I

SOME TECHNICAL TERMS

OF

CHINESE PAINTING
BY

BE N JAMI N MAR CH
Late of the Museum or Anthropology,

t:n ivenit~,

of Michigan

PARAGON BOOK REPRINT CORP.

New York
1969

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAG E

PREFACE............ . ............ . . ...... ...... ..

1.

MATERIALS... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix
1

Silk 1- 13 ; paper 14-24; brush 25; pigments and colors:

ink 26-29, mineral pigments 30-4-6, vegetable pigments
47-52, mixed colors 53---62.
II. FORMS OF PAINTINGS. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . ...

12

General 63-64; murals and banners 65-67; scrolls 68-80;

albums 81-82; fans 83.

III.

SUBJBCTS.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

... .... .

15

Landscape 84 ; men and objects 85; portraits 8&-89,

other jen urn classes 90-96; birds and animals 97; flowers
98- 102.
IV.

CLASSIFI CATiON BY TECHNIQUES.. ...... . . . . . . . . . . ..

18

General 103- 128

V. BRUSHWORK AND COMPOSITION. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

General 129-154; composition 155-160; perspective

161- 164.
VI.

T R EES: TYPE FORMS AND SPEClAL TE CHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . ..

27

General 165--166; branches and t wigs 167-170 ; individualized trunks 171- 175; lien, leaves: single stroke
forms 17&-181, forms of Eeveral strokes directed downward
182- 188, forms of several strokes directed upward 189-196,
forms of several strokes radiating circularly 197- 199, pinnate leaves 200-202, doubl(H)utlined leaves 203-204.
VII.

ROCKS AND MOUNTAINS: TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

General forms 205- 208; is'un: first group 209-223;

second group 224-226; third group 227-234; tien for
earth and mountains 235- 241.

VII I.

WATER: TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL TECHNIqUES ....

39

General 242- 252.

IX.

CLO UDS: TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL T E CHN IQUES.

General 253- 257.

X.

FIG URES : TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL TECHNIQUES.

41

42

General 258--276.

XI.

46

SEALS AND SIGNATURES ..

General 277-290.
vii

.-.

Table oj C0n/..ent8

Vlll

XII. MOUNTING ............... .............. . . ..... .. . . ....

General 291-302.
ALPHABETICAl, LIST OF TERMS DEFINED... ............ . ........

48
51

DIAGRAM: A TYPICAL SCROLL MOUNTING ............. . . . ....

PLATE
I : ILLUSTRATING Nos. 176-190, inclusive..............
PLATE II: ILLUSTlUTING Nos. 191- 204 inclusive... .. .... . .....
PLATE III: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 204, 235-9, 24 1. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . ..
PLATE IV : ILLUSTRATING Nos. 209-213, 215-229. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
PLATE V: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 230-234, 243- 244; 244,246-254 ..
PLATE VI: I LLUSTRATING Nos. 259-267 .......................
PLATE VII: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 268-276 ... . ...................

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

1'able of Contents

vm

XII.

MOUNTING .. ...... .... . ........ . . . ... ... ... ... .....

48

General 291-302.
51

ALPI-IABETI CAI. LI ST OF T ERMS DEFINEO .

PLATE

TYPI CAl, SCROLL MOUNTING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

I: I LLUSTRATING Nos. 17&-190, inclusive... . . .... . . .

57

DIAGRAM :

inclusive ... ............

58

P LATE III: I LLUSTRATING Nos. 204, 235-9, 241. ......... . ......

59

PLATE I V: ILLUSTRATING Nos . 209-213, 215-229 . .. . ......... ..

PI..ATE V: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 230-234, 243- 244; 244,246-254 ..
PLATE VI: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 259- 267 . ... . ..... .. . . . ........
PLATE VII: ILLUSTRATING Nos. 268- 276 . ...... ....... . ........

60

PLATE

II: I r.. LUSTRATINO Nos.

191- 204

61
62
63

PREFACE
He who would study a technique without using his hands may
be compared to one who would learn to swim without going into
the water. Limiting oneself to two means of acquiring knowledge, the eye and the ear, when a third, the hand, is available, is
like driving an automobile always in second gear. The appreciation of mastery matures in direct proportion to the extent and
quality of the understanding of the problems solved in the
achievement of mastery.
Painting is a manual art. The greatness of a painting is, of
course, conditioned by the greatness of its creator's experience
and imagination, but no inspiration can be expressed adequately
without technical competence. So the importance of some
detailed knowledge of the craft on the part of the historical and
critical studcnt is evident.
The basis of the list of technical terms here presented was
prepared in Peiping during the summer of 1931, incidental to
research in a critical problem of Chinese painting pursued with
the assistance of a grant in aid of research from the American
Council of Learned Societies and a special research fund contributed by members of the Detroit Museum of Art Founders
Society. Mr. Lin Yti-ts'ang #'~Hf , a painter, and, equally
important for the purpose of this study, a student of the classical
tradition, worked with me in the compilation and interpretation.
The illustrations of type forms and brush strokes,except those of
miao on plates VI and VII which are taken from the ~:P-l!f"il
Tien Shih Chai Ts'ung Hua, were drawn by him. The explanations are based also upon a year's experience in the practice of
Chinese painting under his tutelage in 1926 and 1927.
The list is not exhaustive- it does not include the special type
forms and techniques of the painting of faces and of such individual plants and flowers as the bamboo, plum and orchid, which
i,

Preface

have their own disciplines. It does not include the terminology

of aesthetics or any inquiry into the history of either the terms or
the ideas, materials and practices they represent. It is the outgrowth of practical inquiry rather than of systematic literary
searching. By " technical terms" I have chosen to mean words
and phrases that have to do with practice and description rather
than with criticism. I make no pretense to finality in my definitions and explanations, which I have based for the most pa rt
upon contemporary understanding and usage in Peiping.
Realizing, however, that if this list is of use at all it ,,/ill be
employed to some extcnt by readers of Chinese texts, I have been
grateful for the advice and suggestion of Mr. Chi-chen Wang of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He has supplied me with
certain literary forms which I should not otherwise have included,
and has made helpful comment on questions of literary as against
colloquial usage.
Dr. Arthur W. Hummel played the part of the good friend he
is and read the manuscript with care, giving me the benefit of
excellent criticism and valuable suggestion. Dr. Shio Sakanishi
of his staff in the Library of Congress has also been very helpful.
I n trying to correlate l8'un with natural phenomena, I was
grateful for the hclp of Prof. Donald MacLachlan of Wayne
University in Detroit. Much as I am indebted to others for
assistance and criticism, however, the ultimate responsibility
must remain my own.
The flexibility of the Chinese language makes necessary a word
of caution against too literal t ranslation. In practically every
case the romanization is followed by an approximately literal
rendering of t he meaning of the characters, which is likely to be
more picturesque than definitive in English. Not only do t he
meanings of many words shift in varying contexts and binomial
combinations- the words cannot even be classified as established
parts of spccrh. The complexity h~s been indicated , or at least
suggested in some instances, but uncharted ramifications should
be assumed for practically all.
1\1any of the words and phrases have also been interpreted
elsewhere. To his translation of the 3FfIMH Chieh TzU.

Pre/au

Xl

YUan Hua Chuan ent itled Encyclopedie de la Peiniure Chinoise

(Paris, 1918), M. Petrucci appended a glossary of the technical
terms contained therein; and, since Japanse painting is largely
indebted to Chinese, Mr. Henry P. Bowie has explained many
of the same things in his book On the Law8 of Japane8e Painting
(San Francisco, 1911 ). Dr. J . C . Ferguson also has an excellent
chapter on technique in his Chine8e Painting (Chicago, 1927);
and Prof. Sei-ichi Taki makes some valuable contributions to the
understanding of the practice of painting in Pacific Asia in his
Three ES8aY8 on Oriental Pm'nling (London, 1910). Volume III of
Eastern Art (Philadelphia, 1931) contains, in addit ion to the
prcscnt writer's study of perspective, two useful essays, one by
Mr. Koj iro Tomita on "Brush-strokes in Far Eastern Painting,"
and one by Mr. Rokuro Uyemura, "Studies on the Ancient
Pigments of Japan. " In Chinese the Chieh Tzu YUan, published
originally in 1679, is still the standard handbook, but many
students prefer for practical instruction the brief introduction to
landscape paint ing published in 1920 by Prof. Hu Hsi-ch'Uan
/il!illn under the title i1J7JtJ-.i"l Shan Shu; J u Men.
Landscape is t he alpba and omega of Chinese painting. It is
the first subject of t he novice, and tbe ultimate accomplishment
of the greatest master. Hence it is deserving of the most particular consideration.
Of unusual interest to t he Occidental student, and most in
need of more extended examination, will probably be those
features called here " type forms." One does not learn to paint
by going out and superficially copying the appearance of nature,
any more than onc becomes a musician by learning to whistle
bird ca.lls. As the music student learns his keys and key relationships, t he painter learns his type forms; a.nd each uses what
he has learned according to well established principles of harmony
and composition.
Now what are these type fo rms? They are the evidences of
essential reality distilled through centuries of observation
of transient effects. Chinese painters were at the same time,
often primarily, literati, men of culture and learning, poets.
They were men whose habits of observation and of visual memory

Preface

Preface

md analysis were quickened by their discipline in the writing and

eading of the Chinese characters. They were studio painters,
.vithout suffering the divorce from nature that such a description
)ften implics in the West. As artists they painted for themselvcs
md for men of their stamp. They were at once thc molders
md the consen 'ators of taste; they were the producers and the
~riti cs. So we might expect their paintings to show to an extrandinnry degree the results of conscious analysis and synthesis.
Natural forms were studied with rcference to thcir typicn.ln.nd
;>ermn.nent, rather than their accidental and transient phenomena;
with reference to their fun ctions as well as to their appearances;
lnd certain general principles were deduced. The type forms are
~he epitomes of these principles. The habits of growth, the
~ffects of seasonal change, the genetic and functional relations.of
parts were obsenred; and the infinite variety of nature was delib~ratel y emphasized.
Let us take the painting of trees for example. We find a. few
~pecies individually differentiated, but most of the type: forms
have to do with general characteristics. There are several kinds
of broad deciduous leaves, and in a group of trees each is painted
with diffcrent leaves to give an impression of the endless variety
Rnd interest in nature. Each tree must be firmly rooted, implying if not indicating the underground structure. Branches grow
out of their parent stalks, they do not merely separate from them.
So a round crotch is eschewed , and a definite spot of black in the
angle of the crotch gives the requisite hint of a redirection of
living forces. The angles of the crotches should be infinitely
varied, and the arrangement of branches asymmetrical. Two
branches should not be of the same length, or parallel. 'Vhen
two or more trees stand together they should be of different
heights. The leaves should be planned in several subordinate
masscs on each t ree, balanced but not symmetrically disposed.
rn growing things there is a bud at the end of each twig, therefore,
no matter how slender a tip may be the brush should be lifted
precisely at the end of the stroke, not flipped up so that the stroke
tapers weakly to nothing .
Branches and twigs arc few, but each should be planned for its

contribution to the design. Leaves are disproportionately large,

but they lend character and distinction to better advantage thus .
The final effect gives the impression of reality without being in
the ordinary sense realistic.
The objection is sometimes made that the study of type forms
may have a tendency to stultify individual expression. If it is
clear that they are essentially principles rather than formulae, it
will be evident that sterilization is not necessarily a result of their
use. Exceptions in their detailcd application may and do occur,
but the important point is that they free the individual imagination for creative work by relieving it of concern over the technique
of expression. What poetry can we expeet from a man who has
so little sense of word values that he can set down no line without
reference to a thesaurus; what music from a man who must fumble
by trial and error for every chord?
It has never been seriously objected that a thorough knowledge
of anatomy would handicap a Western artist, yet in that field
alone has the West approached China in analytical obsenration.
It is interesting to note in passing that it is in this one field of the
human figure that the Chinese have studied least.
The study of the principles of structure and function, of the
type forms, has a further advantage, that the man who is technically competent but lacks the vital spark may still produce a
pleasing and acceptable painting.
The novitiate of the Chinese painter is arduous, but great
structures are not erected on slim foundations.

:11

xiii

BENJAMIN MARCH

Ann Arbor
September 15, 1934

I. MATERIALS

1.

*"

Sn,K

chuan: silk ; the general term for this common ground

for painting. Both paper and silk arc used as grounds,
and the choice depends chiefly upon the preference of the
artist. Silk lends itself to better advantage to the use of
the bright mineral colors, while the freer impressionistic
styles arc usually more effective on paper. For calligraphy paper is almost exclusively used. Li Kung-lin
*~fR is said to have employed paper for his own
original work and silk for his copies of the paintings of
others.
hUG chuan: picture silk. Silk especially adapted to
painting, particularly ready-sized silk. Practically aU
silk now used by the artists comes from Soochow and is
sized there. Formerly painters sized their own silk, but
the process was laborious. Alum was dissolved in water
and mixed with glue. In spring and autumn the proportions of alum and glue were about equal; but in summer
more alum and in winter more glue was used, in the ratio
of seven to three. After the size was brushed onto the
surface of the silk, the material had to be smoothed under
heavy pressure, or by beating, to render it suitable for
painting.

2.

lfK:fi

3.

1!:;ij!lifm hua pien hua chUan: colored border painting

silk; silk distinguished by vari-colored stripes in the

selvage. In the available sample there is a pink stripe
between two green ones. This is the best painting silk in
the Peiping market today, and comes ready-sized. It is
white, of very close, simple cloth weave, the warp and
weft threads showing no interstices between them.
The count is 96 warp and 82 weft threads to the inch.

<:I u .... ,

5.

6.

7.

8.
9.
10.

11 .

U' <:I~ ILlgUl1>lItU

UJ' rtU

1:S ~njJus

III

Llle selv a ge .

l L IS

coarser than the preceding and regarded as second quality.

It also comes ready-sized, and has a barely perceptible
yellow cast. The weave is simple and there are no interstices between the threads, but there is less regularity in
the thickness of the warp threads. The count is 84 warp
and 60 weft threads to the inch.
tz'u ch'ing chilan: porcelain blue silk. Usually
a good silk such as hua pien chilan (3) dyed a very dark
blue. Used for painting flowers and Buddhistic subjects,
and for writing in gold. There is also a paper of the same
color called Tt!W~ tz'll ch'ing chih.
ling tz1l: thin silk. A fine silk of very thin threads
and varying weave, used chiefly for the mountings of
pictures. It occurs as a damask ~m hua ling, and as a.
gauze MMlling chiian, as well as in plain form.
~ .t;t 8U ling: plain thin silk. This plain variety of ling
tzu is ordinarily used for mountings, but many prefer it
for painting. It is very white, has a regular and compact
cloth weave, and a type sample obtained in Peiping counts
144 warp and 120 weft threads to the inch. It has
little or no size.
~ sheng: unsized.
shu: sized.
lien chilan: prepared silk. A variety produced in
the T'ang dynasty, "beaten on a polished stone with a
stick, sometimes covered with silver, until the interstices
between the threads are filled and the silk has a continuous
surface." (Ferguson, Chi1Use Painting, p. 38.)

.ftfli!fM
*-i.-=f

M
.fk:fJ

~***"

shuang s811 chiian: double thread silk. This is a

term which has to be taken with some caution until a
more thorough study of painting silks is available. It is

Figure8 in parenthe!e8 refer to the numbe r! of te rm! in thia liat.

" ... ", ,,,.I,," "u .... UV<;;<:I U I,;I,; UI II. J1:S UUI. a!; CQ IlUnOIl as Stili
with double weft and single warp. In thc older painting
silks the warp threads arc usually strung in pairs giving
on casual examina.tion the impression of being double.
These threads are manipulated individually in the weaving, however, so are actually single.
1111 yy 9.!?
12 . .!J!~ iR-'j tan 88u chiian: single thread silk.
13. ~ chien: a kind of white silk. (Giles, No. 1634: lIA kind
of silk woven with double threads, and waterproof I")
PAPER

14.

HJl: chih: paper; the general term for this important mat.erial.
Paper has been made of rice straw, certain reeds, hemp,
mulberry, bamboo and other substances. That used for
painting is typically white, hand made, with a fine pattern of parallel mold marks. Bamboo pulp is said to be
thc best material. It is the characteristic ground for
calligraphy and is much uscd in painting. In catalogues
of collections one finds many self-explanatory terms, such
as
Sung chi ll, Sung dynasty pape r; r:UU: pai chih,
white paper; etc.

*m

.;g , .. kit.

15. ulA:' ~ifi.\ Ch'cng H sin T'ang chi h: a fine, thin, smooth
paper, of superior quality, very popular with the best art.ists
of t.he Sung and Yuan periods. (See Ferguson, Chinese
Painting, p. 37. )

16.

i"ki

h8uan chih: a fine white bamboo-pulp laid paper,

especially suitable for writing and painting. The ordinary

hSiian chih available in Peiping today is double thickness,
made of two layers, and it is typically.uusized. Either
sized or unsized paper may be used, depending upon the
effect desired. The ink is harder to control on the
unsized. Formerly artists sized their own paper with
alum, but now it is customary to purchase the desired
pap~r in prepared condition. The sheet sizes vary, but
average from 3 by 6 to 4 by 8 feet. The best paper, like
silk, comes from the sout.h.

17. ~ii fan hsUan: sized paper. Specified to distinguish i t

from the common unsi:red paper. When sized pnper is
used, the side to which the sizing was applied is the working surface.
18. AS~g liu chi fan hsilan: I'six lucks" sized paper,
One of the best grades of double- thickness sized paper
commonly available today. Its average thickness is
.004 of an inch.
I D. M!ii~~ ch'an i chien: cicada shell paper, or !lfIIaff.
ch'an i chien: cicada wing paper. A fine, single thickness
(.0024 in. ) sized paper with a new name.
20.
'' ch'ing shui chu ch'ui ksuan: clear water
boiled and pressed paper. A single layer paper, smooth,
thin and firm, with blurred mold marks ; average thickness
.0034 of an inch .
"n ~
21. .!(!.... tan hsuan: single hsUan; a thin (.0025 in. ), single
layer, u nsized paper.
22.
'' ch'un hua hsUan: an unsized paper of several
layers (.0075 in. ), especially used for writing.

ftlf7kJi Wi

7f1t

""I?~
23. "J\.~...
ping hsUeh hsUan: ice snow paper; a double
thickness (.()().i in. ), creamy white, sized paper, with a
soft texture and barely perceptible mold marks.
24.
yu pan h,siian: jade tablet paper. A stiff, very
white, fairly thick (.0045 in. ), unsized paper.

:EJtf(g

BRUSH

25 . pi: brush-pen. The typical Chinese brush is a carefully

selected and graded bunch of hair inserted into t he end
of a bamboo tube. The hairs are held together and in
place by an adhesive, and are so arranged t hat a fine
point is available. Goat hair is the most common, with
Numbe re 18-24 a re the nll.mes of papers that are cur rent in the shops and
among' the artiste of Peiping today. They s re cited lUI examples to demonstrate
the variet y of the material.

wolf also popular. Hair from deer, faxes, weasels, and

pigs is also used. Brushes are made in a Yariety of sizes,
falling into abou t ten major groups. A good equipment
for a painter usually includes four or five different types
and sizes. The p rincipal shapes and sizes of brushes arc
illustrated in Dr. J. C. Ferguson 's Chinese Painting,
facing pa, 106 and 108.
PIGMENTS AND COLORS
INK

26.

~ mo: ink. Chinese ink is a mixture of a form of carbon

with glue, and is usually prepared in sticks or cakes, some

of which are fine ly decorated. It is made ready for use
by rubbing in water on a pallet of stone or other suitable
material. The material is often known as India ink,
from the circumstance of its having been procured in
India by European t raders. It is an extraordinarily
versatile pigment, as the rich black of calligraphy and the
varied tones of a monochrome landscape attest.
27. ~~~ BUng yen mo: pine soot ink ; t he best ink for
paint ing.
28.

iIB~

29.

IWJ I.fJ 0 chiao: a famous glue made by boiling donkey skins

yu mo: oil ink ; a cheaper grade in which lampbl ack

obtained from burning oil is used.

in t he wate r of a special spring or well in Jf.[~~

Tung-o Hsie n (P. O. spelling, Tunga) in Shantung. The
glue said to be best in Peiping today is called m~
kuang chiao. Kuangtung is suggested, bu t it is by no
means certain that the glue originates there. The namc
may simply indicate a non-local or vague southern origin.
K uang chiao is almost odorless and tasteless, and comes in
strips approximately quadrangular in cross section about
i of an inch thick.

MINERAL

30.

31.

PIG~iE!'OTS

1if!i shih ch'ing: mineral blue.

The stone (azurite ?-) is

rubbed down in water, or a powdered form of the stone is
mixed with water, and the color is taken off. The upper
stratum of the emulsion yields a light blue, san ch'ing (33) ,
the middle stratum a medium blue, ~r-ch'ing (32), and
the heavy bottom stratum a rich dark blue, l'ou ch'ing
(31). After the color is secured it must be mixed with
glue by the painter. Only enough is prepared for one
day's usc , or, if too much is mixed the unused portion
should be separated , as certain pigments do not stand
reheating in combination with the glue. M ost of the
mineral pigments are used warm. Formerly each painter
ground his own colors, but now it is usual to buy prepared
powders of t he desired intensity. Some blues, greens,
yellows and reds are available in stick form, like ink, and
arc rubbed in water on a stone pallet and used as ink is
used. The various color names may be used alone as
nouns or may be combined as adjectives with ~ s~ , color.
t'ou ch'ing: first blue. This is the deepest shih
ch'ing color, typically Peking blue (MP 38 J 10).t It is
used for fi lling in certain outlined leaves and for painting
on the back of silk t o intensify the blue on the surface.
As the stone colors must not be too thick, or they will

[Af!f

The IlILincs of the na.tura] mineral subtalll)Cs from which the pigmenta are
de rived arc tentatively identified on the basis of Rokuro Uyemu ra's "Studies on
tho Ancient Pigments in Japan," EMtern Art, vol. Ill, Hl31, pp. 47-60.
t The colors are named in E nglish in terms of t he Maerz and Paul D1clionarll of
Color (New Yo rk, McGraw-Hili, 1930), which is the bellt medium for color identificat ion by reference to a matching IItandard; and the designations prefilCed MP
refer to specific colors in that d ictionary. It is dangerous to define a pigment in
t erms of a eingle color, s ince the exact tint or shade varies wi th dilution of the
pigment. The samplea fr om which the color deacriptions are der ived were
prepared by diluting the pigmente ~o the extent commonly intended in painting to
give the full est intensity of color t hat is practically posaible. The color of the
mine ral pigments is, naturally, more constant and limited in range than that of
the vegctahle pigmente. A further diseu88ion of the prohlem of color desc ri ption
will be found in the present author's Standard" 0/ Pottery Ducription (Ann Arhor.
1934).

crack when a painting is rolled, either back painting or an

undercoat of hua-ch'ing (48) for blue tones or ts'ao Iii (53 )
for green is used when a particularly brilliant effect is
desired.
~r clt'ing: second blue; the medium shade of shih
ch'ing, (MP 34 J 5) approximately Watteau blue. Used
for the hills and rocks of ch'ing iii. (108) landscapes.
san ch'ing: third blue; beryl b lue (MP 33 H 2) ; the
ligh test shih ch'ing, used chiefly for painting garments in
figure studies.
8hih iii.: mineral gree n ; prepared from malachite
after the manner of shih ch'ing (30), and obtained similarly
in t hree degrees of intensity. Stones shaped Hlike prawn 's
tails" are said to yield the best color.
m~ t'QulU: first green. The deepest shih lii, MP 26 H 11 ,
approximately emerald; used for filling in certain outlined
leaves, and for intensifying the color of rocks and mountains from the back of the silk (see 31 ).

32.

=f.!f

33.

_N

34.

35.

lfiMk

36. =~ er LU: second green; the medium tint of the sto ne

greens, MP 26 H 9, approximately serpentine. It is used
for painting t he rocks and mountains of ch'ing iii. landscapes ( 108).
-~!3.
37. ~if.lJ<. san iii.: third green, the lightest shih iii. (MP 26 A 7).
Used for garments in figure studies; and in landscape for
dotting lichens on tree trunks and rocks, also for certain
leaves.
3S.
shih huang: mineral yellow. The stone (orpiment?)
is baked until friable, then ground to powder and mixed
with glue. The color is sunflower yellow (MP (I L 4).
It is used chiefly injn wu (85) and butterfly painting.
39. t4El{ hsung huang: cock yellow, which at its ri chest is
MP 9 J 10, very close to Princeton orange. Prepared
from realgar (?) in the same manner as shih ch'ing (30).
Stones that are red and shaped like a cockscomb are

lfiJii

~
8

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

. M aterials

T echnical T erms of Chinese Painting

reputed to be best. The color has many uses, but if it is

used with gold a blackening reaction takes place.
* (~) -ltP chu 8ha: vermilion, of which a sample is the
color of old coral (MP 3 .J 10), made from a kind of cinnabar. The stones are described as softer than the blue
and green, and those shaped' like arrowheads arc preferred. When in emulsi6n the first skimming is chu piao
(41 ), while the heavier lower stratum is chu sha. The
color is used for the leaves of the maple; and for temples,
pai aces, and the railings of terraces.
(r4;)~ chu piao: t he Iighted o,m of chu sho, MP 3 D 11
or Satsuma red , used for the garments of men, etc.
Readily available in prepared form, requiring, like eM
shih (43) and vegetable pigments, only the addition of a
little water. The term also appears as piao ehu, but
chu piao is the form more common in the shops and
usually found imprinted on boxes of the prepared pigment.
~ yin ehu: l\ deeper vermilion, between Mephisto red
(MP 3 K 10) .nd Goy. , ed (MP 3 L 10), used chiefly in
seal pigment (290).
eM shih: umber, made, according to Uyemura,
from a variety of iron oxide called limonite. The color is
MP 4 E 11, approxima.tely hyacinth red or almost terra
cotta. Che shih is one of the most commonly used pigments, and is best bought in prepared form with the glue
already added. Unlike blue and green it will bear reheating or may be used cold. It is very extensively employed
in flowe r and landscape painting. It can be combined
readily with the vegetable colors, which arc the pigments
most generally employed for tints and washes in colored
paintings. The hright mineral greens and blues arc
chiefly limited to /"'''Ung pi (101 ).
{M}~ ch'icn / cn: lead white. Ch't'en/en is rubbed up and
left under water ; when wan ted a little is taken out and
mixed with glue. It is used for all subjects of painting,
but has a tendency to darken.

45.

liiJtti k'o fen:

a lime white made by burning sea shells.

This is better t han lead white, as it does not darken, but
is difficult and morc expensive to obtain.
46. ~IAit ju chin: milk gold. Made by rubbing gold leaf with
the fingers under water until a kind of creamy " mud" is
formed. The leaf must be rubbed with a circular motion,
always in the same direction, and in taking up the gold
the brush must follow the direction of the rubbing. This
brush technique is necessary even when using commercially prepflred gold if a smooth and lustrous effect is to
be obtained. Gold is used for out lining rocks in ch'ing lii
landscapes (108) , or to give a bright highlight in birds
and flowers. I t is also used in garments and in Buddhistic painting. Its use in China is increasing, possibly
as a result of J apanese influence.
VEGETA.BLE PIGM.ENTS

47.

U:U

Rif1E

tien hua: indigo blue; in color it is glacier blue

(MP 39 J 8) when used at full strength. A dye is boiled
and pressed fr om the plant, and mixed with lime (h't
hui) and glue. This and other vegetable colors arc now
generally bought prepared ready for use. They resemble
the cake water color pigments of the West and require
only the addition of cold water. Indigo is one of the most
corrunon pigments and has many uses in all classes of
subjects.

1Ei!f hua ch'ing: flower blue; a more eonunon name for

indigo .
49. Jrijl{ t'eng huang: rattan yellow; a bright color, MP lO

48.

I( 5, near goldenrod. The pigment is the nat ural sap,

allowed to solidify. If any glue is added it is very little.
When the sap is in the form of sticks resembling a brush
handle it is thought to be best. 7"eng huang is slightly
poisonous or irritating, and a brush charged with it should
not be put in the mouth, The color is used extensively
for painting flowers, birds, and landscapes.

...

50.

51.

52 .

VV"

' ~""' '"'"

... '" ""U ....01

" .. ~ , " ... vv '" '"'"'"""'":f

nmnlJ yenehih: rouge, ranging from eglantine (MP 3 C 6) to

peach blossom (MP 1 C 2). It is prepared from the

miTabilis jalapa L., the JlJni~ yen ehih hua, a vine
with red flowers a.nd lea.ves. The color is extracted and
mixed with flour in the south. For use it is boiled out of
the flour and mixed with glue. Now it is obtainable in
prepared form. It was formerly used by women as a
cosmetic; but in painting the chief of its many uses is for
flowers.
mu tan hung: peony red; a pink, France rose
(MP 1 F 4), prepared from yen ehih (50) especially for
painting peonies.
yang hung: foreign red; imported from abroad as a
dry color; MP 4 K 6, approximately cerise.

tf::Pbt-J:

.n.*r

MIXED COLORS

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

1I-j!k ts'ao

lU: vegetation green. This name refers to

numerous greens made by mixing hua eh'ing (48) and
t'eng huang (49). One of the most characteristic is
pistachio green (MP 19 C 6).
~*l lao Iii: old green. A ts'ao lU color made by mixing
six parts of hua ch'ing with one of t'eng huang; equivalent
to silverpine (MP 30 E 5).
nen lii: fresh green. A l8'ao lii (53) made by mixing
three parts of hua eh'ing with seven of t'eng huang; the
color is celadon (MP 21 B 4).
it~ is'ang Iii: gray green. A mixture of ts'ao lU (53)
with eM shih (43); used for tree leaves at the time of the
first frost, mountain slopes in early autumn, and paths
and roads. It may be described as old gold (MP 14 K 5) .
~ta' tzu fen: purple pink. A bright pink. (MP 41 H 2)
used in flower painting, made by mixing yen ehih (50)
and white.
~~*r tan t'ao hung: pale peach red. A pink compounded of yen ehih (50) and white, MP 49 I I, used for
painting peach blossoms.

Mt*l

.Mal.enaUi

11

59. ~*I lao hung: old red; pepper red (MP 4 K 10); a combination of yin ehu (42) and eM shih (44), used for maple
leaves, for certain outlined leaves, for persimmons and
chestnuts.
60. H:i{ eM huang: ochre yellow; a mixture of t'eng huang (49 )
and ehe sh~h (43), the color of muskmelon (MP 11 A 8),
It is used for paiNting trees in late autumn, mid-mountain
level places, and paths through grass.
61.
ehe mo: ochre ink; a mixture of ehe shih (43) and ink,
MP 6 A 9; used for rocks and mountains.
62.
t'eng lo tzit: wistaria purple. A compound of
yang hung (52) and hua ch'ing (48) used extensively in
flower painting. It is MP 41 E 5, approaching orchid.

REI

JJi.Ji.1i

Portns of Paintings

II. FORMS OF PAINTINGS

GENERA L

:if hua: a painting; the general term for a picture.

the verb lito paint."
M. ill t'u: a. picture. Ordinarily a plan or map.

63.

Also
Most

1$:". ta'ao ch'ung t'u,

commonly used in titles, as

"Picture of Grasses and I nsects."

MURALS AND B ANNERS

65.

:!1m pi

hua: wall painting, mural painting. P roperly

this term refers to a painting done directly upon the wall.
Sometimes a. painting is made separately and mounted on
the wall ; such a work is called, colloquially, m.:f pi tzu.
66. ~ cheng: banners. Paintings on silk or other fabric,
loosely backed with cloth or silk. or with borders sewn on,
and commonly folded when not in use. The subjects arc
mostly or exclusively Buddhistic and the pictures are
hung in the temples. The paintings found at Tun
Huang, except those of paper, were of this type. The
general style persists in t he T ibetan paintings of more
recent times.
67. #!VJ ~m i tung pi hua: movable murals. Large
paintings of the same general type as t he preceding.
Folded when not in use.
ScROLLS

68. ~ijqb chuan chou: rolled paintings of all kinds, as distinguished from murals, albums and fans. The roll is the
most common form of Chinese painting. The late Mr.
I{ungpah King 9t~~t. once said, discussing the Chinese love of nature, "We first brought our landscapes
12

13

indoors on walls; but men move and houses arc destroyed.

So we learned to paint on scrolls that could be easily
carried and preserved. Even scrolls, however, require
special times and places for their viewing. Then we
painted on fans in order that the lover of landscape might
never be denied the opportunity of enjoyment. It
69. fqij chou: scroll. In literary usage, especially catalogues and
descriptive lists, specifically a scroll designed for hanging
and mounted accordingly (see 291 and following ).
70. ~ chii.an: scrolls; specifically pictures painted on horizontal
strips and mounted in rolls intended to be opened occasionally on a table ; not designed for hanging. The
bibliographical significance of the term is reminiscent of
the precedence of a scroll over a book.
71. 5f.$ sholt chuan: handscroll, the colloquial designation
of the horizon tal scroll (70), and a term which by direct
translation provides a suitable English denominator for
this form of paint ing. The typical handscroll is neycr
seen in it.s entirety- its theme unfolds as though it were a
poem or a muscial score. Any given section should be a
satisfactory picture in itself, so the problem of composition
is a most exacting one.
The proportions of Chinese paintings, of length or
height to width, vary within much wider limits than do the
proportions of Occidental paintings. R elatively long llnd
narrow compositions, both vertical and horizontal , are
particularly noticeable, and jj; ch'al1(J, "long," and ~
two, "a strip," arc common descriptives. There are
many synonymous, or approximately synonymous terms
to indicate pictures of varyin g style, size and proport ion.
For instance, fro fu is very commonly used with a meaning similar to that of fS chou as a combining form. It
appears to be older than chou. The distinctions, if they
actually exist, between many of these denominators of
shape and size are vague, and many are self-explanatory
for all practical purposes. Only a selection of typical
terms is given here .

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

14

72.
73.
74.

75 .
76.
77 .
78.

&i1JlM

Mng ju: a horizontal scroll designed to be hung

horizontally, and so mounted that such hanging is possible.
~~ hing p'i: a popular variant of hingju (72).
kua fu : hanging scroll, a rolled picture, *II chou
(69), designed and mounted to be hung vertically.
.JL~4b li chou: a more common term for vertical hanging
pictures.
ffiIlQii
chih ju: equivalent to kuafu (74) and Ii chou (75).
,." 101<.
..q!. I~ tan t'iao: a single vertical scroll. T'iao implies a
tall and very narrow picture.
Rf..1~ p'ing chang, or MU p'ing t'iao: sets of {our, six,

f!t!IJM

III. SUBJECTS
L ANDSCA PE

84.

eight, twelve narrow vertical scrolls to be hung together.

The nowcrs of the four seasons are typical. Callc~
I!!lM~ 88U p'ing chang, " four [panel] screen," etc. The
individual members arc as a rule so narrow that they arc
pleasing only in combination with the others.

79.

tnJ:It t'ung ching: combined scenej p'ing chang that form

one composition, as a large landscape or complex picture

of birds and flowers.
80.

IfIlifiib ku chou: lonely scroll, or .

:fiII tu chou : independent

scroll ; pictures hung singly as distinguished from those
hung in groups.
ALBUMS

81.

:JUt J.(

82.

~.1i toujang: a square picture, usually for or in an album

ts'~ yeh: an album. One leaf is -ll i yeh, the

volume -illt i (,s't.

and consequently small. A small square picture mounted

in a scroll for hanging may also be a. tou fang. Album
pictures are usually square or nearly so, or round. In the
latter ease they are sometimes from fans.
FANS

83.

mfrom
Wi shan mien: fan face ; the paper or silk as distinguished
the frame.

UJ7K shan

shui: mountains and water, landscape. The

first of the four major classes of subject matter in Chinese
painting. Supremacy in landscape painting is the ranking mastery. This term, and all that follow in this section, may stand alone as a noun , or may be used as an
adjective with 11 hua when the refercnce is to the class in
general, or with t'u when an individual picture is
referred to.
MEN' AND OBJECTS

85.

A ~ jtn urn: men and objects, including all bran('.hes of

portraiture and figure painting together with the manmade or domestic environmen t of man. The second of
the four major classes of subject matter.
PORTAITS

1$.iPll A.

l
86.
~ ch'uan sMn jen urn: portraiture.
87.
hsiang: a portrai t.
88. ~~ ying hsiang: a ceremonial portrait, usually painted
posthumously. It may be painted from the corpse, fr om
a life portrait, from a photograph, or ( is.~ chui ying)
from a verbal description aided by a type book. It is
interesting to note t hat photographs are t.ending to ta.ke
the place of ying hsang to some extent in modern China.
89. fi~OO1 hsing M t'u: a life portrait, especially one in which
t here is a generous amount of setting or background.
Many pictures showing the great Ch'ing dynasty emperors in the palace gardens and pavilions are in this class.

1l

.,

Subject8

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

16

90.

100.

1f!*
**

101.

ifftt

102.

1f.ft ts'ao ch'ung : grasses and insects.

99.

OTHER J EN W U CLASSES

~ A ~ shih nil, jen urn: women.,

especially beautiful
women, with the primary purpose to present their beauty.
91. ~
~ tao shih jen wu: Taoist and Buddhist figures;
Buddhas, Lohans, Bodhisattvas, the Eight Immortals ,
and the like.

92 .
93.
94.
95.
96.

..m1ii-A ~ jeng

jen urn: genre paintings, local customs,

manners, festivals, etc.
!l!jr.A.~ shih shih jen wu: illustrations of authentic
historical events or incidents.
~ ku shih jen wu; illustrations of fiction, or of
legendary incidents.
~If: ch'un hua, or ;fJ-g ch'un kung: erotic pictures.
Sometimes 89 is also used in this sense.
po ku: curios or antiques. A sub-division of jen urn
(85) i the painting of pictures of old bronzes, porcelains
and similar objects. This is regarded as a low class of
painting because usually the pictures are easily done, they
admit of no creative originality, and even when painstakingly accurate they are of interest chiefly as records or
for minor decoration.
8U

tit..A

"itti'

BIRDS AND ANI~IALS

97.

-m= ling mao: birds and animals, literally "feathers and

fur." This is the third major class of subjects and
includes paintings in which the emphasis is directly upon
the birds and animals. Horses and cattle usually come
under jen wu (85) except with such painters as Han Kan
~~ and Li T 'ang
who have specialized in their
representation .

*rJr,

FLOWERS

98.

iE.:ff hua hui: flowers and plants.

major class of subject matter.

The fourth and last

17

t8'ao pen: annuals and perennials that grow new

stalks every year; a division of hua hui (98 ).
mu pen: plants, peonies and the like, with permanent
'voody stems or trunks. Trees, however, are usually a
department of landscape.
cM chih: broken branches; cut flowers, sprays or
branches separated from the parent stalk. The implication is that the twig or spray was broken off, and the
complete branch with its severed end must be shown .
A spray introduced from the side of the picture so that it.s
separate condition is not apparent is not to be included in
this class, nor are sprays or flowers in vessels.
Ch'ung in cludes
reptiles, frogs and the like. The group is regarded as a
division of hua hui (98) because the subjects are usually
added to flower paintings, and not enough famous men
have specialized in ts'ao ch'ung to make i t a separate class.
Fishes and dragons are also a more or less separate group,
but not traditionally regarded as being of sufficient
importance to constitute a major class.

Classification by Techniques

19

larger and morc important; the outline is insignificant and

there are few or no ts'un (142) or lien (146).

110.

IV. CLASSIFICATION BY TECHNIQUES

103.

lo-t.

105~

106.

107.

lOS.

109.

llfil: h8ieh i: free sketch , spontaneous expression.

Used
variously as an adjective with t he noun. hua; as a
noun, object of the verb hua; or as a verb and object.
I~ J.,1tng pi: the opposite of hsieh i, painting very carefully and precisely, with meticulous attention to details,
forms and standards. Usually associated with work in
color, especially with the use of the mineral blues and
greens, but not necessarily so limited. Typically as a
noun, as in ftBlf.::r:. t'a hua kung pi, " he paints kung pi,"
or an adjective with 11 hua or f* f a, Hmethod " .
~1m: yiian t'1: academic painting, very precise with
reference to rules and customs. Even when apparently
hsieh i (103), it adheres closely to accepted form, without
individual invention. No single style is indicated, for
court fashions have changed from time to time. The term
is most commonly used of paintings as an adjective .
Toward the end of the Ch 'ing dynasty called also, colloquially, 'B~ kuan p'ai, uofficial school. "
~ i3 she se: arrange color. May be used colloquially as
verb and object. With hua thc combination has adjectival fo rce; for instance ~@.. sM se hua, "colored
paintings."
~~ cho se: apply color. Practically the same as the
preceding.
ch'ing Iii. shan shui: blue and green landscape.
distinguisllcd by the fact that large areas oC mineral blue
and green (30, 34) are used. Works of this type arc
aJwztys kung pi (1 01) .

f!f** W7j(

7cW*lW7Kta ch'ing Iii. shan sImi: same as the preceding, except that t he blue and green areas are usually

--t-fHli7Kchin pi shan shui: gold and green landscapes.

Ch'ing Iii (lOS, 109) landscapes with gold outlines.

111. m~ tan eM: faint umber ; ink paint ing with a very little
color, a little cM shih (43) mixed with ink, and possibly a
lit tle hua ch'ing (4S). This and t he terms immediately
following are usually adjectives with. hua or f* fa.
112.

~ *~ ch'ien chiang: light purple-red ; similar to tan cM

(111); still primarily ink painting, bu t with a little more
and deeper color. Red (chu piao, 41 ) may be added, and
perhaps (t'eng huang (49).

7km shui ma: ink painting, without color.

113.
114.

ij1t~

116.

~*

117.

JR B fei po: flying white; a method of brushwork in which

p'o mo: broken ink. H aving an outline and the

general configuration of rocks defined, to introduce shading or modelling by means of ts'un (142), gradually adding
to or building up depth, as in the work of 'Yang l\1~ng
3:~ or many artists of the Northern Sung period.
115. ~J!I p'o mo: spilled ink. P ainting with broad full strokes
and no outline, as in the work of Mi Fei *"Af. Much
used in the Southern Sung period.

kan pi: dry brush. The technique of Ni Tsan mJft,

in which the ink is used sparingly, with little moisture in
the brush. It was said of Ni Tsan that he was "economical of ink as if it were gold", i1UlinSlt hsi ?nO
ju chin.

t he hairs of the brush nre allowed to separate so that a

stroke is not solid black but brokcn by streaks of untouched ground. The effect is of speed and lightness; the
strokes a.ppear almost three dimensional. The method is
said to have been invented in the first century by Ts'ai
Yung ;ti-~ . It is primarily a technique of writing,
and in painting its use is almost wholly limited to drawing
the bamboo.

20
118.
IHI.
120.

121.
122.

123.

124.

125.
126.

Technical TCT'11Uj of Chinese Painting

B.no
pai miao: outline drawing, without color, shading or
wash. A
or an adjective with 11 hua or t! ja.

w.m

:rtfm

JJin

&W;*

127.

nOUD,

chich hua: boundary painting; ruled and measured

painting, used chiefly for architecture.
1~
mu ku hua: boneless painting; painting without
outline, especially in color.
~"Jm kou M hua: outliilCd painting, to be filled in with
color. The opposite of mu ku hua.
chih hUG: finger painting. An abnormal technique
of using finger tips and nails in place of or in addition to
the brush. An analogy might be drawn between this
method and painting with a palette knife. Said to have
been invent.ed"in the T'ang dynasty, finger painting had a
certain vogue under the Manchus, when Kaa Ch'i-p'ci
i1li;J.t-. was noted for his work in this technique.
mu fang: an exact copy. Usually mu (see below,
no. 149) indicates a copy made by tracing and transfer,
but when mu or mUfang is used in a colophon it means a
faithful copy by anv method.
fJ}Gri fen lin, or t}!Il fen t'a: copying by tracing and
transrerring. The painting is traced in outline, then the
tracing paper is reversed and the outline retraced in white.
The paper is placed white side down on a new piece of silk
or paper and rubbed with a damp cloth, t ransferring tbe
white outline to the new ground. The term also indicates
an exact copy, whether made by this process or not.
lin pen: a copy made with the original before the
artist as a model.
i]~ t'u an: fL pattern; designs for rugs, textiles, etc.;
silhouettes; plans for machines; etc. A noun, or an
adJcctive with it hua. Also called MU! Micnfa because
of the use of unmodulated tight lines. Hsien fa may be
used as an alternative for chieh hua (119), in which
case it is usually pictorial, combined with landscape and
figures, and is not t'u an .

1t1f

Classification by Techniques

128.

21

t7t*
fen pen: a draft or preliminary sketchj a study, or
cartoon.
If:twi hua kao: a preliminary sketch to be pain ted oyer.
Colloquially ~=r kao tzU.

Brushwork and Composition

129,

BRUSHWORK AND COMPOSITION

: .PJ-N tan

ch'1"ng: "red and blue"; painting, the art of

painting. For example 'ftlHuf~M t'a yen chiu tan ck'ing,
"he studies painting", or .ftlrflftT..r t'a hui tan ch'ing, </he

is able to paint".
130.
hua: to paint, the general verb. (See also no. 63)
131. It~ huaia: method, Of, better, style of painting.
132. ~ hsieh: to sketch. Used alone hsieh usually refers to
writing, but in such terms as hsieh i (103) and hseh sheng
(137) it has the meaning given here . It implies freedom,
as opposed to copying or rigid adherence to convention.

It

133.

mchui:

literally, to follow or pursue.

Used as a verb with

ying (88) in the sense of searching out a true and pleasing

likeness.

134.

fJJJ ch'uan : transmit to posterity; to make a portrait from a

sitting 'model.
ch'uan chen: to transmit truly; to paint a true likeness. Also the name of the art, but not of the product.
It is inclusive of ying hsiang (88) but broader, referring to
life ns well as posthumous portraits.
~9{ hsieh cMn: same as ch'uan cMn.
~
hsieh sheng: to paint a subject exactly like the
original; to paint from life rat.her than from memory.
Chiefly used with reference to birds, animals, flowers and
insects. Also used with adjectival force, as in ~1:.
hsieh sMng hua.
pi, or llfJE pi hua: a brush stroke.
~ kou: to outline, an outline. Used with 'fJ le, as in kou

135.

1W-1ft

136.
137.

1:.

138.
139.

if

II hua (121); or verbally as in

film k"" shan.

The

four steps in the painting of mountains, for instance, are

kou, ts'un (142),jan (143), tien (146) .
2'2

itJ1it kou

chin: to outline with gold; also, with t;E f a,

the method of outlining in gold. Used chiefly in chin pi
landscapes (110), and to some extent in men's garments
and in biros .
141.
miao: outline, or to outline ; also, to draw. .M iao refers
chiefly to painting of men and object-s, \vhile kott (139 )
refers chiefly to landscape. (See no. 118) Miao suggests
rather more delicacy and refinement than is associated with
kou. }.{iao differs from hsieh (132) in that it is not as free
from convention. Miao is also the name given to a
variety of strokes used in figure painting, especially for
garments (258- 276).
142. ~ ts'un: to shade, shading, modelling, contour lines.
Ts'un may also be translated "wrinkles" as by Prof.
Taki (Three Essays on Oriental Painting, page 47). After
a form is outlined, the next step is to give it character and
contour by means of t,s'un. Ts'un are used for the bark of
trees, and principally to give distinctive quality, modeling, and texture to rocks, mountains, and terrain gen~
erally. Some twenty-five varieties of strokes, related to
three main groups, have been classified (209- 234) , and
Prof. Taki has pointed out a general correspondence
between the strokes and natural rock structures and
erosion effects. In this present study an attempt has
been made to secure a more detailed identification. The
style employed by any given artist, or the general method
of using t,s'un, is Mit ts'unfa.
143 . ~jan: to dyci to put on a wash or tint of ink or color.
The third step in painting mountains; distinguished by the
necessity that individual brush strokes must not appear.
Jan is usually a verb, with the name of the color or pigment for objecti sometimes in a verbal compound, as
iit4:!! t'u jan, or, more commonly, with ~ ts'a or i1L hsiian.

140.

v.

23

flO

144.

I!~ is'ajan: to put on a wash or tint of color or ink.

. ~

145. t.~. hsilan: to put on a wash shading from light to dark or

24

Techm'cal Terms of Chinese Painting

Brushwork and Composition

from one color into another. Often used with jan, as

lfl.#:! MUan jan, or #:!i'iI jan hsiLan. In the latter case
Milan has the function of an objective noun.
146. ~ lien: to dot, dotting. To put dots of ink or color in landscape for the purpose of emphasis or better definition of
planes or contours ; the third step in mountain painting.
To put the leaves on trees; also the dots or leaves themselves. Tien on rocks, mountains and ground may be
interpreted as moss, grass or distant forests, but whatever they may be thought to represent their primary
function is to give variety and emphasis to the painting.

erased, with a hair or feather brush. Some painters use a

very light ink , covering it with heavy ink.
152. ~m chiao mOlar mm chung mo: dense, bl ack ink,
applied with the brush fairly dry i especially used for
touching up a picture to accentuate planes and contours.
A noun, usually, as in JlJ1.{im yung chiao mo, Huse
heavy ink".
153.
cheng pi: upright brush. The brush held and used in
a vertical position for writing, most outlining, and 80me
forms of shadi ng and dotting.
154. 11l1
ts'e pi: brush on one side. The brush held and used
in an oblique position, for washes and certain types of
shading and dotting.

For the varieties of tien used on rocks see nos. 235 to 241,
and for leaves nos. 176 to 203.
147.
tien t'ai: to dot moss; the process of dotting rocks,
mountains and ground, and the lichens on tree trunks,
but not the leaves of trees.
148. 1:f:j fang: to copy, usually implying a free or interpretive
copy. Often used in colophons in the sense of Hafter" or
even "in the style of".
149. ~ mu: to copy. Specifically mu means to copy by tracing
and transfer l in some such manner as that outlined in 124 ;
but it may also mean to copy exactly by any method.

I!i-a

150.

CW; lin: to copy, with t he original near or in front of one, as

distinguished from copying by tracing or from memory.

The product is lin pen (125). Lin is also used in a verbal
compound with mu, ~:\\ lin mu, with the general
meaning of faithfully copying.
151. }ij ,fTj yung Miu: to use charcoal for sket ching the composition before painting. One may also say t1]-'i"W:;.r
hsiu i ko kao tzu, Hc]Ulrcoal a draft". Uscd chiefly in
painting portraits and in jen wu (85) and kung pi ( 104 ),
bu t not in hs't"eh i (103). The charcoal of older times was
prepared by charring or burning willow twigs; now it is
purchased. Some artists usc the burnt end of a tight
paper spill, some wet incense l because they aremoreeasily

25

IE.
J*

C OMPOSITION

155. ~ chang fa: composition. The sui table filling of space;

the proper relations of placing and size of objects ; the
proper relation of sources and destinations of streams and
roads; the perspective of landscape, especially of mountai ns. "One man with three strokes and good composition may fill a picture. Another with poor composition
will never attain success no matter how many strokes he
uses."
156.
pu chu: the process of planning a composition.
157.
t'ien ti : heavcn and earth ; open or blank space at the
top and bottom of a picture. Some artists leave (ii7 liu )
both t'ien and ti: some one and not the other. The
allowance of t'ien ti is one of the first steps in composition.
The same phrasc is used of the top and bottom margins
of the mount ing of a scroll (294 ).
158.
hsu shih: empty nnd solid i the balancing of solidly
drawn t rees, mountains and terrain by empty spacc.
159. ~ pin chu : guest and host; the principle of balancing
large mountains by smaller ones, a main flower by less
important ones or by a butterfly.

1fti!flJ
.:R:-t!!

hlif.lt

26

160.

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

1i.~ ch'iu ho: hill and vale; height and depth, spaciousness . This hIlS possibly more to do with criticism than
with technique . " A painting has or has not ch'iu ho
as the artist has it or lacks it in his heart."
PERSPECTIVE

16l. ~:UI. yuan chin: far and near, perspective. The term
applies especially to mountain painting, and, since mountains arc a regular part of Chinese landscapes, by extension to landscape in general. There are three types of
mountain perspective known as the =~ san yuan.
For n. discussion of the general problem see B. March,
" Linear Perspective in Chinese Painting" , Eastern Art,
III , pages 113-139.

VI. TREES: TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

In the painting of landscapes the important tree or
trees are the first things sketched ; then the t-errain is
built around them.
165.
han lin: cold forest; a painting of trees without
leaves. Usually an adjective .
166 . .1:{# mao lin: flourishing forest; a painting of trees with
thick leavcs. Usually an adjective.

;J.J:#

BRANCH ES AND TWIGS

~.~

162.

t'aJiM kao yuan: high distance.

The view from the foot of

mountains looking up to the peaks; the aspect is abrupt;
colors are clear and bright ; figures are clear and visible
from afar. Height and distance must be combined or
height loses its effect. Waterfalls help to supply height.
This is the most common of the san yiian.
163. ~m shen yuan: deep distance. The view from mountains or peaks in front, through to mountains behind ; the
idea of reiteration or the piling of peak upon peak; the
colors a re dull and obscure; figures are fine and small .
Without distance, which clouds help to suppl y, the effect
of shen yiian is shallow. This is the least used of the
sanyiian.
m"-h
164. LI~ * p'ing yuan: level distance. The view from ncar
mountains across to distant mountains; the idea is of
blending together, of vanishing in mists. Without
distance, which mists, level bodies of water, or plains
help to give, the view is confined. The effect is one of
serenity; colors partake of both clarity and obscurity;
figures are blended and indistinct.

167.

T~tt ting hsiang chih: branches resembling cloves ;

that is, with a definite', rather large dot at one end and the
stroke firm and stiff. The style of Fan K'uan rrr:Jt.,
and one of the four common methods for drawing smaller
branches and twigs of trees. It is generally held that to
trail off onc of these strokes without a definite conclusion
is poor technique; even when the twig tip is very slender
the brush must be stopped surely or returned slightly and
lifted from the paper. Every natural twig has a bud,
however small, at the free end, and d ocs not merely
separate from its parent stalk but grows out of it. Both
of these circumstances must be suggested if not actually
represented.

168.

:m.JR1t ch'iao chao chih: branches resembling bird c1awsi

usually three stiff, upstanding strokes t.ogether. Kuo

Hai's ~~ style. It. is important in drawing trees t hat,
since the forms arc highl y simplified and the number of
branches and leaves far less than in real trees, the greatest
care sbould be taken to follow the Jaws of growth and
natural irregularity or asymmetry. Thus, the angle of
the crotch must be varied, branches of uniform length arc
Z7

1'cchnical Terms oj Chinese Painting

Trees: Type Forms and Spedal Techniques

eschewed, and the final outline of the twig t ips must be

uneven.
169 . .1<.~tt huo yen chih: branches resembling fl ames; curving slender strokes that seem cach to sweep out !\lld up
from its predecessor. Probably the most common of
the four.
t 'Q chih: dragged branches ; the brush pulled as the
170.
fancy wiUs. A free style not confined by strict convention, though subject to the general principles cited under
167. Thc style of Mn YUan .P.;~.

TJE N: LEAVES

28

176.

171. ~1t sung p'i: pine bark; resembles fish scales. Many
small circles adjacent or overlapping give the effect.
Only a few strongly marked and frequently painted trees
are individually distinguished by special characteristics.
For the roost part the trees are of general rather than
specific types. In a group of deciduous trees, for example, several different trunk and leaf styles will be used
for the sake of variety, and to suggest more trees than are
actu ally drawn.

172.

*EiBt pai p'i:

cedar bark ; resembles rope. Long, wavy

verticnl strokes are employed, usually with a slight spiral
effect.
173. m~ mei sMn: plum trunk . Within the outline of the
trunk the brush is laid on horizontally and dragged down
sideward in a ragged stroke; then a few horizontal ls'un
are added.
174. :t9P~ liu sMn: willow trunk. The characteristic effect is
produced by a kind of cross-hatching of rna p'i ts'un (210).

175. m:.ffpJm~ tuU t'ung shu shn: the trunk of the wu t'ung
tree (8terculia plalani!olia), sometimes called the "phoenix
tree P from the legend that upon this tree alone will the
phoenix alight. It is distinguished by a few horizontal
ts'un in groups of t wo or three.

SINGLE STROK E FORMS

la hun lien: large confused dots; oval, laid on wi t h

the side of the brush (ls'e pi, 154). Used for summer
leaves of various wide-leafed varieties, except by Mi F ei
who used this type of stroke in his mountains,
whence it is also known as M i lien ts'un (212). (Plate I )

*m=,

j&tt

!NorVIDUALIZED TRUNKS

*mfb

29

177.

/J'i.m.~ hs-fao hun lien: small confused dots. Similar to

the preceding but smaller, usually more open, light and
d ark together. (Plate I )

178.

*B~1!i pai yeh lien : cedar leaf dots. Tiny black spots,
the same as hu chiao tien (238), used for nearby cedar trees,
or for distant trees of larger leaf. (Plate I )

179.

Lfiifim p'ing t'ou lien: even-head dots; fine short hori

zontal strokes, used for forests and groups of trees second
ary to the composition and hence not individually drawn.
(Plate I )

180.

1tPiNlr!i yang ['ou lien: dots with uplifted hcnds ; fine short
curved strokes with the ends up, concave. Used for
secondary groups of trees in the spring or in fine weathe r.
(Plate J)

181. ~!1JUt!h ch'ui t ' Olt tien : dots with bowed heads; fine short
curved strokes with the ends down, convex. For forcsts
of groups of trccs of secondary importance, in midsummer
when leaves arc heavy or in rainy weather. (Plate I )
FORMS OF SEVERAL STROKES DIRECTED DOWNWARD

182.

1'-*10 ko

tzil tien: leaves like the character -1- ko.

These are the leaves of no special tree, but, in common
with the other forms immediately following l rep resent in
general palmate or digitate types. In all leaves of this
class it is important that the tops be open; that is, at the
point from which the several strokes diverge there should
be a. small white area and not a black center. When the

30

Technical TertTUJ of Chinese Painting

strokes of these ko tz'll tien are sharply pointed and

elongated they may serve for leaves of young bamboos in
clumps or groves. (Plate I )
183.

184.

185.

186 .

187.

188.

~*r"'ftil;Jfli ko t,~ chien 'huang kcru tien: ko t,a tien

drawn so that strokes of one group run into the strokes of
others, close together, giving the effect of double-outlined
leaves. (Plate I)
chieh tz1i. lien : leaves of four (or five) strokes,
resembling in general the character 11'- chieh. This is t he
parent form of a whole group of similar tien.
~~~ shan yeh tien: leaves of fir trees. Like chieh lz1l
lien but longer and with a tendency to curve inward.
Compactness and a definite downward force are necessary.
(Plate I)
pien pi tien: slanting brush dots. Of the chich
tzu (184) type hut with wider strokes made with the brush
slanted a. little. Used for large-leafed trees in midsummer. Variety may be had by making the leaves of some
trees larger than the leaves of others. (Plate 1)
wu l'ung tien: leaves of the wu l'ung tree (sterculia platanifolia). Full, rounded, short strokes arranged
after the chieh tziL pattern, made with a slanting brush.
The open top is more than usually emphasized. (Plate I )
~~I!i ch'ui yeh tien: drooping leaves. Rather thin
strokes, very loosely arranged after the genera.l pattern of
chieh tziL tien (184). Used for summer leaves full of
sap. (Plate I)

fr*1ti

.m *J!
f!f:.MPl1b

FORMS OF SEVERAL STROKES DIRECTED UPWARD

189.

m=15

ts'uan san tien: three converging dots; like ko

izu lien (182) but inverted; that is, the strokes diverge

190.

upward instead of downward. Used for both leaves and

twigs (see no. 168). (Plate I)
hsiao ts'uan chu lien: slightly converging
collected dots; similar to the preceding but more compact,
t.he individual groups indistinguishable. (P late I )

,I 'j,m*!b

Trees: Type Fanns and Special1'echniqucs

191.

31

JmlJEIli shu tsu lien:

rat-foot dou.; leaves like the print

of a ra.t's foot. Groups of four or five slightly curved
strokes arranged fan wise, with a white cent-er equivalent
to the open top of the downward leaves. Used for pines
in the autumn or winter, or for distant pines. (Plate II )

192. ~~15 sung ych lien: pine-leaf dots. Fine strokes,

sharply pointed, either curved or straight, arranged,
usually in groups of about seven, in a semi-circle. The
strokes have a notable stiffness. Care must be taken that
the fascicles are distributed, and that a black center spot
or overlapping of strokes is avoided. (Plate II)
193. ]ilJ~~ tz'u sung tien: pine-needle dots; pine leaves like
thorns, very fine, stiff and sharp. (Plate II )
194. 7k~1ii shui tsao tien: water-grass dots; seaweed leaves.
Not a tree leaf, but introduced here because of the similarity to pine leaves. The chief differences are that the
strokes for seaweed are more delicate, softer, slightly
more curved, and that they meet at the bottom in 1\
definite overlapped black point of juncture. (Plat-e II)
195. lJP~m yang yeh lien: upright leaves. Stiff, straight
strokes not grouped in fascicles. Used for varying the
effect among pines. (Plate II)
196. k:W ~15 hsi yeh lien: fine slender leaves growing upward
out of twigs or branches. Used for small young willows,
bamboos, etc. (Plate II)
FORMS OF SEVERAL STROKES RADIATING CIRCULARLY

197. ~iEJ6 chii hua tien: dots resembling chrysanthemum

blossoms; seven or eight strokes of medium width radiating in a full circle from a white center, (Plate II)
198.
mei hua tien: dots like plum blossoms; usually
five short thick strokes radiating in a circle from a white
center. (Plate II)
199.
ls'uan san chu wu tien: confused leaves,
sollle of t.hree, some of five strokes. The general effect. is

m::::fE!6

m=-*1i1b

32

Technical TernUJ of Chinese Painting

similar to that of the two preceding types, but not so

clearcut. (Plate II)
PI NNATE LEAVES

200. m~1!i ch'un yeh lien : leaves of the ailanthus (Chinese

sumac, tree of heaven). Long pinnate leaves, the leaflets
in pairs along a slende r central stem. (Plate II)
201. *pl~jJim h8i ch'ui t'mg tien: fine hanging v ines or
creepers. Very fine, small horizontal strokes, following
long slender stems. Used for creepers on trees. (Plate

II)
202. lVi**~ tsao 88'll lien: seaweed, delicate as silk. Floating
fine stems with short, threadlike leaflets on both sides.
Introduced here because the general type is similar to the
foregoing. (Plate II)
DOUBLE-QUTLINED LEA YES

203. ~~~ chilL yeh tien: double leaves. Usually five or six
straight or curved strokes arranged in a fan downward,
superimposed on color in similar pattern. The strokes
are actually tien, not ~ kau or outlines, but the effect
resembles that of the double-outlined leaves. (Plate II)
204. ~~"ji chia yeh fa: the method of outlining leaves.
Leaves outlined in black and then filled in with color are
used especially in paintings of the kung pi (104) type. A
few of the leaves, as the maple (triangles), the wu t'ung
and the ailanthus, are individualized, but most of the
varieties are typical rather than specific. Varying shades
of green, blue (including mineral pigments) and red may
be used. About twelve different forms arc commonly
differentiated. (Plate II, Ill)

VII. ROCKS AND MOUNTAINS, TYPE FORMS AND

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
GENERAL FORMS

205.

*fUm lun k'uo (k'o) : outlines of peaks in a mountain range

resembling a pile of wheel rims. The peaks are of the

rounded type called tit liian.
206.
M: outlines of peaks resembling blood veins.
The nearcst and lowest is drawn first, and each succeeding
outline springs from the last one drawn before it. The
peaks aTe generally pointed, U !eng. A common maxim
is ~~1l*Si hsien kou ?nO M hou lai t8'un, "first
outline the ?nO le, then {add] ts'un."
207. 15~ shih chun: stone nosej the first straight rock or
peakj the nearest peak, from which the others arise.
So-called because of the idea that in birth a child's nose
emerges first.
208. ~Ii chang kai: a last outline stroke enveloping aU the
others in a composite peak.

JVk*ii ?no

TS'UN: FIRST

209.

Gnoup

tlflM~ p'i ma ts'un: ts'un like spread-out hemp fibcrs;

long, slightly wavy strokes, giving t.he effcct of glaciated

or maturely eroded slopesj also used for l-errain of slight
relief. Tbis is the most common of nil the ts'un. P 'i ma,
tou pan (224) , and Miaoju p'i (227) may be considered the
three usual or academic is'un, all of the others being
related to them or derived from them. (Plate IV)
210. M.Bl.~ rna p'i ts'un: ts'un resembling a confused mass of
hemp fibersj similar to the preceding but with less parallelism and more confusion. The effect is somewhat rougher
33

34

Rocks and

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

than that of p'i mao Much used by Tung YUan :it(iW"

(Plate IV)
211. ~*~.Bt~ tuan pi ma p'i ts'un: similar to the preceding, except that the strokes are shorter and more ragged.
The effect is of eroded angular rocks or peaks. A style
common in the work of Chti. Jan B.~. (Plate IV)

212. *!!i~ Mitien is'un: the dotting method of Mi Fei *iIf

used to give contour and solidity to mountains and earth.
The strokes are made by laying down the side of the brush
in a direction approximately parallel to the horizon in the
picture, and the effect is similar in general to that of
p'i ma Is'un (209). (Plate IV)
213. 1tiL.~ luan rna u'un: ls'un like confused hemp stalks.
The strokes are straighter than those of p'i ma, and are
irregularly criss-crossed, suggesting erosion of irregularly
Jointed structure. (Plate IV)
214. jL~~ luan ch'ai ls'un: ts'un like confused brushwood.
Similar to the preceding, but the strokes themselves are
angular rather than strnight.
215. {ifj~m ho yeh ts'un: ls'un resembling the veins of a lotus
leaf that has been hung stem up to dry. While the foregoing fs'un may be used for terrain of both high and low
relief, this type is limited to peaks. The effect suggests
mountain slopes furrowed by water. (Plate IV)
216. m*~ chieh (hsieh) so ls'un: ts'un like raveled rope,
each stroke still retaining a twist. The effect suggests
eroded igneous intrusions, as some granite peaks. (Plate
IV)
217. jLm-~ luan yun ts'un, or ~m. yun t'ou ts'un: ts'un
resembling confused clouds or thunder heads; curving
strokes that build up shapes like cumulus clouds, suggestive of certain formations caused by wind erosion.
(PI.te IV)
218. $f&~ chiian yun ts'un: ta'un resembling rolling clouds.
Long curving strokes with a sweeping effect; suggesting
fantastically eroded contorted schist. (Plate IV)

~il'Iountains:

Type Forms

35

219 . .It:f:;~ niu mao ts'un : ts'un like the h air of cattle; often
similar to p'i ma ts'un (209) or luan yiin tS'1m (217), but
the strokes arc shorter and finer. The effect suggests the
smooth roundness of exfoliated igneous rocks.

ijt;ff:Jm

p'o wang ts'un: ta'un resembling a torn nct;

suggesting irregularly jointed and not deeply weathered
granite. (PI.te IV)
221. ~iR~ fan t'ou ts'un: ta'un resembling lumps of alum,
or Chinese steamed bread. The effect is of numerous
round white heads, suggesting eroded or exfoliated granite
much rounded at the joints. The style of Wu Chen
~n;. (Plate IV)
220.

222. ~itifJ~ tan wo ta'un: ts'un resembling the eddies of a

whirlpool or the marks of a pellet dropped into soft mud.
More or less circular strokes; sometimes similar to fan
l'ou ls'un but smaller. The effect generally suggests
honeycombing under an overhanging cliff. (Plate I V)
223.
kuei mien ta'un, or JI1~m kuei p'i ta'un: ta'un
like the wrinkles of a devil's face. An irregular style
used occasionally for special effects of extreme roughness.
Suggestive of excessive erosion of block structures.
(Plate IV)

Jl iIiiMi

Ts'UN: SECOND GROUP

224 . .21t~ lou pan ts'un: ts'un resembling the two halves of
a split bean; short, thick, oval strokes applied vertically,
usually in pairs. The effect is of a weathered slope with
irregular accumulations of weathered blocks. Very
common in the Northern Sung period. (Plate IV)

225. mJ!~ yii lien ta'un: ta'un resembling raindrops. Also

called ~~~ chih m.a ts'un because ill shape the small
pointed ovals resemble sesnmum seeds. Similar to the
preceding, suggesting a further degree of weathering and
greater accumulation of debris or talus at the foot of the
slopes. The strokes are larger near the bases of moun-

36

T echnical T erms of Chinese Pain ting

tains and smaller at the peaks. The style of Fan K'uan

r~1i . (Plate IV)
226. JJiIJ~~ {z' tI Ii ts'un: short, pointed strokes like thornsi
a variation of tou pan ls'un (224) , especially used in the
Northern Sung period by Yen Wen-kuei ~Xj!t. The
effect is of faulted angular rocks not greatly eroded.
(Plate IV)
T S'U N : THIRD GROUP

227. /J"*,9f~ Miao f u p'i [.s'un: is'un resembling the cuts

made by II. small axe. The brush is dragged sideward,
produ cing a wide ragged stroke. The effe ct is of faul ted
angular Tocks, and further erosion than in 226. (Plate
I V)
228. **~~ tafu p'i ls'un: ls'un resembling the cuts made
by a big axe. The strokes are larger and fewer than in
the preceding. The effect is of vertical faulting and
further erosion. Li T'ang *flf coromonlyemployed this
style. (Plnte IV)
229. ~~~ fu iso is'un: is'un resembling axe splits, or the
cleavage caused by striking with a hammer or the back of
an axe. This style is differentiated from the fU p'i ts'un
by longer strokes and by leaving the ridges white instead of
outlining them in black. The effect suggests the erosion
of tilted blocks; a hogback. (Plate IV)
230. 1:fTm~ eM tai t8'un: is'un resembling severed bands.
The strokes are made horizontally, then broken sharply
downward , so that the first part is formed by dragging the
tip of a slanting brush while the finish is made by the side
of the brush. The effect is of horizontal stratification
with faulting across the strata. Characteristic of Ni
'Ison ifI.~. (Plate V)
231. tlI::i~~71<~ t'o ni lai shui is'un: is'un like [severed!
bands dragged in mud. The general shape is washed in
and before the wash is dry eM tai is'un are added. The

Rocks and M ountains : T ype Forms

37

effect is less clearly defined than in the preceding, and

suggests more mature erosion. (Plate V)
232. m:.j{tl(~~ ni li pa ting is'un; is'un like nails pulled
up from mud. Broad moist p'i ma ts'un (209) have
chien t'ou lien (235) added before they are completely
dry. A blending is produced which warrants classifi cation as a special ls'un even though the process is a combination of ts'un and tien. The effeet suggests mat ure old
slopes blanketed by veget ation. Used by Chiang Kuantao fUfa!:. (Plate V)
233. ~.5f~ ma ya ts'un: ts'un resembling horses' teeth.
Sometimes called It;:!rPJ rna ya kou. Stiff, hard strokes
made with the point of the brush, used for vertical joint ing
and angular uprigh t rocks. Used by Li Ssi1-hsun * .~,1111
and Chao Ch'ien-li
ID.. (Plate V)

m=r-

234.

~~~ t'ieh hsien ts'un: ls'un like iron wires; stiff,

straight stro~es of unvarying thickness. They suggest
vertical jointing, and are used extensively with ma ya
t8'un. Often used of 'r'ang Yin TJiji,{ and W~n Chengming ;tlltPJI. (Plnte V)
TIEN FOR EARTH AND MOUNTAINS

235. ~iJt~ chien t ' 01t tim: sharp-headed dots; short, upright,
pointed strokes, like tacks sticking point up; made wit h
the tip of the brush. This is the most common form of
tien used with rocks and mountains. It may represent
distant trees, or grass on levels by water or on gentle
slopes ; but its primary function, as with all landscape
dott ing, is to give emphasis to planes and con tours, and
variety to the scene. (Plate III)
236. [ij~!b yu hsiieh lien: rain snow dots; small full dots
like rain drops or snow flakes. (Plate III)
237. ~*!ti p'o pi lien: broken brush dots; similar to the
preceding but more ragged. (Plate III)

38

Technical T erms oj Chinese Painting

238. t;}lj;fl{~ hu chiao tien: tiny dots like black pepper. Used
also for t he leaves of cedars. (Plate III)
239.
i tzu tien: dots like the character "one," Short,

--"*15

fine, horizontal strokes; occasionally used also for t rees.

VIII. WATER: TYPE FORMS A.t'lD SPECIAL

TECHNIQUES

Plate III)
240.
hsiao hun tien: small confused dots; small ovals
made with the side of the t ip of the brush, light and dark
together. The type used by Mi Yu-j~n *1iC in his
landscapes. Used both for dotting rocks and for tree
leaves. (Plate I t 177)
241. ~JJi.1! ch'ui t'eng tien : hanging creepers. Fine strokes
assembled so they look like confused bird tracks pointing
downward. Used in mountains below overhanging clift's.
(Plate Ill)

/J"\mlO

242

71<. IJ

244.

iImiJ!lf~.f chiang hai po t'ae f a: the method of

shui k'ou: water openings. Water sources, including springs, waterfalls, and the long promontories of
p'ing yiian landscape (164).
243. ~ililJ illI!1Jli?:/;; hri (ch'i ) chien lien i to: the method of
representing the rippling waves of shallow water and the
movement of little streams. Sligh tly wavy. approxi.
mately parallel, horizontal strokes, with here and there a
flowing USH curve. (Plate V)

representing the billows of deep water. Serried crests

and t roughs, with foam and spra.y. (Plate V)
245. tJ;~ sha Mien: sand t hreads; the horizontal strokes,
usually dotted with grass, that indicate shallow water.
Not waves and not land.
246. *f~ ta p'u pu: a large waterfall, wide and high.
(Plate V)
247.

~ljHtt*?! hsilan yen (yai ) kua ch'uanJa: the method

of representing overha.nging cliffs and waterfalls. T he
stream is usually represented as flowing nearly on a level,
t hen falling over a cUff with an abrupt change of direction
from the horizontal to the vertical. (Plate V)
IJ jtjR'l!; shan k'ou f en ch'iian fa: the method of
dividing a stream as it comes through n. .-aUey to a fnll ;
by introducing boulders that give it a winding effect or
the appearance of rapids. (Plate V)

248.

ili

249.

~'IilURIi?:/;; yun liu ch'wn tuan t o: t he method of

interrupting a stream with scudding clouds. The long
vert ical line of .8o fall is not always pleasing or lively.
39

40

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

Clouds drawn across it serve to give it height and life,

and to break the monotony. (Plate V)
250. :lifRjijij~i* hua ch'iian liang tieh fa: the method of
drawing a stream in two sections; as, (or instance, a waterfall disappears in mist at its foot, and a stream known to
be the same water emerges from the rocks below. This
varies from the preceding in that each section of the
stream has a different cbaracter. (Plate V)
251.
~ hsi ch'uan fa: the method of showing a narrow
stream opening out as it emerges from 8 gorge or rapids.
Not. waterfall. (Plate V)

*PUR

252.

lfiiR7 p'ing ch'iv:m fa:

the method of showing a stream

in a comparatively level place, by strokes directed first
toward onc side, then toward the other; indicating fairly
rapid motion without much drop. (Plate V)

IX. CLOUDS: T YPE FORMS Al'1D SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

253. *tn1.1~ hsi kou yun: fine hook (or ilJ kou, outline)
clouds. Fine lines in deep "S" curves. The strokes are
even and long; the effect of light, thin, floating clouds.
(Plate V)
254. *1.7'flt to kou yun: large hook (or 14 kou, outline)
clouds. The strokes are typically shorter than in the
preceding, show less systematic continuity or parallelism,
and are modulated thick and thin. The effect is more
massive than that of the hsi kou yiin. (Plate V)
255. ~lWi yun tuan: breaking by clouds; the clouds that sepa
rate tops of mountains from their bases, giving an appear
ance of height and depth. They are not, ns a rule,
outlined in h8ieJt i painting (103), but may be ver)'
elaborate in kung pi (1 04 ).
256. I!X~~ ch'ui yun fa: [wind] blown cloud method. The
drawing of clouds with a thin whi te wash, only a hint of a
white outline, and no ink. Used in ch'ing iii. (108) and
chin pi (110) landscapes.
257. ~;fiti* kou fen fa: white outline method. Outlining
clouds first with ink and then following the first outline
with a second of white. Used especially in chin pi
landscapes (110).

Figure8: Type Forni.s and Special 'l'echniqucs

cally the same, emphasizing t he similarity of the lines to

the strands of silk emitted by the silkworm . (Plate Vi )
203. fi ~ vtf.7k
hsing yun liu shui miao: wavy lines like
scndding clouds or running water. A vertical brush is
used, and whole figures are sometimes made with a single
line. The appearance is very free, but the brush is
carefully controlled and brought up at the end of a stroke.
(Plate VI )
264. m~tia liu yeh miao: lines like willow leaves, usually
starting narrow, widening , a.nd then tapering to a point.
Sometimes a series of such modulations in a si ngle li ne.
The brush is put down and the stroke finished firml y, but
without definite dots or heads. Such lines were used by
Wu Tao~tzu :!J!il1.:r in his paintings of Kuan Yin IJlff".
(Plate VI)
265. 'fJ~tlU chu yeh miao: lines like bamboo leaves. Similar
to willow leaf lines but the wider portions arc a little
wider and rounder, and the taper proportionately longer.
The brush is slanted to use the side of the tip. (Plate VI)
266. 1i!tlf7k.~:tNi chan pi shui wen miao: lines li ke water
waves, made with a quivering brush. A vertical brush is
used, and the line is very nervous and oscillating. (Plate
VI)
267. Ji.~Wi ma huang miao: lines like a wasp's body. Using
the point of a vertical brush, frequent variations of pressure
produce a characteristic thick and t hin line. (Plate VI)
268. mt~tUi lsao ho mwo: lines like a series of date stones.
P ractically a series of connected lien which arc fine at the
ends and thick in the middle; made wit h the fine point of a
large brush. Also called fi{ftiii K 1tan Yin miao. (Plate
VII )
269.
kan ian miao: lines like a series of olive stones;
similar to the preceding but the heavy parts are pro~
portionately longer. A l ar~ stiff-pointed brush is used,
with a zig~zag motion. The brush is brought up promptly
at the end of each stroke. (PInto VII)

X. FIGURES: TYPE FORMS AND SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

258.

A ~:t<.k!t jen

259.

!l!I(gsltU'l

260.

Z;;i2.fta

261.

262.

wu i wen: lines in people's garments.

T he contours, folds or wrinkles of garments. There are
eighteen standard styles of brush strokes used in drawing
garments, known as the T Afm 8hih pa miao, "eighteen
outlines." They arc listed below.
ch'ilt yin miao: angle worm lines; fairly coarse
and of even thickness, apparently round, and neither
tapering oll nor swelling to a hend at the end. A vertical
brush full of heavy ink is used. The brush point is started
in the direction opposite to t he course of the stroke, and
the termination is similarly handled with a return movement, in order to give the desired finish to t he ends.
(Plate VI)
ch'in hsien miao: lines having the appearance of
lute strings dropped on a table i long, thin, sinuous lines.
The point of a vertical brush is used, and the brush is
brought slowly and carefully down to the paper, then the
stroke is made evenly and smoothly, the heart and hand
functioning as one unit. (Plate VI)
Wi~tNi Ts'ao i mwo: the garment lines used by Ts'ao
Pu-hsing W~jiQ. . The point of the brush is used, and
the st rokes arc close together, flowing as tributaries into
one another, making a. continuous rhythm of separate
strokes. (Plnte VI)
~iJ
kao ku yu SSl~ mwo: lines like long, waving
loose strands of a spider's web. Much used in former
ages for Buddhistic figures, flowing robes, and the like.
The finest brush is used, pointed and vertical. There is a.
similarity between this and t he preceding type. The
style called $B~**t.E ch'un ts'an t'u 8811 ja, is practi-

jfff**:tNi

42

43

{tltmtNi

44

Technical Tenns of Chinese Painting

270. ~~fb'i l'ieh Mien miao: lines like iron wire; even in
thick ness t hroughou t their length, very hard and stiff,
with sharp angles. A vertical brush is used, and the
strokes arc long. The effect resembles chisel cu ts in
stone . (Plate VII)
27 1.
ehe lu miao: lines like broken reeds; long, stitT.
not very fine, with sudden changes of direction. A
pointed brush is used in a zig-zag pattern. The pattern
is called ./ '- p'ieh na, because the angles resemble
those made by strokes slanting downwards to the left
C/ p'ieh) and to the right ( '- na) in writing. (Plate
VII)
272. iTijill.J~:1M' ling t'ou shu wei miao: lines like fat tails
with beginnings like nail heads; long and tapering. The
brush is put down firmly to produce a strong dot, then
trailed off in a tapering line to a fine point. (Plate VII)

1fT:Mtm

273.

lIiItiTflO

276.

ilm hun mwo: double lines; first drawn lightly with thin

chiieh t'ou ting miao, or tJfilfitii chiieh t'ou

miao: lines like driven stakes. A blunt brush is brought
down fi rmly with a vigorous dot, and the stroke is carried
straight to a point. The brush must go quickly, like a
fast ho,,",. (Plate VII)
274. ~:ijEm chien pi miao: lines with fewer strokes. A free
style, in which, for example, one zig-zag stroke may serve
for all the wrinkles of a sleeve, ordinarily represe nted by
several separate strokes. A blunt brush is used, and it
t ravels like a ricocheting bullet or pellet from a bow.
This is t he typical style of Ma Yuan It~it and Liang
l('ai !l!!1'Ii. (Plate VII)
275. ~ ~m ch'ai pi miao, or :.tii~tDi k'u ch'ai miao: lines like
kindling or brushwood. A stitT, large-pointed brush is
used in a slanting position. The lines are coarse, and stiff
as wood. A vcry impressionistic style. (Plate VII)
ink then retraced with heavy ink to intensify certain

places and give depth and roundness. Both lines remain,

Figures: Type Forms and Special 7'echniques

45

side by side or partially overlapping. To be distinguished

from the sketching mentioned in the last sentence under
no. 151, in which the first line is oblitera.ted by the second.
(Plate V II )

Seals and Signatures

XI. SEALS AND SIGNATURES

277. ~ k'uan: the signature or colophon of the artist. It may
include information as to the person for whom the picture
was made, the place and date of painting, together with the
name of the artist; but a poem or essay is not properly
part of the k'uan even when written with it. Appropriate
placing of the k'uan with reference to the composition is
important, for it should be a. part of the picture, not
merely a means of identification. Also, it should be well
written or it were better to omit it.
nn );Iv
278 . .!p.. AJ\ tan k'uan: a colophon or signature wit hout reference
to the name of the person, if any, for whom the picture was
painted.
27f.l. ~~ shuang k'uan: a double k'uan; a colophon containing
the name of the person for whom the picture was painted
or to whom it is dedicated (J:.n shang k'uan, upper
k'uan) as well as the signature of the artist C"f.lk hsia,
lower, k'uan).
280.
t'i pa: an annotation on a picture or its mounting.
It may be written by the artist himself or by some other
person, and the term most specifically refers to prose
writings of the nature of expositions or expertises. Colloquially, however, t'i pa refers to annotations generally,
except the artist's signature or colophon. T'i is a verb,
and t'i pa is used sometimes as a verb and object, sometimes as a noun .
t'i shih: a poem inscribed on a painting or its mount281.
ing, usually in praise of, or inspired by the painting.
Also the process of writing such a poem.
282.
yin chang: seals. Every painter has a number of
seals of various styles, and the seal is an important part

283.

284.

285.

l!ttl

286.
287.
288.

Jrnffi:

289.

W:1it

'"

290.

47

of the signature; in fact, a signature is not really complete

without an appended seal impression. Some works are
signed with seals alone. The most common seals bear
the artist's surname and formal name (:t}1. ming chnng)
or his intimate name or pseudonym (ll tzil chang or
\1t~ hao chang) alone. Seals also have a decorative
function, and should be placed appropriately with refer
ence to the composition. Owners of paintings may and
often do impress their own seals on a picture or its mount.
There arc professional seal cutters, bu t many artists also
cut seals, and those engraved by pain ters and writers are
usually regarded as the finest, because they have something of the same quality of individu al spontaneity that is
found in itOOd brushwork .
~ ~ t'u chang, or 110" t'u shu: colloquial names for
seals. In common usage no distinction is made between a
seal and its impression.
~;;C yin wm, or *X chu wen: vermilion characters;
the characters of a seal in relief, so that they print red
against a white background.
~5( yang wen, or Sx. pai wi>n: white characters; the
characters of a seal cut intaglio, so that they print white
with a red background.
Iwien chang: seals with mottoes, etc., wit.hout the
owner's name.
i!I!~_ lien chu chang: double or connected seals. One
seal in the form of two, or giving the impression of two.
pien chang : a side seal; distinguished by its position,
beside the signature or on some other part of the picture,
except the two lower corners. A seal placed at the
beginning of a writing.
~jq chui chiao : a corner seal. A seal in one of the t.wo
lower corners of a picture. It may be part of the signature if this is in one of the requisite corners.
yin sc: thc vermilion pigment used for !';cal impressIons.

l".iJ_

3i:.

r:n 13

Mounting

XII. MOUNTING
As fashions in mounting have changed from time to t imo,
and as the terminology is by no means constant, no effort is made
here to define all variations or to untangle the confused uses of
various terms. A characteristic scroll is sketched for illustration--one which is neither the simplest nor the most elaborate. The
terms in which it is described arc current in Peiping today. Some
literary designations are listed, but not with finality as to their
exact definitions. Some vagueness in their interpretations still
seems inevitable. Those who wish to pursue further the complicated ramifications of the subject may have reference to t he
Japanese systems. There is a discussion in William Anderson's
The Pictorial Art of Japan, part II, pages 116-129, of mount ing
and the various fo rms of pa.intings, and Mr. C. C. Wang has
given me a reference to the Japa.nese work B *.HJ*M~

293.

to 1429.
291. ( ~ , ~,1l.) piao: to mount a picture by pasting it to a
paper bncking. The writing W: is more common today,
pages 1427

but 11" is apparently the older literary usage.

292. ~m or ~1f piao pei: to mount ; mounting. According to Mr. C. C. Wang, this is a comparatively modern
form, alt hough he traces an inversion W~ pei piao to
1\1i Pei
who Hin admonishing people against unneces
sary remounting said that each t ime one changes the 1'piao, cach t ime one changes the 1-1' pei one hurts the picture that much. " M r. Wang contends that piao referred
to the silk borders, pei to the paper backing. T his
view is supported by iVl i's statement, and by Chang
Yen-yuan/s mJt-i1 reference to bands that wetc specially woven for use as piao for paintings in t he Imperial
collection. On this general subject Mr. Wang offers the
additional comme nt: " The term chuang huang ~ i.,

*m=,

Di&gr &m, p.

5(1

.'

294 .

295.

296.

49

still used extensively in writing, which can refer to decorative packing of all kinds, was used in the T'ang Shu
f1f1!f. Chang Yen-yuan ~jfi'l was fond of using the
term chuang chih (or ch'ih ) ~. , which many writers
affect today. 'Chuang' may be translated as to mount
or prepare, to 'dress' in the broadest sense; 'chili' ti has
the primary meaning of 'cu tting,' 'robbing,' for in
mount ing often it is necessary to cu t off the uneven
edges of a painting. Chang lamented the unnecessary
cutting that paintings sometimes suffer at the hands of
unskilful artisans. Chang also used the term chuang pei
~1-t . All these terms mean mounting, and with the
cxception of chuang huang ~j])( each character seems to
indicate a certain process in the mounting. "
-m~ piao fa: style of mounting. The typical scroll has
paper or silk ma.rgins, sometimes of very elaborate and
expensive brocade, usually of ling lziL (6), either white or
colored. At the bottom of a vertical hanging scroll is a
roller with, usually, projecting ends of wood , ivory , jade,
horn, porcelain, or metal; and at the top is a slender bar.
In a h andscroll (70, 71 ) the roller is at the left end of thc
scroll. I ts ends do not usually project but are commonly
of jade. The horizontal hanging scroll (72) has no roller,
but a slender bar at each end.
.J(t-t!! t'ien ti: heaven and earthi the upper and lower
portions of a mounting. Properly the margins beyond
the 8811. h8iano (295), with which they contrast in color;
A and B in the accompanying diagram. The proportion
of t'ien to ti is usually as three is to two. The wider space
or margin is always at the top.
1!Qif.( 8811. hsiang: quadruple border; the border immediately surrounding the picture. Unless the whole
mount is white, the 88u Miang is of a different color from
the t'ten ti. The upper margin of the 88U hsiang is always
wider than thc lower. C in t he diagram.
yang chii: protectors i narrow strips of brocade or a
special silk, onc at the top and one at t he bottom of a

JffiU

Technical Terms of Chinese Painting

50

297.

298.

299.

300.

301.

302.

picture and immediately adjacent to it within the 8S'tl

hsiang CD). In remounting, these may be trimmed and
the picture itself left untouched. Colloquially called
:f=r ya tzu, "teeth. " Very fine old brocade is often
used for this purpose when all the rest of the material of
the mount is new, or the original brocade may be kept
through several mountings.
)l.~ jeng tai: wind bands; called also
ching yen,
S-m p'iM tai., and tt~ ching !ai. The two vertical
strips at the top of a hanging scroll (E). Formerly they
hung free, as in Japanese mounting today, and it is said
that they were intended to flap and frighten away flies.
Today they are decorative strips pasted down flat.
shih t'ang: poetry hall. Paper occasionally mounted
directly above a picture in a vertical scroll to receive
annotations. If used, this special paper is adjacent to
the picture, within the borders of the mount, and is frequently fine old stock and possibly hand decorated .
f&~wn: t'o wei chih: Htowed-at-the-cnd paper"; a long
strip of paper following the painting in a handscroll,
to receive annotations.
iMI chou: the wooden rod around which a scroll is rolled
(F). The term may refer to the complete roller, or to the
wooden rod alone. The latter may also be called *ilff
chou kan. The kind of wood used varies, and extra weight
is sometimes inserted.
chou shou, or *tIIIfJi chem t'ou: the ornamental ends
of a scroll roller (G). These are most often simple
polished hardwood, but ivory, horn, porcelain, jade,
metal and other materials are used.
~ piao, and it ch'ien: labels. These usua.lly appear as
narrow strips on the outsides of rolled pictures. They
commonly cite the dynasty, the a.rtist's name, and the
title of the painting. The writing is often by noted men,
and it is not uncommon to find old labels transferred to the
face of the mount in remounting.

.a

fi1it

iMlti

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF TERMS DEFINED

:'- U ),IBItR

NUIoIH'ER

Ch'ai pi miao .. .............

Chan pi &hui win miao ... ....
Ch'an i chien... . . . . . . . . . . ..
Ch'an i chien... . . . . . . . . . . ..
Clum. fa ... ... ..... . ......
Cha1l{l ".ai .. ...............
CM mih .. .................
CM h1Ul11fl... .. .. . . ... . .....
CM fnQ............ ........
CM shih.. .................
eke lu miao .. ..... .. .... . ..
CM tai ts'un ... .............

275

Ch'bv; ll&in T'a11fl chih . .... .

Chia yehfa..... . ... . .... .
Chia yeh lien ..... . . . . .
Chiang hai po l'ao fa .. ..... .
Ch'iao chao chih .. .. . .. ..... .
Chiao -mo ................. .
Chieh hua .... ....... .....
Chieh so ts'un .. ..... .. .. ... .
Chieh tziHien .... .......... .
Chien ........ ...... ....... .
Chien pi miao . ...... . .....
Chien t'ou tien .... ......... .
Ch'ien .................... .
Ch'ien chiang ......... . .... .
Ch'ienfin ..... . ........... .
Chih . .............. .......
Chihfu ................... .
Chih rna ts'un . .... .
Chih hua . ....... .. .. .

15
204
203
244
168
152
119
216
184
13
274
235
302
112
44

Chin pi shan shui... .....

Ch'in Mien miao .. .
Ch1'ng tai. . .. . .. . . . .
Ching yen. .. .. . . . . . . . . .
Ch'ing lii shan shui. . ... .
Ch'ing shuichu ch'ui hsUan....
Ch'iu ho ............... . ...
Ch'iu yin miao . ............
Cha s~ ... .......... ........
Chou . ..... ......... 69, 71,
Chou lean.. .. . . . .. . . .
Chou shou... . .. . . . . . . . . . ..
CMU t'ou. . . . . . .
Chu piao...... .. . . . .......
Chu 8M ..................
Chu win ....... .... ..... ...
Chu yeh miab ... .... . ......
Ch'uan.. ......
Ch'uan cMn. .. . . . . . . . . . .
Ch'uan 8ht71 jen 1UU.....
Chuang chih.
... ...... .
Chuang huang ....... .. .....
Chua11fl pei.. .... . . . . .
Chui . .. ........... . . . .....
Chui chiao . ... ...... . .....
Chui.ying..................
Ch'ui t'eng lien ..... . . . .....
Ch'ui t'ou lien.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Ch'ui yeh tien. ... . .. . . . . . ..
Ch'ui yun fa ... ....... . .....
Ch'un hua .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . ..
Ch'un hua hsUan .. . . . . . .
Ch'un kung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

266
19
19

155
208
101
60
61
43
271

230
Cheng . ................... 66
Cheng pi . .. ... . . .......... . 153

14

76
225
122
51

110
260
297
297

108
20

160
259
107
300
300
301
301
41
40
284
265
134
135
86
292
292

292
133

289
88
241
18 1

188
256
95
22
95

52

List of Terms Defined

NUMBER

Ch'un 18'an t'u ssU fa . . ......

Ch'un yeh lien . ..... . .......
Chung nw . .... .. ... ........
ChTl hUG tien . ...... . ......
Chiian (silk) .
... . . . .. .. ..
Chiian (SCTOU)........ . .....
Chuan eMU. . .. . .. . . . . . . . ..
Chiian yUn U'un. . ...... . ..
Chueh t'ou miao . ............
Chileh t'ou ting miao.. .
Ch'ueh chao chih . . . . . . . .. . . .
2r ch'ing. . . .. .. . ...

262

200
152
197
1
70
68
218

273

273
168
32
1Sr Iii.
. . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Fan hsUan .. . . ... . ... . . .
17
Fan t'ou ts'un ...... . . . . ... 221
Fang ....... .. .. . . . . .
148
Fei pai (po) ............. . . . 117
Fin lin .......... . . ....... 124
127
Fin pm...
.. .. . . . ..
124
Fin t'a ...
. ...... . .... .
Feng .
. ............ . 206
FbI,g su jin wu . .. . ........ . 92
Fblg tai ..... . . ... . . . . .... . 297
Fu .. .. . . . . . ........ . ..... . 71
Fu tao ts'un . .............. 229
Han lin .. .. ....... ... ... .
165
Hao chang ........ . . . ... . 282
Hlmgju ................... . 72
Hblg p'i .................. . 73
Ho yeh ls'un ............... . 215
HBi chien lien i fa . ......... . 243
HBi ch'uanfa .............. . 251
Hsi ch'ui t'eng tien ......... . 20 1
H Bi kou yun . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . 253
11si yeh tien.. . ........... . 196
HBia k'uan ................. 279
Hsiang... .... . ...........
87
Hsiaofu p'i ts'un .
209, 227
Hsiao hun tien ......... 177, 240

List of Terms Defined

53

NUMBER

Hsi{J() ts'uan eM tien ........ 190

Hsieh . . ... . .. . . . .. . . . ...... 132

Hsieh chen . . . .. . . . . ........
H sieh i........... . .. . .
Hsieh sheng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hsieh 8Q ls'un ...... . . .....
H trim chang. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hsienfa ........ . .... . .....
H ring i.e t'u. ... ............
H sing yun liu shui miao, . . ..
Hsiu .... ..................
H siung huang . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hri shih .. . .. . .. . .. . .....

136
103

137
216
286
126
89
263
151
39
158
Hsiian ........... .......... 145
Hsilan chih.. ...... . . . ......

16

H silanjan .... . . . ..........

H8ilan yen kua ch'uanja .....
Hu chiac tien . .. . .. . . . . . ....
Rua . ...... . .......... 63,
Hua ch'ing ..... . . ,. ,......
Hua ch'iUln liang lich fa . . . .

145
247
238
130

Hua chuan . ...............

Huafa....... .... .. .
Hua hui....... .. .. . . . .....
HUG lGM. .
. . . . .........
Hua ling ........... . . . .. . . .
Hua pien hua chuan. . ... .
Hui . ....... . . . . . . . . . . .....
Hun miao . ..... . ...... . . ...
Hung pien hua chuan.... ....
Huo yen chih .. .. . ..........
I tung pi hUG.... . . . . . ..
I lzu lien.. . . . .. . . . ..... .
Jan . .. . . . ...... . . . . ......
Jan h8iUJn. . ...
Jm W u..
Jen wu i wbl. ..... . . . . . .
Ju chin ......... .
Kan lan miao . .. .

48
250
2

131
98
128
6

3
47
276
4
169
67
239
143
14 5

85
258
46

269

NUMBER

Kan pi. . .... ........

Kao ku yu SsU miao . . . . . . . ..
K(l() tzu. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kao ytlan .... ..... ..
Ko tztl chien shuang kou lien..
Ko tztl lien .... . ............
K'ofbl. ..........
Kou ......... . .. . .. . . ....
Kou chin ....... . .. . . .. .
Kou chin fa . .. .. .. . .. .
K oufenfa...
. . . .. ..
Kou Ie hua .......... . . .... .
Ku CMU ... . .. ... . .. . . ..
Ku shihjin wu .... .... .
K 'u ch'ai miao . .
. . ...... .
Kuafa ....... .. ...... . ... .
Kuan p'ai .. .. . ....... .
Kuan Yin miaQ . .. .
K uang chiao ....... . .
K'uan ....
Kuei mien ta'un .. ........ . . .
Kuei p'i ta'un ..... . . .
Kung pi ...... . . . .........
Lao hung . . . . . .. ....... . . .

116
262
128
162
183
182
45
139

140
140

257
121
80

94
275
74
105

268
29
277
223
223

104
59

lAuJ 111 . . . ... .

54
IA chou .. ......... . . . . . . .. 75
Lien chu chang ....... .. .. . . . 287
IAen chuan . ... .. ..... .... . 10
IAn ..... ......... .. . ..... 150

Lin mu . ........ . . . . ....

IAn ptn ............... . . . .
Ling 1JUU) . . . . .
Ling chuan .. . . . ......... . . .
lAng tzu ... ........... .
Liu chi fan h8iUJn .. .. ...... .
Liu shm ... . .. . . .. . . ...... .
Liu yeh miao . ...... . ..... .
Luan .. .. .. . ... .
Luan ch'ai U'un ... . . . . .

150
125
97
6
6
18
174
264
205

214

NUMBER

Luan rna ta'un. . .

213
Luan yUn ls'un. . . . . . . . .
217
Lun k'o . .. . ... .. . . ... .
205
Lun k'w. . . . .. .
205
Ma huang miao.
267
Ma p'i ts'un .. . .... . ..... .. 210
Ma ya kou.... .. .
233
Ma ya ta'un.. . . . .. ...... .
233
Mao lin ....... . . . . . , .
166
Mei hua lien . .. ....... .
198
Mei 8M-n.
173
Mi lien ls'un . .. . ....... 176,212
Miao. .....
. ... 141,258-276
Ming chang
282
Mo..
. .......... 26
Mo U....
.. ...... .
206
Mu. ....
. ... . ,. . .
149
MUfang. .. ......... . .
123
Mu ku hua. .
...,...
120
Mu pen . .. . ........ , . . .
100
Mu tan hung... . .......... . 51
Ntn lii.... .... . ......... .
55
Ni li pa ling ts'un .. ... , . . . . 232
Niu mao ta'un. , ... . .... .. ,. 219
chiao.... .. . . ... ...... .
29
Pai chih . . ...
14
Pai mi(U) ........ .. . ....... 118
Pai p'i .. . .... .. , .. ....... 172
Pai yeh tien .. ... ... .. . ..
178
Pai wen ..
285
Pei piao ...... .. .. .... , ..
292
Pi .... .. .
25, 138
Pi hua (mural) ......... .
65
Pi hua (bru.3h slroke) . . .
138
Pi tzu .. ....
65
P'i rna /s'un . . ....... .
209
Piao (label). . .
. ..... .
302
Pi(l() (71Ulunting) . ..... .
291
Piao chu .... .. ....... ....
41

NUUBER

Piao fa ....... . .... ... ..... 293

P-iew pei..... ... ....
292
P'iao tai . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
297
P'ieh na ....... ... . ...... .. 27 1
Pien charnJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
288
Pien pi lien . ............... 186
Pin chu...............
159
Ping hsiUh hrian . . . . . . . . . .. 23
P'ing chanfl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

P'i ng ch''ilan fa .. . . . . . . . . ..
P'ing t'1oo. . .... . .. . . . . . . . .
P 'ing l'all tien ..............
P'ing yiian ......... .. ......
Po ku..... ........ ...... ..
P'o mo ............. .. .....

252

78
179
164

96

114
P'o mo ................ ... . 115

P'o pitien.......... . . .
237
P'o wang ta'un .. .. ... ..... . . 220
Fa eM .................... 156
P'u pu . .................. 246

San ch'ing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

33

San lil. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

37
San yuan .... . ...... ...... 161
S ......................... . 30
Sha haien.. . .. . . . . . . . . . .
245
Shan k'ou fen ch'tian fa . ..... 248

Shan mien.... ....... ..... . 83

Shan shui.. .. ........ . . ... 84
Shan yell lien.. ....... . .... 185
Shang k'uan . ............... 279
Sht st .. .................. 106
8Mn yt'Um .. ........ ........ 163

SM.. . ............. .

Shih ch'ing................. 30
Shih chun ........... . ...... 207
Shih huang ... ..... . . . .. . ... 38

Shih Ii) .............

34

Shih jan wu.. . . .. . .. .. .. ... 90

Shih pa miM ............... 258

55

Lis! of Terms Defined

Lis! of Terms Defined

54

NU MRER

Shih shih jan wu . ...... .... . 93

Shih t'ang ... .
298
Sholl. chuan . ... . ... . . .... .. . 71
Shu ...
9
Shu l8u lien . . ............. . 191
Shuang k'uan .. ............ . 279
Shuang ssU chUan .. ........ . 11
Shui k'ou ............... .. . 242
Shui mo .................. . 11 3
Shui lsao tien . ............. 194
Stu hsiang ......... ....... 295
Su ling ..................
7
Sung chih ................. . 14
Sung p'i .................. . !7l
Sung yeh tien ... ........... . 192
Sung yen mo .............. . 27
Ta ch'ing iu shan shui .. .... . 109
To /u p'i ts'un. .
. ...... . 228
Ta hun tien ............... . 176
To kou ytln . ... . ... .. .. .... . 254
Tap'u pu ... . ... . ..... .
246
T an cht .... . ....... .. ..... 1Il
Tan ch'ing ... . . . ......... 129
Tan hstlan ....... . ....... 27
Tan k'uan . . . .. .......... . . 278
Ta n ssU chuan . ............ . 12
Tan l'ao hung . ............ . 58
77
Tan t'iao ....
Tan wo t8'un . ............. . 222
Tao shih jen wu . ....... .
9J
T'eng huang ............... 49
TO"", /0 "d ............... . 62
T'i pa .................... . 280
T'i shih ................ ... . 281
T'ich Mien miao . .......... 270
T 'ieh hden ta'un. . ......... 234
Tien . . . . .. 146, 176-203, 235-24 1
Tien hua....... ...... ...... 47
Tien t'ai ................... 147

NU MnER

T'ien ti ................ 157,294

T ing hsiang chih .. .. ........ 167
Ting foil. shu wei rniao ....... 272
T 'o chih . ............ ...... 1iO
T 'o ni tai shui ts'un ... ...... 231
T 'o wei chih .. .............. 299
Toufang .... .
.... ..... 82
Tau pan ta'un . ......... 209, 224
T 'ou ch'ing.. ............... 3 1
T'ou iu... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ta'a jan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 144
T s'ang iu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
T sao ho miao . .............. 268
T 800 s811 tien. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 202
T a'oo ch'ung ................ 102
T a'ao ch'ung t'u. . . ... . . . . . . . 64
T8'OO i mioo ................ 261
Ta'oo lu.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Ts'oo

p~ ..... . ............

99
Ts't pi . . . ....... . ......... 154
Ta't... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8]
T a't yeh .......... ......... 81
Ts'uan san chu wu tien ...... 199
Ts'uan san tien . ............ 189
T a'un .. . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 209-234
T a'un /u . .. ...... ...... .... 142
T il. chou. ....... .... ....... 80
T'u. ...................... 64
T'u an . ... ...... .......... 126
T 'u chang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
T 'ujan .................... 143
T'u 8hu .................... 283
Tuan pi rna p'i ta'un . ....... 211

SUldnER

T'ung ching .. ........ .. .

Tzu chang ..
Tzu/en .......... .
Tz'u ch'ing chih . . . .
Tz'u ch'ing chuan .. .... .
Tz'u s'un .......... .
Tz'u sung tien . .... .
Wu t'ung shu shen.
lVu f'ung lien. . . .
. ...... .
Ya lzu ........ ....... .
Yang chU ..... ....... . . .
Yang hung ......... . ... .
Yang t'ou lien ........ . .
Yang wen .......... ... .
Yang yeh tien . .... .
Y<h ................ .
Yen ckih .......... .
Yin chang ...... .. ....... . ..
Yin chu ...... .. . ......
Yin at . .......... . ... . . .
Yin wbt. ... . ..........
Ying hsiang ... . . .
Yumo ....
Yung hsiu ....... .
Yii hsileh lien .. .
Yii pan hsilan.
Yii tien t,,'un .
Yuan chin .
Yiian l'i . .... .
Yun liu ch'uan loon fa.
YiLn !'ou t,,'un . ...... .
Yun tuan ..... ........... .

*"

79

282
57

5
5
226

193
175
187

296
296
52
180

285
195
81
50

282
42
290
284
88

28

151
236
24
225
161
105
249
2 17
255

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