basic solution is allowed to equilibrate with the water
bath (come to the same temperature), and the acid solution is added slowly, then the heat of reaction

will have time to move through the beaker glass wall into the large bath of water, and the temperature
of the solution in the beaker will remain at the temperature of the bath as the acid is slowly poured into
the beaker and the acid and base react. This is an isothermal process.
178. Jet propulsion
179. Jet propulsion and rocket propulsion
180. Jets
181. JIT
182. Joule cycle
183. Journal
184. Keys and coupling design
185. Kirchoffs law

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL): This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point
rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit
circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the
sum of currents
rents flowing out of that node, or:
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.

Fig: The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction. i2 + i3 = i1 + i4

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or
away from a node, this principle can be stated as:

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL): This law is al

also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop
(or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule
rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is zero, or:
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in
that loop, or:
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them in a
closed loop is equal to the total em
emf available in that loop.

Fig: The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

186. Knocking
187. Laminar flow
188. Laminar heat transfer
189. Lathe
190. Lathe machine
191. Law of conduction
192. Law of friction
193. Laws of thermodynamics
thermodynamics:
Zeroth Law: The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

First Law: The first law of thermody

thermodynamics
namics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for
thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated
system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or
destroyed. The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy of a closed
system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done by the
system on its surroundings. Equivalent
Equivalently,
ly, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible.
For a closed system, in any process, the change in the internal energy is considered due to a
combination of heat added to the system and work done by the system. Taking
as a change in
internal energy, one writes

where and
are quantities of heat supplied to the system by its surroundings and of work done by
the system on its surroundings, respectively
In modern style of teaching science, however, it is conventional to use the IUPAC cconvention
onvention by which
the first law is formulated in terms of the work done on the system. With this alternate sign convention
for work, the first law for a closed system may be written:

IUPAC= International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

Second Law: Clausius statement:
Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other change, connected therewith,
occurring at the same time.
Heat cannot spontaneously flow from cold regions to hot regions without external work being
performed on the system,
ystem, which is evident from ordinary experience of refrigeration, for example. In a
refrigerator, heat flows from cold to hot, but only when forced by an external agent, the refrigeration
system.
Third Law: The entropy of any pure substance in thermodynam
thermodynamic
ic equilibrium approaches zero as the
temperature approaches zero
194. LED
195. Lift:
A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component of this force that is
perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts with the drag force, which is the component
of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic
force.
Lift is the force generated by propellers and wings to propel aircraft and keep them in the air. Birds, bats,
insects, fish, flying reptiles, and even falling plant seeds have usefully exploited lift for millions of years.

Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the airplane in the air. Lift is
generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the lift on a normal airliner is generated by the
wings. Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force produced by the motion of the airplane through the air.
Because lift is a force, it is a vector quantity, having both a magnitude and a direction associated with it.
Lift acts through the center of pressure of the object and is directed perpendicular to the flow direction.
There are several factors which affect the magnitude of lift.
HOW IS LIFT GENERATED?
There are many explanations for the generation of lift found in encyclopedias, in basic physics textbooks,
and on Web sites. Unfortunately, many of the explanations are misleading and incorrect. Theories on the
generation of lift have become a source of great controversy and a topic for heated arguments. To help
you understand lift and its origins, a series of pages will describe the various theories and how some of
the popular theories fail.

Lift occurs when a moving flow of gas is turned by a solid object. The flow is turned in one direction, and
the lift is generated in the opposite direction, according to Newton's Third Law of action and reaction.
Because air is a gas and the molecules are free to move about, any solid surface can deflect a flow. For
an aircraft wing, both the upper and lower surfaces contribute to the flow turning. Neglecting the upper
surface's part in turning the flow leads to an incorrect theory of lift.
NO FLUID, NO LIFT
Lift is a mechanical force. It is generated by the interaction and contact of a solid body with a fluid (liquid
or gas). It is not generated by a force field, in the sense of a gravitational field,or an electromagnetic
field, where one object can affect another object without being in physical contact. For lift to be
generated, the solid body must be in contact with the fluid: no fluid, no lift. The Space Shuttle does not
stay in space because of lift from its wings but because of orbital mechanics related to its speed. Space is
nearly a vacuum. Without air, there is no lift generated by the wings.
NO MOTION, NO LIFT

Lift is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and the fluid. There must be
motion between the object and the fluid: no motion, no lift. It makes no difference whether the object
moves through
hrough a static fluid, or the fluid moves past a static solid object. Lift acts perpendicular to the
motion. Drag acts in the direction opposed to the motion.
196. Load in a power plan
197. Loading classification
198. Logic and Digital circuits
199. Lubricating system
200. Mach cone
201. Mach Number:
In fluid mechanics,
anics, Mach number (M or Ma) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of speed
of an object moving through a fluid and the local speed of sound.

where
M is the Mach number,
v is the velocity of the source relative to the medium, and
vsound is the speed of sound in the medium.
If the mach number is < 1, the flow speed is lower than the speed of sound - and the speed is
subsonic.
If the mach number is ~ 1, the flow speed is approximately like the speed of sound - and the
speed is transonic.
If the mach number is > 1 (between 1 & 5),, the flow speed is higher than the speed of sound and the speed is supersonic.
If the mach number is >> 1 (more than 5), the flow speed is much higher than the speed of
sound - and the speed is hypersonic.
202. Machine:
A machine is a tool containing one or more parts that uses energy to perform an intended action.
Machines are usually powered by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electrical means, and
an are often
motorized. Historically, a power tool also required moving parts to classify as a machine. However, the
advent of electronics technology has led to the development of power tools without moving parts that
are considered machines.
A simple machine
ne is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large
number of more complex machines exist. Examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular
machines, computers, television, and radio.

203. Machining:
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape
and size by a controlled material-removal process. The many processes that have this common theme,
controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction
from processes of controlled material addition, which are known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what
the "controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but it almost always implies the use of machine
tools.
Machining Processes:
The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations
falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing.
Turning operations are operations that rotate the work piece as the primary method of moving
metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool used in turning.
Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear
against the work piece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool used in milling.
Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating
cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the work piece. Drilling
operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills.
Overview of machining technology
Machining is any process in which a cutting tool is used to remove small chips of material from the
workpiece (the workpiece is often called the "work"). To perform the operation, relative motion is
required between the tool and the work. This relative motion is achieved in most machining operation
by means of a primary motion, called "cutting speed" and a secondary motion called "feed". The shape
of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired
shape of the resulting work surface.
Types of machining operation
There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a certain part
geometry and surface texture.
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece
to generate a cylindrical shape. The speed motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed
motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
workpiece.
Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two or four
helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to
form the round hole.

In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a spinning
workpiecee to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used in the
final stages of product manufacture.

Fig: Basic machining process.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to tthe
he material to generate
a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of
rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:
Peripheral milling
Face milling.
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. Also, grinding
and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of machining.
The Cutting Tool:
A cutting tool has one or more sharp
arp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the
work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work material. Connected to the
cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:
The rake face; and
The flank.
The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is called the rake
angle "". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be
positive or negative. The flank of the to
tool
ol provides a clearance between the tool and the newly formed
work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle

between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of
cutting tools:
Single point tool; and
Multiple-cutting-edge tool
A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boreing and planing. During machining,
the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart. The point is sometimes
rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative
to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the
shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.
204. Machine shop_ lathe machine, drilling machine, milling machine, shaper machine,
grinding machine
Lathe:
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as
cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied to the
workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, Thermal spraying, parts reclamation, and
glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being the potter's wheel.
Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution,
plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of
incredible complexity. The material can be held in place by either one or two centers, at least one of
which can be moved horizontally to accommodate varying material lengths. Other work-holding
methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate,
using clamps or dogs.
Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick holders, gun barrels, cue sticks,
table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments (especially woodwind instruments), crankshafts,
and camshafts.

Parts:
A lathe may or may not have legs which sits on the floor and elevates the lathe bed to a working height.
Some lathes are small and sit on a workbench or table, and do not have a stand.
Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal beam (although CNC lathes commonly
have an inclined or vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed).
Woodturning lathes specialized for turning large bowls often have no bed or tail stock, merely a freestanding headstock and a cantilevered tool rest.

Fig: Parts of a wood lathe

At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a headstock.
headstock The
headstock contains high-precision
precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal axle,
with an axis parallel to the bed, called
alled the spindle. Spindles are often hollow, and have exterior threads
and/or an interior Morse taper on the "inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which
work-holding
holding accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have ex
exterior
terior threads
and/or an interior taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or may have a
hand-wheel
wheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered, and impart
motion to the workpiece.
The spindle is driven,
en, either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt or gear drive to a
power source. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor, often either in the
headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand.
In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert the motor
speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed
speed-changing
changing mechanism achieve this, from a cone
pulley or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is essentially a low range, similar in net
effect to the two-speed
speed rear of a truck), to an entire gear train similar to that of a manual-shift
manual
auto
transmission. Some motors have electronic rheostat
rheostat-type speed controls, which
hich obviates cone pulleys or
gears.
The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock,, sometimes referred to as the loose head, as it can be
positioned at any convenient point on the bed, by undoing a locking nut, sliding it to the required area,
and then re-locking it. The tail-stock
stock contains a barrel which does not rotate, but can slide in and out
parallel to the axis of the bed, and directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow, and
usually contains a taper to facilitate the grippin
grippingg of various type of tooling. Its most common uses are to
hold a hardened steel center, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold drill bits
for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible.
Metalworking lathes
thes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a cross-slide,
cross
which is
a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed, and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. Sitting atop the
cross slide is usually another slide called a compound res
rest,
t, which provides 2 additional axes of motion,

rotary and linear. Atop that sits a toolpost, which holds a cutting tool which removes material from the
workpiece. There may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross-slide along the bed.
Woodturning and metal spinning lathes do not have cross-slides, but rather have banjos, which are flat
pieces that sit crosswise on the bed. The position of a banjo can be adjusted by hand; no gearing is
involved. Ascending vertically from the banjo is a tool-post, at the top of which is a horizontal toolrest. In
woodturning, hand tools are braced against the tool rest and levered into the workpiece. In metal
spinning, the further pin ascends vertically from the tool rest, and serves as a fulcrum against which
tools may be levered into the workpiece.
Drilling Machine:
A drilling machine is a device used to make holes in a hard surface. This device is normally made of a
tapered shank rotated by a motor. Most drilling machines are made of hard elements like diamond or
steel.
Drill Press:
A drill press (also known as pedestal drill, pillar drill, or bench drill) is a fixed style of drill that may be
mounted on a stand or bolted to the floor or workbench. Portable models with a magnetic base grip the
steel workpieces they drill. A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table, spindle (or quill), and
drill head, usually driven by an induction motor. The head has a set of handles (usually 3) radiating from
a central hub that, when turned, move the spindle and chuck vertically, parallel to the axis of the
column. The table can be adjusted vertically and is generally moved by a rack and pinion; however, some
older models rely on the operator to lift and reclamp the table in position. The table may also be offset
from the spindle's axis and in some cases rotated to a position perpendicular to the column. The size of a
drill press is typically measured in terms of swing. Swing is defined as twice the throat distance, which is
the distance from the center of the spindle to the closest edge of the pillar. For example, a 16-inch (410
mm) drill press has an 8-inch (200 mm) throat distance.

Fig: Machine Drills

A drill press has a number of advantages over a hand-held drill:

Less effort is required to apply the drill to the workpiece. The movement of the chuck and
spindle is by a lever working on a rack and pinion, which gives the operator considerable
mechanical advantage
The table allows a vise or clamp to be used to position and restrain the work, making the
operation much more secure
The angle of the spindle is fixed relative to the table, allowing holes to be drilled accurately and
consistently
Drill presses are almost always equipped with more powerful motors compared to hand-held
drills. This enables larger drill bits to be used and also speeds up drilling with smaller bits.

For most drill pressesespecially those meant for woodworking or home usespeed change is achieved
by manually moving a belt across a stepped pulley arrangement. Some drill presses add a third stepped
pulley to increase the number of available speeds. Modern drill presses can, however, use a variablespeed motor in conjunction with the stepped-pulley system. Medium-duty drill presses such as those
used in machine shop (tool room) applications are equipped with a continuously variable transmission.
This mechanism is based on variable-diameter pulleys driving a wide, heavy-duty belt. This gives a wide
speed range as well as the ability to change speed while the machine is running. Heavy-duty drill presses
used for metalworking are usually of the gear-head type described below.

Drill presses are often used for miscellaneous workshop tasks other than drilling holes. This includes
sanding, honing, and polishing. These tasks can be performed by mounting sanding drums, honing
wheels and various other rotating accessories in the chuck. This can be unsafe in some cases, as the
chuck arbor, which may be retained in the spindle solely by the friction of a taper fit, may dislodge
during operation if the side loads are too high.
Milling:
Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece advancing
(or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers a wide variety of different
operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling
operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for
machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.
Mill orientation is the primary classification for milling machines. The two basic configurations are
vertical and horizontal. However, there are alternate classifications according to method of control, size,
purpose and power source.
Vertical Mill:
In the vertical mill the spindle axis is vertically oriented. Milling cutters are held in the spindle and rotate
on its axis. The spindle can generally be extended (or the table can be raised/lowered, giving the same
effect), allowing plunge cuts and drilling. There are two subcategories of vertical mills: the bed mill and
the turret mill.
A turret mill has a stationary spindle and the table is moved both perpendicular and parallel to
the spindle axis to accomplish cutting. The most common example of this type is the Bridgeport,
described below. Turret mills often have a quill which allows the milling cutter to be raised and
lowered in a manner similar to a drill press. This type of machine provides two methods of
cutting in the vertical (Z) direction: by raising or lowering the quill, and by moving the knee.
In the bed mill, however, the table moves only perpendicular to the spindle's axis, while the
spindle itself moves parallel to its own axis.

Fig: Vertical Milling Machine

Turret mills are generally considered by some to be more versatile of the two designs. However, turret
mills are only practical as long as the machine remains relatively small. As machine size increases,
moving the knee up and down requires considerable effort and it also becomes difficult to reach the quill
feed handle (if equipped). Therefore, larger milling machines are usually of the bed type.
Also of note is a lighter machine, called a mill-drill. It is quite popular with hobbyists, due to its small size
and lower price. A mill-drill is similar to a small drill press but equipped with an X-Y table. These are
frequently of lower quality than other types of machines.
Horizontal Mill:

Fig: Horizontal Milling Machine

A horizontal mill has the same sort of xy table, but the cutters are mounted on a horizontal arbor (see
Arbor milling) across the table. Many horizontal mills also feature a built-in rotary table that allows
milling at various angles; this feature is called a universal table. While endmills and the other types of
tools available to a vertical mill may be used in a horizontal mill, their real advantage lies in arbormounted cutters, called side and face mills, which have a cross section rather like a circular saw, but are
generally wider and smaller in diameter. Because the cutters have good support from the arbor and have
a larger cross-sectional area than an end mill, quite heavy cuts can be taken enabling rapid material
removal rates. These are used to mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat surfaces.
Several cutters may be ganged together on the arbor to mill a complex shape of slots and planes. Special
cutters can also cut grooves, bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired. These specialty cutters tend to
be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and duplex mills have two. It is also easier to cut gears on a
horizontal mill. Some horizontal milling machines are equipped with a power-take-off provision on the
table. This allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the milling of spiral
features such as hypoid gears.
Comparison between vertical and horizontal:
The choice between vertical and horizontal spindle orientation in milling machine design usually hinges
on the shape and size of a workpiece and the number of sides of the work piece that require machining.
Work in which the spindle's axial movement is normal to one plane, with an endmill as the cutter, lends
itself to a vertical mill, where the operator can stand before the machine and have easy access to the
cutting action by looking down upon it. Thus vertical mills are most favored for diesinking work
(machining a mould into a block of metal). Heavier and longer workpieces lend themselves to placement
on the table of a horizontal mill.

Prior to numerical control, horizontal milling machines evolved first, because they evolved by putting
milling tables under lathe-like headstocks. Vertical mills appeared in subsequent decades, and
accessories in the form of add-on heads to change horizontal mills to vertical mills (and later vice versa)
have been commonly used. Even in the CNC era, a heavy workpiece needing machining on multiple sides
lends itself to a horizontal machining center, while die sinking lends itself to a vertical one.
Grinding Machine:
A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is a machine tool used for grinding, which is a type of
machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts
a small chip from the workpiece via shear deformation.

Fig: Grinding machine

Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low surface roughness)
and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in grinding is on the order of
0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing operation and removes comparatively little
metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth. However, there are some roughing applications in which grinding
removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly. Thus, grinding is a diverse field.
Classification:
These machines include the:
Belt grinder, which is usually used as a machining method to process metals and other materials,
with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is the common
name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kind of
applications like finishing, deburring, and stock removal.
Bench grinder, which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and finishing
operations and is secured to a workbench or floor stand. Its uses include shaping tool bits or
various tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.

 Cylindrical grinder, which includes both the types that use centers and the centerless types. A
cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding wheels. The workpiece is rotated and fed past the
wheel(s) to form a cylinder. It is used to make precision rods, tubes, bearing races, bushings, and
many other parts.
Surface grinder which includes the wash grinder. A surface grinder has a "head" which is
lowered, and the workpiece is moved back and forth past the grinding wheel on a table that has
a permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock. Surface grinders can be manually operated or
have CNC controls.
Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder. These usually can perform the minor function of
the drill bit grinder, or other specialist toolroom grinding operations.
Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies, and
fixtures. Its primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It can also be used for
complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.
Gear grinder, which is usually employed as the final machining process when manufacturing a
high-precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to remove the remaining few
thousandths of an inch of material left by other manufacturing methods (such as gashing or
hobbing).
Shaper:
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except
that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. (Adding axes of motion can yield helical toolpaths, as
also done in helical planing.) A shaper is analogous to a planer, but smaller, and with the cutter riding
a ram that moves above a stationary workpiece, rather than the entire workpiece moving beneath
the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the column; hydraulically
actuated shapers also exist.
Shapers are mainly classified as standard, draw-cut, horizontal, universal, vertical, geared, crank,
hydraulic, contour and traveling head. The horizontal arrangement is the most common. Vertical
shapers are generally fitted with a rotary table to enable curved surfaces to be machined (same idea
as in helical planing). The vertical shaper is essentially the same thing as a slotter (slotting machine),
although technically a distinction can be made if one defines a true vertical shaper as a machine
whose slide can be moved from the vertical. A slotter is fixed in the vertical plane.
Small shapers have been successfully made to operate by hand power. As size increases, the mass of
the machine and its power requirements increase, and it becomes necessary to use a motor or other
supply of mechanical power. This motor drives a mechanical arrangement (using a pinion gear, bull
gear, and crank, or a chain over sprockets) or a hydraulic motor that supplies the necessary
movement via hydraulic cylinders.
Difference between Lathe & Milling:

With a lathe, the piece moves while you shape it; with a milling machine, the piece remains
stationary while the tool moves about to shape it.
A lathe works horizontally, capturing a solid stick of wood at each end and spinning it extremely
rapidly. Mechanical or manual tools are then used against the wood from the side to shape the wood
into a round shape, such as for a chair or table leg or for a baseball bat, etc.
A milling machine works both horizontally and vertically and it used to shape solid materials (metals)
into various shapes by grinding away the unnecessary metal. The shapes are limited only to the
limitations of the machine, and the shapes can be very intricate.
A lathe is a machine which is used to shape wood or metal.
A lathe rotates the work-piece using a motor. By moving a hardened metal cutting tool towards and
into contact with the work-piece, material can be removed. This is known as turning. By moving the
cutting tool parallel to the work-piece, a section can be reduced in diameter. A lathe can be used for
instance to reduce the diameter of one or more sections of a shaft. This would be the case where
the shaft has to be inserted into a bearing. Complex profiles can be created by controlling the
movement of the cutting tool. For instance a spherical profile could be created at the end of a round
bar, threads could be cut into a shaft or in the case of a wood lathe, decorative table and chair legs
can be created and bowls hollowed out.
A milling machine on the other hand uses a high speed cutting tool. This is moved into contact with
the metal and allows slots, holes and shapes of various profiles and depths to be cut. The milling
machine can also remove surrounding material to create a relief effect, the opposite of a slot. A
milling machine performs a similar function as a router used in woodworking.
Difference between shaper and milling:
Milling: Primary cutting motion is rotation of cutter
Shaping: Primary cutting motion is reciprocating motion of the cutting tool
Milling: Genetrix and directrix are parallel
Shaping: Genetrix and directrix are perpendicular to each other
Milling: Cutting done by multi-point cutting cutting tool or milling cutter (it is so called as it has a
number of cutting edges or teeth)
Shaping: Single point goose-neck tool is used
Milling: Rake angle of cutting edges (teeth) varies
Shaping: Rake angle remains constant throughout the whole cycle
Milling: T-slots, gears can be cut; V-groove cannot be done
Shaping: T-slots, gears cannot be cut; V-groove can be done

205. Magnus effect:

The Magnus effect is the commonly observed effect in which a spinning ball (or cylinder) curves away
from its principal flight path. It is important in many ball sports. It affects spinning missiles, and has some
engineering uses, for instance in the design of rotor ships and Flettner aeroplanes.

In terms of ball games, top spin is defined as spin about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction
of travel, where the top surfacee of the ball is moving forward with the spin. Under the Magnus effect,
top spin produces a downward swerve of a moving ball, greater than would be produced by gravity
alone, and back spin
pin has the opposite effect.
effect.Likewise side-spin
spin causes swerve to either side as seen
during some baseball pitches.

Fig: The Magnus effect, depicted with a back

back-spinning
spinning cylinder or ball in an air stream. The arrow
represents the resulting lifting force. The curly flow lines represent a turbulent wake. The airflow has
been deflected in the direction of spin.
The overall behaviour is similar to that around an airfoil (see lift force) with a circulation which is
generated by the mechanical rotation, rather than by airfoil action
206. Manometer:
A manometer is an instrument that use
usess a column of liquid to measure pressure, although the term is
often used nowadays to mean any pressure measuring instrument.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum
vacuumwhich
which is further divided into two
subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra
ultra-high
high vacuum). The applicable pressure range
of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overl
overlap.
ap. Hence, by combining several
different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to
1011 mbar.

207. Mass transfer

208. Maxwells relation
209. Mechanical efficiency
210. MEP
211. Metacenter and metacentric height
212. Metal Properties:
Ductility & Malleability:
In materials science,, ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar property, is a
material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability
to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of

plasticity, the extent to which a solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these
material properties are dependent on temperature and pressure
Plasticity: In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing
non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being
bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material
itself. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield
Hardness: Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape
change when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong
intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are
different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term can apply to deformation
from indentation, scratching, cutting or bending. In metals, ceramics and most polymers, the
deformation considered is plastic deformation of the surface. For elastomers and some polymers,
hardness is defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the surface. The lack of a fundamental
definition indicates that hardness is not be a basic property of a material, but rather a composite one
with contributions from the yield strength, work hardening, true tensile strength, modulus, and others
factors. Hardness measurements are widely used for the quality control of materials because they are
quick and considered to be nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations produced by the test
are in low stress areas.
Toughness: In materials science and metallurgy, toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy
and plastically deform without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy
per volume that a material can absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as the resistance to fracture of
a material when stressed. Toughness requires a balance of strength and ductility

213. Metal coating

214. Metal spraying
215. Milling
216. Milling machine and various operations
217. MIS
218. Mohrs circle
219. Molding

Molding is the process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable raw material using a rigid
frame called a mold or matrix. This itself may have been made using a pattern or model of the
final object.
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material like
plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold,
adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a cast. The very common bi-valve molding

process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Piece
Piece-molding
molding uses a number of
different molds, each creating a section of a complicated object. This is generally only used
us for
larger and more valuable objects.
Difference between Casting and Molding:
220. Mollier chart
221. Moment:
In physics, moment relates to the perpendicular distance from a point to a line or a surface, and is
derived from the mathematical
ematical concept of moments. It is frequently used in combination with other
physical quantities as in moment of inertia, moment of force, moment of momen
momentum,
tum, magnetic moment
and so on.
Moment is also used colloquially for different physical quantities that depend upon distance. For
example,
mple, in engineering and kinesiology the term moment is often used instead of the more complete
term moment of force. A moment of force is the product of the distance of a force from an axis times the
magnitude of the force, i.e., F d, where F is the mag
magnitude
nitude of the force and d is the moment of the
force. See torque for a more complete description of moments of force or couple for the related concept
free moment of force also known as a force couple.

It may also be used when the distance is squared, as in moment of inertia. The moment of inertia is the
"second moment" of mass of a physical object. This is the object's resistance or inertia to changes in its
angular motion. It is roughly the sum of the squared distances (i.e., moments) of the object's mass
mas
particles about a particular axis

Difference between moment and torque:

In physics, torque can informally be thought of as "rotational force". The SI units for Torque are newton
metres although centinewton meters (cNm), foot
foot-pounds force (ftlbf), inch
ch pounds (lbfin) and inch
ounces (ozfin) are also frequently used expressions of torque. The symbol for torque is , the Greek
letter tau. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with th
the
e work of Archimedes
on levers.
In physics, the moment of force (often just moment, though there are other quantities of that name
such as moment of inertia) is a quantity that represents the magnitude of force applied to a rotational
system at a distance from the axis of rotation. The concept of tthe
he moment arm, this characteristic
distance, is key to the operation of the lever, pulley, gear, and most other simple machines capable of
generating mechanical advantage. The SI unit for m
moment is the newton meter (Nm).
Moment = Magnitude of Force x Perpe
Perpendicular distance to the pivot (Fd)
Torque vs Moment

Motion is defined as a change in the position of an object. It can be described in terms of velocity, speed,
acceleration, direction, displacement, shape, and time. Force is necessary to change the position of an
object as it is the influence that causes an object to undergo changes.
The force can either be a push or a pull which causes an object to change its form and speed. Many
forces can be applied to objects, two of which are torque and moment. In physics, they may refer to the
same thing, but in mechanical engineering they are different.
Moment is a concept of physics and engineering that refers to the tendency of a force to move an object.
It is a measure of the tendency of the force to rotate an object at an axis through a point. It is the
perpendicular distance from the point of rotation to the forces line of action.
It can be calculated at any point, and its value is the result of the force and the moment arm. Its symbol
is the letter M, and the Newton meter (Nm) is its International System of Units (SI) unit. It is
represented as NM.
Torque, on the other hand, can be synonymous with moment. It refers to the tendency of a force to
cause the rotation of an object in an axis or a pivot. It is the measure of the turning force of an object,
and it is used to measure coupling.
When two equal and opposite forces act together and cause an object to rotate or turn, there is
coupling. An example is the force applied by the hand on a screwdriver. This moment of a coupling is
called a torque. Its symbol is the Greek letter tau, and its International System of Units (SI) unit is also
the Newton meter, the same as moment. It is presented as Nm/revolution and is an application of
moment.
While moment is a static force, is produced by any lateral force, and is used in non-rotational
circumstances, torque is a movement force and is used when there is a pivot.
Summary:
1. Moment is a concept of engineering and physics that refers to the tendency of a force to move an
object while torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an object in a pivot.
2. Moment is the perpendicular distance between the point of rotation and the forces line of action
while torque is a measure of the turning force of an object.
3. Torque is used to measure coupling while moment is not.
4. Both torque and moment have the Newton meter as the SI unit; torque is presented as Nm/revolution
while moment is presented as Nm.
5. Moment is a static force while torque is a movement force.
6. Moment is used when there is no rotation while torque is used when there is rotation and a pivot.
7. Moment has the symbol M while torque has the Greek letter tau as its symbol.

222. Moment Diagram

223. Moment of inertia of area and mass
224. Momentum equation
225. Motor:
Electric motor, which is more commonly known as the motor, is a device that is capable of converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motors are divided into two categories based on the
form of electricity on which it runs. These two types are DC motors and AC motors. DC motors run on
direct current and AC motors run on alternating current. Most electric motors are based on time varying
magnetic fields. The axel containing all the moving parts of the motor is known as the armature. The rest
of the motor is known as the body. The motor has time varying magnetic fields that are produced by
induction coils. In a typical DC motor, the coils are placed at the armature of the motor. In most of the AC
motors, the coils are placed on the body of the motor and the armature is composed of permanent
magnets. There is also a third type of motors known as universal motors. Universal motors are capable of
running on AC voltage and DC voltage alike.
226. Mouth piece
227. NC machine
228. Newtons law:
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that together laid the foundation for classical
mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion
in response to said forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three
centuries, and can be summarized as follows:

First law: When viewed in an inertial reference frame, an object either is at rest or moves at a
constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.
Second law: The vector sum of the forces on an object is equal to the total mass of that object
multiplied by the acceleration of the object. In more technical terms, the acceleration of a body
is directly proportional to, and in the same direction as, the net force acting on the body, and
inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, F = ma, where F is the net force acting on the object, m
is the mass of the object and a is the acceleration of the object. Force and acceleration are both
vectors (as denoted by the bold type). This means that they have both a magnitude (size) and a
direction relative to some reference frame.
Third law: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously
exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the first body.

229. Nicholas chart

230. Noble metal
231. Normalizing
232. Notch

A notch may be defined as an opening in one side of a tank or a reservoir, like a large orifice, with the
upstream liquid level below the top edge of the opening. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of a
liquid through a small channel or a tank.

Since the top edge of the notch above the liquid level serves no purpose, therefore a notch may have
only the bottom edge and sides.
The bottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is known as sill or crest of the notch and the sheet of
liquid flowing over a notch (or a weir) is known as nappe or vein. A notch is, usually made of a metallic
plate and is used to measure the discharge of liquids.
There are many types of notches, depending upon their shapes. But the following are important from
the subject point of view.

Rectangular notch
Triangular notch
Trapezoidal notch
Stepped notch

233. Nozzle_convergent and divergent

234. Nuclear fuels
235. Nuclear power plant
236. Oblique projection
237. Ohm Law
238. Open channel flow:
Open-channel flow, a branch of hydraulics, is a type of liquid flow within a conduit with a free surface,
known as a channel. The other type of flow within a conduit is pipe flow. These two types of flow are
similar in many ways, but differ in one important respect: the free surface. Open-channel flow has a free
surface, whereas pipe flow does not
239. Orifice

The orifice is a small opening in the wall or base of a vessel through which the fluid flows. A mouthpiece
is an attachment in the form of a small tube of pipe fixed to the orifice. Its length is usually tow or three
times the diameter of orifice. It is used to increase the amount of discharge.
240. Orifice Plate/Meter:
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting flow (in
the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be
determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as
a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a relationship between the
pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases
and vice versa.

Description: An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in which
fluid flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the
small hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical
orifice, at the so-called vena contracta point (see drawing to the right). As it does so, the velocity and the
pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure change
once again. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the
vena contracta, the volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.

241. Orthogonal projection

242. Otto cycle
243. Parallel axis theorem
244. Parts of an aircraft:
Let's start by first looking at a very basic schematic of a traditional aircraft layout, and we will add more
complexity as we go.

1) Basic Components:
Fuselage: The fuselage is that portion of the aircraft that usually contains the crew and payload, either
passengers, cargo, or weapons. Most fuselages are long, cylindrical tubes or sometimes rectangular box
shapes. All of the other major components of the aircraft are attached to the fuselage. Empennage is

another term sometimes used to refer to the aft portion of the fuselage plus the horizontal and vertical
tails.

Fig: Basic components of an aircraft

Wing: The wing is the most important part of an aircraft since it produces the lift that allows a plane to
fly. The wing is made up of two halves, left and right, when viewed from behind. These halves are
connected to each other by means of the fuselage. A wing produces lift because of its special shape, a
shape called an airfoil. If we were to cut through a wing and look at its cross-section, as illustrated below,
we would see that a traditional airfoil has a rounded leading edge and a sharp trailing edge.

Fig: Definition of an airfoil

Engine: The other key component that makes an airplane go is its engine, or engines. Aircraft use several
different kinds of engines, but they can all be classified in two major categories. Early aircraft from the
Wright Flyer until World War II used propeller-driven piston engines, and these are still common today
on light general aviation planes. But most modern aircraft now use some form of a jet engine. Many
aircraft house the engine(s) within the fuselage itself. Most larger planes, however, have their engines
mounted in separate pods hanging below the wing or sometimes attached to the fuselage. These pods
are called nacelles.

Horizontal stabilizer: If an aircraft consists of only a wing or a wing and fuselage, it is inherently unstable.
Stability is defined as the tendency of an aircraft to return to its initial state following a disturbance from
that state. The horizontal stabilizer, also known as the horizontal tail, performs this function when an
aircraft is disturbed in pitch. In other words, if some disturbance forces the nose up or down, the
horizontal stabilizer produces a counteracting force to push the nose in the opposite direction and
restore equilibrium. When in equilibirum, we say that an aircraft is in its trim condition. The horizontal
tail is essentially a miniature wing since it is also made up of an airfoil cross-section. The tail produces a
force similar to lift that balances out the lift of the wing to keep the plane in equilibrium. To do so, the
tail usually needs to produce a force pointed downward, a quantity called downforce.

Vertical stabilizer: The vertical stabilizer, or vertical tail, functions in the same way as the horizintal tail,
except that it provides stability for a disturbance in yaw. Yaw is the side-to-side motion of the nose, so if
a disturbance causes the nose to deflect to one side, the vertical tail produces a counteracting force that
pushes the nose in the opposite direction to restore equilibrium. The vertical tail is also made of an
airfoil cross-section and produces forces just like a wing or horizontal tail. The difference is that a wing or
horizontal tail produces lift or downforce, forces that are pointed up or down from the aircraft.
Meanwhile the vertical tail produces a force pointed to one side of the aircraft. This force is called sideforce.
2) Basic Control Surfaces:
In addition to the wing and tail surfaces, aircraft need some additional components that give the pilot
the ability to control the direction of the plane. We call these items control surfaces.

Fig: Aircraft control surfaces and axes of motion

Elevator: The elevator is located on the horizontal stabilizer. It can be deflected up or down to produce a
change in the downforce produced by the horizontal tail. The angle of deflection is considered positive
when the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected upward. Such a deflection increases the downforce
produced by the horizontal tail causing the nose to pitch upward.
Rudder: The rudder is located on the vertical stabilizer. It can be deflected to either side to produce a
change in the side-force produced by the vertical tail. The angle of deflection is usually considered
positive when the trailing edge of the rudder is deflected towards the right wing. Such a deflection
creates a side-force to the left which causes the nose to yaw to the right.
Aileron: Ailerons are located on the tips of each wing. They are deflected in opposite directions (one
goes trailing edge up, the other trailing edge down) to produce a change in the lift produced by each
wing. On the wing with the aileron deflected downward, the lift increases whereas the lift decreases on
the other wing whose aileron is deflected upward. The wing with more lift rolls upward causing the
aircraft to go into a bank. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the aileron on the
left wing deflects downward and that on the right wing deflects upward. The greater lift generated on
the left wing causes the aircraft to roll to the right.
The effects of these control surfaces and the conventions for positive deflection angles are summarized
in the following diagram.

Fig: Aircraft control surfaces and positive deflection angles

3) Additional Components:
We've already seen the major parts of a typical plane, but a few important items were left out for
simplicity. Let's go back and discuss a few of these items.

Fig: Components of an aircraft

Flap: Flaps are usually located along the trailing edge of both the left and right wing, typically inboard of
the ailerons and close to the fuselage. Flaps are similar to ailerons in that they affect the amount of lift
created by the wings. However, flaps only deflect downward to increase the lift produced by both wings
simultaneously. Flaps are most often used during takeoff and landing to increase the lift the wings
generate at a given speed. This effect allows a plane to takeoff or land at a slower speed than would be

possible without the flaps. In addition to flaps on the trailing edge of a wing, a second major category is
flaps on the leading edge. These leading-edge flaps, more often called slats, are also used to increase lift.
More information on slats and flaps is available here.
Cabin & cockpit: Sometimes these two terms are used synonymously, but most of the time the term
cockpit is applied to a compartment at the front of the fuselage where the pilots and flight crew sit. This
compartment contains the control yolks (or sticks) and equipment the crew use to send commands to
the control surfaces and engines as well as to monitor the operation of the vehicle. Meanwhile, a cabin is
typically a compartment within the fuselage where passengers are seated.
Nose & main gear: The landing gear is used during takeoff, landing, and to taxi on the ground. Most
planes today use what is called a tricycle landing gear arrangement. This system has two large main gear
units located near the middle of the plane and a single smaller nose gear unit near the nose of the
aircraft.
Trim tab: The above diagram illustrates a "trim tab" located on the elevator. These control tabs may be
located on other surfaces as well, such as a rudder control tab or a balance tab on the aileron.
Nonetheless, the purpose of all these tabs is the same. In the previous section, we discussed that the
horizontal stabilizer and elevator are used to provide stability and control in pitch. In order to keep a
plane in a steady, level orientation, the elevator usually has to be deflected by some small amount. Since
it would be very tiring for a pilot to physically hold the control stick in position to keep the elevator at
that deflection angle for an entire flight, the elevator is fitted with a small "tab" that creates that
elevator deflection automatically. The trim tab can be thought of almost as a "mini-elevator." By
deflecting the tab up or down, it increases or decreases the downforce created by the elevator and
forces the elevator to a certain position. The pilot can set the deflection of the trim tab which will cause
the elevator to remain at the deflection required to remain trimmed.
245. Pattern Making
246. Patterns
247. Perpetual Motion Machine:
A perpetual motion machine of the first kind produces work without the input of energy. It thus
violates the first law of thermodynamics: the law of conservation of energy.
A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts
thermal energy into mechanical work. When the thermal energy is equivalent to the work done,
this does not violate the law of conservation of energy. However, it does violate the more subtle
second law of thermodynamics (see also entropy). The signature of a perpetual motion machine
of the second kind is that there is only one heat reservoir involved, which is being spontaneously
cooled without involving a transfer of heat to a cooler reservoir. This conversion of heat into
useful work, without any side effect, is impossible, according to the second law of
thermodynamics.
A more obscure category is a perpetual motion machine of the third kind, usually (but not
always) defined as one that completely eliminates friction and other dissipative forces, to
maintain motion forever (due to its mass inertia). Third in this case refers solely to the position in
the above classification scheme, not the third law of thermodynamics. Although it is impossible

to make such a machine as dissipation can never be 100% eliminated in a mechanical system, it
is nevertheless possible to get very close to this ideal
248. Pictorial projection
249. Piercing
250. Pipe:
A pipe is a closed conduit (generally of circular section) which is used for carrying fluids under pressure.
The fluid completely fills the cross section of the pipe. When the pipe is partially full of liquid, it then
behaves like an open channel.
251. Pitot tube
A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. It is widely used
to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas
velocities in industrial applications. The pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point
in the flow stream and not the average velocity in the pipe or conduit.

The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, a
pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow
flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or
(particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.
The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the fluid velocity (airspeed in
aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states:
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
Which can also be written

Solving that for velocity we get:

252. Planers
253. Planks law
254. Pneumatic control
255. Pool boiling
256. Powder metallurgy
257. Power plant accessories
accessories- cooling tower, spray pond, chimney design and foundation
design
258. Power transmission elements_belt, rope and chains
259. Pressure:
Everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air
pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific
reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
Absolute pressure is zero-referenced
referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure
plus atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is zero-referenced
ferenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a
negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be
labeled a "vacuum gauge."
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
260. Priming:

261. Propellant
262. Propeller:
A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure
difference is produced between the
he forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil
airfoil-shaped
shaped blade, and a fluid
(such as air or water) is accelerated behind the blade. Propeller dynamics can be modelled by both
Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law. A marine propeller is sometimes colloquially
colloquia known as a
screw propeller or screw.

Aircraft propellers or airscrews convert rotary motion from piston engines, turboprops or electric motors
to provide propulsive force. They may be fixed or variable pitch. Early aircraft propellers were carved by
hand from solid or laminated wood with later propellers being constructed from metal. The most
modern propeller designs use high-technology composite materials.
The propeller is usually attached to the crankshaft of a piston engine, either directly or through a
reduction unit. Light aircraft engines often do not require the complexity of gearing but on larger
engines and turboprop aircraft it is essential.

Difference between Propeller and Impeller:

263. Psychometric chart:

264. Psychometric processes:

Sensible cooling and sensible heating are basic psychometric processes used for various applications. Let
us see what these processes are and how they are represented on the psychometric chart.
Psychometric Processes
In the domestic and industrial air conditioning applications some psychometric processes have to be
performed on the air to change the psychometric properties of air so as to obtain certain values of
temperature and humidity of air within the enclosed space. Some of the common psychometric

processes carried out on air are: sensible heating and cooling of air, humidification and dehumidification
of air, mixing of various streams of air, or there may be combinations of the various processes.

Illustrating and analyzing the psychometric properties and psychometric processes by using the
psychometric chart is very easy, convenient and time saving. In the next few paragraphs we shall see
some of the most commonly employed psychometric processes in the field of HVAC and how they are
represented on the psychometric chart.
Sensible Cooling of the Air
Cooling of the air is one of the most common psychometric processes in the air conditioning systems.
The basic function of the air-conditioners is to cool the air absorbed from the room or the atmosphere,
which is at higher temperatures. The sensible cooling of air is the process in which only the sensible heat
of the air is removed so as to reduce its temperature, and there is no change in the moisture content
(kg/kg of dry air) of the air. During sensible cooling process the dry bulb (DB) temperature and wet bulb
(WB) temperature of the air reduces, while the latent heat of the air, and the dew point (DP)
temperature of the air remains constant. There is overall reduction in the enthalpy of the air.
In the ordinary window or the split air conditioner the cooling of air is carried out by passing it over
the evaporator coil, also called as the cooling coil. The room air or the atmospheric air passes over this
coil carrying the refrigerant at extremely low temperatures, and gets cooled and passes to the space
which is to be maintained at the comfort conditions.

In general the sensible cooling process is carried out by passing the air over the coil. In the unitary air
conditioners these coils are cooled by the refrigerant passing through them and are called also called
evaporator coils. In central air conditioners these coils are cooled by the chilled water, which is chilled by

its passage through the evaporator of the large air conditioning system. In certain cases the coil is also
cooled by the some gas passing inside it.
The sensible cooling process is represented by a straight horizontal line on the psychometric chart. The
line starts from the initial DB temperature of the air and ends at the final DB temperature of the air
extending towards the left side from high temperature to the low temperature (see the figure below).
The sensible cooling line is also the constant DP temperature line since the moisture content of the air
remains constant. The initial and final points on the psychometric chart give all the properties of the air.
Sensible Heating of the Air
Sensible heating process is opposite to sensible cooling process. In sensible heating process the
temperature of air is increased without changing its moisture content. During this process the sensible
heat, DB and WB temperature of the air increases while latent of air, and the DP point temperature of
the air remains constant.
Sensible heating of the air is important when the air conditioner is used as the heat pump to heat the
air. In the heat pump the air is heated by passing it over the condenser coil or the heating coil that carry
the high temperature refrigerant. In some cases the heating of air is also done to suit different industrial
and comfort air-conditioning applications where large air conditioning systems are used.

In general the sensible heating process is carried out by passing the air over the heating coil. This coil
may be heated by passing the refrigerant, the hot water, the steam or by electric resistance heating coil.
The hot water and steam are used for the industrial applications.

Like the sensible cooling, the sensible heating process is also represented by a straight horizontal line
on the psychometric chart. The line starts from the initial DB temperature of air and ends at the final
temperature extending towards the right (see the figure). The sensible heating line is also the constant
DP temperature line.
265. Pump:
Definition:
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action.
Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid:
direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps
Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform
mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual
operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical
applications to large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from wells, aquarium
filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the
energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical industry,
pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial
replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.
In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps have evolved, and biomimicry is
sometimes used in developing new types of mechanical pumps.
Classification:
Mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid.
Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse
pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps and valve less pumps.

Positive displacement pump:

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and forcing (displacing)
that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity
on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid
flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant through each cycle of
operation.
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move the
fluid:

 Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane or sliding
vane, circumferential piston, flexible impeller, helical twisted roots (e.g. the Wendelkolben
pump) or liquid ring vacuum pumps
Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston or diaphragm pumps
Linear-type positive displacement: rope pumps and chain pumps
Difference between Pump and Motor:
A 'Motor' is a 'Driver'.
The Electrical Energy supplied to a motor is converted to Mechanical Energy of rotation. This
mechanical energy is transferred by a shaft to drive another machine. (A vehicle engine is also
called a 'Motor' as it's driving the wheels of a vehicle via a drive-shaft).
A 'Pump' is a 'Driven Machine' as is a 'Compressor' or a Washing machine etc. A Pump is also a
mechanical device used to convert its Energy to that of Pressure in a liquid in order to move the
liquid from a low elevation to a higher elevation or, from a low pressure system to a higher
pressure system.
Pumps move liquids, compressors move gases.
Technically, the two are different machines although they may be constructed as a combined
unit for convenience and efficiency.
A pump is a device for moving some substance that can flow, most commonly a fluid but
sometimes a loose solid like sand, grain, etc. A pump needs a power source to drive it just as an
electronic device needs a power supply. That power source is often (but not always) a motor.
A motor may be defined as a machine for converting some form of energy into motion. Of
course, when a pump and its driving motor are made as a combined unit, the whole assembly is
often simply called a pump.
Pump vs Motor
Pump and motor are two devices that are widely used in many industries. The motor is a device
that is capable of rotating when a voltage is applied. The pump is a device that is used to move
fluids. Both of these devices are very important in fields such as electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering, civil engineering, constructions, robotics, automobile engineering and
numerous other fields. In this article, we are going to discuss what motor and pump are, the
operational principles behind motor and pump, the types and variations of motors and pumps,
and finally the difference between motor and pump.
Motor
Electric motor, which is more commonly known as the motor, is a device that is capable of
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motors are divided into two
categories based on the form of electricity on which it runs. These two types are DC motors and
AC motors. DC motors run on direct current and AC motors run on alternating current. Most
electric motors are based on time varying magnetic fields. The axel containing all the moving
parts of the motor is known as the armature. The rest of the motor is known as the body. The
motor has time varying magnetic fields that are produced by induction coils. In a typical DC
motor, the coils are placed at the armature of the motor. In most of the AC motors, the coils are

placed on the body of the motor and the armature is composed of permanent magnets. There is
also a third type of motors known as universal motors. Universal motors are capable of running
on AC voltage and DC voltage alike.
Pump
A pump is a device that is used to move fluids. Pumps use mechanical energy to transfer these
fluids. The most common example for the pump is the air compressor. It takes air from outside
and transfer it to the inside overcoming the pressure of the gas inside. The pump is the device
which does the work on the fluid in order to get it to a higher energy or entropy state. Most of
the mechanical pumps are based on a rotary motion. There are pumps that operate on a linear
motion too. Most pumps are driven by either electric motors or fuel engines. A pump does not
convert energy to different forms; it rather directs the energy on a desired way. Some energy is
always lost as sound, vibrations, and heat; therefore, a pump is not 100% efficient. The three
main types of pumps are known as direct lift pumps, displacement pumps and gravity pumps.
What is the difference between a Motor and a Pump?
A pump does not convert one form of energy to a different form of energy, but the Motor
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
A pump requires a driving mechanism such as a motor or an engine to operate. The motor only
requires an energy source.
Whats the difference between Centrifugal pump and reciprocating pumps?
Pumps are devices used for displacement of fluids from one place to another. There are many
types of pumps out of which more popular ones are centrifugal and reciprocating pumps.
Though they serve the same purpose of transportation of liquid, there are many differences in
their features and working principle that will be made clear in this article.
Pumps are mainly divided into kinetic and positive displacement pumps. Difference between
these two types is the way liquid is transferred. While kinetic pumps impart energy to the liquid
that converts into pressure energy, positive displacement involves imparting force to the amount
of liquid inside the casing. While centrifugal pump belongs to the category of kinetic pumps,
reciprocating pump is a type of positive displacement pump.
How centrifugal pump works?
Centrifugal pumps employ a fast rotating impeller to provide kinetic energy to the incoming
liquid. Impeller results in a centrifugal force that draws in liquid and increases kinetic energy of
the liquid causing it to move out fast of the pump. This accelerated velocity gets converted into
pressure head when it is discharged from the pump. Centrifugal pumps can transport high
volumes of liquid at a time, but the performance of a centrifugal pump gets reduced as the
pressure rises.

How reciprocating pump works?

Reciprocating pumps cause transfer of liquid through a crankshaft, eccentric cam or alternating fluid
pressure acting on a piston or a plunger that has a reciprocating motion, giving the pump its name. The
plunger moves back and forth through a cylinder providing pulses of pressure as it moves. The pumps
are ideally suited to conditions where short burst of high pressure are required. This is why centrifugal
pumps can give a high follow rate but at a low pressure. Some examples of reciprocating pumps are
bicycle pumps, well pumps, and the classic hand pumps that provide water to people where there is no
electricity in remote areas.
Difference between Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pump
While centrifugal pumps make use of fast rotating impellers, reciprocating pumps use cylinders that
have back and forth moving plungers inside.
Centrifugal pumps are better suited for liquids having high viscosity whereas reciprocating pumps are
ideal for liquids having low viscosity
Reciprocating pumps operate at low speeds of 1150 rpm, whereas centrifugal pumps operate at high
rpm of 1750-3540.
There is a problem of priming whenever there is a leakage in centrifugal pumps whereas there is no
such problem in reciprocating pumps.
Reciprocating pumps have a constant flow and head whereas centrifugal pumps have variable flow and
head.

266. Punching
Punching is a metal forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the
workpiece to create a hole via shearing. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug
from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this
slug may be recycled and reused or discarded. Punching is often the cheapest method for creating holes
in sheet metal in medium to high production volumes. When a specially shaped punch is used to create
multiple usable parts from a sheet of material the process is known as blanking. In forging applications
the work is often punched while hot, and this is called hot punching.
267. P-V, T-S and H-S diagram for water and steam
268. Radiation:
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in
matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. When the
temperature of the body is greater than absolute zero, interatomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of
the atoms or molecules to change. This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which
produces electromagnetic radiation, and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of
energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature.

Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an incandescent light
bulb, the infrared radiation emitted by animals and detectable with an infrared camera, and the cosmic
microwave background radiation. Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal
conductiona person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire, even if the surrounding
air is very cold.
Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun. The Earth also emits
thermal radiation, but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution (infrared rather than
visible) because it is cooler. The Earth's absorption of solar radiation, followed by its outgoing thermal
radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the
Earth.
If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic
equilibrium, the radiation is called blackbody radiation. Planck's law describes the spectrum of
blackbody radiation, which depends only on the object's temperature. Wien's displacement law
determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation, and the StefanBoltzmann law gives the
radiant intensity.
Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer.
Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves mainly in the infrared
region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal agitation of its composing molecules.
Radiation heat transfer can be described by a reference to the so-called 'black body'.
The Black Body
A black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface. Actual black bodies
don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are approximated by a hole in a box filled with highly
absorptive material. The emission spectrum of such a black body was first fully described by Max Planck.

A black body is a hypothetic body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of thermal radiation incident
on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and therefore appear black if their temperatures are low enough
so as not to be self-luminous. All blackbodies heated to a given temperature emit thermal radiation.

The radiation energy per unit time from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as

q = T4 A

(1)

Where
q = heat transfer per unit time (W)
= 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)
269. Radius of Gyration
270. Ramjet
271. Rankine cycle
272. Ray diagram
273. Rayleigh line
274. Reaction turbine
275. Reciprocation pump with classification
276. Rectifier
277. Refrigerant
A refrigerant is a compound that can readily absorb heat at one temperature, then compressed by a heat
pump to a higher temperature and pressure where it changes phase and discharges the absorbed heat.
Refrigerant is the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat during
evaporation from the region of low temperature and pressure, and releases heat during condensation at
a region of higher temperature and pressure.
Primary and Secondary Refrigeration:
Primary refrigerants are those which can be directly used for the purpose of refrigeration. If the
refrigerant is allowed to flow freely into the space to be refrigerated and there is no danger of possible
harm to human beings, then primary refrigerants are used. The refrigerants used in home refrigerators
like Freon-12 are primary refrigerants.
The primary refrigerants are those that pass through the processes of compression, cooling or
condensation, expansion and evaporation or warming up during cyclic processes. Ammonia, R12, R22,
carbon dioxide come under this class of refrigerants.
On the other hand, there may be certain situations in which we cannot allow the refrigerant to come in
direct contact with the items being refrigerated, and then the refrigerant used is termed as a secondary
refrigerant. As for example, we cannot allow a toxic refrigerant to be used for air conditioning in
residential buildings. There are some refrigerants which are highly inflammable and so their direct use is
forbidden for safety reasons. Again, it may so happen that if direct refrigeration, such as in cooling a big
cold storage, is allowed, then the amount of refrigerant required may be so large that its cost becomes
prohibitively high. These are some typical situations for which we favor the use of secondary
refrigerants. Water and brine solutions are common examples of secondary refrigerants.

On the other hand, the medium which does not go through the cyclic processes in a refrigeration system
and is only used as a medium for heat transfer are referred to as secondary refrigerants. Water, brine
solutions of sodium chloride and calcium chloride come under this category.
A good secondary refrigerant should have the following features:

Non corrosive
Inexpensive
High specific heat
Good heat transfer characteristics.
Chemically stable
Low viscosity

The simplest secondary refrigerant is water, much used in air conditioning work above 0 C, the
corrosion problem is minimal with a closed system. Used where application of control and flexibility
allows some expenditure above the minimum.
Obviously, water has its limitations for lower temperature work due to its freezing, but this
disadvantage can be overcome by adding a salt to form a brine

Desirable Properties of a Primary Refrigerant

The liquid has to vaporize at the evaporator coil to cause cooling. The liquid at the
evaporator coil should therefore vaporize easily, otherwise the compressor will have to
create too much of vacuum to cause the liquid to vaporize. Thus, 'Boiling Point' of the
refrigerant should be low.
Pressure to which compressor has to compress the drawn gases, to convert them back
into liquid at the condenser, should be low. Therefore the refrigerant vapors should be
easily condensable.
Every kilogram of liquid refrigerant vaporized at the evaporator coil should take away a
large amount of heat, i.e. 'Specific Enthalpy of Vaporization' (latent heat) of refrigerant
should be high. Otherwise mass flow rate will be high.
Once the evaporated gas is compressed, the temperature of seawater should be low
enough (below critical temperature of the refrigerant) to be able to condense these
gases to liquid form. Thus 'Critical Temperature' of the refrigerant should be high.
Vapor produced after vaporization of the liquid at the evaporator coil should occupy
minimum volume, to keep pipeline diameter, compressor size, etc. small and
compact. Thus refrigerant vapor should have low 'Specific Volume'.
Non-Corrosive
Stable
Non-flammable and Non-explosive
Compatible with crank case oil, oil seals, gaskets, metal involved, etc.
Easy leak detection possible
Non-Toxic

Environmental friendly
Cheap
Easily available
Easily stored

Designation of Refrigerant:
These are represented by a three digit nomenclature. Here, the first digit represents the
number of carbon atoms in the compound minus one, the second digit stands for the
number of hydrogen atoms plus one while the third digit stands for the number of fluorine
atoms. The remaining atoms are chlorine.
As an example, let us consider the refrigerant having R22 as its three digit nomenclature.
According to the above mentioned convention,
No. of C atoms in R22: C 1 = 0 => C = 1
No. of H atoms in R22: H + 1 = 2 => H = 1
No. of F atoms in R22: F = 2
Since there is only one carbon atom in the compound, this compound has originated from
the methane series (CH4). From the calculation, we can see there is one hydrogen atom and
two fluorine atoms. The remaining valence bond of carbon will be balanced by chlorine.
Thus, the substance is

Figure 4.1 Graphical Representation of Monochloro-Difluoro-Methane

Therefore, chemical formula of R22 is CHClF2 and has the name Monochloro-difluoromethane (figure. 4.1).
Taking again the example of R134, we can calculate its chemical formula as above which
gives us
No. of C atoms: C 1 = 1 => C = 2
No. of H atoms: H + 1 = 3 => H = 2
No. of F atoms: F = 4
Therefore, no. of Cl atoms: Cl = 0

Figure 4.2 Graphical Representation of Tetrafluoroethane

The compound is C2H2F2 and its name is Tetrafluoroethane

278. Refrigeration _ processes

279. Refrigeration system:
Refrigeration, the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or from a substance for the purpose
of lowering the temperature. It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of
a body below the temperature of its surroundings.
TR_Tonne of Refrigeration: A Ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of Refrigeration Effect
produced by uniform melting of 1 ton of ice from and at 0C in 24 hrs. In practice it is taken as 232.6 kJ /
min.
Since the latent heat of ice is 335 KJ/Kg, therefore one tonne of refrigeration, 1TR=1000*335 in 24
hours= (1000*335)/(24*60)= 232.6 KJ/min
A much less common definition is: 1 tonne of refrigeration is the rate of heat removal required to freeze
a metric ton (1000 kg) of water at 0C in 24 hours.
280. Reheat factor
281. Relative humidity:
Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in an air-water mixture to the
saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed temperature. The relative humidity of air depends on
temperature and the pressure of the system of interest.
282. Reversibility and irreversibility
283. Rivet and riveted joint
Rivets are a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a smooth
cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On
installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e.,
deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place. To
distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the factory head and the
deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail.

Fig: Solid rivets

Fig: Sophisticated riveted joint on a railway bridge

Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension loads (loads
parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is much more capable of supporting shear loads (loads
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications.
Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building, such as copper nails and clinch bolts, work on the
same principle as the rivet but were in use long before the term rivet was introduced and, where they
are remembered, are usually classified among nails and bolts respectively.
Huge structures like bridges, locomotives, ships, etc. inevitably require joints in order to plan out an
inner firm, enduring skeleton. Riveted joints play an important part in forming these joints, and are
used extensively for the purpose. Here we discuss the major types of rivet joints.
It would be virtually impossible building huge structures like bridges, skyscrapers, aircrafts, locomotives,
etc. without involving these tiny yet robust integrating mechanical devices called rivets. Rivets not only
allow these structures to become huge, but also ensure equivalent strengths and endurance to
withstand the many different natural and accidental challenges.
Basically rivets are bolt-like devices made up of ductile metals, which are inserted through parallel holes
drilled across the joining members and punched from the other side to produce perfect and permanent
firm locking joints.
Lets discuss and learn the different types of rivet joints popularly incorporated with structural
engineering.

Types of Riveted Joints

Primarily there are two major types of riveted joints depending upon the way the structures may
be joined: lap joints and butt joints.
Lap Joint: In this type the ends carrying the drillings of the two members are positioned such
that their surfaces slightly overlap. The riveting is then done through the coincident holes (see
figure).

Butt Joint: Here, the two members or the elements are linked edge to
edge in one straight line. The clamping is produced using an external cover plate which is then

riveted as above through the parallel drilled holes.

A butt joint may utilize either a single cover plate or a couple of them.
As shown in the figure below, butt joints which involve a single cover plate with the riveting are

called single cover butt joint.

In places where added rigidity and strength is required, two cover plates are usually incorporated,
which are then riveted from the upper and the lower surfaces of the members. This type of joint
is called double cover butt joint.
In addition to the above types, riveted joints may be further classified into the following,
depending upon the way they are inserted:

Single Riveted Joint: In this type more than one rivet are fixed along a single row typically in a
lap joint, while in a butt joint the rows may appear from both the upper and the lower surfaces.

Double Riveted Joint: When two rows of rivets are included over a lap joint or when two rows
of rivets are utilized from both top and bottom in a butt joint are referred to as double butt joint.

Chain Riveted Joint: In this type the accommodated rows of rivets may lie exactly opposite to

each other over straight lines.

Zig Zag Riveted Joint: Unlike the above type, here the rows may appear staggered and not

complementing each other.

Diamond Riveted Joint: You will find this type of joint typically in butt joints.

As can be seen in the figure above, here the rivets are arranged in rows which are broader at the
butt ends and taper out at the opposite edges forming quite the shape of a diamond.

284. Riveted and welded connections

285. Rocket jet
286. Rotameter
287. Rotational flow
288. Routh stability control
289. S.I engine
290. Sand Casting
291. Saw diagram
292. Scavenging:
In automotive usage, scavenging is the process of pushing exhausted gas-charge out of the cylinder and
drawing in a fresh draught of air or fuel/air mixture for the next cycle.
This process is essential in having a smooth-running internal combustion engine. If scavenging is
incomplete, the following stroke will begin with a mix of exhaust fumes rather than clean air. This may be
inadequate for proper combustion, leading to poor running conditions such as four-stroking.
Scavenging is equally important for both two- and four-stroke engines. However it is more difficult to
achieve in two-stroke engines, owing to the proximity, or even overlap, of their induction and exhaust
strokes. Scavenging is also equally important to both petrol and diesel engines.
Modifying the exhaust system, (i.e. modifying the exhaust gas velocity by changing exhaust tube
diameters) can detract from the "ideal" scavenging effects, and reduce fuel efficiency and power if not
properly planned out and executed.
To increase scavenging potential, the entire path from intake to exhaust (i.e. all powertrain parts) to
tailpipe must be tuned in sync with each other. This will ensure that the air flow is never interrupted. The
acceleration and deceleration of this exhaust gas is what will hinder the scavenging potential.
For example, fast flowing heads and a tunnel ram intake combined with a poorly planned camshaft and
exhaust system will cause the air to "slow down" and "speed up" throughout its journey, thus reducing
its scavenging potential. So, to increase scavenging potential, the air must maintain a positive linear
acceleration curve.
There are three types of scavenging on the basis of the flow of air:

 Direct, cross or loop scavenging

Reverse, using Schnuerle porting
Uniflow scavenging
The term 'loop' scavenging has been applied confusingly to both cross scavenging and reverse
scavenging.
293. Sectional views
294. Self-Starter
295. Semiconductor
296. Series and parallel connection:
Many circuits can be simplified by combining two or more elements into a single equivalent element.
The different elements have rules about the ways they combine when they are in series and when they
are in parallel. This reference section will first describe what it means for two terminal elements to be
connected in series and parallel, and then how these various elements combine.

Series
A two terminal element is in series with another two terminal element if there is a path from a terminal
of one of the elements to a terminal of the other element that does not branch off at any point. The two
elements cannot have both nodes in common (they would be in parallel then).

R1 and R2 in series, R3 and R4 are not

It is also important to note that order does not matter because of KCL (there must be the same current
going through all of the elements in series because current cannot build up in any of the elements. This
is useful for simplifying series connections where there are different types of elements.

is equivalent to

Parallel
A two terminal element is in parallel with another two terminal element if they have common nodes for
both of their terminals.
R1 and R2 are in parallel, R3 is not in parallel with the other two.

The order of parallel elements also does not matter.

is equivalent to

297. Servo motor:

A servomotor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of angular position, velocity and
acceleration.It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a
relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use with
servomotors.

Servomotors are not a different class of motor, on the basis of fundamental operating principle, but use
servomechanism to achieve closed loop control with a generic open loop motor.
Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics, CNC machinery or automated manufacturing
Mechanism:
As the name suggests, a servomotor is a servomechanism. More specifically, it is a closed-loop
servomechanism that uses position feedback to control its motion and final position. The input to its
control is some signal, either analogue or digital, representing the position commanded for the output
shaft.
The motor is paired with some type of encoder to provide position and speed feedback. In the simplest
case, only the position is measured. The measured position of the output is compared to the command
position, the external input to the controller. If the output position differs from that required, an error
signal is generated which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction, as needed to bring the
output shaft to the appropriate position. As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero and
the motor stops.
The very simplest servomotors use position-only sensing via a potentiometer and bang-bang control of
their motor; the motor always rotates at full speed (or is stopped). This type of servomotor is not widely
used in industrial motion control, but it forms the basis of the simple and cheap servos used for radiocontrolled models.
More sophisticated servomotors measure both the position and also the speed of the output shaft. They
may also control the speed of their motor, rather than always running at full speed. Both of these
enhancements, usually in combination with a PID control algorithm, allow the servomotor to be brought
to its commanded position more quickly and more precisely, with less overshooting.
Servomotors vs. stepper motors
Servomotors are generally used as a high performance alternative to the stepper motor. Stepper motors
have some inherent ability to control position, as they have built-in output steps. This often allows them
to be used as an open-loop position control, without any feedback encoder, as their drive signal specifies
the number of steps of movement to rotate. This lack of feedback though limits their performance, as
the stepper motor can only drive a load that is well within its capacity, otherwise missed steps under
load may lead to positioning errors. The encoder and controller of a servomotor are an additional cost,
but they optimise the performance of the overall system (for all of speed, power and accuracy) relative
to the capacity of the basic motor. With larger systems, where a powerful motor represents an increasing
proportion of the system cost, servomotors have the advantage.
Many applications, such as laser cutting machines, may be offered in two ranges, the low-priced range
using stepper motors and the high-performance range using servomotors.[2]
298. Setting
299. Shaft design
300. Shear diagram

301. Shear force and bending moment diagrams

302. Shock wave
303. Sintering
304. Six sigma
Six Sigma at many organizations simply means a measure of quality that strives for near perfection. But
the statistical implications of a Six Sigma program go well beyond the qualitative eradication of
customer-perceptible defects. Its a methodology that is well rooted in mathematics and statistics.
305. Slenderness ration
306. Slip:
307. Solar cells
308. Solar radiation
309. Soldering
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a
filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces. In brazing, the
filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece metal does not melt. In the past, nearly all
solders contained lead, but environmental concerns have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for
electronics and plumbing purposes. Soldering is used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork from
flashing to jewelry.
310. Source and sink:
311. Specific fuel consumption
312. Specific heats
313. Specific humidity
314. Specific speed
315. Speed structure diagram
316. Spring design
317. Spring material
318. Stability
319. Stagnation point:
In fluid dynamics, a stagnation point is a point in a flow field where the local velocity of the fluid is zero.
Stagnation points exist at the surface of objects in the flow field, where the fluid is brought to rest by the
object. The Bernoulli equation shows that the static pressure is highest when the velocity is zero and
hence static pressure is at its maximum value at stagnation points. This static pressure is called the
stagnation pressure
In fluid dynamics, stagnation pressure (or pitot pressure) is the static pressure at a stagnation point in a
fluid flow. At a stagnation point the fluid velocity is zero and all kinetic energy has been converted into
pressure energy (isentropically). Stagnation pressure is equal to the sum of the free-stream dynamic
pressure and free-stream static pressure. Stagnation pressure is sometimes referred to as pitot pressure
because it is measured using a pitot tube.
320. Steady one dimensional flow

321. Steam jet refrigeration

322. Steam power plant
323. Steam tables
324. Steam turbine
325. Steel classification
326. Steering system
327. Steffen-boltzman equation
328. Stirling cycle
329. Stoichiometric AFR
330. Strain
Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its original size and
shape. For example, if a block 10 cm on a side is deformed so that it becomes 9 cm long, the strain is (109)/10 or 0.1 (sometimes expressed in percent, in this case 10 percent.) Note that strain is dimensionless.
331. Stream function
332. Stress
In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any
direction relative to S. The vector T may be regarded as the sum of two components: the normal stress
(Compression or Tension) perpendicular to the surface, and the shear stress that is parallel to the
surface.
Stress is usually used for solid substances for forces developed in them which have a tendency to restore
the solid to its original state in response to outside influences which puts it in a different state.
Supposing I pull a spring to extend it. The spring develops forces which tend to contract it. This is called
stress. Restoring force developed per unit area is called stress.
Difference between stress and strain:
Stress is the force applied to the object. Strain is the resulting deformation of the object. Stress is either
force, or force-per-unit-area of the material's cross-section. Pascal would be a common unit. Strain is
usually proportional to the original dimensionality, such as percent stretching or a dimensionless number
such that 1.0 means the length has doubled. Usually said number is much less than1.0, like 0.01. (1%)
Many metals yield up to 10% strain before breaking. Brittle glass will often break at 0.1% strain.
Difference between pressure and stress:
Stress: This is nothing but the restoring force.
You can say like when a force is applied to an object the material in it will try to oppose this force by
resisting the applied force or you can say a resistance force. This force per unit area is nothing but stress.
Pressure is the force a fluid delivers when it being compresses/ unit area.
Please do not get confuse as both has same units ( N/sq.m)
333. Stress- strain diagram

A typical stress-strain curve is shown in Figure 1. If we begin from the origin and follow the graph a
number of points are indicated.

Point A: At origin, there is no initial stress or strain in the test piece. Up to point A Hooke's Law is obeyed
according to which stress is directly proportional to strain. That's why the point A is also known as
proportional limit. This straight line region is known as elastic region and the material can regain its
original shape after removal of load.
Point B: The portion of the curve between AB is not a straight line and strain increases faster than stress
at all points on the curve beyond point A. Point B is the point after which any continuous stress results in
permanent, or inelastic deformation. Thus, point B is known as the elastic limit or yield point.
Point C & D: Beyond the point B, the material goes to the plastic stage till the point C is reached. At this
point the cross- sectional area of the material starts decreasing and the stress decreases to point D. At
point D the workpiece changes its length with a little or without any increase in stress up to point E.
Point E: Point E indicates the location of the value of the ultimate stress. The portion DE is called the
yielding of the material at constant stress. From point E onwards, the strength of the material increases
and requires more stress for deformation, until point F is reached.
Point F: A material is considered to have completely failed once it reaches the ultimate stress. The point
of fracture, or the actual tearing of the material, does not occur until point F. The point F is also called
ultimate point or fracture point.
If the instantaneous minimal cross-sectional area can be measured during a test along with P and L and if

the constant-volume
volume deformation assumption is valid while plastic deformation is occurring, then a true
stress-strain
strain diagram can be constructed.
334. Stress_ tensile, compressive, bearing ,shearing stress
335. Structure, truss, fram
frame
336. Supercharging
337. Surface tension
338. Surface
ce treatment
339. Suspension system
340. Thermal boundary layer
341. Thermal efficiency:
In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses
thermal energy, such as an internal combustion engine, a steam turbine or a ste
steam
am engine, a boiler, a
furnace, or a refrigerator for example. In other words, efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion
or transfer process is accomplished.
In general, energy conversion efficiency is the ratio between the useful output of a device
devi and the input,
in energy terms. For thermal efficiency, the input, Q_{{in}}
Q_{{in}}\,,
,, to the device is heat, or the heat-content
heat
of
a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, W_{{out}}
W_{{out}}\,,
,, or heat, Q_{{out}}\,,
Q_{{out}} or
possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition
of thermal efficiency is[1]

From the first law of thermodynamics, the energy output cannot exceed the input, so

Fig: Output energy is always lower than input energy

When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Efficiency is
typically less than 100% because there are inefficiencies such as friction and heat loss that convert the

energy into alternative forms. For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25%
efficiency, and a large coal-fueled electrical generating plant peaks at about 46%. The largest diesel
engine in the world peaks at 51.7%. In a combined cycle plant, thermal efficiencies are approaching 60%.
Such a real-world value may be used as a figure of merit for the device.
For engines where a fuel is burned there are two types of thermal efficiency: indicated thermal efficiency
and brake thermal efficiency. This efficiency is only appropriate when comparing similar types or similar
devices.
For other systems the specifics of the calculations of efficiency vary but the non-dimensional input is still
same. Efficiency = Output energy / input energy
342. Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics is a branch of natural science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation
to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure that
partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to
general constraints that are common to all materials, not the peculiar properties of particular materials.
These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics describes
the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its
microscopic constituents, such as molecules. Its laws are explained by statistical mechanics, in terms of
the microscopic constituents.
Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering.
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency and power output of
early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot
(1824) who believed that the efficiency of heat engines was the key that could help France win the
Napoleonic Wars.[1] Irish-born British physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition
of thermodynamics in 1854:[2]
"Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of
bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency."
Initially, thermodynamics, as applied to heat engines, was concerned with the thermal properties of
their 'working materials' such as steam, in an effort to increase the efficiency and power output of
engines. Thermodynamics later expanded to the study of energy transfers in chemical processes, for
example to the investigation, published in 1840, of the heats of chemical reactions[3] by Germain Hess,
which was not originally explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and
work. From this evolved the study of Chemical thermodynamics and the role of entropy in chemical
reactions.
343. Thermodynamic cycles:
Definition: A thermodynamic cycle consists of a linked sequence of thermodynamic processes that
involve the transference of heat and work into and out of the system, while varying pressure,
temperature, and other state variables within the system, and that eventually returns the system to its
initial state. In the process of passing through a cycle, the working fluid (system) may convert heat from a

warm source heat into useful work and dispose of the remaining heat to a cold sink, thereby acting as a
heat engine. Conversely, the cycle may be reversed and use work to move heat from a cold source and
transfer it to a warm sink thereby acting as a heat pump.
During a closed cycle, the system returns to its original thermodynamic state of temperature and
pressure. Process quantities
ies (or path quantities), such as heat and work are process dependent. For a
cycle for which the system returns to its initial state the first law of thermodynamics applies:

The above states that there is no change of the energy of the system over the cycle. Ein might be the
work and heat input during the cycle and Eout would be the work and heat ouput during the cycle.
Reversible Cycle: In thermodynamics, a reversible proces
process,
s, or reversible cycle if the process is cyclic, is a
process that can be "reversed" by means of infinitesimal changes in some property of the system
without entropy production (i.e. dissipation of energy). Due to these infinitesimal changes, the system is
in thermodynamic equilibrium throughout the entire process. Since it would take an infinite amount of
time for the reversible process to finish, perfectly reversible processes are impossible. However, if the
system undergoing the changes responds much fas
faster
ter than the applied change, the deviation from
reversibility may be negligible. In a reversible cycle, the system and its surroundings will be exactly
exact the
same after each cycle.

An alternative definition of a reversible process is a process that, after iitt has taken place, can be reversed
and causes no change in either the system or its surroundings. In thermodynamic terms, a process
"taking place" would refer to its transition from its initial state to its final state.
The basic concept is that most of th
the
e thermodynamic processes have a preferred direction just as Heat
always flows from hotter object to colder object. Once a gas is released in a room, it expands in room
and never contracts without indulgence of any external force etc.
But in some systems, the reverse occurs. Normally it happens when that system is close to thermal
equilibrium. This equilibrium has to be inside the system itself and also within the system and its
surroundings. When this stage is reached, even a small change can change the di
direction
rection of the process
and therefore such a reversible process is also known as an equilibrium process.
For Example:
A very simple example can be of two metal jars A and B which are at a thermal equilibrium and are in
contact with each other. Now when we h
heat
eat jar A slightly, heat starts to flow from Jar A to Jar B. This is
the direction of this process. Now this process can be reversed just by cooling Jar A slightly. When Jar A is
cooled, heat flows from Jar B to Jar A till thermal equilibrium is reached.

Irreversible Cycle: In science, a process that is not reversible is called irreversible. This concept arises
most frequently in thermodynamics, as applied to processes
In thermodynamics, a change in the thermodynamic state of a system and all of its surroundings cannot
be precisely restored to its initial state by infinitesimal changes in some property of the system without
expenditure of energy. A system that undergoes an irreversible process may still be capable of returning
to its initial state; however, the impossibility occurs in restoring the environment to its own initial
conditions. An irreversible process increases the entropy of the universe. However, because entropy is a
state function, the change in entropy of a system is the same whether the process is reversible or
irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics can be used to determine whether a process is
reversible or not.
All complex natural processes are irreversible.[1] The phenomenon of irreversibility results from the fact
that if a thermodynamic system, which is any system of sufficient complexity, of interacting molecules is
brought from one thermodynamic state to another, the configuration or arrangement of the atoms and
molecules in the system will change in a way that is not easily predictable.[2][3] A certain amount of
"transformation energy" will be used as the molecules of the "working body" do work on each other
when they change from one state to another. During this transformation, there will be a certain amount
of heat energy loss or dissipation due to intermolecular friction and collisions; energy that will not be
recoverable if the process is reversed.
The process is said to be an irreversible process if it cannot return the system and the surroundings to
their original conditions when the process is reversed. The irreversible process is not at equilibrium
throughout the process.
For example, when we are driving the car uphill, it consumes a lot of fuel and this fuel is not returned
when we are driving downhill. Many factors contribute in making any process irreversible. The most
common of these are
1) Friction
2) Unrestrained expansion of a fluid
3) Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
4) Mixing of two different substances.
Carnot Cycle: The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Lonard Sadi
Carnot in 1823 and expanded by in the 1830s and 1840s. It can be shown that it is the most efficient
cycle for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely, creating a temperature
difference (e.g. refrigeration) by doing a given amount of work.
Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. When a system is taken through a series
of different states and finally returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred.
In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby
acting as a heat engine. A system undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine, although such
a "perfect" engine is only a theoretical limit and cannot be built in practice

The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:

1. Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the "hot" temperature, T1 (isothermal heat
addition or absorption). During this step (1 to 2 on Figure 1, A to B in Figure 2) the gas is allowed
to expand and it does work on the surroundings. The temperature of the gas does not change
during the process, and thus the expansion is isothermal. The gas expansion is propelled by
absorption of heat energy Q1 and of entropy
from the high temperature
reservoir.
2. Isentropic (reversible
reversible adiabatic
adiabatic)) expansion of the gas (isentropic work output). For this step (2
to 3 on Figure 1, B to C in Figure 2) the mechanisms of the en
engine
gine are assumed to be thermally
insulated, thus they neither gain nor lose heat. The gas continues to expand, doing work on the
surroundings, and losing an equivalent amount of internal energy. The gas expansion causes it to
cool to the "cold" temperature
temperature, T2. The entropy remains unchanged.

Figure 1: A Carnot cycle illustrated on a PV diagram to illustrate the work done.

Figure 2: A Carnot cycle acting as a heat engine, illustrated on a temperature-entropy

temperature
diagram

3. Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the "cold" temperature, T2. (isothermal heat
rejection) (3 to 4 on Figure 1, C to D on Figure 2) Now the surroundings do work on the gas,
causing an amount of heat energy Q2 and of entropy
to flow out of the gas to
the low temperature reservoir. (This is the same amount of entropy absorbed in step 1, as can be
seen from the Clausius inequality
inequality.)
4. Isentropic compression of the gas (isentropic work input). (4 to 1 on Figure 1, D to A on Figure
2) Once again the mechanisms of the engine are assumed to be thermally insulated. During this
step, the surroundings do work on the gas, increasing its internal energy and compressing it,
causing the temperature to rise to T1. The entropy remains unchanged. At this point the
th gas is in
the same state as at the start of step 1.

Otto Cycle: An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle which describes the functioning
of a typical spark ignition reciprocating piston engine,, the thermodynamic cycle most commonly
found in automobile engines.
The Otto cycle is constructed out of:

Top and bottom of the loop: a pair of quasi

quasi-parallel and isentropic processes (frictionless,
adiabatic reversible).
Left and right sides of the loop: a pair of parallel isochoric processes (constant volume).

The isentropic processes of compression and expansion implies no loss of mechanical energy
due to friction and no transfer of heat into or out of the system during those processes, hence the
cylinder, and piston are assumed impermeable to heat during those processes. Heat flows into the
loop through the left pressurizing process and some of it flows back out through the right
depressurizing process, and the difference between the heat added and heat removed is equal to
the net mechanical work generated.
The idealized diagrams of a four-stroke
stroke Otto cycle Both diagrams:
the intake (A) stroke is performed by an isobaric expansion, followed by an adiabatic compression (B)
stroke. Through the combustion of fuel, heat is added in an isochoric (isovolumetric) process,
process followed
by an adiabatic expansion process, characterizing the power (C) stroke. The cycle is closed by the exhaust
(D) stroke,, characterized by isochoric cooling and isentropic compression processes.

Fig: Pressure-Volume
ume diagram

Fig: Temperature
Temperature-Entropy
Entropy diagram

The processes are described by:

Process 0-1
1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at constant pressure.

Process 1-22 is an isentropic and adi

adiabatic
abatic compression of the air as the piston moves from
bottom dead centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC).
Process 2-3 is a constant-volume
volume heat transfer to the working gas from an external source while
the piston is at top dead centre. This process is inte
intended
nded to represent the ignition of the fuel-air
fuel
mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.
Process 3-44 is an isentropic expansion (power stroke).
Process 4-11 completes the cycle by a constant
constant-volume
volume process in which heat is rejected from the
air while the piston
ston is a bottom dead center.
Process 1-0
0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a constant pressure process.

The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume, isentropic
expansion, and rejection of heat at cons
constant volume. In the case of a four-stroke
stroke Otto cycle,
technically there are two additional processes: one for the exhaust of waste heat and combustion
products at constant pressure (isobaric), and one for the intake of cool oxygen
oxygen-rich
rich air also at
constant pressure; however, these are often omitted in a simplified analysis. Even though those
two processes are critical to the functioning of a real engine, wherein the details of heat transfer
and combustion chemistry are relevant, for the simplified analysis of the thermodynamic cycle, it
is more convenient to assume that all of the waste
waste-heat
heat is removed during a single volume
change.
Diesel Cycle: The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and
volume of the combustion chamber of the Diesel engine, invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1897. It
is assumed to have constant pressure during the first part of the "combustion" phase (V_2 to V_3
in the diagram, below).
The image on the left shows a p--V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where is pressure and
is specific volume.. The ideal Diesel cycle follows the following four distinct processes (The
color references refer to the color of the line on the diagram.):

Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression of the fluid (blue)

Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating (red)

Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion (yellow)

Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling (green)

The Diesel is a heat engine: it converts heat into work.. The isentropic processes are impermeable
to heat: heat flows into the loop through the left expanding isobaric process and some of it flows
back out through the right depressurizing process, and the heat that remains does the work.

Work in (
Heat in (
Work out (
torque)
Heat out (

) is done by the piston compressing the wo

working fluid
) is done by the combustion of the fuel
) is done by the working fluid expanding on to the piston (this produces usable
) is done by venting the air

Brayton Cycle:
The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cyc
cycle
le that describes the workings of a constant pressure heat
engine. Gas turbine engines and air breathing jet engines use the Brayton Cycle. Although the
Brayton cycle is usually run as an open system (and indeed must be run as such if internal
combustion iss used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes of thermodynamic analysis that
the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system.
Ideal Brayton cycle:

Isentropic process - ambient air is drawn into the compressor, wher

where
e it is pressurized.
isobaric process - the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is
burned, heating that airaa constant
constant-pressure
pressure process, since the chamber is open to flow in and
out.
Isentropic process - the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expan
expanding
ding through a
turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor.
Isobaric process - heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

Adiabatic process - compression.

Isobaric process - heat addition.
Adiabatic process - expansion.
Isobaric process - heat rejection.

Fig: Idealized Brayton cycle

Rankine Cycle:
The Rankine cycle is a mathematical model that is used to predict the performance of steam engines.
The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into
mechanical work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the
working fluid. The Rankine cycle, in the form of steam engines, generates abo
about
ut 90% of all electric power
pow
used throughout the world, including virtually all biomass, coal, solar thermal and nuclear power plants
Description:
The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam
steam-operated
operated heat engines commonly found
in thermal power generation plants generate power. The heat sources used in these power plants are
usually nuclear fission or the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of vaporization of the working fluid. Also,
unless the pressure and temperature reach super critical levels in the steam boiler, the temperature
range the cycle can operate over is quite small: steam turbine entry temperatures are typically 565C
(the creep limit of stainless steel) and steam condenser temperatures are around 30C. This gives a
theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency for the steam turbine alone of about 63% compared with an
actual overall thermal efficiency of up to 42% for a modern coal
coal-fired power station. This low steam
turbine entry temperature (compared to a gas turbine) is why the Rankine (steam) cycle is often used as
a bottoming cycle to recover otherwise rejected heat in combined
combined-cycle
cycle gas turbine power stations.
The working fluid in a Rankine cycle follows a closed loop and is reused constantly. The water vapor with
condensed droplets often seen billowing from power stations is created by the cooling systems (not
directly from the closed-loop
loop Rankine power cycle) and represents the mean
meanss for (low temperature)
waste heat to exit the system, allowing for the addition of (higher temperature) heat that can then be
converted to useful work (power). This 'exhaust' heat is represented by the "Qout" flowing out of the
lower side of the cycle shown
wn in the T/s diagram below. Cooling towers operate as large heat exchangers

by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid and simultaneously evaporating cooling
water to the atmosphere. While many substances could be used as the workin
workingg fluid in the Rankine
cycle, water is usually the fluid of choice due to its favorable properties, such as its non-toxic
non
and
unreactive chemistry, abundance, and low cost, as well as its thermodynamic properties. By condensing
the working steam vapor to a liquid the pressure at the turbine outlet is lowered and the energy
required by the feed pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine output power and these factors
contribute to a higher efficiency for the cycle. The benefit of this is offset by the low te
temperatures
mperatures of
steam admitted to the turbine(s). Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures
approaching 1500C. However, the thermal efficiencies of actual large steam power stations and large
modern gas turbine stations are similar.

Fig: Physical layout of the four main devices used in the Rankine cycle

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. These states are identified by numbers (in brown)
in the Ts diagram. Below

Process 1-2:: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pres
pressure.
sure. As the fluid is a liquid at this
stage the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3:: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by
an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. The input energy required
equired can be
easily calculated using mollier diagram or h-s chart or enthalpy-entropy chart also known as
steam tables.
Process 3-4:: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine,, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor,, and some condensation may occur. The
output in this process can be easily calculated using the Enthalpy-entropy
entropy chart or the steam
tables.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
pressure to become a saturated
urated liquid
liquid.

In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and turbine would
generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output. Processes 1-2 and 3-4
4 would be
represented by vertical lines on the TT-S diagram and more closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The

Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in
the turbine, which reduces the energy removed by the condensers.

Fig: Ts diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating between pressures of 0.06bar and 50bar
344. Tires
345. Tolerance and Allowance:
In engineering and machining, an allowance is a planned deviation between an actual dimension and a
nominal or theoretical dimension, or between an intermediate
intermediate-stage
tage dimension and an intended final
dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain amount of difference allows for some known
factor of compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess metal may be left because it is
needed to complete
lete subsequent machining. Common cases are listed below. An allowance, which is a
planned deviation from an ideal, is contrasted with a tolerance, which accounts for expected but
unplanned deviations.
Examples of engineering and machining allowances
allowances:
Outer dimensions (such as the length of a bar) may be cut intentionally oversize, or inner
dimensions (such as the diameter of a hole) may be cut intentionally undersize, to allow for a
predictable dimensional change following future cutting, grinding, or heat-treating
treating operations.
For example:
the outer diameter of a pin may be ground to 0.0005 inches (0.013 mm) oversize because it is
known that subsequent heat
heat-treatment
treatment of the pin is going to cause it to shrink by 0.0005 inches
(0.013 mm).

 A hole may be drilled 0.012 inches (0.30 mm) undersize to allow for the material that will be
removed by subsequent reaming.
Outer dimensions (such as the diameter of a railroad car's axle) may be cut intentionally
oversize, or inner dimensions (such as the diameter of the railroad car's wheel hub) may be cut
intentionally undersize, to allow for an interference fit (press fit).
A part may be cast intentionally too big when it is desired to later machine the surface. This
ensures that the roughness that the casting process leaves is removed, and a smooth machined
surface is produced. This machining allowance may be e.g. 1mm, but this depends on the size of
the part and the accuracy of the casting process.
A chain segment may be oversized so that at the end of its useful service life (around 20 years),
the corroded chain is still above the minimum diameter required to meet the minimum break
strength. This is called a corrosion allowance and accounts for the steel molecules lost through
oxidation, erosion and wear, and Microbially Influenced Corrosion.

Confounding of the engineering concepts of allowance and tolerance

Often the terms allowance and tolerance are used imprecisely and are improperly interchanged
in engineering contexts. This is logical because both words generally can relate to the abstract
concept of permission that is, of a limit on what is acceptable. However, in engineering,
separate meanings are enforced, as explained below.
A tolerance is the limit of acceptable unintended deviation from a nominal or theoretical
dimension. Therefore, a pair of tolerances, upper and lower, defines a range within which an
actual dimension may fall while still being acceptable.
In contrast, an allowance is a planned deviation from the nominal or theoretical dimension.

Tolerance
In the engineering discipline, much importance is attached to the concept of tolerance. Metal parts are
used in great numbers, in assemblies and manufacturing plants. These parts must fit each other
comfortably. This is possible if they conform in size with each other. To fit with each other, metal parts
need to have tolerance that allows them to compress or expand a bit. The range of tolerance of a metal
or substance is based upon its physical and chemical properties.
If two components are required to be fit into each other in such a way that one has to be placed inside a
hole in another, the difference in diameters of the two parts is kept normal for ease of fit while,
sometimes the clearance is deliberately kept small, to allow for force to be used to fit. This fit is called
force fit or press fit. Sometimes the difference in sizes is so small that heat may have to be used to fit the
components together.
Metal parts and components are made in batches and when bought from the market have different
batch numbers. This means there may be differences in dimensions that are not visible to the naked eye.

This is where tolerance levels come handy as otherwise it may not be possible for two metal parts to fit
together.
Allowance
Allowance is a concept very similarr to tolerance but is different in the sense that allowance refers to
tolerance in dimension that is deliberately given to a metal during the process of manufacture and
design. This is a planned deviation from the standard that is intended to allow for com
compensation
pensation should
there be any unforeseen circumstances that interfere with the dimensions of the metal parts or
components.
What is the difference between Tolerance and Allowance?
In engineering or science, tolerance is the permissible limit or limits of variation in dimension or value
or property.
As metal parts are made in batches and used frequently in engineering applications, there needs to be
a tolerance in dimensions to allow for easy fit of components.
Allowance is similar in concept though it is a planned deviation from the ideal.
Allowance still conforms to a specification that is the one set as tolerance but allows for a deliberate
shift.
346. Tool Life:
The length of time that a cutting tool can function properly before it begins to fail.

The Taylor's Equation for Tool Life Expectancy provides a good approximation.

A more general form of the equation is

where

=cutting speed
T=tool life
D=depth of cut
S=feed rate
x and y are determined experimentally
n and C are constants found by exper
experimentation
imentation or published data; they are properties of
tool material, workpiece and feed rate.
347. Torque

Torque, moment or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rot

rotate
ate an object about an axis,fulcrum,
axis,
or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object.
Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the lever
lever-arm
arm distance and force, which tends
to produce rotation.
Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For
example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque
(turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
The symbol for torque is typically , the Greek letter tau. When it is called moment, it is commonly
denoted M.

Fig: Relationship between force F, torque , linear momentum p, and angular momentum L in a system
which has rotation constrained in one plane only (forces and moments due to gravity and friction not
considered).
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied, the length of the lever arm[2]
connecting the axis to the point of force application, and the angle between the force vector and the
lever arm. In symbols:

where
is the torque vector and is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is measured to the point
where force is applied),
F is the force vector,
denotes the cross product,
is the angle between
n the force vector and the lever arm vector.
The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this length appropriately lies behind the
operation of levers, pulleys, gears, and most other simple machines involving a mechanical advantage.
348. Torsion
349. Toughness

350. Transformers:
A transformer is generally a four-terminal device that is capable of transforming an alternating current
(AC) input voltage into a relatively higher or lower AC output voltage. A transformer usually consists of
two closely coupled coils that are designed to transfer energy between its winding circuits. A typical
transformer has two or more coils that share a common laminated iron core. One of the coils is referred
to as the primary (containing Np turns), while the other coil is called the secondary (containing NS turns).
Primary coils are defined as those coils whose current is driven by an external alternating-current source,
whereas secondary coils are defined as those coils whose voltage is induced by the varying magnetic
field produced by the primary coil.
351. Triple point:
In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which the three
phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. For example, the
triple point of mercury occurs at a temperature of 38.8344 C and a pressure of 0.2 mPa.
The single combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water, solid ice, and water vapour
can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at exactly 273.16 K (0.01 C) and a partial vapour pressure of
611.73 pascals (ca. 6.1173 millibars, 0.0060373 atm). At that point, it is possible to change all of the
substance to ice, water, or vapour by making arbitrarily small changes in pressure and temperature. Even
if the total pressure of a system is well above triple point of water, provided the partial pressure of the
water vapour is 611.73 pascals then the system can still be brought to the triple point of water. Strictly
speaking, the surfaces separating the different phases should also be perfectly flat, to negate the effects
of surface tensions.
The gasliquidsolid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid water
can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at constant
pressure is converted directly into water vapour in a process known as sublimation. Above the triple
point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water, and then evaporates or
boils to form vapor at a higher temperature.
For most substances the gasliquidsolid triple point is also the minimum temperature at which the
liquid can exist. For water, however, this is not true because the melting point of ordinary ice decreases
as a function of pressure, as shown by the dotted green line in the phase diagram. At temperatures just
below the triple point, compression at constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and
then to liquid.

Fig: A typical phase diagram. The solid green line applies to most substances; the dotted
green line gives
ives the anomalous behaviour of water

352. Turbine:
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful
work. A turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft
or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational
energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.
Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the
working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer Sir Charles
Parsons (18541931),
1931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval
(18451913), for invention
nvention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both
reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the
blade root to its periphery.
The word "turbine" was coined in 1822 by the Fre
French
nch mining engineer Claude Burdin from the Latin
turbo, or vortex, in a memoir, "Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires grande vitesse",
which he submitted to the Acadmie royale des sciences in Paris.[3] Benoit Fourneyron, a former
student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.
Operation Theory:
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). The fluid
may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employe
employed
d by turbines to collect
this energy:
Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting impulse
spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of
the fluid
uid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case of a steam or gas turbine, all the

pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the nozzles). Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's
pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de
Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around
the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blading on the rotor. Newton's
second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure of the
gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to
contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the
fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water
turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use
this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness the
expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.

Fig: Schematic of impulse and reaction turbines, where the rotor is the rotating part, and the stator is
the stationary part of the machine.
In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine applications or for land-based electricity
generation, a Parsons type reaction turbine would require approximately double the number of blade
rows as a de Laval type impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this
makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly
higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion.
In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees
whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the moving fluid and
impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it

at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head
applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with
multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam turbines were
traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction designs similar to those used in gas
turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in
pressure. Under these conditions, blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the
blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume
increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the
tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style
tip.
Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid-19th century. Vector analysis related the
fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae
for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient machine can be
reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb'
formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations,
simplifying assumptions were made.
353. Turbo fan
354. Turbocharging
355. Turbojet
356. Turbulent flow
357. Turret
358. V engine
359. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor absorption system differs from the compression system in a way that it uses heat energy
instead of mechanical energy to make a change in the conditions necessary to complete the refrigeration
cycle. The heat energy for this purpose may be obtained from a gas burner, kerosene oil lamp or electric
heater. The system uses a minimum number of moving parts. The only moving part used smaller units
are valves and controls bat larger units use circulating pumps and fans also. Due to the absence of
moving parts such units are quiet in operation and may be used for both commercial and domestic
installation.
The working of an absorption machine depends upon the use of two substances which have great
affinity for each other and which can be easily separated by the application of heat. The principal
combination euphoric acid water or ammonia and water the latter deign quite common are use.

If the compressor in a vapor compression system were replaced with a generator is absorber assembly
the result would be a simple absorption system.
In this case the low pressure refrigerant vapor coming from the evaporator is absorbed in the absorber
by the weak solution. Of refrigerant water, absorption of ammonia lower the pressure in the absorber,
which in turn draws more ammonia vapor from the evaporator some form of cooling arrangement
usually water cooling, is employed in the absorber to remove the heat of solution evolved there. This is
necessary to increase the absorption capacity of water because it is tick if refrigerant The pump draws
strong solution from the absorbers builds up a pressure up to 10 kgf/cm square and forces the strong
solution in the generator.
In the generator the strong solution of ammonia is heated by some external source such as gas or steam
in the heating process the ammonia vapor driven our of the solution as a high pressure vapor leaving
behind in the generator a weak solution. The weak solution flows back to the absorber through a
restriction which maintains the pressure differential between the high and low sides of the system. From
the generator the refrigerant vapor is conducted to the condenser where it is condensed. Then the high
pressure liquid ammonia is passed through a throttle valve to the evaporator where it absorbs its latent
heat thus procuring cold.
360. Vapor compression refrigeration cycle:
The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial
and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of the components of a
typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.

Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration

Figure 2: Temperature
TemperatureEntropy
Entropy diagram

Figure 3: TemperatureEntropy
Entropy diagram

Figure: PressureEnthalpy diagram

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a
circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vvapor.
apor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor
is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher temperature, but still
below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor
travels through
ough the condenser which cools the vapor until it starts condensing, and then condenses the
vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4
and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valv
valve
e (also called a throttle valve) where its
pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto
auto-refrigeration
refrigeration of, typically, less than half
of the liquid.
That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at point 5.
The cold liquid-vapor
vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely
vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the
evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting ref
refrigerant
rigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to
complete the thermodynamic cycle.

Saturated Vapor and Liquid:: A saturated liquid is any liquid which contains an amount of thermal energy
just under what would be sufficient to bring it to a boil
boil.. A saturated vapor is any vapor which has just
enough energy to keep it from condensing.
361. Velocity potential
362. Venturi meter:
A flow measuring device placed in a pipe. The device consists of a tube whose diameter gradually
decreases to a throat and then gradually
dually expands to the diameter of the pipe. The flow is determined on
the basis of the difference in pressure (caused by different velocity heads) between the entrance and
throat of the Venturi meter.
NOTE: Most Venturi meters have pressure sensing taps ra
rather
ther than a manometer to measure the
pressure difference. The upstream tap is the high pressure tap or side of the manometer

A venturi meter, or venturi flow meter, is a device used to measure the velocity, or flow rate, of fluid
flowing through a pipeline.
ine. The venturi meter constricts the flow using a Herschel venturi tube. As the
liquid flows through the pipeline, the device measures the pressure of the liquid before it enters the
venturi tube and as it exits the constricted area. These measurements ar
are
e then compared to figure the
volumetric flow rate of the fluid. The flow meter is commonly used in plumbing applications to
determine the flow of fluids such as water, liquid propane, and oil.
For this procedure, the venturi tube is typically a long pipe with conically shaped entry and exit points.
The entry point is usually a thirty degree cone which constricts to a five degree cone at the exit. The
venturi meter results in less degradation of the head pressure due to the tube's design.
The venturi meter can accurately measure flow rate using Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli stated that the
velocity of liquid increases in direct proportion to a decrease in pressure. When the liquid is forced
through a constricted pipeline, it begins to move at a higher rat
rate
e of speed because the majority of the
pressure is held behind the constriction.
A common example of Bernoulli's principle in action can be found in the nozzle of a garden hose. As the
nozzle is turned fully open, the water flows slowly and usually falls jjust
ust a short distance from the nozzle.
When the nozzle is turned towards the closed position, it restricts the flow of the water and increases its
velocity. The pressure held behind the nozzle builds and the velocity can carry the water for great
distances.

The venturi meter precisely calculates the volumetric flow rate of a fluid using a complex formula. This
computation considers the radius of the pipeline, whether or not the measured liquid is compressible,
and the total volume of fluid present. Various coefficients are added to compensate for the viscosity of
the fluid, changes in the conical angles of the venturi, and other variables. When these numbers are
calculated, along with the pressure measurements taken by the venturi meter, an accurate description of
the liquid's flow rate can be ascertained.

363. Vibration absorber

364. Vibration_free, forced and damped vibration:
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The
oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a
tire on a gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally "desirable". For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind
instrument or harmonica, or mobile phones or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration,
necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound noise. For example,
the vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in operation are typically
unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the
meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or "pressure waves", are generated by
vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of structures
(e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.
Types:
Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to
vibrate freely. Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or
hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at one or more of its
"natural frequency" and damp down to zero.
Forced vibration is when a time-varying disturbance (load, displacement or velocity) is applied to a
mechanical system. The disturbance can be a periodic, steady-state input, a transient input, or a random
input. The periodic input can be a harmonic or a non-harmonic disturbance. Examples of these types of
vibration include a shaking washing machine due to an imbalance, transportation vibration (caused by
truck engine, springs, road, etc.), or the vibration of a building during an earthquake. For linear systems,
the frequency of the steady-state vibration response resulting from the application of a periodic,
harmonic input is equal to the frequency of the applied force or motion, with the response magnitude
being dependent on the actual mechanical system.
365. Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile
stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal notion of "thickness". For example, honey has a higher
viscosity than water.

Viscosity is due to the friction between neighboring particles in a fluid that are moving at different
velocities. When the fluid is forced throug
through
h a tube, the fluid generally moves faster near the axis and
very slowly near the walls; therefore, some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends
of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For
Fo the same
velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. A liquid's viscosity depends on
the size and shape of its particles and the attractions between the particles
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is
observed only at very low temperatures, in superfluids. Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity. If the
viscosity is very high, for instance in pitch, the fluid will appear to be a solid in the sshort
hort term. A liquid
whose viscosity is less than that of water is sometimes known as a mobile liquid, while a substance with
a viscosity substantially greater than water is called a viscous liquid.
Newtons Law of viscosity: Newton's
's law of viscosity state
states that the shear stress between adjacent fluid
layers is proportional to the negative value of the velocity gradient between the two layers.

366. Viscous flow

367. Volumetric efficiency
368. Vortex tube refrigeration
369. Vorticity:
In fluid dynamics, the vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the local spinning motion of a fluid
near some point, as would be seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along with the
fluid.

Conceptually, the vorticity could be determined by marking the particles o

off the fluid in a small
neighborhood of the point in question, and watching their relative displacements as they move along
the flow. The vorticity vector would be twice the mean angular velocity vector of those particles relative
to their center of mass, oriented
riented according to the right
right-hand
hand rule. This quantity must not be confused
with the angular velocity of the particles relative to some other point.

More precisely, the vorticity of a flow is a pseudovector field , equal to the curl (rotational)
of its velocity field v. It can be expressed by the vector analysis formula:

where is the del operator.. The vorticity of a two-dimensional flow is always perpendicular to
the plane of the flow, and therefore can be considered a scalar field.
The vorticity is related to the flow's circulation (line integral of the velocity) along a closed path
by the Stokes equation.[1] Namely, for any infinitesimal surface element C with normal direction

n and area dA, the circulation dd along the perimeter of C is the dot product (dA n)
where is the vorticity at the center of C.[1]
Many phenomena, such as the blowing out of a candle by a puff of air, are more readily explained in
terms of vorticity rather than the basic concepts of pressure and velocity. This applies, in particular, to
the formation and motion of vortex rings
rings.
370. Water turbine
371. Weins displacement law
law:

Wien's displacement law states that the wavelength distribution of thermal radiation from a
black body at any temperature has essentially the same shape as the distribution at any other
temperature, except that each wavelength is displaced on the graph. Apart from an overall T3
multiplicative factor, the average thermal energy in each mode with frequency only depends on
the ratio /T.. Restated in terms of the wavelength = c/,, the distributions at corresponding
wavelengths are related, where corresponding wavelengths are at locations proportional to 1/T.
1/
Blackbody radiation approximates to Wien's law at high frequency.
From this general law, it follows that there is an inverse relationship between the wavelength of
the peak of the emission of a black body and its temperature when expressed as a function of
wavelength, and this less powerful consequence iiss often also called Wien's displacement law in
many textbooks.

where max is the peak wavelength, T is the absolute temperature of the black body, and b is a
constant of proportionality called Wien's displacement constant,, equal to 2.8977721(26)103 m
K.[1]
For wavelengths near the visible spectrum
spectrum,, it is often more convenient to use the nanometer in
place of the meter as the unit of measure.
In the field of plasma physics temperatures are often measured in units of electron volts and the
proportionality constant becomes b = 249.71066 nmeV.

372. Weir
A structure, used to dam up a stream or river, over which the water flows, is called a weir. The conditions
of flow, in the case of a weir, are practically the same as those of a rectangular notch. That is why, a
notch is, sometimes, called as a weir and vice versa. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of water in
rivers or streams.
The only difference between
ween a notch and a weir is that the notch of a small size and the weir is of a
bigger one. Moreover, a notch is usually made in a plate, whereas a notch is made of masonry or
concrete.
373. Welding

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by
causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a
pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes
used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and
brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond
between them, without melting the workpieces.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an
electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in
many different environments, including open air, under water and in outer space. Welding is a
potentially hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision
damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
Difference among Welding, Soldering and Brazing:
Welding uses steel rod, which is melted into the joints or voids. Strongest of the three.
Soldering is similar, except a low temperature melting point lead//tin alloy is used. Weakest of the three.
Also there is silver solder, somewhat stronger.
Brazing is similar to soldering, except higher melting point material is used, and it's stronger than
soldering, but not as strong as welding.
Arc Welding:
Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC)
or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is
usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual,
semi-automatic, or fully automated.
Gas Welding:
Gas welding is a metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their
interface by producing coalescence with one or more gas flames. It is done using gases such as oxygen
and acetylene with or without the use of a filler metal.
In gas welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are
heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally
supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.
Welding Joint:
A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined together. They
are formed by welding two or more workpieces (metal or plastic) according to a particular geometry.
Five types of joints referred to by the American Welding Society: butt, corner, edge, lap, and tee. These
configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual welding can occur.

The Butt Joint

The Butt Joint is a common joint that is usually seen with a Bevel and a Land. The Joint can have the
pieces placed flush against each other, but more commonly has a root opening. There are many
different types of Butt Joints which are: Square, Single Bevel, Double Bevel, Single-V, Double Bevel,
Closed Square, Single-J, Double-J, Single-U, and the Double-U.

The Joint is welded in all the different positions and is almost always labeled as a groove weld. It is
commonly used in the pipe and sheet metal industries.
The Corner Joint

The Corner Joint is where the two pieces form a V or L-shape. The weld will be performed on the
outside edge of the piece. This is used often in the sheet metal industry. The T-Joint is also welded in all
the different positions.
The T-Joint

The T-Joint is where the 2 pieces come together to form a T-shape. This joint is a very common joint
and is considered to be a fillet type joint. The weld is performed on the inside of the T-joint. It
sometimes will have a Beveled edge. This joint can have a single Fillet, Double Fillet and a Single Bevel.

The Lap Joint

The Lap Joint is when you have to members actually lapping over each other. This type of joint can
have a Slot or Plug Weld, Fillet Weld or a Resistance Weld performed. This type of joint is used regularly
in the sheet metal industry.

The Edge Joint

The Edge Joint is where to members are placed side by side and welded on the edge.

374. Wing classification:

Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio is the span divided by the mean or average chord.[8] It is a measure of how long and
slender the wing appears when seen from above or below.
Low aspect ratio - short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higher instantaneous
roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, and by
very high-speed aircraft (e.g. North American X-15).
Moderate aspect ratio - general-purpose wing (e.g. the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star).
High aspect ratio - long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, having less induced
drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft (e.g. the Lockheed U-2), subsonic
airliners (e.g. the Bombardier Dash 8) and by high-performance sailplanes (e.g. Glaser-Dirks DG500).

Low aspect ratio Moderate aspect ratio

High aspect ratio

Most Variable geometry configurations vary the aspect ratio in some way, either deliberately or as a side
effect.
Wing sweep
Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree of sweep is
sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in the ideal position for
some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are described below.

Straight - extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally
structurally-efficient
efficient wing, it is
common for low-speed
speed designs, such as the P
P-80 Shooting Star and sailplanes.
Swept back,
ack, (aka "swept wing") - The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. In early
tailless examples, such as the Dunne aircraft, this allowed the outer wing section to act like a
conventional empennage (tail) to provide aerodynamic stability. At trans
transonic
onic speeds swept wings
have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall and require high stiffness to avoid
aeroelasticity at high speeds. Common on high
high-subsonic
subsonic and early supersonic designs e.g. the
Hawker Hunter.
Forward swept - the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to backwards
sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses allowing a smaller wing, but
requires even greater stiffness to avoid aeroelastic flutter as on the Sukhoi Su
Su-47.
47. The HFB-320
HFB
Hansaa Jet used forward sweep to prevent the wing spar passing through the cabin. Small
shoulder-wing
wing aircraft may use forward sweep to maintain a correct CoG.
Some types of variable geometry vary the wing sweep during flight:
Swing-wing - also called "variable sweep wing". The left and right hand wings vary their sweep
together, usually backwards. Seen in a few types of military aircraft, such as the General
Dynamics F-111.
Oblique wing - a single full--span
span wing pivots about its midpoint, so that one side sweeps back
and the other side sweeps forward. Flown on the NASA AD
AD-1 research aircraft.

Straight

Swept

Forward swept

Variable sweep Variable-geometry

Variable
(swing-wing)
oblique wing

375. Work:
In physics, a force is said to do work when it acts on a body, and there is a displacement of the point of
application in the direction of the force. For example, when you lift a suitcase from the floor, the work
done on the suitcase is the force it takes to lift it (it's weight) times the distance that it is lifted.
The term work was introduced in 1826 by the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis[1][2] as
"weight lifted through a height", which is based on the use of early steam engines to lift buckets of water
out of flooded ore mines. The SI unit of work is the newton-metre or joule (J).
The work done by a constant force of magnitude F on a point that moves a displacement (not distance) d
in the direction of the force is the product,
W=Fd.
For example, if a force of 10 newtons (F = 10 N) acts along a point that travels 2 metres (d = 2 m), then it
does the work W = (10 N)(2 m) = 20 N m = 20 J. This is approximately the work done lifting a 1 kg weight
from ground to over a person's head against the force of gravity. Notice that the work is doubled either
by lifting twice the weight the same distance or by lifting the same weight twice the distance.