Theory Resource Document: Constructivist Theory

Melissa L Griswold
mlwysong@memphis.edu
March 28, 2016
Dr. Martindale, IDT 7074

Overview.
Constructivism is the theory that we generate knowledge as we experience situations and interpret
them. We are actively seeking and making meaning from all of our life experiences. Constructivism is a
descriptive theory of learning (this is the way people learn or develop); it is not a prescriptive theory of
learning (this is the way people should learn) (Richardson, p. 3.) As new conflicting experiences occur,
previous thought is altered to make sense of the new information (Driscoll, p. 387-388). The knowledge
that is constructed by an individual might conflict with reality and cannot be assumed to accurately reflect
reality, but instead will represent their personal reality of their current world view (Lebow, p. 9). It
should be construed as the best construction of humankinds experience of its world (Driscoll, p. 388).
Constructivists believe that the knowledge must then be tested against the knowledge and reasoning of
others, for instance an individuals parents, teachers, and peers.
Constructivists believe that learning is done best through context. Both learning and the context
should be applicable and meaningful. Perkins, as quoted by Driscoll, states that knowledge does not
come into its own until the learner can deploy it with understanding (Driscoll, p. 391). Typical
constructivist goals include solving complex problems, acquiring content knowledge through complex
domains, critical thinking, collaborating, reasoning, reflection, and developing personal inquiry skills.
Driscoll (1994) states that constructivists believe that learners should identify and purse their own
learning goals (p. 391). Allowing learners to have personal autonomy to decide what they want to learn
will allow them to learn more and on a deeper level.
There are seven primary constructivist values: collaboration, personal autonomy, generativity,
reflectivity, active engagement, personal relevance, and pluralism (Lebow, p. 5). Lebow set out to
answer the question, For what problems is constructivist philosophy the solution? Lebow (1993)
derived the following five principles to represent constructivism:
1) Maintain a buffer between the learner and the potentially damaging effects of
instructional practices. 2) Provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and
relatedness. 3) Embed the reasons for learning into the learning activity itself. 4) Support
self-regulation through the promotion of skills and attitudes that enable the learner to
assume increasing responsibility for the developmental restructuring process. 5)
Strengthen the learners tendency to engage in intentional learning processes, especially
by encouraging the strategic exploration of errors. (p.5)

The first principle is designed on several constructivist values including making the instruction personally
relevant, helping learners become self-sufficient in the learning process, and to help promote personal
autonomy. Cooperative learning can help students understand both basic views and multiple perspectives
when solving problems to help promote independence and personal accountability (Lebow, p. 9.) When
students view schoolwork as unessential, they have trouble transferring and applying information that
they have learned to other settings. Making lessons and activities personal to student interest as well as
applicable to real life can help embed the learning to a deeper level because students are motivated and
they see learning as purposeful. Constructivist acknowledge that people can develop their own thought
process and can make changes in their beliefs based on their feelings, interests, and personal experiences.
Because of this, the ultimate goal of education should be to help students become masters of their own
learning (Lebow, p. 10.)
Problem based learning (PBL) is an example of applying the constructivist learning theory to a
classroom environment. It was developed in the early 1970s for medical education, and has been refined
over the years (Savory and Dunn, p. 7). Similar to other collaborative methods, students work in groups to
solve a real problem by using a variety of resources to derive possible solutions. When generating the
problems, problems must raise the concepts and principles relevant to content domain and be real
(Savory et. al., p. 10). The goal is to simulate a real world environment that students might encounter in
order to best transfer and apply their knowledge.
The emphasis in PBL is to provide a problem-solving process that students may use
systematically to identify the nature of the problem, assign tasks to be completed, reason
through the problem as data and resources are gathered and consulted, arrive at a
solution, and then assess the adequacy of the solution (Driscoll, p. 405).
Savory and Dunn used the Barrow PBL method to describe what problem based learning would
look like in medical school. At the beginning of a class, the teacher would set the climate for the
problem as an introduction before introducing the problem. The second step of starting the
problem includes students internalizing the problem, describing the product and performance
required, delegating task to group members, reasoning through the problem with ideas and facts,
setting an action plan, and forming a conclusion. After the conclusion has been formed, students
use and critique their resources and give their presentation. Finally the conclusion is where the
formal learning is transferred to definitions, concepts, etc. and students self-evaluate themselves
on their performance and understanding (Savory et. al., p. 9). The teacher acts as the facilitator
during the problem by asking higher order thinking questions to force students to think deep

about the topic. Barrows, as cited by Savory and Dunn, insists that the facilitator maintain a role
that only assists students on a metacognitive level, avoid expressing their opinions, and does not
ask questions that will assist them to the correct answer (Savory et. al., p. 13).
Bevenino, Dengel, and Adams applied the constructivist theory using Inquiry Based Learning to
discuss and make history relevant with students. Students will state that they dont need to learn a topic
because it doesnt apply to them. They do not have any interest to participate. They suggest that teachers
can make learning meaningful when they employ activities that call on students to use their prior
knowledge and experiences to construct their own frames of thought (Bevenino et al., p. 275). Inquiry
approaches require students to use critical thinking skills and to discuss concepts in a nonthreatening way.
The inquiry based learning cycle that they used has three phases, exploration, discussion and presentation
of new content, and application and expansion (Bevenino et. al, p. 276.) In the lesson discussed, students
analyze a scenario by asking questions, forming hypotheses, and coming to a solution based on their own
conclusions. During this phase students use prior knowledge to solve a series of problems. They were able
to explain complex issues in a more simplified manner. This also allows students to take control of their
own learning, a constructivist principal. Students worked together collaboratively as citizens of the
society (Bevenino et. al, p. 277.) Afterwards, students debate their solutions as a whole class and the
teacher relates their discussions to the new content of the historical issue. The teacher uses a combination
of guided discussion and lecture to help students form their understanding and clarify any questions that
they might have had. They then apply this to a historical issue by researching and discussing historical
events and societies. During the last phase students apply what they have learned to a new situation. Here
students ideas are challenged and expanded upon to form a new understanding (Bevenino et. al, p. 277.).
IBL lessons are difficult to plan, but they are very effective. They (inquiry lessons) give teachers a way
to personalize and contextualize the great forces of history in such a manner that students can relate the
importance of a historical issue to their own lives. Thus, learning about history becomes a personally
interesting and deeply internalized experience (Bevenino et. al, p. 277.)

History.
Constructivist theory, as we understand it here, is as old as our traditions (Fensham, p. 9). Plato
learned by following Socrates. Socrates taught through insightful questioning that helped form ones own
knowledge. He taught a slave boy, who had no education, the Pythagorean Theorem only by the use of
questioning (Fensham, p. 9).
As a theory itself, constructivism has had two major historical influences. One being
philosophical, that a general theory of knowledge can provide background and support for more specific
educational theory and practice (Fensham, p. 9). Second, being a reflective practitioner as a teacher.
Only recently growing, is the professional research community that seeks to refine both theory and
practice so that they are more coherent with each other (Fensham, p. 9).
There are several varying views of constructivism. Two views, individual constructivism and
social constructivism, are the most prominent. The difference between individual constructivism and
social constructivism is that social constructivist place emphasis on the social community. Liu states,
Personal constructivism argues that the universe is no longer a mind-independent
existence and all individuals cannot be expected to have given or uniform cognition.
Social constructivism proposes that cross-community transfer of learning cannot and
should not be counted on (Liu, p 388.)
Individual constructivism is derived from Piagets work. Constructivism was formalized and came to
what we know it as today by Piaget. He believed that knowledge is invented and reinvented as the child
develops and interacts with the world surrounding her (Drisoll, p. 191). Individual constructivist
theorists believe that knowledge is constructed more on a personal level from an individuals interactions
and own thoughts. Knowledge cannot be transmitted from person to person, but is constructed by the
individual. They promote learner-centered and discovery-oriented learning styles. A learners social
environment and interactions are only seen as stimulus for cognitive development (Liu, p. 387.) Well
known followers include Bruner, Ausubel, and von Glaserfeld. Social constructivism was derived from
the work of Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky agreed with Piagets thoughts that knowledge is internalized through
ones interactions with the world, but he also gave credit to both social interaction and culture as well.
Vygotsky disagreed with the behaviorist approach, calling it to narrow and isolated. Learners construct
knowledge through their learning environment, which includes their interactions in society. Other wellknown theorists include Kuhn, Greeno, Lave, Simon, and Brown (Liu, p. 388).

Key persons.
Jean Piaget is one of the most notable psychologists to have influenced constructivism. Piaget
lived from 1896 to 1980 and was a Swiss professor of psychology and sociology. He was always trying to
answer how knowledge grows and develops (Baker, p. 4). According to Piaget, the nature of knowledge
should be studied empirically where it actually is constructed and develops (Baker, p.4). Piaget studied
the development of children to study how knowledge grows and logical thinking is developed. Piaget
(1980) , as cited by Baker, wrote in his last publication that his personal task had been to establish what
had been come to known as the constructivist theory, and disprove the empiricist and nativist theories.
Piaget continues that,
The essential problem of a theory of knowledge is: How is new knowledge constructed?
Is it, as empiricism contends, always derived from observing reality, or is it performed in
the human mind, and thus innate? Even our earlier work, I believe, clearly showed the
insufficiencies of both the empiricist and preformist theories (as cited by Baker, p. 4).
He developed what has become known as the Stages of Cognitive Development. He stated that
there are four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational (Driscoll, p. 197.) Through this, Piaget forms his own
constructivist epistemology, known as Piagetian or individualist constructivism. He rejects beliefs
that knowledge comes directly from sense and that knowledge is innate and develops as we grow
and mature. His theory derives from biology that humans adapt and adjust to the world (Baker, p.
4.)
Lev Vygotsky shared some of Piagets views, but he was more interested in how our
intellectual development changed and evolved from birth to death and he placed more emphasis
on the social aspect of learning. Because of this, Vygotsky is credited with social constructivist
theory. Driscoll states that Vygotsky believed that it was important to study the natural
development of cognitive skills in humans, to make cross-species comparisons, and to consider
sociohistorical factors that mediate development (Driscoll, p. 248). Vygotsky viewed that the
teacher should play an important role in a childs development. Vygotsky is well known for his
concept of Zone of Proximal Development that explains how skills are developed. The Zone of
Proximal Development discusses how learners can initially not complete a task, but by working
collaboratively with a teacher or mentor they will eventually be able to accomplish the task on
their own (Driscoll, p. 253.)

Differentiation.
Behaviorism is the belief that learning happens from repetitive frequency of an observable
performance. Learning is caused by a stimulus. Behaviorism is concerned with the association between
the stimulus and response is made, strengthened, and maintained (Ertmer, p. 58.) Reinforcement helps
with retention. The learner plays a passive role in the learning and environment. This is drastically
different to constructivist beliefs that learners construct knowledge from their environment and that they
should be actively involved in the learning process. The environment is considered in behaviorism, but
only in regards to the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment (Ertmer, p. 58).
In behaviorism, transfer occurs when new information is applied to different situations. This is a result of
generalization. Behaviorists use instructional cues, reinforcement, and practice to help ensure learning
and this is effective when recalling facts and making generalizations, associations, and connections
between concepts. It does not effectively address higher order thinking skills, a strong component of the
constructivist view.
Cognitivism was developed in the 1950s as learning theorists shifted away from behavior models
to a design that depended on cognitive thinking. Ertmer states that psychologists and educators began to
de-emphasize a concern with overt, observable behavior and stressed instead more complex cognitive
processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing (p.
50). Now the emphasis is placed on the mental process. This also called for a change in how instruction
was designed to include procedures for student processing and interaction. Cognitive theorists state that
learning is done through small changes in knowledge rather than in the response. They focus on how
information is received, processed, and retrieved by the learner. They are more concerned with what they
know and how knowledge is acquired. Transfer is viewed as how it is stored in the memory (Ertmer, p.
51). This is contrary to constructivism which views transfer as actually applying new knowledge to a
different scenario. Cognitivist only need to be able to understand how to apply it to new scenarios
(Ertmer, p. 52.) Instruction should be derived from students background knowledge in order to be
effective. It should be organized so that students can make and grow connections between new and old
information in a meaningful way. Some helpful strategies include concept mapping, mnemonics, graphic
organizers, etc. (p. 53).
Constructivism is considered to be a branch of cognitivism because both philosophies view
learning as a mental activity. Cognitivists view the mind as a reference tool to the real world (Ertmer, p.
55). Some contemporary cognitivists now question basic objectivist assumptions and are starting to view
a more constructivist approach to learning that knowledge is a function of how the individual creates

meaning from his or her own experiences (Ertmer, p. 55). One thing that differs constructivists from both
cognitivists and behaviorists is the thought that knowledge is mind-independent and can be mapped onto
a learner (Ertmer, p. 55). Constructivism is often contrasted with objectivist traditions. Objectivism is
the view that knowledge of the world comes about through an individuals experience of itknowledge is
thought to exist independently of learners and learning consists of transferring that knowledge from
outside to within the learner (Driscoll, pg. 387).

References.
Baker, E., McGaw, B., & Peterson, P. (2007). Constructivism and learning. International Encyclopedia of
Education, 3. Retrieved from http://folk.uio.no/sveinsj/Constructivism_and_learning_Sjoberg.pdf
Bevevino, M. M., Dengel, J., & Adams, K. (1999). Constructivist Theory in the Classroom: Internalizing
Concepts through Inquiry Learning. The Clearing House, (5). 275. Retrieved from:
http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.30189448&site=eds-live
Driscoll, M. P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2008). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical
Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4),
50-72. Retrieved from
http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/3298/course/section/1174/peggy_2013_comparing_critical_
features.pdf
Fensham, P. J., Gunstone, R. F., & White, R. T. (1994). The content of science: A constructivist approach
to its teaching and learning. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.
Lebow, D.. (1993). Constructivist Values for Instructional Systems Design: Five Principles toward a New
Mindset. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 416. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.memphis.edu/stable/30218384
Liu, C., & Matthews, R. (2005). Vygotsky's Philosophy: Constructivism and Its Criticisms
Examined. International Education Journal, 6(3), 386-399. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf
Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teacher education: Building a world of new understandings.
London: Falmer.
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem Based Learning: An instructional model and its
constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 1-19. Retrieved from
http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ512183

Recommended Reading.
Bevevino M, Dengel J, Adams K. Constructivist Theory in the Classroom: Internalizing Concepts
through Inquiry Learning. The Clearing House [serial online]. 1999:275. Available from:
JSTOR Journals, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 27, 2016. Retrieved from:
http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.30189448&site=eds-live
This article applies the constructivist theory to a social studies classroom. Teachers state that
students are not able to apply and transfer knowledge, lack of problem-solving skills, and
understanding importance. By making learning meaningful, students are placed into groups that
require use of these skills in a nonthreatening way.
Lebow, D.. (1993). Constructivist Values for Instructional Systems Design: Five Principles toward a
New Mindset. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 416. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.memphis.edu/stable/30218384
Lebow discusses the five principles of the constructivist view. He gives examples on how each
principle relates to the constructivist view and how they connect directly and indirectly to
principles of instructional design.
Ertmer, P. A., Glazewski, K. D., Jones, D., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., Goktas, Y., Collins, K., &
Kocaman, A. (2009). Facilitating technology-enhanced problem-based learning (PBL) in the
middle school classroom: an examination of how and why teachers adapt. Journal of
Interactive Learning Research, 20(1), 35-54. Retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262269911_ Facilitating_TechnologyEnhanced_Problem-based_Learning_PBL_in_the_Middle_School_
Classroom_An_Examination_of_How_and_Why_Teachers_Adapt
This article introduces what problem based learning (PBL) is, and discusses some of the
challenges that teachers face incorporating PBL into their classroom. Problem based learning that
encourages students to solve authentic, real world problems while also learning educational
content at the same time. Some of the challenges discussed are planning, implementation,
classroom management, assessment, time constraints and technology.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2008). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing

Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. Retrieved from
http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/3298/course/section/1174/peggy_2013_comparing_criti
cal_features.pdf
This resource compares and contrasts behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism against each
other. For each theory, Ertmer discusses how does learning occur, what factors influence learning,
what is the role of memory, how does transfer occur, types of learning, and assumptions and
principles relevant to the theory and instructional design.
Juvova, A., Chudy, S., Neumeister, P., Plischke, J., & Kvintova, J. (2015). Reflection of
constructivist theories in current educational practice. Universal Journal of Educational
Research, 3(5), 345-349. Retrieved from:
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet? accno=EJ1062318
This article defines what the constructivist theory is and how it is used in education today. It
discusses that there are three basic concepts of the constructivist theory: learning is a reflection of
teaching, an adoption of reality, and an autonomously controlled cognitive system. Learning is
constructed on top of the foundation of preconceived ideas and that new ideas are built on top of
this. The learner must understand the problem and search for a systematic approach to solving the
problem.
Kwan, Y. W., & Wong, A. F. (2015). Effects of the constructivist learning environment on students
critical thinking ability: Cognitive and motivational variables as mediators. International
Journal of Educational Research, 70, 68-79. Retrieved from:
http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=edselp&AN=S0883035515000087&site=eds-live
This study wanted to test the relationship between the constructivist learning environment and
critical thinking ability. The finalized model showed an acceptable fit to the data and that 22% of
the variance in critical thinking ability was explained, suggesting the usefulness of the model in
predicting critical thinking ability.
Marshall, J. C., & Horton, R. M. (2011). The relationship of teacher-facilitated, inquiry-based
instruction to student higher-order thinking. School Science and Mathematics, 111(3), 93-

101. Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.

ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ915573&site=eds-live
Inquiry based learning environments provides a setting in which students are given the necessary
scaffolding based on readiness while at the same time challenge students to think both critically
and analytically. During inquiry-based learning, more emphasis is placed on the process of
developing a deep understanding on the content versus solving a step process.
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (2001). Problem Based Learning: An instructional model and it's
constructivist framework. Center for Research on Learning and Technology. Retrieved
March 28, 2016, from
http://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/SaveryDuffy1995.pdf
This article discusses Problem Based Learning, an example of applying the constructivist learning
theory into a classroom. Our goal in this paper is to provide a clear link between the theoretical
principles of constructivism, the practice of instructional design, and the practice of teaching.

Web Resources
Educational Broadcasting Corporation. (2004). Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and
Learning. Retrieved March 20, 2016, from
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index_sub1.html
This website discusses what constructivism is, compares a constructivist classroom to a
traditional classroom, gives an interview from Jacqueline Grennon Brooks, discusses the history,
and the benefits of constructivism. It also includes video examples of constructivism in the
classroom and examples on how to help incorporate the ideas of the constructivist theory into a
classroom.
Learning for the 21st Century. (2012). Use a Learning Theory: Constructivism. Retrieved March
20, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa59prZC5gA
This YouTube video discusses how to include constructivism in the classroom by incorporating
collaboration and engagement to help facilitate higher order thinking. The examples given in the
video apply to multiple content areas.
Levin-Goldberg, J. (2013, April 13). Constructivist Learning Theory. Retrieved March 27, 2016,
from https://prezi.com/afxq0xt2qox9/constructivist-learning-theory/
This Prezi gives an overview of the constructivist theory, discusses early contributors, and gives
examples to use in the classroom. Embedded in the Prezi are videos on the constructivist theory.
Drjhilp. (2013, April 15). Introduction to Constructivism. Retrieved March 27, 2016, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_2Rwl0DnI4
This video was created by a professor for a class as an introduction to constructivism. He
discusses the differences between the beliefs of individual constructivists and social
constructivist.
EducationWorld. (2013). Problem-Based Learning: Tips and Project Ideas. Retrieved March 22,
2016, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/problem-based-learning-tipsideas.shtml

 Problem based learning is a type of constructivist theory that is designed to encourage critical
thinking and collaboration by structuring learning around a real world problem. This article
discusses some of the best practices, ideas, and potential barriers of problem based learning.
Edutopia. (2015). Inquiry-Based Learning: Developing Student-Driven Questions. Retrieved March
22, 2016, from http://www.edutopia.org/practice/wildwood-inquiry-based-learningdeveloping-student-driven-questions
This video and article shows how one school uses inquiry-based model (IBM) to help students
take charge of their own learning. IBM starts with students asking questions and how their
curiosity will drive the focus of the instruction.
21st Century Educational Technology and Learning. (2013). The PBL Super Highway Over 45
Links To Great Project Based Learning. Retrieved March 22, 2016, from
https://21centuryedtech.wordpress.com/2013/09/15/the-pbl-super-highway-over-45-links-togreat-project-based-learning/
This resource has over 45 different PBL websites, lessons, and resources. Some of these are based
on project based learning while others are based on problem based learning. The resources cover
multiple content areas and grade levels. For project based learning, the author suggests using
contests to use as ideas for projects without having students enter the actual contest.
Buck Institute for Education. (n.d.). Recommended for Beginners. Retrieved March 27, 2016, from
http://bie.org/for/beginners
This resource is meant for teachers that are first learning about project based learning. It has
resources for getting started, explains project based learning, gives an essential checklist, and
has a project search tool.