Sugar Confectionery and Chocolate Manufacture

Sugar Confectionery
and
Chocolate Manufacture
R LEES

E B JACKSON

BLACKIE ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL

An Imprint of Chapman & Hall

London . Glasgow New York . Tokyo . Melbourne Madras

Published by Blackie Academic & Professional, an imprint of

Chapman & Hall, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow
G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEl 8HN, UK
Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs,
Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall, 29 West 35th Street, New York NYl 0001, USA
Chapman & Hall Japan, Thomson Publishing Japan, Hirakawacho
Nemoto Building, 6F, 1-7-11 Hirakawa-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102,
Japan
DA Book (Aust.) Pty Ltd, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria,
Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East,
Madras 600 035, India
First edition 1973
Reprinted 1980, 1983, 1992

1973 R. Lees and E.B. Jackson

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition

1992

ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1497-4
e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1495-0
001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1495-0

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
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should be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on this
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The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with
regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and
cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or
omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Contents

Page

FIGURES

xiii

PLATES

xv

PREFACE

1
1.1
1.2

xvii

1
1
1
5
5
7
8
9

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11

BASIC TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Introduction
Moisture and Total Solids Content
Total Solids and Total Soluble Solids
Sugars and Sugar Solubility
Equilibrium Relative Humidity
Acid Content
pH
Gelling Agents
Viscosity
Texture
Crystallisation

12
13

2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14

SUGARS AND RELATED MATERIALS

Cane and Beet Sugar
Honey
Glucose Syrup
Starch Hydrolysates
Liquid Sucrose and Mixed Sugar Syrups
Dextrose
Fructose
Maltose
Invert Sugar
Invertase
Lactose
Caramel
Spray Dried Caramel
Sorbitol

15
15
20
22
34
36
37
40
40
41
41
42
42
43
44

1.3

11
11

vi

CONTENTS
Page

2.15
2.16

Glycerine
Malt Extract

45
46

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13

COCOA BEANS
Growth
Types
Sources
Cocoa Fruit
Harvesting
Pulp
Fermentation
Drying
Diseases of Cocoa
Storage of Cocoa Beans
Storage Pests
Chocolate Flavour and Aroma
Bean Quality

47
47
47
48
48
51
51
51
53
53
54
54
55
55

4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16

FATS AND RELATED INGREDIENTS

General
Borneo Illipe (Illipe-Butter, Borneo Tallow)
Coconut Oil
Groundnut Oil (Peanut Oil, Earthnut Oil)
Palm Oil
Palm Kernel Oil
Butter
Off-flavours in Fats
Antioxidants
Oilseed Lecithins
Lecithin YN and other Synthetic Viscosity Reducing Agents
Glyceryl Monostearate
'Span' and 'Tween' Esters
Release Agents
Acetoglycerides
Waxes

57
57
58
58
58
59
59
59
61
61
62
62
63
64
64
64
65

5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk
Condensed Milk
Condensed Whey
Dried Milk Powders
Sodium Caseinate
Lactose
Butter

66
66
66
69
69
72
72
72

CONTENTS

vii
Page

6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
6.19

GELLING AND WHIPPING AGENTS; GUMS

Confectionery Starches
Modified Starches
Types of Maize Starch
Zein
Pectin
Gelatine
Agar Agar
Whipping Agents
Egg Albumen
Gelatine Hydrolysate
Whipping Agents based on Milk Protein
Whipping Agents based on Soya Proteins
Carrageenan
Chicle
J elutong-Pontianak
Guar Gum
Arabinogalactan (Larch Gum)
Quince Seed Gum
Properties of Whipping, Gelling and Thickeni.,g Agents

7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21

FLAVOURING AND COLOURING AGENTS

Flavourings
Essential Oils
Essences
Fruit Juices
Fruit Purees or Pulps
Powdered Flavours
Artificial Cherries
Dates
Date Syrup
Figs
Ginger
Liquorice
Nuts
Almonds
Brazil Nuts
Cashew Nuts
Sweet Chestnuts
Coconut
Hazel Nuts
Macadamia Nuts
Pecan Nuts

73
73
80
81
83
83
86
89
90
90
91
91
92
93
93
96
96
96
96
96
97
97
98
99
99
99
100
100
100
101
101
101
102
103
103
105
105
106
106
107
108
108

viii CONTENTS
Page

7.22
7.23
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
7.31
7.32
7.33
7.34
7.35
7.36
7.37
7.38
7.39
7.40
7.41
7.42

Peanuts
Pistachio Nuts
Walnuts
Sultanas
Currants
Raisins
Vitamins
Confectionery Acids and their Salts
Citric Acid
Sodium Citrate
Tartaric Acid
Cream of Tartar
Lactic Acid
Calcium Lactate
Acetic Acid (Ethanoic Acid)
Malic Acid
Benzoic Acid
Sodium Benzoate
Sorbic Acid
Sodium Propionate
Colour

108
109
109
110
110
110
111
112
113
113
114
114
114
115
115
115
115
115
117
117
117

8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12

COCOA, CHOCOLATE AND RELATED PRODUCTS

Sequence of Processes
Cleaning
Roasting
Chocolate Recipes
Milk Crumb
Winnowing
Cocoa Powder
Mixing/Melangeur Process
Refining
Conching
The Tempering of Chocolate
The Application of Span 60 and Tween 60 in Sweet Dark
Chocolate
Moulding
Fat Migration
Storage of Chocolate
Nutritional Value of Chocolate
Bulk Deliveries of Chocolate
Liqueur Chocolates
The Tropical Warehouse Moth

119
119
119
119
124
126
128
130
132
133
136
139

8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19

146
151
153
153
154
154
155
159

CONTENTS

ix

Page

9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14

BOILED SWEETS
Characteristics
The Production of High-boiled Sweets
Chemical Changes during Boiling
Invert Sugar in High-boiled Sweets
Batch Cooking
Batch Type Early Vacuum Process
Recipes for High-boiled Confections
Lett<:red or 'Seaside' Rock
Continuous Dissolving Methods
Continuous Cooking Methods
Continuous Vacuum Cooking
Deposited High-boiled Sweets
Pump Filling
Powder Filling

161
166
167
168
168
169
169
172
176
177
181
183
186
187

10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11

CARAMELS, TOFFEES AND FUDGE

Caramels and Toffees
Modifications to the Basic Recipe
Dulce de Leche
Caramel Recipe Compilation
Continuous Manufacture of Caramels
Properties of Caramels
Packaging and Storage
Export Caramels
Fudge
Variations on Basic Vanillin Fudge
Composition of Fudge

191
191
192
192
193
198
201
203
203
206
206
208

11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7

FONDANTS, CREAMS AND CRYSTALLISED CONFECTIONERY

Fondants, Creams and Crystallised Confectionery
Production of Fondant
Creams
Composition of Creams and Fondants
Wet Crystallisation
Candied Fruit and Peel
Crystallised and Preserved Ginger

211
211
212
213
215
218
219
222

12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5

GUMS, JELLIES AND PASTILLES

Production
Processes for Gums and J elIies
Modification of Recipes for Continuous Production
Starch Drying and Conditioning
Glazing of Gums

226
226
227
232
232
234

161

CONTENTS
Page

12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
12.17
12.18
12.19
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

Starch Moulding Machines of the Mogul Type

Other Points in Production
Starch, Gum Jellies and Pastilles by Atmospheric Cooking
Methods
Starch Jellies for Continuous Production
Gelatine Jellies
Production of Gelatine Jellies
Fruit Pastilles
Tablet Jellies
Jelly Drops
Gum Arabic Gums
Turkish Delight
Agar Jellies
The Use of Powdered Pectins in Confectionery Manufacture
Low Methoxyl Pectin Jellies

236
238

LIQUORICE AND CREAM PASTE

269
269
269
271
272
274
279
280
281
282
283

Liquorice
Methods for Manufacturing Liquorice Paste
Properties of Liquorice Paste
Composition of Liquorice
Processing Liquorice Paste
Cream and French Paste
Processing Cream Paste
Composition of Cream Paste
Extrusion of Cream Paste
Liquorice Allsorts
TABLETS. LOZrNGFS AND EXTRUDED PASTE

Tablets
Slugging
Tablet Composition
Manufacture of Tablets
Lozenges
Composition of Lozenges
Production of Lozenges
Sweet Cigarettes
Production Control for Sweet Cigarettes
MARSHMALLOW AND NOUGAT

Marshmallow Confections
Frappe based on Egg Albumen, containing Starch
Gelatine Marshmallow
Continuous Production of Marshmallow using Gelatine

239
239
240
241
243
244
251
251
254
257
260
265

286
286
287
287
289
291
292

293
294
296
299
299
300
302
303

CONTENTS

xi

Page

15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13

Egg Albumen Marshmallow

Modification of Recipes for Continuous Production
Nougat
Nougat using Egg Albumen
Nougat using Gelatine
Nougat using a Vertical Planetary Mixer
Nougat using Pressure Beating
Nougat using Malto-dextrins
Continuous Production of Nougat

308
309
316
317
317
318
319
320
321

16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10

OTHER CONFECTIONERY TYPES

Panning
Hard Pan Work
Polishing
Silver Coating
Chocolate Coating
Soft Panning
Chewing Gum
Sugarless Chewing Gum
Bubble Gum
Marzipan and Persipan

324
324
325
328
329
330
330
332
336
336
337

17

17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12

CALCULATING SUGAR CONFECTIONERY AND CHOCOLATE

RECIPES
Calculation of Recipes from Analytical Results
Effect of Inversion
Effect of Milk Solids
Effect of Moisture Loss on Jelly Goods
Replacement Weight of Scrap Syrup
Calculation of Probable Analytical Composition from the
Confectionery Recipe
Calculation of Syrup and Crystal Phase
Sugar Content of the Syrup Phase
Calculation of Boiling Temperature
Calculation of Chocolate Recipes
Count (Number of Confections) per Unit Weight
Determination of Equilibrium Relative Humidity (e r h)

345
348
349
350
351
356
357

18

GENERAL REFERENCE TABLES

360

19

GLOSSARY

364

ApPENDIX

369

INDEX

371

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6

340
340
343
343
344
344

List of Figures

Page

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Basic crystal shape of sucrose

Glucose syrup manufacture (batch process)
Manufacture of dextrose
Production of sweetened condensed milk
Microscopic appearance of six common starches
Wet milling of maize
Starch drying
Manufacture of modified starches
Manufacture of pre-gelatinised starches
10
Treatment of cocoa beans
11
Manufacture of cocoa powder
12
Flow sheet for chocolate manufacture
13
Manufacture of milk crumb
14
Single-stream continuous tempering and enrobing of
chocolate
15
Sollich tempering unit feeding enrober
16 (a) Otto Hansel sugar cooker
16 (b) Early vacuum cooker design
17
Formation of lettered 'rock'
18-20 Letters for 'rock'
21
Theegarten 01 continuous dissolver
22
Microfilm cooker
23
Moisture content of microfilm cooked sugar
24
Take-off points on a candy maker
25
Baker Perkins continuous candy maker unit
26
Otto Hansel Sucromat vacuum cooker
27
Production of deposited boiled sweets
28
Baker Perkins continuous caramel plant
29
Check-list of caramel faults
30
Daniels unimix cooker
31
Votator heat transfer plant
xiii

13

24
39
68
73
79
80
81
81
120
121
122
127
142
144
168
169
173
174
176
178
179
181
182
183
185
199
205
230
231

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES
Page

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41 (a)
41 (b)
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52

Ter Braak jet cooking system

NID brushless candy cleaner
NID continuous sugar sanding machine
NID high-speed moulder
Production of table jellies
Check-list of table jelly faults: A (manufactured)
Check-list of table jelly faults: B (made up)
Check-list of liquorice faults
Check-list of tablet faults
Production of lozenges
Check-list of lozenge faults
Go-no-go gauge
Oakes mixing head
Whizolator for marshmallow production
Turbomat arrangement for marshmallow production
Continuous production of egg albumen marshmallow
Continuous production of extruded marshmallow
Batch production of nougat by Ter Braak Presswhip
Continuous production of nougat
Check-list of sugar-panned goods faults
Nomogram for calculating e r h of sugar syrups
Nomogram of cream paste sample

233
235
237
237
245
248
248
278
290
293
295
297
304
306
307
310
311
321
321
331
357
358

List of Plates

Split cocoa pod showing beans

2 Ter Braak Coolmix
3 Baker Perkins continuous microfilm cooker
4 Baker Perkins multi high-boiled sweet depositor
5 Baker Perkins continuous caramel plant
6 Ter Braak Presswhip
7 Steinberg twin spray unit in pan room

xv

Preface

The authors had five objectives in preparing this book: (i) to bring together
relevant information on many raw materials used in the manufacture of
sweets and chocolate; (ii) to describe the principles involved and to relate
them to production with maximum economy but maintaining high quality;
(iii) to describe both traditional and modern production processes, in particular those continuous methods which are finding increasing application;
(iv) to give basic recipes and methods, set out in a form for easy reference,
for producing a large variety of sweets, and capable of easy modification to
suit the raw materials and plant available; (v) to explain the elementary
calculations most likely to be required.
The various check lists and charts, showing the more likely faults and
how to eliminate them, reflect the fact that art still plays no small part in
this industry.
To help users all over the world, whatever units they employ, most formulations are given in parts by weight, but tables of conversion factors are
provided at the end of the book.
There also will be found a collection of other general reference data in
tabular form; while the Glossary explains a number of technical terms,
many of them peculiar to the industry.
This is a time of world-wide change in the structure of the sugar confectionery and chocolate industry. It is experiencing consolidation with a
general movement towards larger manufacturing units employing less labour
with higher investment and capital costs in automatic and continuous highoutput production lines.
Many old-established factories have been closed because of mergers or
takeovers or changing market pressures. But new, small vigorous companies
have been formed to manufacture lines which the larger firms are finding
uneconomic to produce in batch quantities. Confectionery packs offered
under the retailer's own label are accelerating the change to more efficient
xvii

xviii

PREFACE

production to cope with the lower profit margins generally associated with
this trade. New firms entering the industry have high sales potential provided
a good product is offered, effectively packaged and efficiently marketed.
Sales of confectionery products in the United Kingdom are considerable, as
the following figures for 1971 show.
Chocolate and chocolate
confectionery
Chocolate crumb, cocoa butter and
other cocoa products
Chocolate couverture and similar
products
Medicated confectionery
Sugar confectionery

Producers

United Kingdom
Imports

182169000

Exports

4197000

16984000

12402000 20136000

3666000

12163000
1 810 000
108248000

63000

472000
187000
3 208 000 14 610 000

(Source: Business Monitor, June 1972, HMSO.)

Sales by United States manufacturers during 1970 were 1925 million

dollars of which 770 million dollars were direct sales to retailers (Source:
US Industrial Outlook, US Department of Commerce).
Sales of sugar confectionery and chocolate in 1968 in the EEC (the
original 6) were 244 million and 388 million respectively (Economist
Intelligence Unit Reports 95, 98, 101, 113).
Both authors acknowledge the help and encouragement of many friends
and colleagues: to Alan Maiden who has given considerable encouragement
and assistance over several years and especially of their wives for their
patience and tact during the writing. Ronald Lees wishes to thank Mr.
Frank Cruden, Editor of Confectionery Production, for permission to reproduce tables from his articles in that journal under the nom de plume
John F. Ingleton. The following individuals most kindly gave information
and permission to reproduce illustrations:
Dr. J. Buckle, HP. Bulmer Co. Ltd., Hereford, England.
Mr. B. W. Minifie, Knechtel Laboratories Ltd., Saltford, Bristol, England.
Mr. J. W. Mansvelt, Lenderlnk Co., N.V., Schiedam, Holland.
Dr. A. M. Maiden, CPC (United Kingdom) Ltd., Esher, Surrey, England.
Mr. P. Fawcett, CPC (United Kingdom) Ltd., Esher, Surrey, England.
Mr. J. Reid, E. T. Oakes Ltd., Macclesfield, England.
G. A. Steele, Baker Perkins Ltd., Peterborough, England.
Mr. C. Warren, Confectionery Development Ltd., Hemel Hempstead,
Hertfordshire, England.
The directors and staff of CPC (United Kingdom) Ltd., Manchester and
Esher, England.

PREFACE

xix

Information. illustrations and/or photographs on machinery and manufacturing process are warmly acknowledged also from the following companies:
Bramigk and Co. Ltd . London. E.3.
Cadbury Schweppes Ltd., BournvilIe, Birmingham.
Otto Hansel GmbH, Hannover, Germany.
Hamac Hansella, GmbH, Viersen, Germany.
R. Simons and Sons Ltd., Basford, Nottingham.
Norman Bartleet Ltd., London W14.
Gebr. er Braak N.Y., Rotterdam, Holland.
Justus Theegarten, Koln, Germany.
Winkler Dunnebier, Neuwied/Rhein, Germany.
Sollich OHG, Bad Salzuflen, Germany.
Lenderink Co. N.Y., Schiedam, Holland.
Bulmer Co. Ltd., Hereford, England.
E. T. Oakes Ltd., Macclesfield, England.
G. A. Steele, Baker Perkins Ltd., Peterborough, England.
Confectionery Development Ltd., Hemel Hempstead, Herts, England.