Civil Dept. Lab Syllabus Book

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department
Book of Experiments
Edited by:
Dr. Faris Rashied
First Edition
2014
Kurdistan Regional Government

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research
Koya University - Faculty of Engineering
(FENG)
Civil Eng. Dept. (CENG)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction...........................................................................................6
Stage 1 Labs........................................................................................8
Chapter 1 Building Materials Laboratory...........................................................9
1.
Introduction................................................................................................................9
2.
How to write a laboratory report.......................................................................9
3.
Safety in the laboratory:.....................................................................................10
Bricks and Concrete Blocks Masonry Units Tests.................................................10

PART A (BRIKS)..................................................................................................................10
Sampling according to IQS 24-1988:-..................................................................10
Dimensions and shape Tests:..................................................................................11
Water Absorption Test:...............................................................................................12
Compressive Strength Test:.....................................................................................12
Efflorescence Test:.......................................................................................................13
PART B (Concrete Block):...............................................................................................14
Dimension test:-...........................................................................................................14
Water Absorption Test:...............................................................................................14
GYPSUM TESTS..................................................................................................................16
Fineness Test:...............................................................................................................16
Consistency Test:..........................................................................................................16
Setting time test:.........................................................................................................17
Compressive strength test:-.....................................................................................18
Modulus of rupture strength test:-........................................................................19
NATURAL STONE TESTS.................................................................................................20
Total absorption test:..................................................................................................21
Modulus of rupture strength test:..........................................................................22
BUILDING MORTAR TESTS.............................................................................................23
Consistency of mortar by flow table test:-.........................................................23
Bulk density test:.........................................................................................................25
Dry bulk density test:-................................................................................................26
Flexural and compression test:-.............................................................................27
TIMBER TESTS...................................................................................................................28
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Moisture content test:-...............................................................................................28

Specific gravity test:-..................................................................................................29
Volumetric shrinkage test:-......................................................................................29
Static bending strength test:-.................................................................................30
Compressive strength test:-.....................................................................................31
STEEL TESTS......................................................................................................................32
Mass per meter of mild steel:-................................................................................32
Ribs requirements of mild steel:-...........................................................................33
Tension test of mild steel:-........................................................................................34
Elongation of mild steel:-..........................................................................................35
TILE TESTS..........................................................................................................................36
Dimension and shape test:-.....................................................................................36
Total absorption:-.........................................................................................................38
Modulus of rupture test:-...........................................................................................38
References:-.......................................................................................................................39
Stage 2 Labs......................................................................................41
Chapter 2 Survey Laboratory...................................................................................42
Identification to Surveying Lab...................................................................................42
Field work and office work....................................................................................42
Field book and field sketch:..................................................................................42
Procedure of making weekly surveying reports:..........................................43
1.
Direct Linear Measurement............................................................................45
2.
Basic Problems in Chaining............................................................................48
3.
Chain Survey........................................................................................................51
4.
Obstacles in Chaining.......................................................................................53
5.
Height of Target Determination....................................................................55
6.
Setting up of Level.............................................................................................59
7.
Two Pegs Test.......................................................................................................60
8.
Closed Levelling..................................................................................................61
9.
Profile Levelling Longitudinal Section.....................................................63
10. Profile Levelling Cross Section...................................................................65

11. Contour Map.........................................................................................................67
12. Setting up of Theodolite..................................................................................69
13. Horizontal Angle Measurement....................................................................69
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14. Vertical Angle Measurement and Height of Target Determination..71

15. Horizontal Distance & Height Difference Determination by Stadia
Method.............................................................................................................................73
16. Horizontal Curve.................................................................................................75
17. Planimeter.............................................................................................................77
Chapter 3 Concrete Technology Laboratory....................................................79
1.
Fineness of Cement by Sieve Analysis Method......................................79
2.
Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement................................................81
3.
Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle.........................83
4.
Density, (Relative density) Specific Gravity & Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate.......................................................................................................................86
5.
Gradation of Fine Aggregate by Sieve Analysis......................................88
6.
Slump Test of Fresh Concrete........................................................................93
7.
Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubs..................................................95
8.
Compressive Strength of Cement Mortar.................................................98
9.
Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam withCenterPoint Loading)..............................................................................................................101
10. Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars...................................104
11. Vebe Test for Workability of Fresh Concrete..........................................107
Chapter 4 Fluid Laboratory.....................................................................................109
1.
Lifting Force (Bouncy Force)........................................................................109
2.
Aerometer or Hydrometer.............................................................................111
3.
Pressure in still liquids and gases..............................................................113
A-Experiment to measure bottom pressure with bottom pressure gauge

..........................................................................................................................................113
B- Experiment of Hydrostatic pressure in communicating tubes............114
C- Experiment to measure the hydrostatic pressure of water..................114
4.
Dead Weight Piston Gauge.........................................................................116
5.
Surface Tension.................................................................................................120
A-Taper vessel experiment......................................................................................120

B- Capillary tubes experiment:.............................................................................121
C-Surface Tension Balance experiment.............................................................121
6.
Boyle-Mariottes law.......................................................................................122
7.
Centre of Pressure...........................................................................................125
8.
Static and Dynamic Pressure.......................................................................132

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9.
Fluid Flow Rate..................................................................................................134
10. Pressure and Velocity Distribution Along Venture Tube.....................136

11. Over All Pressure of Fluid Flow....................................................................140
12. Flow meter Demonstration...........................................................................143
13. Bernoullis theorem Demonstration..........................................................148
14. Impact of Jet.......................................................................................................152
15. Osborne Reynolds Experiment....................................................................158
16. Pipe Friction........................................................................................................162
17. Minor losses.......................................................................................................168
18. Open-channel flow...........................................................................................176
19. Weir.......................................................................................................................180
20. Stability of a Floating Body..........................................................................186
21. Aerometer or Hydrometer............................................................................189
22. Hydrostatic Bench & Fluid Properties.......................................................192
Stage 3 Labs....................................................................................194
Chapter 5 Soil Mechanics Laboratory...............................................................195
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................195
1.
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION...........................................................196
2.
ORGANIC MATTER DETERMINATION..........................................................199
3.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION..........................................................201
4.
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS.....................................................................................203
5.
ATTERBERG LIMITS..........................................................................................213
6.
LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY FALL CONE METHOD...........................................220
7.
MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATION...................................................................222
8.
SANDCONE TEST..............................................................................................228
9.
CORE CUTTER TEST.........................................................................................232
10. PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) TEST CONSTANT HEAD

METHOD.........................................................................................................................235
11. PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) TEST VARIABLE
(FALLING) HEAD METHOD.......................................................................................238
12. CONSOLIDATION TEST....................................................................................242
13. DIRECT SHEAR TEST.......................................................................................249
14. UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UC) TEST.................................................257

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Introduction
Koya University was established since year 2003 as a young university in

Kurdistan region, it is the fourth university founded beyond Salahaddin,
Sulaimania and Dohok University, it was founded in Koya city which belong to
Erbil governorate.
Civil Engineering Department was established within the faculty of
engineering since year 2006 to meet the needs of business market where the
Kurdistan region has a quick development in building industry in the last
years.
Civil engineering concerned with planning, design, construction of facilities
essential to modern life. Civil engineers are problem solvers in the areas of
structures, water supply, traffic congestion, pollution, and infrastructure
improvements.
Societal needs, economic conditions and public safety are paramount in the
work accomplished by civil engineers.
The Department of Civil Engineering strives to graduate highly qualified
engineers, provide quality professional and community service to the region
and the word. The Department offers BSc. Degree after the students pass
four academic years.
The mission of the department is to provide quality education to prepare
nationally competitive undergraduate students for a successful career in civil
engineering, to provide advanced skill and knowledge in the art of research
and design in sub-areas of civil engineering.
The Department program at the University of Koya through its faculty, staff,
students and constituent works together to aquire, generate and use
knowledge in different fields of civil engineering to make the region and the
word a better place to live.
The Department program recruits and graduates engineers with high
professional and ethical standard to work in government and private
organizations.
The faculty is committed to increasing and improving the quality of our
graduates.
Laboratory Rules
Read Safety Precautions and sign the list.

Return all equipment and tools to storage areas when not in use or at
end of day.
Ask when in doubt; an incorrect guess may be dangerous or expensive.
Do not alter any item without explicit permission of the instructor.
Learning Objectives
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Planning an experimental program, selecting the test configuration,

selecting the test specimens and collecting raw data.
Documenting the experimental program including the test procedures,
collected data, method of interpretation and final results.
Operating the laboratory equipment including the electronic
instrumentation, the test apparatus and the data collection system.
Measuring physical properties of common structural and geotechnical
construction materials.
Interpreting the laboratory data including conversion of the
measurements into engineering values and derivation of material
properties (strength and stiffness) from the engineering values.
Observing various modes of failure in compression, tension, and shear.
Observing various types of material behavior under similar loading
conditions.
Laboratory Ethics
Here
are some practical applications of OUR Golden Rule:

If you open, close it.
If you turn it on, turn it off.
If you unlock it, lock it.
If you break it, repair it.
If you can't fix it, call in someone who can.
If you borrow it, return it.
If you use it, take care of it.
If you make a mess, clean it up.
If you move it, put it back.
If it belongs to somebody else and you want to use it, get permission.
If you don't know how to operate it, leave it alone.
If it doesn't concern you, don't mess with it.
Laboratory Precautions
Wear Eye Protection when working with power tools or testing

specimens in compression.
Ask when in doubt - mistakes are expensive.
Do not apply higher input voltage to transducer than rated value.
Do not apply input voltage to output leads (green and white) of
transducer.
Check input voltage before plugging in transducer.
Disconnect transducer before turning on or off power supplies or
voltmeters.
Never close a valve connected directly to a transducer.
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Monitor transducer output when making physical connections.

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Stage 1 Labs

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1.
Chapter 1 Building Materials Laboratory
Sarmad Fadhil Abdullah Alnoaimi

Faculty of Engineering
Koya University
I
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
tion
In this manual we are seeking to understand material properties through

laboratory experiments. Usually the class is divided into groups. Each group
will do a different experiment every week until all the required experiments
are completed.
The instructor will indicate the experiments to be conducted and advise on
the nature of the lab report and time of submission. However, a typical
format for a lab report is included below. It is important that all the
information necessary to complete the lab report is obtained before students
leave the lab.
2. How to write a laboratory report
The following arrangement of the report is suggested:1. Title: This should indicate the name of the test will be done.
2. Scope of the test :
A brief statement of the purpose and significance of the test should be
indicated.
3. Specification: This should indicate the specifications number used.
4. Materials: The materials used or tested should be described.
5. Apparatus and method of testing:
Special equipment used should be briefly described. The testing
procedure should be also described.
6. Data and results of the test:
All laboratory data shall be submitted in tabular form. Observations
relating to the behavior of the materials should be included. All
equations or formulas used should be clearly indicated. Calculations
should be properly checked. The results of the test should be
summarized in tabular or graphical form.
7. Discussion:
There should be included a brief discussion in which attention is drawn
to the silent facts shown by the tables and diagrams. The test results
should be compared with the standard values and conclusion should be
drawn.
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3. Safety in the laboratory:
All students must read and understand the information in this document with
regard to laboratory safety and emergency procedures prior to the first
laboratory session. Your personal laboratory safety depends mostly on YOU.
Students must adhere to written and verbal safety instructions throughout
the academic term. The following instructions of laboratory sessions are:
1. Never do unauthorized experiments.
2. Never work alone in laboratory.
3. Keep your lab space clean and organized.
4. Do not leave an on-going experiment unattended.
5. Always inform your instructor if you break anything.
6. Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical
panels, emergency showers, and eye washes.
7. Do not use corridors for storage or work areas.
8. Do not store heavy items above table height. Any overhead storage of
supplies on top of cabinets should be limited to lightweight items only.
Also, remember that a 36" diameter area around all fire sprinkler heads
must be kept clear at all times.
9. Areas containing lasers, biohazards, radioisotopes, and carcinogens
should be posted accordingly. However, do not post areas unnecessarily
and be sure that the labels are removed when the hazards are no
longer present.
10.
Be careful when lifting heavy objects.
11.
Clean your lab bench and equipment, and lock the door before
you leave the laboratory.
Bricks and Concrete Blocks Masonry Units Tests

PART A (BRIKS)
Sampling according to IQS 24-1988:About fifty pieces of bricks are taken at random from different parts of the
stack to perform various tests. For the purpose of sampling, a lot should
contain maximum of 50,000 bricks. The number of bricks selected for forming
a sample is as per Table 1.1. The scale of sampling for physical
characteristics is given in Table 1.2.
Table 1-1 Scale of Sampling and Permissible Number of Defectives for Visual
and Dimensional Characteristics
No. of Bricks
For characteristics specified
For dimensional
in the lot
for individual brick
characteristics
specified of group of
No. of bricks Permissible
20 bricks
to
No. of
No. of bricks to be
Be selected
defectives in
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the sample
2001 to 10000 20
1
10001 to 5000 32
2
35001 to
50
3
50000
Note: In case the lot contains 2000 or less bricks, the
agreement between the purchaser and supplier
selected
40
60
80
sampling shall be subject to
Table 1-2 Scale of Sampling for Physical Characteristics

Sampling size for
compressive strength,
Permissibl
breaking load,
e No. of
Lot size
transverse strength,
defectives
bulk density, water
effloresce
absorption and
nce
efflorescence
2001 to
5
0
10000
10001 to
10
0
35000
35001 to
15
1
50000
Warpage
Sampl
e size
Permissi
ble No.
of
defective
s
10
20
30
Dimensions and shape Tests:

Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for measuring
size, dimensional measurement, warpage, and squareness of rectangular
dense refractory brick
Specification: - IQS24-1988
Materials: - Bricks
Apparatus: - measuring tape, ruler and triangle
Procedure:20 pieces out of selected pieces are taken and are laid flat as shown in Fig.1.
Determine the average dimensions (length, width and thickness).
The Iraqi specification limited the dimensions of brick (2411.57.5) cm the
tolerances on the sizes of bricks are for length and width is 3% for thickness
is 4%.
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Fig.1 Measurement of Tolerances of Common Building Bricks
Water Absorption Test:

Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for determining
percentage of water absorption for brick and specify the bricks type
Specification:- IQS25-1988
Materials: three bricks
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, drying oven, damp cloth and water tank.
Procedure:
Dry bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of (105- 115)C till these
attain constant mass.
Cooling the bricks to room temperature then the weight of the bricks is
recorded and considers it as (W1).
The bricks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27 2C for 24
hours.
The specimens are then taken out from water and wiped with a damp cloth.
Three minutes, thereafter it is weighed again and recorded as W2.
The water absorption calculated from the following equation:W2 - W1
The Water Absorbtion in %
100
W1
Calculate the average water absorption and specify the class of brick
depending on the table below.
The average water absorption shall not be more than the following:classes
Maximum water absorption (%)
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Class A
Class B
Class C
Average Absorption of 10
bricks
20
24
26
Absorption of one
brick
22
26
28
Compressive Strength Test:

Scope (advantages): This test method provides a means of evaluating
compressive strength characteristics of bricks and specify their types
Specification: IQS25-1988
Apparatus: compressive test machine, measurement tape or ruler and water
tank.
Procedure:
The bricks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
These bricks are then taken out from water and wiped off with cotton or a
moist cloth and the dimensions should be measured.
The specimen is placed in the compression testing machine with flat faces
horizontal and mortar filled face being upwards. Load is applied at a uniform
rate of 14 N/m2 per minute till failure.
Calculate the compressive strength which equals the maximum load at failure
divided by the average area of bed face.
Calculate the average compressive strength and specify the class of brick
The brick can be classified as follows:
Minimum Compressive Strength (MPa)
classes
Average Strength of 10
bricks
Strength of one brick
Class A
18
16
Class B
Class C
13
9
11
7
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Efflorescence Test:
Scope (advantages): these test methods covers procedures for determining
percentage of salts presence in brick and classify the efflorescence in the
brick.
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, drying oven, damp cloth and water tank.
Procedure:
The smallest end of the brick are kept vertically in a tray dish containing 25
mm depth of water at room temperature (2030C) for 7 days till the entire
water is absorbed or evaporated. The water is again filled to 25 mm depth in
the dish and allowed to be absorbed by the brick.
Let the brick dried in the same dishes at room temperature for 3 days.
Calculate the efflorescence percentage using the equation blow:
Area of Efflorscen ce
The Water Absorbtion in %
100
Area of Brick Face
Presence of efflorescence is classified as below.
Nil
When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
Slight
When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10%
of the exposed area of the brick.
Modera
te
When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 % but less than

50% of the exposed area of the brick
Heavy
Serious
When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 % but the

deposits do not powder or flake away the brick surface.
When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick
surface.
The specifications limit the efflorescence to be not more than moderate (10
50%) for class B and not more than slight for Class A.
PART B (Concrete Block):
Dimension test:Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for measuring
size, dimensional measurement of concrete block
Materials: - concrete blocks
Apparatus: - measuring tape
Procedure:Determine the average dimensions (length, width and thickness).
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The Iraqi specification limited the dimensions of concrete block according to

the table below:Length (mm) Width(mm)
Height(mm)
400
200
200
400
200
150
200
150
Standard concrete block 300
300
200
100
300
150
150
300
150
100
The tolerance on the sizes of concrete blocks is for length, width and
thickness is 3%.
And thickness of the block not less than 20mm
Water Absorption Test:

percentage of water absorption for concrete block.
Materials: - three concrete blocks
Apparatus: - Laboratory Balance, drying oven, damp cloth and water tank.
Procedure:Dry blocks are put in an oven at a temperature of (105- 115)C till these
attain constant mass.
Cooling the blocks to room temperature then the weight of the bricks is
recorded and considers it as (W1).
The blocks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27 2C for 24
hours.
The specimens are then taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth.
The water absorption calculated from the following equation:W2 - W1
The water absorption in % =
100
W1
Calculate the average water absorption and compared with the specification
limits in the table below:
The average water absorption shall not be more than the following:classes
For general use in construction walls
10
Solid
concrete
For use above ground level in external and
15
blocks
internal walls protected by waterproof
15
Hollow
concrete
For use in above ground level in external and
20
blocks
internal walls protected by waterproof
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Scope (advantages):- This test method provides a means of evaluating
compressive strength characteristics of concrete blocks.
Specification:- IQS1077-1985
Materials:- three concrete blocks
Apparatus:- compressive test machine, measurement tape or ruler and water
tank.
Procedure:The concrete blocks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24
hours.
These blocks are then taken out from water and wiped off with cotton or a
horizontal and mortar filled face being upwards. Load is applied at a uniform
rate of 14 N/m2 per minute till failure.
Calculate the average compressive strength and compare the
specification limits depending on the table below.
Minimum compressive strength (MPa)
Ave. of
classes
3
blocks
13
Solid
For use above ground level in external
concrete
and internal walls protected by
9
blocks
waterproof
7
Hollow
For use in above ground level in
concrete
external and internal walls protected by 5
blocks
waterproof
results with
one
block
11
7
6
4.5
GYPSUM TESTS
Fineness Test:
the surface area of gypsum particles (degree of smoothness) which affect on
speed reaction with water.
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Specification:- IQS27-1985 & IQS28-1988

Materials:- gypsum
Apparatus:- Laboratory Balance, drying oven, bowel and sieve No.16 (1.18
mm).
Procedure:The amount of gypsum dried in a drying oven at a temperature of 45 C.
Taken a sample of 200 g of gypsum and sieved on size 1.18 mm for 3
minutes.
Weight the gypsum remaining on sieve No.16.
The degree of smoothness calculated from the following equation:
Weight of retained gypsum on the sieve
Smoothness Degree
100
Total weight
Compare the results with the specification limits according to the following
table:Gypsum type
Maximum degree of smoothness (%)
Technical gypsum
5
Plaster of paris
0
Fig. 2 sieve No.16
Consistency Test:
Scope (advantages): This test is used to determine the amount of water
which is necessary for getting a paste of plaster to be used in the preparation
of test samples for Setting time of gypsum and testing fracture in bending.
Materials: gypsum & water
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, mixing bowel, timer, graduated cylinder,
square glass plate of dimensions 250mm and cylindrical mould with 51mm
height and 35mm internal diameter
Procedure:
Put the cylindrical mould on the middle of glass plate.
Sprinkled 200 grams of a sample of gypsum tested on a certain amount of
water ranging between 50 70 % by Weight of gypsum during 15 seconds
then leaves the sample for 30 seconds and shake the glass plate gently to
remove entrapped air.
Stir the mixture for 30 seconds then place the paste inside the mould.
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Lift up the mould after 2 minutes from adding the gypsum to water and let
the mixture spread on the glass plate.
Measure the lowest and biggest diameter in (mm) after spreading.
Repeat the procedures with changing amount of water till you get standard
consistency.
The standard amount of water required to get standard consistency is the
necessary amount of water added to gypsum to allow standard spreading
which equal the average diameters of (1003mm).
Calculate the consistency of gypsum paste using the following equation:
Weight of water (gm)
Consistanc y (%)
100
Weight of Gypsum (gm)
Setting time test:

Scope (advantages): This test is used to determine the setting time of
gypsum paste after adding the water which defined as the time that gypsum
paste lose its elasticity.
Specification: IQS27-1985 & IQS28-1988
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, mixing bowel, timer, graduated cylinder,
square glass plate of dimensions 150mm and Vicat apparatus.
Procedure:
Make a fresh gypsum paste following the same procedures of mixing in
consistency test using amount of water that give standard consistency and
400g of gypsum. timer is used in this step.
Put the mixture inside the mould of Vicat apparatus.
Use the 1mm diameter needle, and penetrate the sample with this needle by
leaving it to free fall and then we read the Vicat ruler scale.
Repeat step3 several times but in different places on the surface of the
specimen.
We get full setting of gypsum paste when the needle does not reach to the
glass surface at the end of the mould.
The elapsed time from adding the gypsum to water till this moment is called
setting time.
Compared the results with the specification which specify the setting time for
local gypsum and plaster of Paris between (8-25 min)
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Fig.3 Vicat apparatus
Compressive strength test:Scope (advantages): This test is used to determine the compressive strength
of gypsum
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, mixing bowel, graduated cylinder, cubic
moulds of dimension (50x50x50mm) and compressive test machine.
Procedure:
Prepare the moulds and paint the inside faces with oil.
consistency and setting time tests using amount of water that give standard
consistency.
Put the mixture inside the mould into two layers for each layer shake the
moulds to remove the entrapped air then justify the surface of the
specimens.
Take out the specimens from the mould after 24 hrs and stored for 7 days in
temperature room.
Put the samples in the compression machine and applied the load in a
constant rate till failure.
Calculate the compressive strength using the following equation:-
Compare the results with the specification according to the following table:-
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Gypsum type
Technical gypsum
Plaster of paris
Minimum compressive strength

(MPa)
6
5
Modulus of rupture strength test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the modulus at rupture
strength of gypsum when exposed to one point load.
Specification: - IQS27-1985 & IQS28-1988
Materials: - gypsum & water
Apparatus: - Balance, mixing bowel, graduated cylinder, prism moulds of
dimension (160x40x40mm) and modulus of rupture test machine.
Procedure:Prepare the moulds and paint the inside faces with oil.
consistency and setting time tests using amount of water that give standard
consistency.
Put the mixture inside the mould into two layers for each layer shake the
moulds to remove the entrapped air then justify the surface of the
specimens.
Take out the specimens from the mould after 24 hrs and stored for 7 days in
temperature room.
Put the samples in the machine and applied the load in a constant rate till
failure.
Calculate the modulus at rupture strength using the following equation:3PL
Modulus at rupture (MPa) =
Where:
P = Maximum load at failure (N)
L = Span of the test (mm)
b = Width of specimen (mm)
d = Thickness of specimen (mm)
2bd2
Compare the results with the specification according to the following table:Minimum modulus at rupture
Gypsum type
strength (MPa)
Technical gypsum
2
Plaster of paris
1.5
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NATURAL STONE TESTS

Specific density test:
Scope (advantages): These test methods cover procedures for classify the
stone by determining the specific density.
Materials: Stones in different shapes
Apparatus: Laboratory Balance, balance with suitable apparatus for
suspending the sample container in water and drying oven.
Procedure:
Dry the stone samples by putting them in an oven at a temperature of (105115) C for 24 hours.
Cooling the samples to room temperature for 30 minutes then the weight of
the stones is recorded and considers it as (A).
The samples are then immersed in water at a temperature of (20 2C) for
48 hours.
The specimens are taken out from water and wiped with a damp cloth. Three
minutes, thereafter it is weighed again and recorded as (B).
Measure the weight of the basket empty inside the water using balance with
suitable apparatus for suspending the sample container in water.
Put the sample inside a basket and measure the weight of full saturated
stones using balance with suitable apparatus for suspending the sample
container in water then minus the weight of empty basket from step 5 and
the weight consider as (C).
The specific density calculated from the following equation:A
Specific Density
B-C
Specify the class of stone according to the following table:Minimum Specific Density
Classes
(Kg/m3)
Class A (low density)
1750
Class B (medium density)
2150
Class C (high density)
2550
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Fig.4 Balance with suitable apparatus for suspending the sample container in
water
Total absorption test:

the percentage of water absorption of stone to water
Specification:- IQS2715-1987 & IQS1387-1989
Materials:- Stones in different shapes
Apparatus:- Laboratory Balance, drying oven and water tank
Procedure:Dry the stone samples by putting them in an oven at a temperature of (105115)C for 24 hours.
Cooling the samples to room temperature for 30 minutes then the weight of
the stones is recorded and considers it as (W1).
The samples are then immersed in water at a temperature of (20 2C) for
48 hours.
The specimens are then taken out from water and wiped with a damp cloth.
The water absorption calculated from the following equation:23

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W2 - W1
100
W1
Calculate the average water absorption and specify the class of stone
according to the following table
The average water absorption shall not be more than the following:Classes
Class A (low density 1750- 2150
12
kg/m3)
Class B (medium density 21507.5
2550 kg/m3)
Class C (high density > 2550
3
kg/m3)
The water absorption in % (after 48hrs) =

Scope (advantages):- This test method provides a means of evaluating
compressive strength characteristics of stones and specifies their types
Materials: - stones (in cubic form with dimensions at least 50mm)
Apparatus: - compressive machine, measurement tape or ruler, laboratory
oven and water tank.
Procedure:The stones are dried in oven for 24 hrs at (105- 115) C, then immersed in
water at room temperature for 48 hours.
These samples are then taken out from water and wiped off with cotton or a
horizontal. Load is applied at a uniform rate not more than 40 MPa/ minute till
failure.
Calculate the average compressive strength and specify the class of stone
Minimum
Classes
compressive
strength (MPa)
12
kg/m3)
Class B (medium density 215028
2550 kg/m3)
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kg/m3)
25
Modulus of rupture strength test:

Scope (advantages): This test is used to determine the modulus at rupture
strength of stone when exposed to one point load.
Materials: stones (in prism form with dimensions of (200x100x60mm)
Apparatus: modulus of rupture test machine, measurement tape or ruler,
laboratory oven and water tank.
Procedure:
The stones are dried in oven for 24 hrs at (105- 115) C, then immersed in
water at room temperature for 48 hours.
These samples are then taken out from water and wiped off with cotton or a
The specimen is placed in the testing machine with flat faces horizontal
(200x100mm). Load is applied at a uniform rate not more than 4500 N/
minute till failure.
Calculate the modulus at rupture strength using the following equation:3PL
Modulus at rupture (MPa)
2bd 2
Where: P= Maximum load at failure (N)
L= span of the test (mm)
b=width of specimen (mm)
d=thickness of specimen (mm)
Calculate the average modulus of rupture and compare the results with the
specification according to the following table:Minimum compressive strength
Classes
(MPa)
2
kg/m3)
Class B (medium density 21503.5
2550 kg/m3)
7
kg/m3)
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BUILDING MORTAR TESTS

Consistency of mortar by flow table test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the mobility of mortar
which can flow under the role of dead weight and exterior forces.
Specification: - ASTMC1437-07 & BS EN-1015-3:1999
Materials: - cement, fine aggregate (sand) & water
Apparatus: - Balance, sieve size 2.36 mm, mixing bowel, trowel, ruler,
graduated cylinder, mould of (60 mm in height, internal diameter: base 100
mm - top 70 mm) and tamping rod.
Procedure:Weigh (500) gm of cement and Prepare the corresponding weights of
standard sand and water .due to mix proportion 1:3 with W/C ratio equal to
(0.5-0.7).
Place the dry paddle and the dry bowl in the mixing position in the mixer.
Then introduce the materials for a batch into the bowl and mix in the
following manner:
i- Place all the mixing water in the bowl.
ii- Add the cement to the water, then start the mixer and mix at the low
speed
(140 5 r/ min) for (30 s).
iii- Add the entire quantity of sand slowly over a (30 s) period , while mixing
at slow speed.
iv- Stop the mixer, change to medium speed (285 +10 r/min) and mix for 30
s.
v- Stop the mixer and let the mortar stand for 1.5 min. During the first (15 s)
of this interval, quickly scrape down into the batch any mortar that may have
collected on the side of the bowl.
vi- Finish by mixing for (1min) at medium speed.
Carefully wipe the flow table and place the flow mould at the center.
Place a layer of mortar about 25 mm (1 in.) thickness in the mould and tamp
20 times with the tamper. The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to
ensure uniform filling of the mold.
Fill the mold with mortar and tamp as specified for the first layer. Cut off the
mortar to a plane surface flush with the top of the mold by drawing the
straightedge or the edge of the trowel with a sawing motion across the top of
the mold.
Wipe the table top clean and dry, being especially careful to remove any
water from around the edge of the flow mold.
A period of approximately 15 seconds is allowed to elapse and the mould is
then removed, the table is jolted 15 times at a rate of one jolt per second.
The diameter of the spread mortar is measured in two directions at right
angles to each other using ruler, both results are reported.
Classify the mortar according to the following table:Consistency
Type of mortar
(mm)
Stiff mortar
Less than140
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Plastic mortar
Soft mortar
140-200
More than 200
Fig.5 flow table apparatus
Fig. 7 mixing machine for mortar
Fig 6 tamping rod and graduated cylinder
Bulk density test:

Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the bulk density of
mortar.
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Specification: - BS EN-1015-6:1999
graduated cylinder, cylindrical container, vibrating table and tamping rod.
Procedure:Prepare cement mortar mixture in the same procedure of consistency test.
Three different methods of filling and compacting the mortar within the
calibrated container which should have a volume of approximately 1 liter.
The method to be used depends upon the consistence of the fresh mortar as
determined by the flow table test:Place a layer of mortar about 25 mm (1 in.) thickness in the mould and tamp
20 times with the tamper. The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to
ensure uniform filling of the mold.
i) Vibration method- Flow value less than 140 mm (stiff mortar): a- The calibrated container is filled with mortar using a scoop until it is
overflowing it is then placed on a vibrating table and vibration continued until
no further settlement of the material is observed, extra material is added if
necessary.
b- The container is then weighed to an accuracy of 1 gram.
ii) Shock method- Flow value between 140 mm and 200 mm (Plastic mortar):
The calibrated container is filled to approximately half its height with mortar
using a scoop, the container is then tilted about 30 mm on alternate sides
and allowed to fall ten times on to a solid base. Where the mortar contains an
air entraining admixture the number of shocks is reduced to five. The
container is then filled to overflowing and the shock compaction repeated.
The container is then weighed to an accuracy of 1 gram.
iii) Flow value greater than 200 mm (Soft mortar):The calibrated container is filled with mortar using a scoop until it is
overflowing, the edges of the container are wiped clean with a damp cloth
and the container weighed to an accuracy of 1 gram.
The bulk density of mortar is determined by calculating the mass of mortar
contained in a known volume using the following equation:-.
Bulk density (Kg/m3)
M2 - M1
Vv
Where:-M2= weight of empty container (kg)

M1= weightof container plus mortar (kg)
Vv= volume ofcontainer (m3)
Dry bulk density test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the bulk density of
hardened mortar.
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graduated
cylinder,
tamping
rod,
prism
moulds
of
dimension
(160x40x40mm), drying oven, damp cloth and water tank.
Molding test specimens:
i- Thinly cover the interior faces of the specimen molds with oil.
ii- Start molding the specimens within a total time of not more than 2.5 min
after completion of mixing .
iii- Place a layer of mortar about 25 mm (half the depth of the mold ).
iv- Tamp the mortar 32 times. The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to
insure uniform filling of the molds.
v- The 4 rounds of taming shall be completed in one prism before going to
the next.
vi-When the tamping of the first layer is completed , fill the molds with the
remaining mortar and tamp as specified for the first layer.
vii- Cut off the mortar to a plane surface with a straight edge.
viii- Keep the molds in a moist room for (20-24) hours then open them and
keep the specimens in a water basin for a week.
Put the samples in drying oven of (70C) for 24 hrs then take it out and cool
down to room temperature and record the weight (M1).
Put the samples in water tank for 24 hrs then take it out and dried with damp
cloth then record the weight (M2).
The volume of the test specimens is now determined by weighing the test
specimens in water (using a stirrup attachment to the balance), the mass of
the immersed test specimens is recorded to the nearest 0.1% (M3).The
volume is calculated by use of the formula:
VS=
M2-M3
water
(Kg/m3) is calculated=
M1
The bulk dry densityDensity
of eachoftest
specimen
VS
Where:-M1= weight of dry specimen (after 24 hrs in oven) (gm)

M2= weight of saturated specimen (after 24hrs in water) (gm)
M3= weight of immersed specimen in water (gm)
VS= volume of specimen (m3)
Flexural and compression test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the flexural and
compressive strength of hardened mortar.
graduated
cylinder,
tamping
rod,
prism
moulds
of
dimension
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(160x40x40mm), cube mould of 50mm dimension and flexural &

compression testing machines.
Molding test specimens:
i- Thinly cover the interior faces of the specimen molds with oil.
ii- Start molding the specimens within a total time of not more than 2.5 min
after completion of mixing .
iii- Place a layer of mortar about 25 mm (half the depth of the mold ).
iv- Tamp the mortar 32 times. The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to
insure uniform filling of the molds.
v- The 4 rounds of taming shall be completed in one mould before going to
the next.
vi-When the tamping of the first layer is completed , fill the molds with the
remaining mortar and tamp as specified for the first layer.
vii- Cut off the mortar to a plane surface with a straight edge.
viii- Keep the molds in a moist room for (20-24) hours then open them and
keep the specimens in a water basin for a week.
After 7 days (+ 3 hours), take the specimens out of the basin, dry them with
a clean cloth, put them, one after the other, in the testing machine.
Start loading in a speed of 1.4 kN /sec or (350 kg /cm2 ) in a minute till
failure, record load.
Calculate the compressive strength using the following equation:-
Calculate
strength using the following equation:Modulus at rupture (MPa) =
the
flexural
3PL
2bd2
TIMBER TESTS
Moisture content test:Scope (advantages):- This test is covering the determination of moisture
content of timber.
Specification: - IS 1708 (part 1):1986
Materials: - timber (2.5 cm in length and 5x5 or 2x2 in cross section)
Apparatus: - Balance and oven dry
Procedure:The sample shall be weighed with accuracy of 0.001 g in a weighing balance
(W1).
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Dried in a well ventilated oven at temperature of 103 2C. The weight shall
be recorded at regular intervals. The drying shall be considered to be
complete when the variation between last two weightings does not exceed
0.002 g.
The final weight shall be taken as oven dry weight (W2).
The loss in weight expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight, shall be
taken as the moisture content of the test specimen. The formula for
calculation shall be as given below:
W1-W2
100
Moisture content in % =
Where:-W1= weight of sample (gm)
W2
W2= weight of oven dried sample (gm)
Specific gravity test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the specific gravity of
timber.
Materials: - timber (2.5 cm in length and 5x5 or 2x2 in cross section)
Apparatus: - Balance and ruler.
Procedure:The specimen shall be weighed correct to 0.001 g.
The dimensions of rectangular specimen shall be measured correct to 001 cm
and volume shall be calculated by multiplying all the three dimensions.
The volume of irregular specimen shall be determined by mercury volumeter.
The level of mercury in the volumeter shall be raised to the given mark on
the capillary tube and reading shall be noted. The level shall then be brought
down and specimen shall be inserted in the volumeter. After raising the level
to the given mark, the reading shall be taken again. Care shall be taken that
no air bubble is entraped in the volumeter.
The difference of the two readings shall be the volume of the specimen.
Specific gravity shall be calculated as given below:
AB-
Specific Gravity
W1
V1
Adjusted Specific Gravity
W1
100
V1 100 m
Where: W1= weight of sample (gm)

V1= volume of specimen sample (cm3)
m= moisture content of test specimen
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Volumetric shrinkage test:Scope (advantages):- This test is used to determine the volumetric shrinkage
of timber.
Materials: - timber (15 cm in length and 5x5 or 6cm in length and 2x2 in
cross section) and water
Apparatus: - Balance, vessel, dry cloth and oven dry
Procedure:The specimen shall be weighed initially correct to 0.001 g and the volume
shall be determined by immersion method correct to 001 cc. A suitable
vessel, half filled with water, shall be kept on the pan of a weighing balance
and weighed correct to 0.001 g. The specimen shall be then completely
dipped in water by means of a needle as shown in Fig.5-1 and weighed again.
Care shall be taken that no air bubble sticks to the specimen and the
specimen may not touch the vessel. The difference of the two readings shall
be volume of the specimen (V1).
The specimen shall be taken out from water wiped with dry cloth and endcoated by immersion in hot paraffin and allowed to air-season under room
conditions and weighed periodically until moisture content of about 12% is
reached, the volume shall again be determined by method (V2).
The specimen shall then be kept in an oven at 103 2C until an
approximately constant weight is reached.
After oven-drying, the specimen shall again be weighed and, while still warm,
shall be immersed in hot paraffin-wax bath, care being taken to remove it
quickly to ensure only a thin coating.
The volume of the paraffin-coated specimen shall be determined by
immersion as before.
Volumetric shrinkage from initial condition to required dry condition
V1-V2
100
Volume shrinkage in % =
V1
Where:-V1= Volume in cc of sample

V2= Volume at the initial required dry condition at moisture
content
(usually 12 % moisture
content or oven dry condition ) (cm3)
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Fig. 8 Apparatus for determination of volumetric shrinkage
Static bending strength test:Scope (advantages):- This test covers the method of test for determining
static bending strength of timber under central loading.
Materials: - timber (75 cm in length and 5x5 or 30 cm in length and 2x2 in
cross section), shall be free from any defect and shall not have a slope of
grain.
Apparatus: - bending strength machine
Procedure:The test specimen shall be placed on a rig that the load is applied through a
loading block to the tangential surface nearer to the heart. The specimen
shall be supported on the rig in such a way that it will be quite free to follow
the bending action and will not be restrained by friction.
The load shall be applied continuously throughout the test such that the
movable head of the testing machine moves at a constant rate of 2.5
mm/minute in case of 5 X 5 X 75 cm and 1.0 mm/minute in case of 2 X 2 X 30
cm.
The failure load of the specimen shall be recorded.
Calculate the bending strength using the following equation:Modulus at rupture (MPa)
3PL
2bd 2
Where:P= Maximum load at failure (N)

Fig. 9 Apparatus for static bending strength
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Compressive strength test:Scope (advantages):- This test covers the method of test for determining
compressive strength of timber.
Materials: - timber (20 cm in length and 5x5 or 8 cm in length and 2x2 in
cross section), shall be free from any defect and shall not have a slope of
grain.
Apparatus: - bending strength machine
Procedure:At least one platen of the testing machine shall be equipped with a
hemispherical bearing to obtain uniform distribution of load over the ends of
the specimen.
The specimen shall be placed so that the centre of the movable head is
vertically above the centre of the cross-section of the specimen.
NOTE - It is essential that the ends of the rectangular test specimen are
smooth and parallel and normal to the axis and that the testing machines are
of such construction that the surfaces between which the test specimen is
placed are parallel to each other and remain so during the whole period of
test.
The load shall be applied continuously during the test such that the movable
head of the testing machine travels at a constant rate of 0.6 mm/minute for
both the sizes.
The failure load of the specimen shall be recorded.
Calculate the bending strength using the following equation:-
Fig. 10 position of specimen inside compressive machine
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STEEL TESTS
Mass per meter of mild steel:Scope (advantages):- This test covers the procedure of determination the
mass per mater for mild steel
Specification: - IQS2091-99 & ASTM A615-05a
Materials: - steel bar
Apparatus: - laboratory balance, caliper and ruler.
Procedure:The determination of the deviation from nominal mass per meter shall be
carried out on a test specimen which shall have square cut ends.
The length and mass of the test specimen shall be measured to an accuracy
of at least 0.5%.
Calculate the percentage deviation from nominal mass per meter of the test
specimen from the difference between the actual mass per meter of the test
specimen deduced from its mass and length and nominal mass per meter as
given in table below:Nominal cross-sectional area and nominal mass per meter
Ribs requirements of mild steel:Scope (advantages): This test covers the procedure of determination the
requirement of ribs in mild steel
Materials: deformed steel bar
Apparatus: caliper and ruler.
Procedure:
Measure and record the ribs height.
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Measure and record the distance between the ribs along the steel sample.
The distance measured by divided the length of steel bar sample on the
number of the ribs.
Note: do not measure the distance on the part contain printed numbers or
letters
Compare the recorded results with the specification which limits the
properties of the ribs as follow:
The distance between the ribs around the sample must be equal and have
the same shape and dimensions.
The distance between two ribs should not exceed 70% of the nominal
diameter of the steel bar.
The height of the ribs should not exceed 5% of the nominal diameter of the
steel bar less than 16mm and should not exceed 6% the nominal diameter of
the steel bar more than 16mm.
Fig.11 Ribs in deformed steel bar
Tension test of mild steel:Scope (advantages):- The objective of this lab experiments is to incrementally
load a steel bar till failure, while recording the value of the load and the
change in length of the steel bar at each stage. Then based on the collected
data, determine:
- Ultimate strength of steel, Ultimate.
-Yield strength of Steel, yield
- Plot Stress Vs Strain Curve for steel
Specification: - ASTM A615-05a
Materials: - steel bar (the length equal 4 times of the diameter plus the
length of fixing in the machine)
Apparatus: - Universal Testing Machine, Dial Gauge / Extensometer
Procedure:Load a Steel bar into the machine, with a 6 length of steel between the
testing machine clamps.
Mount the dial gauge and reset to Zero. Apply load with in stages.
At each load stage record the applied load and the Change in bar length
(read from gauge).
Keep incrementing the load till failure.
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Note:- At failure notice the tip & cone failure mode of the steel bar.
5- Calculate the ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S) from the equation:U.T.S (MPa)
P
A
Where:- P= Maximum load at failure (N)

A= original area (mm2)
Calculate the yield strength using the following equation:-
Yield stre ngth
L f Li
Li
Where:- Lf = length after failure (mm)

Li = original length (mm)
compare the results with specification which give the following limitation
shown in table below:Mechanical properties
Grade 300*
Grade 400
Ultimate tensile strength
500
600
(MPa)
Yield strength (MPa)
300
400
*Grade 300 for steel bar diameter ranging 6-20 mm
Fig. 12 Stress-Strain curve
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Research
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Fig .13 Universal Testing Machine
Fig.14 Dial gauge
Elongation of mild steel:Scope (advantages):- This test covers the procedure of determination the
elongation percentage for mild steel
Materials: - steel bar (20 cm length)
Apparatus: - caliper and ruler.
Procedure:Fit the ends of the fractured specimen from the tensile test together carefully
and measure the distance between the gage marks to the nearest (0.32 cm).
The elongation is the increase in length of the gage length, expressed as a
percentage of the original gage length.
In reporting elongation values, give both the percentage increase and the
original gage length.
Compare the results with specification which give the following limitation
shown in table below:Elongation (%) minimum value
Bar diameter (mm)
Grade 300*
Grade 400
6-10
11
9
12-20
12
9
22-25
--8
28-50
--7
*Grade 300 for steel bar diameter ranging 6-20 mm
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Research
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Fig. 15 Elongation failure
TILE TESTS
Dimension and shape test:Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for measuring
size, dimensional measurement of tile.
Specification: - IQS1275-85, IQS1043-84 & IQS1044-84
Materials: - tiles at the 28-day age (include terrazzo & normal tiles)
Apparatus: - ruler, instruments for measuring dimensions and angles.
Procedure:Determine the average dimensions of the tile and the corner angles of the
tiles.
Check the straightness of the faces by clean the surface of two tiles from the
same package and put the face of one tile on the face of second tile then
measure the space between each corner at the point of contact the two tiles.
Check the parallel between the face and the back of the tile by measuring
the thickness in each corner and in the middle of each tiles side.
Compare the results with the specification according to the following table:Type of measurement
measurements
Tolerance in length and width
1 mm
Tolerance in thickness
3 mm
Straightness of the faces
< 0.5 mm
angles
Right angle < 0.1
Parallel between the face and
1.5 mm
the back
Absorption test:-
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Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for measuring

the total absorption and face absorption for the tile.
Apparatus: - laboratory balance, water tank, drying oven, dish and damp
cloth
Procedure:Face absorption:Put the samples in oven at (105 10 C) for 8 hours till you get constant
weight.
Take them out from the oven and left it to cool down for 30 min., then record
the Wight of the tile and considered (W1).
Point on the corner at the distance 5 mm under the face of the tile.
Put the tiles upside down in which their faces on the dish then add water till it
reach to the pointed marks which had been done in step 3 then leave the
samples in this condition for 24 hours. Be careful that the tiles back shall not
be wet.
Take the samples out from the dish and remove excess water from the face
and record the weight which considers (W2). Be careful that the tiles back
shall not be wet.
Calculate the face absorption using the following equation:Face Absorption
W2 - W1
A
Where:-W1= weight of dry sample (gm)

W2= weight of sample after absoping water (gm)
A = area of tile face (mm)
Compare the results with the specification which limit the face absorption
by < 0.4 gm/cm2
Total absorption:Put the samples in oven at (105 10 C) for 8 hours till you get constant
weight.
Take them out from the oven and left it to cool down for 30 min., then record
the Wight of the tile and considered (W1).
Put the tiles in water tank. The water should ne 25-50 mm higher than the
tiles then leave the samples in this condition for 24 hours.
Take the samples out from the tank and remove excess water and record the
weight which considers (W2).
Calculate the face absorption using the following equation:Total absorption (%)
W2 - W1
100
A
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Where:-W1= weight of dry sample (gm)

W2= weight of sample after absoping water (gm)
Compare the results with the specification which specified the total
absorption by <8%.
5mm
Fig. 16 Sketch for face absorption test of the tile
Modulus of rupture test:Scope (advantages):- These test methods cover procedures for determining
the modulus of rupture strength for the tile.
Specification: - IQS1275-85, IQS1042-84 & IQS1043-84
Apparatus: - modulus of rupture testing machine, water tank
Procedure:Put the tiles in water tank. The water should ne 25-50 mm higher than the
tiles then leave the samples in this condition for 24 hours.
Take the samples out from the tank and remove excess water.
Put the sample of the tile on the supports and apply the load gradually in a
constant rate till failure. Then record the failure load.
Calculate the modulus of rupture using the following equation:Modulus at Rapture (MPa)
3PL
2bd 2
Where:P= Maximum load at failure (N)

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Compare the results with the specification which specified the modulus of
rupture for Terazzo tiles not less than 3N/mm 2 and for ordinary tile not less
than 2.5 N/mm2
L/2
L/2
d
L
Fig. 17 Sketch for modulus of rupture test of tile
References:Ministry of housing & construction: National center for construction labs and
research, directory of researches and technical affairs material specification
and construction works, Baghdad 2004.
Iraqi specification (IQS24-1988): Methods of sampling and testing clay
building bricks.
Iraqi specification (IQS25-1988): Clay building bricks.
Iraqi specification (IQS1077-1988): Load Bearing concrete masonry units.
Iraqi specification (IQS27-1988): Physical tests of building gypsum.
Iraqi specification (IQS28-1988): Gypsum for building.
Iraqi specification (IQS2715-1987): Physical tests of building stone.
Iraqi specification (IQS1387-1989): Natural building stone.
ASTM international designation C1437-07: Standard Test Method for Flow of
Hydraulic Cement Mortar.
BS EN-1015-3:1999: Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by flow
table).
BS EN-1015-6:1999: Determination of bulk density of fresh mortar.
BS EN-1015-10:1999: Determination of dry bulk density of hardened mortar.
BS EN-1015-11:1999: Determination of flexural and compressive strength of
hardened mortar.
Indian standard methods of testing of small clear specimen of timber
IS1708Part (1):1986: Determination of moisture content.
IS1708Part (2):1986: Determination of specific gravity.
IS1708Part (3):1986: Determination of volumetric shrinkage.
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IS1708Part (5):1986: Determination of static bending strength.
Indian standard methods of testing of small clear specimen of timber IS
1708Part (8):1986: Determination of compressive strength parallel to garin.
ASTM international designation A615-84: Standard Specification for Deformed
and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.
Iraqi specification (IQS2091-99): Carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
concrete.
Iraqi specification (IQS1275-85): Physical test of tiles
Iraqi specification (IQS1042-84): Terazzo tile.
Iraqi specification (IQS1043-84: Ordinary tile.
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Stage 2 Labs
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Chapter 2 Survey Laboratory

Hawkar Ali Haji
Koya University
Identification to Surveying Lab
Field work and office work

The technical stages of detail surveying are:
Site investigation
Field measurement
Checking measurement and correction of errors
Final calculations
Graphical representation and all of these works collect to process:
The first is the field measurement for collecting data of certain site points and
site linking among the points.
The second is technical calculations, drawing maps and charts.
The works that related with first process is called (Field Work) and the other
works are called (Office Work).
Field works consist of mainly of angle measurement, horizontal and vertical
distance measurement and sloped distance by using special instrument like
theodolite, level, electronic instrument for measuring distance, compass,
tape, staff levelling etc.
Office works consist of mathematical explanation for the field measurement
results to obtain the final numerical results. After the end of the calculations
start drawing asit is very important to simulate the measurement and
calculation result in graphical shape, for more simplification and speeding
office work, special software can be used for these objects.
Field book and field sketch:

Field notes are written record of the survey. All survey field notes should be
booked systematically in a special note-book called the field book which
consists of good quality paper (10 cm *15 cm approximately) with a hard, stiff
cover, made to with stand hard usage.
Notes should be recorded in the field book at the time the work is being done.
Such recorded notes are known as the original notes. Original notes
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constitute the only reliable record of surveying field work. Numerical notes
made later, from memory, a few minutes after the observation are unreliable
and should not be recorded in the field book as original field notes.
All field notes should show when, where, for what purpose, under what
physical conditions, and by whom the survey was made. In relation to the
field measurements, the notes consist of numerical data, sketches, slandered
abbreviations and symbols, and explanatory notes in addition to the type,
number, and precision of each equipment used for gathering numerical in the
field.
Notes and sketches should be made with sharp pencils of 3H and 4H
hardness so an indentation is made in the paper. In this way, the lines will not
become blurred or smudged but remain legible.
Procedure of making weekly surveying reports:

Folder and Cover: the report must be in a file with certain colour for each
group, and the following information should be shown in the cover.
Introduction: In this page, introduction, aim, definitions, mathematical

relations and assumptions (if exist) are included.
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Materials and equipment: Materials and equipment used in this experiment

should be written with necessary sketch and graph.
Procedure: The steps of progressing the experiment are explained in detail.
Calculations: Calculations of the data that is collected in the field.
Discussion and Conclusion: Include the interpretation of the results and data
simulation in scaled graphs.
Data sheet: It is for collecting of all data collected in the field. A typical
template of a data sheet is shown in the figure below:
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1. Direct Linear Measurement

Introduction:
Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all
surveying observations. Inplane surveying, the distance between two points
means the horizontal distance. If the points are at different elevations, the
distance is horizontal length between vertical lines at the points.
Aim of experiment:
Measuring horizontal distance on flat lands by using tape.
Measuring horizontal distance on sloped lands by using tape.
Measuring horizontal distance on flat lands by pacing.
Tools and Equipment:
Procedure A: Measuring horizontal distance on flat lands by using tape.

For fixing a certain point on the direction of a straight line, the observer will
stand from a distance before the start point.
The observer oriented to the follower for moving the range rod to the
direction near the straight line until the range rod disappear behind the
1strange rod (figure 1).
Figure (1)
At this time, the follower will fix this point and make a sign in it by using
pegs.
By the same way the group will fix all the points on the direction of straight
line.
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Measure the distance between points by tape, twice measure the distance for
checking (figure 2).
Record the reading of the measured distances.
Figure (2)
Procedure B: Measuring horizontal distance on sloped lands by using tape.
Choose a straight on a sloped ground and sign the points by the same way
that mentioned above.
Measure the horizontal distance & project the end of line by plumb bob and
sign it by pegs (figure 3).
Measure and record all distances once and twice.
Figure (3)
Procedure C: Measuring horizontal distance on flat lands by Pacing.
Select a known distance (Lactual ) between points A&B, see figure (4).
n
Measure the same distance A to B by pacing ( p), and repeat the same
n
from B to A and take the average of ( p).
Lactual
dp=
Calculate
.
np
Then, for any unknown distance, Lactual=d pn p
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Figure (4)
Datasheet (1) for A and B:
A typical data sheet for this experiment is shown below:
L=nl+l
L A B + LB A
2
l=fulllengt h tape ,n=number of full tape lengt h s , l =t h e tapelength
Laverage=
Datasheet (2) for C:
Lactual=d pn p
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2. Basic Problems in Chaining

Introduction:
There are some problems that the surveyors are faced during chain surveying
such as, drawing a perpendicular from a point on a line to a point outside the
line, and drawing a parallel line to a known line from the surveyor.
Aim of experiment:
Drawing a perpendicular to chain line from a point on it.
Drawing a perpendicular to chain line from a point outside it.
Drawing a line parallel to chain line through a given point.
Tools and Equipment:

Procedure A: Drawing a perpendicular line to chain line from a point on it.
1. (3-4-5 Method): AB
is a chain line; it is required to draw a
perpendicular at C of the chain line. Establish point D at (3 meter) from C. Put
(0 meter and 12 meter of the tape) at point D and (3 meter of the tape) at
point C. Then the tape should be stretched from point E such that (7 meter of
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the tape) locates at C. Finally, the situation such as what is explained in the
figure will be obtained. In this case, CE is perpendicular to AB.
2. (Equidistant Method): AB is a chain line. It is required to erect

perpendicular at C on the chain line. Select two points E and F on the chain
line equidistant from C. Zero end of the chain is held at E, and (10 meter) end
at F. Pick up the (5 meter) mark, stretch the tape tight and establish the
point D. Join DC and this DC at C is perpendicular to the chain line AB.
3. (Method of Arc): Select a point F outside the chain line AB, preferably at
distance (5 m) from C. Hold zero mark of the chain at C, (5 m) mark at F.
With F as centre draw an arc to cut the chain line at E. Join EF and produce it
to D, such that EF=FD=5m. Now, point D will lie at (10 m) mark of the shape
laid along EF with zero ends at E. Join DC, which is the perpendicular at C of
the chain AB.
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Procedure B: Drawing a perpendicular line to chain line from a point outside

it.
1. (Method of Arc Bisect): Let the chain be AB and point C is outside the
chain line. It is required to drop perpendicular from C to AB. Select any point
(E for instance) on the chain line. With C as centre and CE as radius, an arc is
drawn which cut the chain line at F. Now, bisecting EF at D, draw DC which is
perpendicular from C to the chain line at D.
2. (Method of Bisection and Arc): Select any point (E for instance) on the
chain line. C is the point outside the chain line from where perpendicular is to
be drawn to AB. Join EC and bisect it at F. With F as centre and EF or FC as
radius an arc is drawn which cuts the chain line at D.?Join DC which the
perpendicular of AB from C.
Procedure C: Drawing a parallel line to chain line through a given point.
1. (Method by Drawing Perpendicular): AB is the chain line and C is

given point. It is required to draw line parallel to AB through C. From C draw
perpendicular CE by any one of the methods describe above. Select a point F
on the chain line and erect a perpendicular FD. Cut FD=EC, now line CD
passing through C is the parallel line through C.
2. (Theory of Similar Triangles):A point F on the chain line is selected. FC

is joined and bisected at G. Select another point E on the chain line. Join EG
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and extend EG to D such that EG=GD. Join CD and its the parallel line
through point C.
Da
ta Sheet:
3. Chain Survey
Introduction:
It is that type of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in
the field. In planning and carrying out chain survey for a particular plot of
land, the operations needed are reconnaissance, selection of station, running
survey lines, recording field data (field book) and plotting the survey work.
Aim of experiment:
Transferring a plan of an existing building from practical to paper by straight
lines.
Drawing plan of an area limited by straight lines.
Tools and equipment:
1. Tape (preferably 20 m long), 2. Field book and a pencil, 3.Ranging rods, 4.
Arrows
5. Chain (preferably 20 m long), 6. Plumb bob, 8. Pegs and hummer
9. An instrument for setting right angles to the chain line from the object
(optical square).
Procedure:
Reconnaissance: It is the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed
in order to collect preliminary information and executing the survey work in
the best possible way. In reconnaissance, surveyor should prepare rough
sketch where survey lines and salient features are shown.
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Selection of station: The survey station at the ends of chain lines should
be inter-visible. The stations are assumed to have minimum survey lines. The
stations should be selected near the boundary of the plot to be surveyed. It is
desirable to run the base line through centre of the area. It should be tried to
form well-conditioned triangles by the survey station. Every triangle must be
provided by a check line. Long offsets should be avoided. Survey lines are
laid preferably over level ground. Obstacles to chaining or ranging should be
avoided.
Running survey lines: The work of running a survey line comprises
chaining the line, locating the adjacent detail by offsets and their chains.
Chaining and offsetting are repeated until end of the survey line is reached.
The distance along the survey line at which streams, roads, fences, drains,
etc., are intersected, must be recorded.
Field book: For recording the measurements taken in the field, a field book
(preferably 20 cm x 12 cm) which opens lengthwise is used. The double line
field book, which is commonly used, the distance along the chain line is
entered between the two lines of the page. The chain line is started from the
bottom of the page and works are recorded upwards, see figure (1). Offsets
are recorded both left and right sides based on the object to be surveyed and
plotted in the map. Rough sketches of the objects for which offsets are drawn
are made. Every chain line must start from the bottom of the page. All
recordings in the field book are usually made with a hard pencil for water
proofing purpose.
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Figure (1)
Plotting the survey work: After completion of survey works of the whole
plot along the survey lines, a map or plan of the plot showing the details of
existing houses, drains, tress, pond, fence, etc., at exact location is required
to be drawn. The first step is the selection of a scale of the map. Then
plotting framework of offsets, object, inking and colouring should be made (if
needed).
Note: During making a framework of a building, if the horizontal angle of a
corner is not right angle (90o ) the formula below (cosine law) should be
applied so that an accurate angle of the corner is transferred from practical
to the plan on paper.
2
2
2
a +b c
=
2 ab
cos
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Figure (2)
Data Sheet:
4. Obstacles in Chaining
Introduction:
Obstacles avoid measuring the distances directly, such as having pond, river
or building between the two points that needed to be measured.
Aim of experiment:
The aim of this experiment is to measure the distance between two points
where an obstacle exists between them.
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Procedure:
When the obstacle is a pond:
There are various methods, best and easy method is the use of optical
square. Find a point C with the help of optical square such that it subtends
90o with A and B. Measure AB and BC, see figure (1), the length AB is
calculated from: AB= AC 2+ BC 2
When the obstacle is a river:
The two points A and B are on both sides of the river. Erect a perpendicular
AC at C. Bisect AC at D. Erect perpendicular CE at C. Range E with line BD.
Measure CE, now from triangles ABD and DCE, AB=CE.
When the obstacle is a building:
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A building is typical example of obstacles. At first, marking point B and G but

it is necessary that AB is equal to HG, after that perpendicularly at the same
length drawing lines AC, BD, GE, and HF, finally measuring CD, DE, and EF.
AH =CD+ DE + EF AH =AB+ DE +GH
5. Height of Target Determination

Introduction:
It is often needed to find an approximate height of targets by using simple
tools, while the point cannot be reached and measured directly and special
instrument for this purpose is not exist.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine an approximate height of some
targets by using:
Tw ranging rods.
Shadow of sunlight.
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Procedure:
By using two ranging rods:
Two ranging rods with different lengths have to be put in front of the target
such that the top of two rods with the top of the target should be on the
same line of sight.
Measure the distances; between the two rods (d1), and between the big rods
with the target (d2), see figure (1).
Measure the length of both rods (R1 and R2).
Calculate H.
R2R1
( R2R 1)(d 1+ d 2)
h
similar triangles :
=
h=
d1 + d2
d1
d1
H =h+ R1
Figure (1)
By using shadow of sunlight:
Put a ranging rod vertically on the ground and measure its shadow length.
The target has shadow, measure its length, see figure (2).
The ratio between the rod length and its shadow length is equal to the target
height to its shadow length.
Calculate H by using similar triangles:
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h H
hD
= H=
d D
d
Figure (2)
Data Sheet 1:
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Data
Sheet
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6. Setting up of Level
Introduction: Level is an optical instrument used to establish or check
points in the same horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and building to
transfer, measure, or set horizontal levels.
Aim:
Setting and adjustment of level instrument.
Reading level staff.

Procedure:
Set the tripod up reasonably level.
Push legs firmly into the ground.
Clamp the instrument at the top of the tripod, by clamping screw.
Use foot screws to centralise the circular bubble as follows:
Set telescope parallel to two foot screws, bring the bubble to the centre by
moving both screws together in opposite direction with the same amount.
Turn the telescope (90) to the first situation, and then bring the bubble to
the centre by the third screw only.
Turn the telescope to position (a) and check the bubble, if the bubble out off
centre repeats step (a) and (b).
Check the bubble in arbitrary direction for the telescope. If it remained at
centre, then the level is ready to be used. If not, the level requires
adjustment.
Focusing the eye piece to see the cross-hair clearly.
Focusing the objective lenses by focusing screw.
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7. Two Pegs Test

Introduction:
Two pegs test can be defined as a field test of level instrument so as to check
that the line of sight through a level whether it needs adjustment before the
start of levelling or not.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to check that the line of sight through a level is
horizontal.
Procedure:
Firstly select two points, A and B with approximate distance of (60m 70m)
between them.
Set the level in the middle of A and B and measure the difference between
staff readings ( H 1 ), see figure (1).
Figure (1)
Then move the level into two meters from point A, then measure the
difference between staff readings ( H 2 ), see figure (2).
Figure (2)
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error= H 2 H 1 ;
If error <limit , it means that there is no error in the instrument or small errors
are exist that do not have a reasonable effect on the staff readings.
If error >limit , adjustments should be implemented to the level.
Data Sheet:
8. Closed Levelling
Introduction:
This test is about how to book the collected data from levelling process in the
field which there are two different methods, (Height of instrument) and (Raise
and fall) methods.
Aim:
Booking the data collected from field by (HI) method.
Booking the data collected from field by (Raise and fall) method.
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Procedure:
Select some points on the ground by pegs (around 6 points).
Set up the level and start reading the staff from A to G to A.
Change the position of the level (turning point) during the levelling.
Prepare two tables for both (HI) and (Raise and fall) methods, and book the
collected data in the field.
Calculate the reduced levels (R.L) from the tables and then check it. The
elevation of A should be the same.
Error=Elev . A 2Elev . A1
Data Sheet:
Height of instrument method:
Calculation:
HI=BS+ FS , Elev .=HI F . SI . S
B . S . F . S .=R . L ( last )R . L ( first )
for c h ecking:
Raise and fall method:
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Calculation:
B . S . F . S .= Rise Fall=Last R . L. First R . L .
9. Profile Levelling Longitudinal Section

Introduction:
Is the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured
intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of a rail way, high way,
canal or sewer system, and mapping it on a plan with a suitable scale for
different structural and earth works.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the horizontal and vertical
distances between a series of points and create a profile of the route on a
map for different engineering purposes.
Procedure:
Select a straight line on a route that needed to draw its profile.
Split the line into similar distance intervals.
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Set up the level accurately and start levelling.

Book the collected data in a table (HI method) or (Rise and fall method).
Calculate the elevation of all selected points from centreline.
Choose a suitable scale for transferring the data from field to office.
Usually, scale 1:1000 for horizontal distance and 1:100 for elevations.
Use graph paper to draw the profile such that; X-axis referring to the line
distance and intervals, and Y-axis as the elevations.
By matching the design line with the drawn profile, cut and fill positions can
be obtained.
Data Sheet:
Note:
This is a sample of profile making levelling table. The distance refers to the
intervals and should be (10m, 20m, 30m etc.) depending on the type of the
project.
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10.
Profile Levelling Cross Section
Introduction: Cross-sectioning is run at right angles to the longitudinal

profile and on either side of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground
surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earth work and
other purposes.
Aim: The aim of this experiment is to estimate the volume of earthworks (cut
or fill), depending on the elevation of natural ground profile at this interval
with respect to the design line (designed or expected).
Procedure:
Select a straight line on a route that needed to draw its profile and cross
section.
Split the line into similar distance intervals.
Set up the level accurately and start levelling.
Book the collected data in a table (HI method) or (Rise and fall method).
Calculate the elevation of all selected points from centre line, right side (5
meter) and left side (5 meter).
Choose a suitable scale for drawing a profile such that, X-axis as horizontal
distance and Y-axis as the elevation of the centre points of the route.
By matching the design line with the drawn profile, cut and fill positions can
be determined (figure 1).
For the intervals of higher elevations than the design line, cut is needed
(figure 1) and the volume can be obtained from taking the average area of
both sided cross sections multiplying by the distance between them.
For the intervals of lower elevations than the design line, fill is needed (figure
1) and the volume can be obtained from taking the average area of both
sided cross sections multiplying by the distance between them.
When the design line intersects the profile, there will be two different cross
sections, one cut and other is fill, that include the interval between them, and
the volume should be calculated separately for both cut and fill (figure 1).
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Figure (1)
Finally, draw the profile of all cross sections and calculate the total earthwork
that needed to be cut or filled.
Data Sheet:
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11.
Contour Map
Introduction:
Contour is imaging lines on the ground joining the points of equal elevation. It
helps representing the nature of ground from a 2D map and uses for different
engineering purposes.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to draw a contour map for a given area by using
(Grid method).
Procedure:
Grid the whole area into similar squares with intervals between (5m 20m)
depending on the topography of the area and accuracy that needed for this
work.
Name all points for facilitation during levelling, see figure (1).
Set up the level accurately and read the bench mark followed by the corners
of the entire grid.
Move the level to positions where maximum points can be read, for fewer
turning points in the levelling.
Prepare a table and book all data collected from the field (HI method) or
(Raise and fall method).
Calculate the reduced level of all given points.
Contours are plotted by interpolation between all corners.
In interpolation process, the absolute reduced levels between all corners are
found.
Finally, the contour can be plotted by linking similar elevations.
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Figure (1)
Data Sheet:
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12.
Setting up of Theodolite
Introduction: It is a precision instrument for measuring angles in horizontal

and vertical planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications,
and have been adapted for specialized purposes.
Aim:
Setting up of theodolite
Introduction to the way it works and its main functions.

Procedure:
Set up the tripod over the station mark with tripod head approximately in
horizontal plane.
Remove the theodolite from its case and place it on the tripod head attached
by bolt.
Attach the plum-bob if supplied and move the tripod as necessary until the
bubble is approximately over the station mark. Push the legs well into the
ground and tighten any tripod leg wing nuts.
Level up the instrument by its foot screws, exactly the same as what is done
in level setting up.
Loosen the holding bolt and slide the theodolite with straight line movements
until the plumb-bob exactly centred over the station mark, tighten the
holding bolt again.
Check the levelling up again; the centred again, repeat both as needed.
Remove the telescope cap, place it in the pocket or case, eliminate eye piece
parallax in usual way, open and adjust the mirror, focus the telescope.
13.
Horizontal Angle Measurement
Introduction:
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In many engineering projects and different surveying field works, horizontal

angles need to be measured by specialized instrument of (theodolite). This
experiment explains the aims, used tools and the procedures that are
performed in this process.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is measuring horizontal angle.

Procedure:
Firstly, select three points A, B and C.
Set up the theodolite at point A and measure the difference in direction
between AB and AC (the angle of A). The detail is explained in figure (1):
Figure (1)
Face to point B (at the bottom of the peg), zero-set the instrument and book
it in the table (F.L - B) ( 000 00 00 )
Face to C, read and book (F.L - C)
Rotate the theodolite ( 1800 ) vertically and horizontally, then read and book
C again (F.R - C)
Face to B again, read and book (F.R - B)
Repeat the above procedure for measuring B and C angles, and book them in
the data sheet.
Data Sheet:
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Calculations:
error= Measured angle theoretical angle
Note:
t h eoretical angle ( for any geometric s h ape )=( 2 n4 )90
For example:
Triangle: ((2*3)-4)*90 = (6-4)*90 = 1800
14.
Vertical Angle Measurement and Height of Target
Determination
Aim: The aim of this experiment is:
Measuring vertical angle
Determination of height of target
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Procedure:
Select any target that its height needs to be determined, e.g. BC
Set up the theodolite at point A, away from target BC
Measure the horizontal distance (d) between point A and target BC
Measure the vertical circle of AB & AC (shown in figure 1), book them in the
table and determine the vertical angle in the same way as horizontal angle
Figure (1)
Use the formula below to determine the height of target BC, and see figure
(2);
BC =d( tan v 1+ tan v 2 ) ( case 1)
BC =d( tan v 1tan v 2 ) (case 2)
Figure (2)
Data Sheet:
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15.
Horizontal
Distance
&
Height
Determination by Stadia Method

Aim: The aim of this experiment is:
Measurement of horizontal distance between two stations
Determination height difference between two stations
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Procedure:
Figure (1)
Select two points, A and B that horizontal distance between them needed to
be measured, see figure (1).
Set up the theodolite at point A.
Put the staff at point B.
Read the, upper (U), medium (M), lower (L) and vertical angle (v) from the
staff.
Book the collected data, U , M , L and v in the table.
Calculation 1: Horizontal distance measurement
d=KS(cos v)2
where :
S=( U L )
K=100
Calculation 2: Height difference determination
H=H + ht M ( if v is positive )
H=H + M ht ( if v is negative )
While :
H=KScos vsin v
ht=height of theinstrument the ground
Data Sheet:
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16.
Horizontal Curve
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is drawing a predesigned horizontal curve with a
specific degree of curvature on a natural ground.
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Procedure:
Before the field works, some office works should be performed, see figure (1):
Figure (1)
In figure (1), (TC-PI and PI-CT) are the two intersected roads that needed a
horizontal curve, and the curve TC-CT is the expected horizontal curve.
573
R
R=
, L=
.(TCPI )(PI CT )=R . tan
D
57.3
2
while :
R=radius of the curve , depends on( D)
D=Degree of curveture , decided by the designer
=angle of between(TCPI )(PICT )
L=length of the horizontal curveTC CT (m)
Calculate
( /2L )
while itis the amount of curved angle per one meter.
Divide ( L ) into similar segments (for example, 20 meter each).

Calculate deflection angle for each segment, which is the amount of curved
/2
chord lengrh .
angle for each chord, and can be determined by
L
Calculate the total deflection angle which is the cumulative of deflection
angles.
Prepare a table and book these data mentioned above before starting field
works, see table below:
Assume : Station TC=32+ 27L=161m CT=32+ 27+ L
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CT=32+27 +161=33+88,
Field works:
Select the three points TC, PI& CT as its explained in the figure.
Set up the theodolite at point TC.
Focus point PI and zero-set the horizontal angle.
Rotate the theodolite with the deflection angle (for station one) in the
direction of CT, let a surveyor hold a tape, put zero end at point TC and the
13 meter end will be moved on the direction of TC-PI, until it will match with
the theodolite.
Repeat the same procedure for all stations with the total deflection angles
and total chords until point CT.
Select the end of all the segments by pegs.
Finally, link between the pegs and the curve can be observed.
17.
Planimeter
Introduction:
A planimeter (also known as a platometer) is a measuring instrument used to
determine the area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape.
Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to find the area of specific map then by
considering its scale between the maps and reality, the true area can be
determined.
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Procedure:
Place the pole outside the area in such a position that the tracing point can
reach any part of the outline.
With the tracing point placed on a known point on the outline, read the
vernier.
Move the tracing point clockwise around the outline, back to the known point,
and read thevernier again.
The difference between the two readings, multiplied by the scale factor, gives
the area.
Repeat until three consistent values are obtained, and the mean of these is
taken.
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Chapter 3
Laboratory
Concrete
Technology
Hardi Saadullah Fathullah

Koya University
Test No.1
1. Fineness of Cement by Sieve Analysis Method

(ASTM C184 94)& (AASHTO T128 96)
THEORY& IMPORTANCE
This experiment is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement. The
cement which is produced by an industry is checked for its quality, that either
it is good for certain type of construction or it doesnt possess that much
strength. For example, for RCC and other heavy load bearing structures such
as bridges it is essential that the cement which is being used in the concrete
should have the ability to provide the required strength, while in the PCC
structures it is not so much critical.
The ability to provide strength of a certain type of cement is checked by
finding the fineness of that cement, because the fineness of cement is
responsible for the rate of hydration and hence the rate of gain of strength
and also the rate of evolution of heat.
If the cement is fine then greater is its cohesiveness, which is the property,
required in the concrete because it gives compactness to the concrete.
Usually cement loses 10% of its strength within one month of its
manufacturing.
There are different types of sieves such as # 10, # 100,# 200,# 300 etc. the
number of the sieve indicates the number of holed present in a linear inch of
that sieve. For finding the fineness of Wet or Dry cement following number
sieve is recommended by ASTM.
Cement by wet process = # 300 sieve
Cement by dry process = # 200 sieve
APPARATUS
Sieve # 200 with pan and cover
Sample of cement
Triple beam balance (sensitive to 0.1g)
Scoop
Bristle brush
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Empty plate
Stopwatch
TEST PROCEDURE
Take the triple beam balance and adjust the reading of the balance to zero.
Take a pan and note its weight.
Put some cement in the pan placed on the balance, so that the weight of
cement becomes 100 grams. This will be weight W1 of the cement.
Put the cement in the sieve carefully and close the sieve tightly.
Start shaking the sieve horizontally; keep on shaking the sieve for 10 to 15
minutes regularly.
After 15 minutes take the residue left in the sieve, put it in a pre-weighed
plate and note the weight W2 of the residue with the help of triple beam
balance.
Then by using the following formula calculate the percentage fineness of
cement:
W1= Total weight of cement
W2= Weight of residue
W 1W 2
Percentage of fineness ( ) =
100
W1
Specifications
For 100 gram sample: IF
Weight of W2< 10 gram: Cement is fresh.
Weight of W2> 10gram: Cement is not fresh.
OR
% of fineness is 90 %: Cement is fresh.
% of fineness is 90 %: Cement is not fresh.
EXAMPLE:
Sample = 100g
Residue from sample being tested = 1.64g
rounded
1001.64
persentage of fineness ( ) =
100=98.36 (98.4 )
100
The fineness of cement is in the range of ASTM standard, so the cement is
perfectly fresh therefore, it can be used for making concrete where high
strength is required.
DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
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Group:
Sample no.1
Weight of
Weight of Sieve
the sample
# 200 (g)
(g)
Weight of
sieve +
residue (g)
Weight of the
residue (g)
% of the
residue by
wt.
Weight of
sieve +
residue (g)
Weight of the
residue (g)
% of the
residue by
wt.
Weight of
sieve +
residue (g)
Weight of the
residue (g)
% of the
residue by
wt.
Sample no.2
Weight of
Weight of Sieve
the sample
# 200 (g)
(g)
Sample no.3
Weight of
Weight of Sieve
the sample
# 200 (g)
(g)
Average
Test No.2
2. Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement

(ASTM C187 04)
OBJECTIVES
The objective of conducting consistency test is to find the amount of water to
be added to cement to get a paste of normal consistency i.e the paste of
certain standard solidity which is used to fix the quality of water to be mixed
in cement before performing tests for;
Setting time of cement.
Soundness of cement.
APPARATUS
Vicat apparatus with 10mm plunger as shown in Fig.2-1
Sensitive Balance
Graduated glass cylinder
Glass plate with adequate dimension for mixing water and paste.
Small trowel
Stopwatch.
TEST PROCEDURE
Weight out 500g of cement and place it on the mixing plate.
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Form a crater in the center and add a measured quantity of water (take
135ml for the first batch 27%).
Turn the material at the outer edge into the center within 30 sec. of time by
the aid of the trowel.
After an additional interval of 30 sec. for absorption of water, complete the
process by continuous vigorous mixing. Squeeze and kneading with hands for
(1.5 min.).
With the hands quickly form this paste into a ball, complete the process by
tossing the ball six times from one hand to the other hand, keeping the hands
about 6 in. (15 cm) apart.
Press the ball, resting in the palm of one hand, into the large end of the
conical ring of Vicat apparatus, which held by the other hand.
Fill up the conical ring and remove the excess at the large end by a single
movement of the palm of the hand.
Place the ring on its large end on a glass plate and slice off excess paste at
the smaller end at the top of the ring by single oblique stroke of a sharp
edged trowel held at a slight angle with the top of the ring, and smooth the
top if necessary, but never compress the paste during these operations.
Place the ring with the paste under the rod of the Vicat apparatus, bring the
plunger in contact with the surface of the paste, and set the scale to read
zero or read the initial reading. This must not exceed 30 seconds after
completion of mixing.
Release the plunger immediately.
The apparatus shall be free of all vibrations during the test.
The paste shall be of normal consistency when the rod settles to a point (10
1 mm) below the original surface in 30 sec. after being released.
Make trial pastes with varying percentages of water until the normal
consistency is obtained. Make each trial with fresh cement.
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Figure2-1: Vicat Apparatus for Consistency test of Cement Paste

DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Sample no.
1
2
3
Weight of cement used (g)
Weight of water used (g)
% of water by weight of
cement
Penetration of (10mm) plunger
Normal Consistency1
1
Draw a graph for the 3 test results and find out the % of water when the rod
settles to a point (10 1 mm) below the original surface in 30 sec. after
being released.
Test No.3
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3. Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle

(ASTM C191 04b)
OBJECTIVE
This test method is to determine the time of setting of hydraulic cement by
mean of the manually operated standard Vicat apparatus.
This test is carried out to find whether cement sets at a rate suitable for a
particular work. There is no necessary relationship between the time of
setting and that of hardening or attaining the maximum strength. Slow
setting cement may harden more rapidly than a quick setting one, and vice
versa. The hardening of cement is actually a continuation of the chemical
action which began with setting if the cement is placed in the mould. After
initial setting time the cement mould can be detached and after final setting
time the Vicatts apparatus plunger gives no impression. .
The initial setting time can be defined as time taken by paste to stiffen to
such an extent that the Vicatts needle is not permitted to move down
through the paste more than 25 mm.
The final setting time can be defined as it is the time after which the paste
becomes so hard that Vicatts 5mm needle doesnt sinks visibly and leave no
impression.
With Portland cement and rapid hardening cement the normal initial
setting time should not be less than 30 minutes and the final setting time
should not be more than 10 hours . With quick setting cement the initial
setting time should not be less than 5 minutes and the final setting time
should not be more than 30 minutes.
APPARATUS:
Vicat apparatus: It consists of a frame, bearing a movable rod, weighing
3000.5g, and having either:
A removable needle, 1mm in diameter, for finding out the initial setting time,
or
A needle, 5mm in diameter for determining the final setting time.
Conical hard rubber ring having 40 1 mm height, inside diameter at the
bottom of 70 3 mm and inside diameter at the top of 60 3 mm.
Sensitive Balance.
Paste mixer.
Graduated glass cylinder.
Glass plate with adequate dimension.
Small trowel.
Stopwatch.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Weight out 500g of cement and place it on the mixing plate.
Form a crater in the center and add a measured quantity of water (the
percentage of water obtained from normal consistency test).
Turn the material at the outer edge into the center within 30 sec. of time by
the aid of the trowel.
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After an additional interval of 30 sec. for absorption of water, complete the

process by continuous vigorous mixing. Squeeze and kneading with hands for
(1.5 min.).
With the hands quickly form this paste into a ball, complete the process by
tossing the ball six times from one hand to the other hand, keeping the hands
about 6 in. (15 cm) apart.
Press the ball, resting in the palm of one hand, into the large end of the
conical ring of Vicat apparatus which held by the other hand.
Fill up the conical ring and remove the excess at the large end by a single
movement of the palm of the hand.
Place the ring on its large end on a glass plate and slice off excess paste at
the smaller end at the top of the ring by single oblique stroke of a sharp
edged trowel held at a slight angle with the top of the ring, and smooth the
top if necessary, but never compress the paste during these operations.
Place the ring with the paste under the rod of the Vicat apparatus, bring the
initial setting needle (1mm) in contact with the surface of the paste, and set
the scale to read zero or read the initial reading.This must not exceed 30
seconds after completion of mixing.
Release the plunger immediately andallow the needle to settle for 30
s.Determine the penetration of the 1-mm needle every 15 min until a
penetration of 25 mm or less is obtained (Make each penetration test at least
5 mm away from any previous penetration and at least 10 mm away from the
inner side of the mold).
Record the results of all penetration tests and, by interpolation, determine
the time when a penetration of 25 mm is obtained. The elapsed time
between the initial contact of cement and water and the penetration of 25
mm is the Vicat time of setting or Vicat initial time of setting.
Set the (5 mm) diameter needle on the lower end of the rod. Determine the
Vicat final time of setting end point to be the first penetration measurement
that does not mark the specimen surface with a complete circular impression.
The elapsed time between the initial contact of cement and water and the
end point determination above is the Vicat final time of setting.
CALCULATION OF INITIAL SETTING TIME
H E
( C25 ) + E
CD
Where;
E = time in minutes of last penetration greater than 25 mm,
H = time in minutes of first penetration less than 25 mm,
C = penetration reading at time E, and
D = penetration reading at time H.
Draw a curve between penetration and elapsed time in order to find out the
time when Vicat needle makes 25 mm penetration into the paste.
ASTM C150-07Specification
For all types (I, IA, II, IIA, III, IIIA, IV& V) of Portland cement:
Initial time of setting, not less than ==========> 45 min.
((
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Final time of setting, not more than =========> 375 min.

IraqiSpecification 1984
Initial time of setting, not less than ==========> 45 min.
Final time of setting, not more than =========>10hrs.
Figure 3-1:Vicat Apparatus for Initial & Final Setting Time

DATASHEET
Test No.: Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Normal Consistency of Cement (%)
Cement quantity (g)
Water quantity (g)
Time of initial contact of cement and water
(hh:mm)
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Time (hh:mm)
Penetration (mm)
Test No.4
4. Density,
(Relative
density)
Specific
Gravity
&
Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

(ASTM C127 04)
OBJECTIVE
Relative density (specific gravity) is the characteristic generally used for
calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregate in various mixtures
containing aggregate, including Portland cement concrete, bituminous
concrete and other mixtures that are proportioned or analyzed on an
absolute volume basis. Relative density (specific gravity) is also used in the
computation of voids in aggregate. Relative density (specific gravity) (SSD) is
used if the aggregate is wet, that is, if its absorption has been satisfied.
Conversely, the relative density (specific gravity) (OD) is used for
computations when the aggregate is dry or assumed to be dry.
Apparent density and apparent relative density (apparent specific gravity)
pertain to the solid material making up the constituent particles not including
the pore space within the particles which is accessible to water.
Absorption values are used to calculate the change in the mass of an
aggregate due to water absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent
particles, compared to the dry condition, when it is deemed that the
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aggregate has been in contact with water long enough to satisfy most of the
absorption potential.
APPARATUS:
Balance.
Sample Container.
Water Tank.
Sieve 4.75-mm (No. 4) or other sizes as needed.
Oven 1105 oC.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Take a sample of coarse aggregate, and sieve it with 4.75mm sieves. Ignores
the materials passing through 4.75mm sieve.
Wash the sample to remove dust.
Put the sample in the oven at 105C for 24hours.
Get the sample out of the oven, leave it to cool then determine itsmass.
Submerge the sample in water for 24hours.
Remove the sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until
all visible films of water are removed .Wipe the larger particles individually.
Take care to avoid evaporation of water from aggregate pores during the
operation of surface- drying.
Take the required mass of the sample in its (S.S.D) (saturated surface dry)
condition.
After weighing, immediately place the S.S.D sample in the sample container
and determine its mass in water at 231C.Take care to remove all
entrapped air before weighing by shaking the container while immersed.
Dry the test sample to constant weight at a temperature of 1105C, Cool in
air at room temperature 1 to 3 hours, or until the aggregate has cooled to a
temperature that is comfortableto handle(approximately 50 C), and
determinethe mass.
CALCULATION:
Relative Density (Specific Gravity):
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) (OD): Calculate the relative density
(specific gravity) on the basis of oven-dry aggregate as follows:
Relative density (specific gravity)(OD )= A/(BC)
where:
A = mass of oven-dry test sample in air, g,
B = mass of saturated-surface-dry test sample in air, g, and
C = apparent mass of saturated test sample in water, g.
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) (SSD): Calculate the relative density
(specific gravity) on the basis of saturated surface dry aggregate as follows:
B
Relative density ( specific gravity ) ( SSD )=
BC
Apparent Relative Density (Apparent Specific Gravity): Calculate the apparent
relative density (apparent specific gravity) as follows:
A
Apparent Relative density ( Apparent specific gravity )=
AC
Density (OD)
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Density (OD): Calculate the density on the basis of oven-dry aggregate as

follows:
kg
A
Density ( OD ) , 3 =997.5
BC
m
lb
A
Density ( OD ) , 3 =62.27
BC
ft
Density (SSD): Calculate the density on the basis of saturated surface dry
aggregate as follows:
kg
B
Density ( SSD ) , 3 =997.5
BC
m
lb
B
Density ( OD ) , 3 =62.27
BC
ft
Apparent Density: Calculate the apparent density as follows:
kg
A
Apparent Density , 3 =997.5
AC
m
lb
A
Apparent D e nsity , 3 =62.27
AC
ft
Absorption
Calculate the percentage of absorption, as follows:
BA
Absorption , =
100
A
******************************************************************************
*************
DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
2nd
Specimen reference
1st Sample
Sample
Mass of oven-dry test sample in air, (g) = A

Mass of saturated-surface-dry test sample in air,
(g) = B
Apparent mass of saturated test sample in
water, (g) = C
Test No.5
5. Gradation of Fine Aggregate by Sieve Analysis

(ASTM C136 06)
OBJECTIVE
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This method covers the determination of the particle size distribution of fine
aggregate by sieving.
Sieve analysis is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of
aggregate into various fractions each consisting of particles of the same size.
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a
sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.
This test method is used primarily to determine thegrading of materials
proposed for use as aggregates or beingused as aggregates. The results are
used to determine complianceof the particle size distribution with applicable
specificationrequirements and to provide necessary data for control ofthe
production of various aggregate products and mixturescontaining
aggregates. The data may also be useful in developingrelationships
concerning porosity and packing.
Accurate determination of material finer than the 75-m(No. 200) sieve
cannot be achieved by use of this test methodalone.
APPARATUS:
Sieve set (9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 300m, 150m).
Mechanical Sieve Shaker.
Triple beam balance.
Brittle brush.
Oven.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Prepare a sample of 3000g or more, put it in oven at (110 C) and dry it to
constant mass.
Select sieves with suitable openings to furnish theinformation required by the
specifications covering the materialto be tested. Use additional sieves as
desired or necessaryto provide other information, such as fineness modulus,
or toregulate the amount of material on a sieve.
Determine the empty weight for each sieve and record in a table.
Nest the sieve in descending order from top to bottom and place 1000g
sample on the top sieve.
Agitate (shake) the sieve by hand or by mechanical shaker for a sufficient
period (10min.). (Prevent an overload of material on an individual sieve by
splittingthe sample into two or more portions, sievingeach portion
individually. Combine the masses of the severalportions retained on a specific
sieve before calculating thepercentage of the sample on the sieve.)
Open the set of sieve carefully so that no loosing of materials is expected.
Weigh each sieve with the residue record its weight.
Tabulate your data in a suitable shape.
Make sure that the summation of the residue weights equals to the original
sample weight with a difference not more than 1% of the original weight.
CALCULATION
Calculate Fineness Modulus of the sample as follow:
Cumulative Retained
Finenessmodulus ( F . M )=
100
SPECIFICATIONS:
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Fineness modulus must be within (2.2 3.2)

Fine Sand
2.2 2.6
Medium Sand
2.6 2.9
Coarse Sand
2.9 3.2
The grading of aggregate is shown by means of grading curves One of the
most commonly referred practical grading curves are those produced by
Road Research Laboratory as shown below;
Draw the percentage passing each sieve with respect to sieve openings on a
log-scale graph and determine the zone of the sample tested.
EXAMPLE:
If the weight of a sample of sand in sieve analysis test was 380 g and the
weight of the residue on each sieve was as shown in the table below:
Find fineness modulus and the mean aggregate size of the sample.
Solution:
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F . M=
Cumulative residue = 204.48 =2.0448
100
100
The mean aggregate size = 300m
DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Sieve
#
Wt. of
Empty
Sieve &
Weight of
Residue
Sieve (g)
(g)
Wt. of
Residue
(g)
%
Retaine
d
Cumulati
ve %
Retained
Cumulati
ve %
Passing
10m
m
4.75
2.36
1.18
600
m
300
150
>150
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Test No.6
6. Slump Test of Fresh Concrete

(ASTM C143/C143M 05a) & (BS 1881: Part 102: 83)
OBJECTIVE
Slump test is the most commonly used method of measuring consistency of
concrete, which can be employed either in laboratory or at site of work. It is
not a suitable method for very wet or very dry concrete. It does not measure
all factors contributing to workability, nor is always representative of the
applicability of the concrete. However, it is used conveniently as a control
test and gives an indication of the uniformity of concrete from batch to batch.
The deformation shows the characteristics of concrete with respect to
tendency for segregation.
APPARATUS:
Slump mold of galvanized iron or steel (figure 6-1).
Scoop.
Sampling try.
Shovel
Tamping rod (16mm dia. and 600mm long).
Steel ruler or tape.
PROCEDURE:
Calculate the volume of the frustum by taking average of end areas
multiplied by the height, to estimate the amount of fresh concrete required
for the test.
The total weight of concrete required for the test is calculated by multiplying
volume of the mold by unit weight of concrete (2300 2400 kg/m3).
Prepare a sample of concrete mixture having (1:2:4) mixing proportion or
directly take a sample of fresh concrete from the delivered concrete mixer if
you are in the field.
After calculating weight of the ingredients, take water/cement ratio of (0.6) to
make the concrete mixture.
Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly until a uniform mixture is obtained, then
pour the calculated amount of water into the mixture and make a
homogenous mixture of fresh concrete.
Lubricate the inner surface of the slump mold.
Put the slump mold on the try (wide end facing down). While firmly holding
the mold, fill one third of the mold with fresh concrete and tamp it with 25
strokes of the tamping rod (the strokes must be distributed uniformly over
the cross-section of the layer and penetrate the layer to its full depth).
Fill the second and third layer of the mold by the same manner.
After the top layer have been tamped, strike off the concrete level with the
top of the mold with a sawing motion of the tamping rod.
With the mold still held down, clean the excess concrete around the mold.
Remove the mold by raising it vertically slowly and carefully in 5 to 10
seconds in one move. The entire operation from the start of filling to the
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removal of the mold shall be carried out without interruption within 2.5
minutes.
Immediately after removing the mold, measure and record the slump as the
vertical distance from the top of the mold to average concrete surface.
Note: The test is valid only if it yields a true slump (fig.6-2). If the specimen
shears or collapses, the test must be repeated.
Figure 6-1: Slump mold
Figure 6-2: Types of slumpand slump measurement of fresh concrete

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Table 6-1: Standard Value of Slump

Description
Concrete for road construction
Slabs
Normal RCC sections, e.g. slabs, beams, columns,
walls etc.
Thin RCC structures
Vibrated concrete
Mass concrete
Slump (in.)
to 1.5
1 to 2
2 to 6
4 to 7
to 1
1 to 3
DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Concrete Mixture Proportion
No.
Ceme
nt
(kg)
Sand
(kg)
Grave
l (kg)
Slump
Water
(kg)
Air
(%)
Type of
Slump
Measure
d (mm)
Design
(mm)
1
2
Test No.7
7. Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubs

(BS 1881: PART 116: 83)
OBJECTIVE
All concrete design is based on a specific strength of concrete. This may vary
from project to project, but is usually in the range from 15 MPa to 50 MPa.
This procedure describes the method for determining the compressive
strength of concrete cubes. The concrete strength is normally tested at an
age of 7 and 28 days.
APPARATUS:
Mold of cast iron or plastic or steel with (150 x 150 x 150 mm).
Scoop.
Steel compacting rod weighing 1.8 kg, 380 mm long and having a ramming
face 25 mm (1 in.) square.
Trowel.
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Sampling tray.
Compressing testing machine.
Balance with min. 10 kg capacity and accuracy of 1g.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Take a sample of fresh concrete (the sample shall be thoroughly mixed just
before it is molded). For each sample of fresh concrete, there shall be made
two test cubes specimens.
Place the molds on a rigid horizontal surface. Lubricate the internal face of
molds thoroughly (avoid excess lubricant).
Fill the molds with concrete in three equal layer and compact each layer with
compacting rod using 36 evenly distributed strokes.
With the sharp edge of a trowel remove the excess concrete from the surface
of the mold and smoothen the surface without pressing.
Following the above procedure, prepare 6 samples (3 samples for 7 days test
& 3 samples for 28 days test).
Cover the test cubes (in the molds) with an impervious sheet and store them
in a place free from vibration (avoid moving samples before 24 hrs.). The
storing place preferably shall have a relative humidity of min. 90% and
temperature of about 25C.
After initial curing period of 24 hours, make each cube so that it can be
clearly identified, and remove it carefully form the mold.
Place the cubes immediately after removing the molds in a temperature
controlled water bath having 25C temperature.
After 7 days and 28 days, take three cubes for each mentioned age and
weigh each sample in surface dry condition.
Check the nominal dimensions of each sample by measuring.
Determine the density of each specimen.
Carefully center the cube on the lower plate of compression machine and
ensure that the load will be applied to two opposite cast face of the cube.
Apply and increase the load continuously at a nominal rate within the range
12 MPa/min. to 24 MPa/min. until no greater load can be sustained. Record
the maximum load applied to the cube.
Note any unusual feature in the type of failure. (Figure 7-1 &7-2)
Repeat the above procedure for the rest of samples.
CALCULATION:
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the cube face from the checked nominal
dimensions or from measure dimension. Calculate the compressive strength
of each cube by dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area.
Express the result to the nearest 0.5 MPa (N/mm2).
Figure 7-1: Satisfactory failures

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An average of three values should be taken as the representative of the

batch, provided the individual variation is not more than 15% of the
average. Otherwise repeat tests should be done. This is reported as the
compressive Strength of the test sample.
Figure 7-2: Unsatisfactory failures
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Figure 7-3: Concrete cube compressive strength test apparatus

DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Construction part:
Condition of curing: Soaked/ Air dry
Sampling
Condition at testing: Saturated/ Air dry
Time:
Cement type:
Class of concrete:
Additive:
Aggregate type:
Method of compaction:
Machine calibration factor:

Age
Date
Date of
Cube
of
of
Cube Str.
casti
Test (Day (MPa)
ng
s)
Cube
Mark
Cube
Size
(WxDxH
) mm
Mass
of
Cube
(g)
Densit
y
(kg/m3
)
Test
Loa
d
(kN)
104
Date:
Type of
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Test No.8
8. Compressive Strength of Cement Mortar

(ASTM C109 05)
OBJECTIVE
This test method provides a means of determining thecompressive strength
of hydraulic cement and other mortarsand results may be used to determine
compliance with specifications.Further, this test method is referenced by
numerousother specifications and test methods. Caution must be exercisedin
using the results of this test method to predict thestrength of concretes.
APPARATUS
Weights and Weighing Devices
Glass Graduates
Specimen Molds (2 in. [50 mm]) each side.
Mixer, Bowl and Paddle
Tamper (12.7 x 25.4 x 152 mm in length) having flat tamping face.
Trowel
Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
TEST PROCEDURE
The proportions of materials for the standard mortar shall be one part of
cement to 2.75 parts of graded standard sand by weight. Use a water-cement
ratio of 0.485 for all Portland cements.
For preparing six specimens, use 500g of Cement, 1375g of Sand and 242.5g
of Water (w/c 0.485).
Make a homogeneous mixture of dry ingredients, and put them into the
mixing bowl.
Add water carefully to make the paste while mixer is operating. Upon
completion of mixing, the mixing paddle shall be shaken to remove excess
mortar into the mixing bowl.
Clean the specimen molds from any impurities and lubricate the inner sides
by standard lubricants (avoid over lubrication and accumulation at the
bottom of the molds) to facilitate removing specimens from the molds.
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Start molding the specimens within a total elapsed time of not more than 2
min and 30 s after completion of the original mixing of the mortar batch.
Place a layer of mortar about 1 in. or [25 mm] (approximately one half of the
depth of the mold) in all of the cube compartments.
Tamp the mortar in each cube compartment 32 times in about 10 s in 4
rounds, each round to be at right angles to the other and consisting of eight
adjoining strokes over the surface of the specimen, as illustrated in Fig. 8-1.
Figure 8-1: Order of Tamping in Molding of Test Specimens

The tamping pressure shall be just sufficient to ensure uniform filling of the
molds. The 4 rounds of tamping (32 strokes) of the mortar shall be completed
in one cube before going to the next. When the tamping of the first layer in
all of the cube compartments is completed, fill the compartments with the
remaining mortar and then tamp as specified for the first layer.
On completion of the tamping, the tops of all cubes should extend slightly
above the tops of the molds. Bring in the mortar that has been forced out
onto the tops of the molds with a trowel and smooth off the cubes by drawing
the flat side of the trowel (with the leading edge slightly raised) once across
the top of each cube at right angles to the length of the mold.
Immediately upon completion of molding, place the test specimens in the
moist closet or moist room. Keep all test specimens, immediately after
molding, in the molds on the base plates in the moist closet or moist room
from 20 to 72 h with their upper surfaces exposed to the moist air but
protected from dripping water.
Then immerse the specimens, in saturated limewater in storage tanks
constructed of noncorroding materials. Keep the storage water clean by
changing as required.
After 7 & 28 days, take out specimens from the storage tank and wipe each
specimen to a surface-dry condition, and remove any loose sand grains or
incrustations from the faces that will be in contact with the bearing blocks of
the testing machine.
Carefully place the specimen in the testing machine below the center of the
upper bearing block.
Apply the load rate at a relative rate of movement between the upper and
lower platens corresponding to a loading on the specimen with the range of
200 to 400 lbs/s [900 to 1800 N/s].
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Record the total maximum load indicated by the testing machine, and
calculate the compressive strength as follows:
fm= P/A
Where;
fm= compressive strength in psi or [MPa],
P = total maximum load in lbf or [N], and
A = area of loaded surface in2 or [mm2].
Figure 8-2: Test apparatus

DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Condition of curing: Soaked/ Air dry
Sampling
Condition at testing: Saturated/ Air dry
Time:
Cement type:
Water/cement ratio:
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Additive:
Sand grade:
Method of compaction:
Cube
Cube
Mass
Mark
Size
of
(WxDxH Cube
) mm
(g)
Machine calibration factor:

Date
Date Age
Cube
of
of
of
Str.
casti
Test Cube (MPa)
ng
(Day
s)
Densit
y
(kg/m3
)
Test
Loa
d
(kN)
Type of
Failure
Test No.9
9. Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam

withCenter-Point Loading)
(ASTM C293 02)
OBJECTIVE
Flexural strength is one of the measures of the tensile strength of concrete. It
is a measure of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab to resist failure in
bending. It is measured by loading 6 x 6 in. (150 x 150 mm) concrete beams
with a span length at least three times the depth. The flexural strength is
expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MR) in psi (MPa).
Flexural MR is about 10 to 20 % of compressive strength depending on the
type, size and volume of coarse aggregate used. The MR determined by thirdpoint loading is lower than the MR determined by center-point loading,
sometimes by as much as 15%.
Designer of pavement use a theory based on flexural strength. Therefore,
laboratory mix design based on flexural strength tests may be required, or a
cementitious material content may be selected from past experience to
obtain the needed design MR. Some also use MR for field control and
acceptance of pavements. Very few use flexural testing for structural
concrete. Agencies not using flexural strength for field control generally find
the use of compressive strength convenient and reliable to judge the quality
of concrete as delivered.
APPARATUS
Loading Apparatus (fig. 9-1)
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Mold of cast iron or plastic or steel with (150 x 150 x 600 mm).
Scoop.
Compacting vibrator
Trowel.
Balance with accuracy of 1g.
TEST PROCEDURE
Make the test specimen following the same procedure of compressive
strength test (Test no.7) using the required mix design for proportioning the
materials, and make 3 cube specimen for compressive strength test if
required.
Flexural tests of moist-cured specimens shall be made as soon as practical
after removal from moist storage. Surface drying of the specimen results in a
reduction in the measured modulus of rupture.
Turn the test specimen on its side with respect to its position as molded and
center it on the support blocks. Center the loading system in relation to the
applied force.
Bring the load-applying block in contact with the surface of the specimen at
the center and apply a load of between 3 and 6 % of the estimated ultimate
load.
Using 0.004 in. (0.10 mm) and 0.015in. (0.38 mm) leaf-type feeler gages,
determine whether any gap between the specimen and the load-applying or
support blocks is greater or less than each of the gages over a length of1 in.
(25 mm) or more.
Grind, cap, or use leather shims on the specimen contact surface to eliminate
any gap in excess of0.004 in. (0.10 mm).
Note: Leather shims shall be of uniform 14 in. (6.4 mm) thickness, 1 to 2 in.
(25 to 50 mm) in width, and shall extend across the full width of the
specimen. Gaps in excess of 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) shall be eliminated only by
capping or grinding. Grinding of lateral surfaces shall be minimized inasmuch
as grinding may change the physical characteristics of the specimens.
Load the specimen continuously and without shock. The load shall be applied
at a constant rate to the breaking point. Apply the load so that the extreme
fiber stress increases at a rate between 125 and 175 psi/min (0.9 and 1.2
MPa/min). The loading rate is computed using:
r=2 Sb d 2 /3 L
Where:
r = loading rate, lb/min (MN/min),
s = rate of increase in extreme fiber stress, psi/min (MPa/min),
b = average width of the specimen, in. (mm),
d = average depth of the specimen, in. (mm), and
L = span length, in. (mm).
To determine the dimensions of the specimen section for use in calculating
modulus of rupture, take measurements across one of the fractured faces
after testing. For each dimension, take one measurement at each edge and
one at the center of the cross section. Use the three measurements for each
direction to determine the average width and the average depth. Take all
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measurements to the nearest 0.05 in. (1 mm). If the fracture occurs at a

capped section, include the cap thickness in the measurement.
Figure 9-1: Flexural strength testing machine

CALCULATION
Calculate the modulus of rupture as follows:
R=3 PL/2b d 2
Where:
R = modulus of rupture, psi, or MPa,
P = maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, lbf, or N,
L = span length, in., or mm,
b = average width of specimen, at the fracture, in., or mm, and
d = average depth of specimen, at the fracture, in., or mm.
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DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Specim Dimension
en No.
(W x D x L)
(mm)
Weig
ht
(kg)
Densit
y
(kg/m3
)
Compressi
ve
Strength
(MPa)
Failur
e
Load
(kN)
28 days
Flexural
Strength
(MPa)
Test No.10
10.
Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars
(ASTM C348 02)

OBJECTIVE
This test method provides a means for determining the flexural strength of
hydraulic cement mortars. Portions of the mortar prisms tested in flexure
according to this test method may be used for the determination of
compressive strength. The values are determined from this test method for
research or reference purposes only and are not used for determining
compliance with specification requirements.
APPARATUS
Weights and Weighing Devices.
Glass Graduates.
Specimen Molds (40 x 40 x 160 mm) (fig.10-1).
Mixer, Bowl and Paddle.
Tamper (22 x 85 mm) tamping face (fig.10-3).
Trowel.
Flexure Testing Device.
TEST PROCEDURE
The proportions of materials for the standard mortar shall be one part of
cement to 2.75 parts of graded standard sand by weight. Use a water-cement
ratio of 0.485 for all Portland cements.
Make a homogeneous mixture of dry ingredients, and put them into the
mixing bowl.
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Add water carefully to make the paste while mixer is operating. Upon
completion of mixing, the mixing paddle shall be shaken to remove excess
mortar into the mixing bowl.
Clean the specimen molds from any impurities and lubricate the inner sides
by standard lubricants (avoid over lubrication and accumulation at the
bottom of the molds) to facilitate removing specimens from the molds.
Start molding the specimens within a total elapsed time of not more than 2
min and 30 s after completion of the original mixing of the mortar batch.
Evenly distribute a layer of mortar about 20 mm in thickness in each of the
three molds with the tamper guide in place.
Compact the mortar in each mold by twelve strokes of the tamper, applied in
three rounds of four strokes each, as shown in fig.10-2.
Complete the twelve strokes in about 15 s. For each stroke hold the tamper
face in horizontal position about 25mm above the mortar level and then
thrust directly downward with sufficient force to squeeze out a small amount
of mortar from under the tamping surface.
Fill the molds with mortar which shall be uniformly distributed and tamped in
the same manner as the bottom layer. Then remove the tamper guide and
smooth off the specimens by drawing the flat side of the trowel (with the
leading edge slightly raised) once along the length of the molds. Cut the
mortar off flush with the top of the molds by the straight edge of the trowel
(held nearly perpendicular to the molds) with a sawing motion over the
length of the molds.
Following the cutting operation repair tears or cracks in the top surfaces and
then make the surfaces of the specimens plane by two or three light
longitudinal strokes of the trowel held with the leading edge slightly raised.
Immediately upon completion of molding, place the test specimens in the
moist closet or moist room. Keep all test specimens, immediately after
molding, in the molds on the base plates in the moist closet or moist room
from 20 to 72 h with their upper surfaces exposed to the moist air but
protected from dripping water.
Then immerse the specimens, in saturated limewater in storage tanks
constructed of no corroding materials. Keep the storage water clean by
changing as required.
After successive 7 & 28 days wipe each prism to a surface-dry condition, and
remove any loose sand grains or incrustations from the faces that will be in
contact with the bearing surfaces of the points of support and load
application.
Center the pedestal on the base plate of the machine directly below the
center of the upper spherical head, and place the bearing plate and support
edge assembly on the pedestal.
Attach the center-loading device to the spherical head. Turn the specimen on
its side with respect to its position as molded and place it on the supports of
the testing device. The longitudinal center line of the specimen shall be set
directly above the midpoint of both supports. Adjust the center-point loading
device so that its bearing edge is at exactly right angles to the length of the
prism and parallel to its top face as placed, with the center of the bearing
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edge directly above the center line of the prism and at the center of the span
length.
Apply the load at the rate of 2640 110 N (600 25 lbf/min) which shall be
indicated within an accuracy of 1 % on a dial graduated in increments of
not more than 44 N (10 lbf). Estimate the total maximum load to the closest
22 N (5lbf).
Record the total maximum load indicated by the testing machine and
calculate the flexural strength (for the particular size of specimen and
conditions of test herein described) in MPa as follows:
S f =0.0028 P
Where:
Sf= flexural strength, MPa, and
P = total maximum load, N.
Figure 10-1: Specimen mold
Figure 10-2: Tamping pattern
Figure 10-3: Tamper

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DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
Class:
Group:
Specim
en No.
Dimension
(W x D x L)
(mm)
Weig
ht
(kg)
Densit
y
(kg/m3
)
Compressi
ve
Strength
(MPa)
Failur
e
Load
(kN)
28 days
Flexural
Strength
(MPa)
Test No.11
11.
Vebe Test for Workability of Fresh Concrete
(B.S. 1881 : Part II : 1970)

OBJECTIVE
This is a good laboratory test to measure indirectly the workability of fresh
concrete.
It is based on measuring the time (Called VEBE time) needed to transfer the
shape of a concrete mix from a frustum cone to a cylinder (these shapes are
standardized by the apparatus of this test), by vibrating and compacting the
mix. The more VEBE time needed the less workable the mix is. This method is
very suitable for very dry concrete whose slump value cannot be measured
by Slump Test, but the vibration is too vigorous for concrete with a slump
greater than about50 mm.
The Vebe test also has the additional advantage that the treatment of
concrete during the test is comparatively closely related to the method of
placing in practice.
APPARATUS
Vebe consistometer (fig.11-1).
Tamping rod.
Stopwatch.
Trowel.
TEST PROCEDURE
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Perform Slump test as described earlier but this time place the slump cone
inside the cylindrical metal pot of the consistometer.
Turn and place the glass disc attached to the swivel arm of the consistometer
on top of the concrete in the pot.
Switch on the electrical vibrator and simultaneously start the stopwatch.
Continue the vibration until the conical shape of the concrete disappears and
takes a cylindrical shape. This can be judged by observing the glass disc from
the top for disappearance of transparency.
Immediately when the concrete fully take a cylindrical shape, switch off the
stopwatch.
The time required for the concrete cone to shorten and change from the
conical to a cylindrical shape, until the disk on the top is completely covered
with concrete, is the index of workability and is reported as the number of
Vebe seconds.
Figure 11-1: Vebe Consistometer Apparatus

DATASHEET
Test No.:
Date:
Title of the test:
Name:
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Class:
Group:
Type of Concrete
Water-Cement
ratio
Slump (mm)
116
Vebe time (s)

Research
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Chapter 4 Fluid Laboratory

Saad Aabdulqadir Alsheikh
Koya University
1. Lifting Force (Bouncy Force)

Aim of the Experiment:
Finding the lifting force on an immersion body in a liquid.
Theory of the Experiment:
When a body is immersed in a liquid, a lifting force FA acts upon it which

corresponds to the force due to weight of the displaced liquid:
FA=
g V
.. (1)
V - Volume of immersed body = Volume of displaced water
- Density of liquid ( Water =1 g/cm3)
The lifting force FA is always directed upwards, and thus brings about an
apparent weight loss of the immersed body:
FG, water = FG, Air - FA
(2)
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Performing the experiment

*Fill the overflow vessel 1 with water until the liquid level h is precisely below
the outlet pipe.
*Position the empty measuring cup 3 underneath the outlet pipe.
*Weigh out the three bodies 2 made of aluminum, brass and
polyoxymethylene POM using the spring balance: Force due to weight FG for
each body.
*Completely immerse the body suspended on the spring balance in the
overflow vessel:
Read off the displayed weight FG, Water
Read off the overflowed water volume V.
Table of Readings:
No.
1
Material of
the
body
Aluminum
Brass
Polyoxymet
helen
FG,Air
(N)
FG,water
(N)
Sample of calculating:
g V = w . Vdis
FA =
FG, water,th. = FG,Air - FA .
Table of calculating:
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Volume displaced
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Research
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N
o.
1
Material of
the body
Aluminum
Brass
Polyoxymet
helen
FG,Air
(N)
FG,water
(N)
FA
(N)
FG,water,th.
(N)
Discussion:
1- Discuss the difference between the values of the calculating and readings.
2- Why is the weight of the body in the air greater than the weight of it in the
water?
3- What is happening if the weight of the body in the water (FG,water) becomes
zero?
Experiment No.2
2. Aerometer or Hydrometer
Aim of the experiment:
Determining the liquid density
Theory of the experiment and its Performing:

To measure the density of liquids an aerometer is used. It comprises an
enclosed glass bulb 1, which is filled with lead shot 2 at the bottom and,
above that, with air.
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The handling is quite simple: The aerometer is placed in the liquid, and
because of the lead filling it always rights itself vertically. The aerometer
sinks more or less deeply into the liquid, depending on the thickness.
Since the aerometer is suspended, its lifting force must be exactly the same
as its force due to weight, i.e. its apparent weight is equal to zero:
FG,liquid = FG - FA = 0
The liquid density can be read directly from the scale 3.
Two differently calibrated aerometers are supplied:
Measuring range = 0.8-1.0g/cm3 ,for liquids lighter than water, e.g.
alcohol or petroleum.
Measuring range = 1.0-1.2g/cm3 , for liquids heavier than water, e.g.
glycerin or a salt solution.
Aerometer applications:
Because solutes change the density of a solution, appropriately calibrated
aerometers can be used, among other applications, to ascertain the alcohol
content of drinks, the fat content of milk, the concentration of battery acid,
and the antifreeze content in motor vehicle coolant.
Table of reading:
No.
Liquid
1
Density () (kg/m3)
Oil
Water
Water + salt
Water + suger
Discussion:
Read the liquid density from the aerometers shown below:
2222-Discuss the location of lead in the bottom of aerometer.
A
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Experiment No.3
3. Pressure in still liquids and gases

Introduction
If a force F presses evenly on a surface A, the pressure acting on that surface
is
F
A
... (1)
The pressure p is always measured in bar:
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa
In a vessel filled with liquid the pressure rises evenly from the top to the
bottom - that is, also the side pressure. The highest pressure prevails at the
bottom. It is dependent on the height h of the liquid level above the bottom
of the vessel and the density of the liquid.
This hydrostatic pressure is calculated as
p=
. g. h
.. (2) (g=9.81m/s2)
A-Experiment to measure bottom pressure with bottom pressure

gauge
Aim of the experiment
The hydrostatic pressure depends only on the water level (h)
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* Fill each vessel shape of the bottom pressure gauge one after the other with
water, each up to the same water level h.
* Compare the respective results read from the scale.
Evaluating the experiment
The experiment shows that the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom does not
depend on the water volume above the bottom of the vessel, but only on the
height h of the water level above the bottom. This also corresponds to the
fact that a diver who dives 10 meters down in the ocean is exposed to the
same water pressure as if he had dived into a 10 meter deep well.
The vessel shape or cross-sectional area thus have no influence on
the hydrostatic pressure!
B- Experiment of Hydrostatic pressure in communicating tubes
When the communicating tubes have been filled, the liquid level is equal in
all tubes, irrespective of their shape. In the horizontal connecting tube the
pressure must be equal at all points, because the hydrostatic pressure
depends only on the height h of the liquid level. If, however, the water in one
tube is initially higher, during pouring in for example, the pressure difference
is immediately equalised at the bottom.
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C- Experiment to measure the hydrostatic pressure of water

Calibrating the electronic pressure sensor
For measuring, the d=133 mm measuring vessel(9) is used, to which a
pressure sensor is attached at the bottom. The hydrostatic pressure can be
read from the digital display on the switch box(3)(unit: mbar).
Preparing the water circuit:
* Close cocks (20), (22) and (24), open cock (21).
* Open the upper vent valve on measuring vessel (9).
* Switch on the immersion pump by pressing the green knob on the switch
box (3).
* Then, by carefully opening the inlet cock (20) water can be let into the
measuring vessel.
* Read off the water level in the measuring vessel and compare it with the
pressure indicated on the switch box (measuring range: 0-60mbar!).
Draining the system:
* Switch off the immersion pump by pressing the red knob on the switch box
(3).
* Close inlet cock (20), open all other cocks and vent valves. The water runs
back into the tank.
Table of readings:
No.
h
(cm)
Psen.
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( mbar )
1
2
3
4
5
pact. .g .h
in (Pa)
Pa 10 mbar
No.
Pact.
Psen.
( mbar )
( mbar )
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
1-Discuss the difference between the pact . & psen..
2-Draw the calibrating curve for the electronic pressure sensor.
Experiment No.4
4. Dead Weight Piston Gauge

Introduction
Dead-Weight pressure Gauge is used for checking and adjusting pressure
gauges. The pressure is applied via weights which are placed on a weight
support. The latter has a piston which acts on hydraulic oil in a pipe system,
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so that a pressure gauge which is also connected to the system should

indicate certain pressures.
The device contains a Bourdon gauge with a transparent dial. The display
mechanism and the various adjustment opportunities are therefore clearly
identifiable.
Hydraulic oil is used to transfer pressure.
Aim of the Experiment
Calibrating the Bourdon gauge

The Description Unit
The device for calibrating pressure gauges
essentially consists of two units:
1. The pressure gauge unit
This is where the pressure gauge to be calibrated is screwed in. For
experimental purposes, the unit comes supplied with a Bourdon gauge
already screwed in.
2. The load unit
The load unit consists of several weights and a cylinder with a piston. An
increase in the load results in an increase in pressure. The load unit is
connected to the pressure gauge unit via an oil-filled line, enabling the
Bourdon gauge to display the increase in pressure.
1-Base Plate
2-Bourdon gauge
3-Weight support
4-Weights
5-overflow
6-Drain plug
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The layout Unit:

The following sectional drawing shows how the load unit and pressure gauge
unit are connected.
As you can see, both units are connected by means of a pipeline. When the
support is loaded with weights, the oil pressure in the system increases. The
seal between the piston and the cylinder is metallic, with no other sealing
elements. The fit has been very carefully designed to ensure that the piston
operates almost entirely without friction, and with minimal oil leakage. The
weights are designed in such a way that pressure increments of 0.5 bar are
possible. Place the small weight on the weight support first.
A guide pin is provided for this purpose. The other weights would lie askew on
the plunger, and would corrupt the measurements due to different levels of
friction. The unit is also equipped with a drain valve in order to drain the oil.
In addition, an overflow is incorporated, so that any leaked oil can be
siphoned off. The overflow can be emptied via a tap.
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Performing the Experiment

- Open the overflow valve
- Remove the transport-cap
- If necessary topping up the hydraulic oil
- Inserting the piston
-To check the zero point of Bourdon gauges, proceed as follows:
* Press the piston out of the cylinder using the hand wheel.
* Remove the piston and weight support.

*Adjust the oil level in the open cylinder until the cylinder is filled up to the
edge.
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The gauge pressure being tested should now indicate zero, as it is only
subject to ambient pressure.
-After the zero point of Bourdon gauge has been checked, the weight support
is re-inserted into the cylinder of the pressure gauge unit. The piston is then
slowly lowered by unscrewing the counterbalance cylinder until it is freely
suspended.
-In order to avoid static friction, set the weight support in gentle rotation. The
mass of the support is 385 g. taking into account the piston diameter of 12
mm, it is now possible to read the increase in pressure from Bourdon gauge.
-Other pressures occurring when the weight on the support is increased can
be calculated in exactly the same way. The display of 0.5 bar is achieved by
placing a weight with a mass of 193 g on the support. The other weights
weigh 578 g, which is equivalent to a pressure increase of 0.5 bar each time.
Table of Readings:
No.
m
(kg)
Pm
(bar)
1
2
3
4
5
Sample of Calculating:
F m.g
Pact.
F
A
bar = 105Pa
F: Force.
Pact.: Actual pressure.
m: Mass of load unit.
g: Gravity constant.
Table of Calculating
Pm
Pact.
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No.
(bar)
(bar)
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
1- Define the calibrating curve and explain the purpose of it.
2- Draw the calibrating curve between Pm & Pact. then discuss it.
Experiment No.5
5. Surface Tension
Introduction
The surface tension is an expression of the resistance which liquids show in
response to an increase in their surface area. This property is termed
cohesion. In visual terms, surface tension looks as if the liquid is covered by
a thin, taut membrane. When the surface area of the liquid is increased, by
lifting a wire ring out of the liquid for example, work must be produced
against the tension: This requires a force F.
A-Taper vessel experiment

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The water level in a vessel rises as the gap narrows.

Performing the experiment:
* Fill the tapered vessel with water, as shown in the adjacent illustration. The
surface tension is especially noticeable in the range of smaller dimensions. At
such dimensions the surface tension acts so strongly that it is able to raise
the water below it.
Modification of the experiment:
* Add a few drops of washing-up liquid to the water. The line of the water
level immediately changes. Emulsifying agents in the washing-up liquid are
able to reduce the surface tension of the water. The surface tension is
dependent on the active substance pairing, in this case water/air
B- Capillary tubes experiment:

The water level in the capillary tubes rises as the tubes narrows.
* Fill the capillary tubes with water as shown in the adjacent illustration.
According to the law of communicating tubes, the water level should be the
same in all tubes. As a result of the surface tension of the water, however,
the water level rises the narrower the tube. This property is termed the
capillary effect of water.
In visual terms, the surface tension of the water produces an upward force,
which is able to draw the head of water underneath it upwards. With the
same weight of water, the head of water can become higher the "narrower" it
is.
In reality the rise height depends not only on the surface tension of the liquid,
but also on its ability to coat the wall (adhesion). The adhesion can be seen
by the curved surface of the liquid.
The capillary effect plays a key role in nature, such as in the supply
of water to trees.
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C-Surface Tension Balance experiment

Calculating the surface tension of liquids.
This balance enables the student to determine the
surface tension by the method of direct pull. The
surface tension forces acting round a frame are
measured with this test. The frame is suspended to
touch the surface of the liquid. A light pointer is
attached to the torsion wire of the balance. The
pointer moves over a scale. A scale-pan is
suspended from the pointer, which supports a holder
in which is fixed a clean microscope slide. A
counterweight suitably adjusts the pointer against
the scale. The liquid for which the surface tension is
required is contained in a cleaned beaker (or other
suitable container) which is raised until the
microscope slide is partially submerged in the liquid.
The beaker containing the liquid is then slowly
lowered and the scale reading of the pointer taken
when the microscope slide just breaks away from
the liquid. The microscope slide is now dried off and
masses (m) are placed in the scale-pan until the
pointer is depressed to the critical reading obtained
above. If the length of the microscope slide is L, and
its breadth is b, the downward pull due to the
surface tension of the liquid at the critical setting is
2(L + b) = m g. Hence can be evaluated.
SI units: L, b in m, g = 9,81 N kg-1, m in kg gives in N.m-1)
Experiment No. 6
6. Boyle-Mariottes law
Demonstrating the Boyle Mariottes law P.V const .

theory of the experiment
Liquids (such as water) can normally not be compressed. Gases can be easily
compressed, however. As the pressure ( P ) rises, the gas volume V falls. This
property is described by Boyle-Mariottes law:
P.V const .
..(1)
131

Research
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The law applies at constant temperature. Accordingly, for two different

states in the measuring vessel:
P1.V1 P2 .V2
. (2)
For our case Vi is the residual volume of air in the small measuring vessel
(diameter d) at any two points in time i=1 and i=2. Thus:
Vi
2
d .Z i
4
.... (3)
Applied in (2) consequently:
P1.Z1 P2 .Z 2
(4)

-Preparing the system:
* Open cocks (20) and (22), close cocks (21),(23) and
(24).
* Close the vent valve on the small measuring vessel (16), open the vent
valve on the large vessel (13).
* Switch on the immersion pump by pressing the green knob on the switch
box (3). Water flows into the large measuring vessel.
* Close cock (22) when the water level has reached a height of approx.
15-20 cm. Then switch off the immersion pump by pressing the red knob on
Pig
the switch box.
* Open cock (23): The water flows into the small measuring vessel. The water
levels of the two measuring vessels are not equal, because there is still air in
the small vessel.
* Connect the compressor via a connecting hose to the
large measuring vessel (25).
-Performing the experiment(continued):
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Research
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* Switch on the compressor: The pressure in the small measuring vessel rises
(diaphram gauge 15), at the same time the water level in the small vessel
rises; the
air in it is compressed.
* While this is happening take measurements:
Zi- Height of air column in small vessel.
Pig- gauge Air pressure on the diaphragm gauge (15).
Table of readings:
No.
Pig (bar)
Zi
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
*It should be noted that the pressure P ig displayed on the diaphram gauge
must be increased by the atmospheric pressure ( P atm. 1bar) acting on the
surface of the earth , thus
Pia=Pig+Patm
P ia is the absolute air
pressure.
*Volume of the air( Vi):
Vi
2
d .Z i
4
*Calculate (PiaVi) for each reading.

No.
1
2
3
Pia
(bar)
Vi
(cm3)
PiaVi
133

Research
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4
5
Discussion:
1-Plote (PiaVi ) over the No. of test. Then discuss it.
2-plote the pressures Pia over the height of the column air Zi using:
a- Normal scaling,
b- Semi-logarithmic scaling.
3-Discuss the above two plotting then showing the differences between them.
134

Research
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Experiment N0. (7)
7. Centre of Pressure
Introduction:
In the design of devices and objects that are submerged, such us dams, flow
obstructions, surfaces on ships, and holding tanks, it is necessary to calculate
the magnitudes and locations of forces that act on both plane and curved
surfaces. In this experiment we consider only plane surfaces.
Finding the:
1-Resultant Force (F).
2-Centre of Pressure (hP).
Theory of the Experiment:
Let we have an inclined plane surface of general shape shown in Fig.(1). The
total force of the liquid on the plane surface is found by integration the
pressure over the area, that is :
F pdA (1)
p h y sin
Since:
(2)
Where:
h is measured vertically down from the
free surface to the element area (dA).
y is measured from point (o) on the free
surfaceto the element area (dA)..
F y sin dA sin ydA (3)
The distance to a centroid is defined as:
ydA
A (4)
Then equation ( 3 ) becomes
F sin ( yA)
F hA
(5)
Where:
*
is the vertical distance from the free surface to the centroid of the area.
is the pressure at the centroid.
135

Research
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To find the location of the resultant force (F) ,we note that the sum of the
moments of all the infinitesimal pressure forces acting on the area (A) must
equal the moment of the resultant force. Let the force (F)act at the distance
(yP) from the point (o).
The value of (yP ) can be obtained by equating moments about the axes
through the point (o):
F . y y dF
P
F . y y h dA
P
F . y y. y sin dA
P
F . y sin y 2dA
P
F . y sin Io
P
(6)
2
I
y
dA )
o
(
Where: Io is the second moment of the area about the axis through (o).
The second moment of an area is related to the second moment of an area
(ICG) about the centroidal axis by the parallel axis transfer theorem .
I o I CG Ay 2 ................................(7)
Substitute Equations. (5), (7) into equation (6) then:
h A y P sin ( I CG Ay 2 )
yP
hP
h
&y
sin
sin
hP
h2
h A.
sin ( I CG A
sin
sin 2
hP
I CG
sin 2 h
hA
(8)
Where: hP is the vertical distance from the free surface to the centre of
pressure on the plane.
Performing the Experiment:
Set the water vessel (1) to an angle of (
shown.
136
90o ) using
the detent (2) as

Research
(FENG)
Counterbalance the unit with a rotating slider(3): The

pin (4) must be precisely in the middle of the hole for
Mount the rider (6), set the lever arm on the
scale (e.g. L=150 mm).
4-Top up with water until the unit is balanced

(stop pin (4) at centre of hole).
5-Read off water level (h) and enter it in the prepared
table readings.
6-Increase the appended weights (7) in increments of
0.5 - 1 N and repeat the measurement.
7-Set the water vessel (1)to an angle of (
60o ) using
the detent
(2).Then repeat
the steps above from (2) to (6) again.
L
h
Table of Readings:
(......)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Lever arm
L
(mm)
150
150
150
150
150
150
Appended weight
FG
(N)
1
1.5
2.5
3.5
5.5
6
137
Water level reading

h
(mm)
49
60
78
94
120
129
stop
this.

Research
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150
142
138

Research
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Sample of Calculating
A- For the case of the vertical positioning:
( 90o )
1-When the vertical plane is partially submerged(h<100mm):
A B.H B 75mm, H h
h
2
BH 3
12
h
I CG
hp
To find the resultant force (F):
F hA
& the centre of pressure (
hPth
hPth
I
CG sin 2 h
hA
We can find practically the centre of pressure (

point (o) as shown below:
hPp rac
) by taking moment about
0,
FG .L F . po 0
F .L
po G .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( 9)
F
hPprac h (0.2 po)
&
139
po

Research
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2-When the vertical plane is totally submerged(h>100mm):
A B.H B 75mm, H 100 mm

h h 0.05
I CG
BH 3
12
F hA
h
& the centre of pressure ( Pth )
hPth
I CG
sin 2 h
hA F
po
h
hp
From the balancing moment about point

(o), equ.(9):
po
FG .L
F
&
hPprac h (0.2 po)

Table of Calculating:
A-Table of Vertical and inclined positioning of the plane:
(......)
No
.
Lever arm
L
(mm)
Appended
weight
FG
(N)
Water
level
reading
h
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
140
Resultant
force
F
(N)
hPth
hPprac
(m)
(m)

Research
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6
Discussion:
1-Draw the relation between ( p - h ) & ( h ).

2-Discuss the relations above and the results of calculating.
B-For p
the case of inclined plane:
1- When the inclined plane is partially submerged (h<):
h
A , H
B.H
B 75mm
po
sin
h
2
BH 3
12
I CG
100 sin
hPh
hPth F h A
& the centre of pressure ():
hPth
I CG
sin 2 h
hA
From the balancing moment about point (o), equ.(8):
po
FG .L
F
&
hPp ra c h (0.2 po) sin
2-When the
inclined plane is totally submerged (h>):
A B.H , B 75mm, H 100mm

h h 0.05 sin
BH 3
I CG
12
hP
po
F hA
c
141

Research
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h
&the centre of pressure ( Pth ):
hPth
I CG
sin 2 h
hA
From the balancing moment about point (o), equ.(9):
po
&
FG .L
F
hPprac h (0.2 po) sin
B-Table of calculating horizontal positioning of the plane:
0
No
.
Lever arm
L
(mm)
Appended
weight
FG
(N)
Resultant
force
Fth
(N)
Resultant
force
Fprac
(N)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Discussion:
1-Draw the relation between ( p - h )& ( h ).

2-Discuss the relations above and the results of calculating.
142
Water level
reading
h hPp ra c hPth
(mm)

Research
(FENG)
Experiment N0. (8)
8. Static and Dynamic Pressure

Introduction
Two different pressures occur in flowing
liquids:
-Static
pressure: pressure acting
transverse to the direction of flow, which
can be measured with a piezometer.
- Dynamic pressure: pressure acting in
the direction of flow, which can be
measured with a piezometer and a pitot
tube.
As the flow speed increases the dynamic
pressure rises and the static pressure
falls. In a still liquid the dynamic pressure is zero and the static pressure is
equal to the hydrostatic pressure.
Finding the dynamic pressure.
Theory of the Experiment
The piezometer with the pitot tube arrangement is called Prandtls tube. The
difference between the indicated pressures is the dynamic pressure of the
water flowing through the pipe system.
The dynamic pressure Pdyn. is the pressure
required to set the medium in motion. It
depends on the density of the flowing
Pdyn
medium . and its speed, V :
Pdyn.
1
V 2
2
.(1)
PS
Pt
The dynamic pressure thus rises with

the square of the flow speed. The total
pressure t in the pressure tube is the sum

of the static and dynamic pressure:
Pt Ps Pdyn.
..(2)
Since the two measurements are measurements of gauge pressure(i.e the

atmospheric pressure Patm.=0) (upper vent valve open ), the static pressure
PS can be read from the piezometer and the total pressure Pt from the pitot
tube.
The pressures read produce the flow velocity of the water as:
143

Research
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2 Pdyn.
.(3)
144

Research
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The Prandtls tube is primarily used in engineering to measure the speed of

gases, to determine the speed of an aircraft in flight for example.
Preparing the Experiment:
Before the actual measurement the manometer must be
prepared and vented:
Connect the outputs of the Prandtls tube (11) by the
connecting hoses to the dual water manometer (10).
Close all cocks of the pipe system, and the vent valves
on the water manometer.
Switch on the pump and open the pipe system inlet cock.
Open the lower vent valves of the water manometer:
The pipe section and connecting hoses are vented by the water
flow.
When there are no more air bubbles in the connecting hoses, close
the lower vent valves simultaneously, then close the inlet cock and
open the drain cock.
Performing the Experiment:
* Carefully open the upper vent valve and inlet cock, observing the
water levle: No water should emerge from the upper vent valve.
* Read of the two heads of water Pt and Ps.
* High pressures can be adjusted by means of the inlet. If lower
pressures are to be measured, reduce the inlet cock and adjust the head
of water with the drain cock.
Pt
Table of readings:
PS
No.
Pt
(cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
Pdyn.
Pt Ps
(cm)
145
PS

Research
(FENG)
2 Pdyn.
(cm/s)
No.
Pdyn.
V
(cm/s)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
Discussion:
* Draw
P
Pt
, S
Pdyn.
&
with the velocity of flow then discuss them.
Experiment No.(9)
9. Fluid Flow Rate

Measuring the fluid flow rate.
Hydraulic bench unit
The basic Hydraulics Bench and the various ancillary modules available form
a comprehensive laboratory facility which enables a detailed Mechanics of
Fluids Laboratory. The hydraulics bench unit provides the basic services for
the pumping and volumetric measurement of the water supply with which all
the additional accessories and experiments are used.
The working surface of the unit is in fiberglass, molded to provide a recessed
area on which to mount experiments. An integral weir tank is provided along
with a volumetric measuring tank. The measuring tank is stepped to enable
for accurate measuring of both high and low flow rates. A level indicator
allows convenient read out of the flow. The measuring tank discharges into a
fiberglass sump tank via a valve. Overflow pipe is provided. An electric motor
146

Research
(FENG)
drives a submersible motor driven pump which delivers water to the outlet at
the working surface for connection to the individual experiments.
Experiment procedure
* Turn on the pump.
Set the stop watch to
zero.
*
Close
the
valve
at
the
1- Volumetric measuring tank with

channel
2-Remote sight gauge
3- Sliding valve
4- Sump tank
5- Drain cock
6- Submersible motor driven pump
7- Water supply for accessories
with pump
8- Flow control valve
9- Overflow pipe
10- Switch box
11- Discharge cap
12- Water supply connection for
accessories without pump
bottom
the
of
volumetric tank, wait until the liquid
reaches a value of 10 liters and at the same start the watch.
* After the liquid reached a value of 20 liters stop the watch.
* Read off and note the measurement time and the high value of water in
tank.
Table of readings
No.
V
(liter)
1
20
2
20
3
20
4
20
5
20
6
10
7
30
t
(s)
77.56
29.25
17.68
13.37
9.37
4.5
13.72
Sample of calculating
Q
* Volume flow rate
* Mass flow rate
V
t
Q
m
147
m3
( s )
kg
( s )

Research
(FENG)
* Weight flow rate

Table of calculating
No.
V
(m3)
gQ
W
t
(s)
N
( s )
Q
m3
( s )
m
kg
( s )
W
N
( s )
1
2
m , then find the slop of the relation.
2- Draw the relation between Q & W , then find the slop of the relation.
1- Draw the relation between Q &
3- What do you understand by the slops above?

Experiment No. 11
10.
Pressure and Velocity Distribution Along Venture
Tube
Profile of pressure and velocity distribution in venture tube
Unit description
The apparatus of the experiment is called Bernoullis theorem
demonstration apparatus. The measurement object is a venturi tube with 6
pressure measurement points. The 6 static pressures are displayed on a
board
148

Research
(FENG)
with 6 water pressure gauges. The overall pressure can also be measured at
various locations in the venturi tube and indicated on a second water
pressure gauge. Water is supplied from the hydraulic bench.
149

Research
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1- Assembly boar. 2- Single water pressure gauge. 3- Discharge pipe. 4Outlet ball cock. 5- Venturi tube with 6 measurement points. 6- Compression
gland.7- Probe for measuring overall pressure (can be moved axially). 8- Hose
connection, water supply. 9- Ball cock at water inlet.10- 6-fold water pressure
gauge (pressure distribution in venturi tube)
Performance of the Experiment

- Arrange the experimentation set-up on the Hydraulic Bench such that the
discharge routes the water into the channel.
- Make hose connection between Hydraulic Bench and unit
- Open discharge of Hydraulic Bench
- Open inlet and outlet ball cock
- Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of
Hydraulic Bench
- Open vent valves [3] on water pressure gauges
- Carefully close outlet cock until pressure gauges are flushed
- By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet cock, regulate water level in
pressure gauges such that neither upper nor lower range limit [4,5] is
overshot or undershot
- Record pressures at all measurement points.
- Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time t
required for raising the level in the volumetric tank of the Hydraulic Bench.
150

Research
(FENG)
Table of Readings
h ps
(mm)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
h1
h2
h3
h4
h5
h6
255
265
270
297
230
243
250
277
5
14
15
35
128
140
145
165
195
208
212
237
210
220
225
250
V
(liter)
t
(s)
10
10
10
10
30.44
29.53
29.13
28.09
Sample of Calculating
- Volume flow rate (Q):
Volume
Time
cm 3
( s
-Average velocity :
Q VA V
Q
A
cm
( s
d1 2.84cm, d 2 2.25cm, d 3 1.4cm, d 4 1.72cm, d 5 2.42cm, d 6 2.84cm

Where:
V: Average velocity of fluid flow
A: Cross-section area of fluid flow
Q
No (Cm
3
.
)
1
h ps
h1
h2
h3
(cm)
h4
h5
V ( cm s )
h6
V1
V2
V3
V4
2
3
4
5
Discussion
Plot the distribution of pressure head (h) along venture tube.
151
V5
V6

Research
(FENG)
Plot the distribution of fluid velocity (V) along venture tube.

Discuss the curves above, and then give your conclusions about the curves.
Experiment No. (11)
11.
Over All Pressure of Fluid Flow

Measuring the overall pressure of fluid flow
Unit description
board
with 6 water pressure gauges. The overall pressure can also be measured at
various locations in the venturi tube and indicated on a second water
pressure gauge. Measurement is by way of a probe which can be moved
axially with respect to the venturi tube. The probe is sealed by way of a
compression gland. Water is supplied from the hydraulic bench.
152

Research
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1-Assembly boar. 2- Single water pressure gauge. 3- Discharge pipe. 4Outlet ball cock. 5- Venturi tube with 6 measurement points. 6- Compression
gland.7- Probe for measuring overall pressure (can be moved axially). 8- Hose
connection, water supply. 9- Ball cock at water inlet.10- 6-fold water pressure
gauge (pressure distribution in venturi tube)
Performance of the experiment

- Set cap nut [1] of probe compression gland such that slight resistance is felt
on moving probe
- Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of Hydraulic Bench
-Record pressures at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure
probe to corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
153

Research
(FENG)
Table of readings
No.
hs p s
(cm)
ht pt
(cm)
V
(litre)
t
(s)
hs1 hs 2 hs 3 hs 4 hs 5 hs 6 ht1 ht 2 ht 3 ht 4 ht 5 ht 6
1
2
3
4
*Calculating the actual flow velocity from the volume flow rate:
Volume
Q
Time
cm 3
( s
- Actual flow velocity Vact
Q Vact A Vact
Q
A
cm
( s

*Calculating the measurement velocity from the dynamic pressure:
- Dynamic pressure:
pd pt ps

Measured flow velocity Vm :
Vm 2 g (
pd
)
154
No
.
Q
(cm3/
s)
hd p d
ht pt
Vact ( cm s )
Vm ( cm s )
(cm)
ht ht
ht
ht
ht
ht
(cm)
h h
d1
d3
d4
d5
d6
act
act
act
act
act
act
m6
d2
1
2
3
4
Discussion
1- Plot the measurement velocity (Vm) with the actual velocity (Vact), and then
discuss the different between them.
pt
2- Plot the actual velocity (V act) with the total pressure head ( ). What is
the purpose of this plotting.
3- Draw the relations hs, hd, & ht along the venture tube, then discuss them.
Experiment No. (12)
12.
Flow meter Demonstration
Apparatus
-Comparison between different flow meter types.
-Determining the discharge coefficient.
Unit description
The apparatus is designed to demonstrate three basic types of flow meter.
- 155 -
-Rotometer
A rotometer with the following characteristics is used to measure flow rate:
- Plastic measuring tube
- Interchangeable stainless steel float
- Interchangeable percentual scale
- Max. flow rate 1600 l/h
The flow rate can be read from the upper edge of the conical attachment. Air
bubbles or dirt particles on the float may affect measurement precision. To
flush them out, operate the test stand at maximum flow rate first.
- 156 -
To do so, open all cocks fully.

- Nozzle and Orifice plate
The orifice plate housing is made of transparent plastic allowing visible
functioning of the orifice plate. The flow causes a pressure loss between inlet
and outlet. Two tappings allow measurement of inlet and outlet pressurs.This
differential pressure (p1-p2) is proportional to the volume flow rate:
p1 p 2
)
2
A2
(1
)
2
A1
2g(
Q c d A2
Venturi meter:
The Venturi housing is made of transparent plastic allowing visible
functioning of the Venturi. The pressure in the Venturi is inversly proportional
to the velocity in the Venturi according to Bernoullis law.
Two tappings allow measurement of the inlet pressure and the pressure at
the smallest area. This differential pressure (p 1-p2) is proportional to the
volume flow rate:
p1 p 2
)
2
A2
(1
)
2
A1
2g(
Q c d A2
Connecting and operating the manometer

- 157 -

- Connect measurement lines
- Open all valves at pipe section and 6-tube manometer, let the water flow
for 1 minute
- Close flow control valve
- Close drain valve of the 6-tube manometer to vent the measurement lines
- Close vent valve of the 6-tube manometer
- Close water inlet
- Disconnect measuremet lines
- Open vent and drain valve to discharge level tubes of the 6-tube
manometer
- Close vent and drain valves
- Open flow control valve slowly
- Connect measurement lines again
- Open water inlet slowly
- Adjust the heights of the water in the manometer tubes with the help of
flow control valve until water becomes visible
- Set the flow rate and the measuring scale with the inlet and outlet control
valves
Table of readings
No. Venture meter
Flow Nozzle
Rotameter
V
(lit)
t
(s)
h2
Qrot
(lit/h)
145
800
10
40
145
165
20
740
10
43
225
150
140
65
590
10
55
185
145
140
95
450
10
71
h1
h2
290
160
260
3
4
h1
*Actual flow rate(Qact):
Qact
Volume
Time
*Venturi meter:
-Ideal flow rate (Qi):
m3
( s
)
( d1 =2.84cm, d2=1.4cm )
- 158 -
p1 p2
)
2
A2
(1 2 )
A1
2g(
Qi A2
*Discharge coefficient cd:
Cd
Qact
Qi
*Flow Nozzle:
-Ideal flow rate (Qi):
( d1 =2.84cm, d2=1.85cm )
p1 p2
)
2
A2
(1 2 )
A1
2g (
Qi A2
*Discharge coefficient
Cd
Cd
Qact
Qi
*Rotameter (Qrot):
(cm3/s)
Qrot
No.
Qact
(cm
Rotometer
Venture meter
Qrot
Qi
(cm
(cm
Cd
3
1
2
3
4
- 159 -
Flow Nozzle
Cd
Qi
(cm
Discussion
1- Define the discharge coefficient(
contraction coefficient(
Cd ), velocity coefficient( Cv ), and
Cc ).
2-Calibrate the rotometer by plotting the
Qact
vs.
Qrot .
3-Plot the discharge coefficient ( d ) vs. the actual flow rate (

(for venture meter and flow nozzle)
Qact ).
Experiment No. (13)
13.
Bernoullis theorem Demonstration

Demonstrating of Bernoullis equation
Theory of the experiment
For ideal fluid flow the total energy at a point on the same streamline is
equal:
Total energy head (H1) at point (1) = Total energy head (H 2) at point (2) =
Total energy head (H3) at point (3) = Constant
Ideal
Fluid
Flow
v2
2g
p
&
Total energy head (H) =

2
p1
v
p
v
p
v
1 z1 2 2 z2 3 3 z3 H
2g
2g
2g
[Bernoullisequation]
Where:
: Static pressure head (pressure energy per unit weight).
v2
2 g : Velocity head (kinetic energy per unit weight).
z : Potential head (potential energy per unit weight).

- 160 -
..
Unit description
board with 6 water pressure gauges. The overall pressure can also be
measured at various locations in the venturi tube and indicated on a second
water pressure gauge. Measurement is by way of a probe which can be
moved axially with respect to the venturi tube. The probe is sealed by way of
a compression gland. Water is supplied from the hydraulic bench.
1- Assembly boar. 2- Single water pressure gauge. 3- Discharge pipe. 4Outlet ball cock. 5- Venturi tube with 6 measurement points. 6- Compression
gland.7- Probe for measuring. Overall pressure (can be moved axially). 8Hose connection, water supply. 9- Ball cock at water inlet.10- 6-fold water
pressure gauge (pressure distribution in venturi tube)

- 161 -

- Set cap nut [1] of probe compression gland such that slight resistance is felt
on moving probe
- Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of
Hydraulic Bench
-Record pressures at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure
probe to corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
Table of readings
No.
hpez ps z
Hm
(cm)
(cm)
hp1 hp 2 hp 3 hp 4 h p 5 hp 6 H m1
V
(litre)
t
(s)
H m 2 H m3 H m 4 H m5 H m6
1
2
3
4
*Calculating the flow velocity:
Volume
Time
cm3
( s )
- Flow velocity V:
Q VA V
Q
A
cm
( s

*Calculating the velocity head (hd):
V2
hd
2g
H cal
*Calculating the total energy head (Hcal):
- 162 -
V2
2g
Ps
- 163 -
Q
No.
cm
hs p s
(cm)
h h h
s1
s2
s3
s4
s5
s6
d1
d2
d3
Hcal
hd V 2 2 g
(cm)
(cm)
Hm
(cm)
H H H H H H H H H H H H
d4
d5
d6
ca
ca
ca
ca
ca
ca
l1
l2
l3
l4
l5
l6
1
2
3
4
Discussion
1234-
Ps
Plot the pressure head ( ) along the venture tube.
V2
Plot the velocity head ( 2 g ) along the venture tube.
Plot the total energy head Hcal & Hm along the venturi tube.
Discuss the relations above.
Experiment No. (14)
14.
Impact of Jet
Introduction
The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the out let of a nozzle, which is
fitted to a pipe through which a liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate
,which may be fixed or moving, is placing in the path of the jet, a force is
exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is obtained from Newtons second
law of motion or from impulse-momentum equation. Thus impact of jet
means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or
moving. In this experiment, the impact of jet on a stationary plate will be
considered.
Comparison of theoretical and measured resulting of force exerted by the jet
on a stationary plate.
164
Unit description
The unit is designed to investigate jet forces impacting against stationary

deflectors. The impact forces are produced by a water jet. The impact forces
are measured using a lever mechanism and loading weights. The impact
forces of the water jet are set via the flow rate. Water is supplied either from
the hydraulic bench basic flow module or by way of the laboratory mains.
The hydraulic bench enables a closed water circuit to be constructed.
The unit essentially consists of:
Base Plate [7]
Inlet connection [8]
Drain connection [6]
Perspex vessel [5]
Nozzle [4]
Deflector [3]
Lever mechanism [2]
Loading weights [1]
Various deflectors can be fitted at position [3].
Vertical plate
Inclined plate
Hemisphere
Theory of the experiment
The force exerted by the jet on the plate is obtained from principle of linear
momentum or from Newtons second law of motion.
F m (V
V1 ) *
Where:
F : The net force exerted on the jet.
165
Mass Initialvelocity
m V1 : Initial momentum per unit time i.e (
Time
)
Mass Finalvelocty
m V2 :Final momentum per unit time i.e (
Time
)
The following cases of impact of jet i.e. the force exerted by the jet on a
stationary plate, will be considered:
A-Plate is vertical to the jet:
From equation (*):
m (V2 x V1x )
V1
Fx Q (0 V1 )
Fx QV1
Fth Fx
Fth QV1.............(1)
B-Plate is inclined to the jet:
From equation (*):
m (V2 x V1x )
Fx Q (0 V1 sin )
Fx QV1 sin
Fth Fx sin
Fth QV1 sin 2 .............(2)
C- Plate is curved (Hemisphere):

From equation (*):
166
m (V2 x V1x )
Fx Q (V2 V1 )
ifV1 V2
Fx 2 QV1
Fth Fx
Fth 2 QV1.............(3)
Preparing and Performing the experiment

Place the test set-up on the hydraulic bench so that the drain routes the
water into the channel.
Fit connecting hose between the hydraulic bench and the unit.
Open hydraulic bench drain.
Assemble deflector [1], (Plate, Hemisphere, Slope or Cone ). Loosen the 3
screws [3] on the cover [4] and remove cover together with lever
167
mechanism. Fit appropriate deflector. Do not forget to tighten lock nut [2] on
rod. Screw cover back onto vessel.
Use adjusting screw [5] to set pointer to zero (zero notch [7]). When doing
so, do not place any loading weights on measurement system [8].
Apply desired loading weight [8] 0.2N; 0.3N; 1N; 2N; 5N or combinations
thereof.
Close main hydraulic bench cock.
Switch on hydraulic bench pump.
Carefully open main cock until pointer is on zero again.
Close hydraulic bench drain cock.
Determine volumetric flow. This involves recording time t required to fill up
the volumetric tank of the HM150 from 20 to 30 litres.
Add loading weights and note down time t for 10 litres.
Switch off pump, open drain.
Table of readings
0
A-Verticl plate ( 90 deflection)
No. Measured force
Volume
Fm
V
(N)
(m3)
0.3
0.005
0.6
0.005
0.005
1.5
0.005
0
B-Inclined plate ( 45 dflection)
No. Measured force
Volume
Fm
V
(N)
(m3)
0.3
0.005
0.6
0.005
0.005
1.5
0.005
0
C-Hemisphere ( 180 deflection)
No. Measured force
Volume
Fm
V
(N)
(m3)
1
0.3
0.005
168
Time
t
(s)
Time
t
(s)
Time
t
(s)
0.6
0.005
0.005
1.5
0.005
*Vertical plate:
-volume flow rate:
Volume
Q
Time
m3
( s
-Flow velocity:
V1
Q
A
m
( s )
[Nozzle diameter
D=10mm]
-Calculating force (theoretical force ):
Fth QV1
(N)
*Inclined plate:
-volume flow rate:
Volume
Time
m3
( s
-Flow velocity:
V1
Q
A
m
( s )
-Calculating force (theoretical force):
Fth QV1 sin 2
0
( 45 )
(N)
*Hemisphere:
-volume flow rate:
Volume
Q
Time
m3
( s
-Flow velocity:
V1
Q
A
m
( s )
-Calculating force (theoretical force ):
Fth 2 QV1
(N)
A-Verticl plate
169
No.
Q
(m
V1
(m
Fth
(N)
Fm
(N)
Fth
(N)
Fm
(N)
Fth
(N)
Fm
(N)
1
2
3
4
B-Inclined plate
No.
Q
(m
V1
(m
1
2
3
4
C-Hemisphere
No.
Q
(m
V1
(m
1
2
3
4
Discussion
1-Why is the energy of water jet different from each plate.
2-Which plate is the best and which one is the worst.
3-On the same graph Plot Q vs. Fm , for each plate.
Experiment No. (15)
15.
Osborne Reynolds Experiment
Introduction
O. Reynolds was first to demonstrate that the transition from laminar to
VD
turbulent depends not only on the mean velocity but on the quantity ( ).
170
R
This quantity is a dimensionless quantity and is called Reynolds number ( e ).
R
R
In case of circular pipe if e <2000 the flow is said to be laminar and if e
R
>4000, the flow is said to be turbulent. If e lies between 2000 to 4000, the
flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
Demonstrating the laminar and turbulent flow

Unit description
The unit is intended for investigating and visualizing the Osborne Reynolds
experiments. The test setup allows laminar and turbulent flow to be
demonstrated. The flow is made visible with an ink trace in a transparent
pipe section. The unit essentially comprises:
- Base plate [1] with the necessary connections for water supply [10]
with Control valve [13] and waste water discharge [11].
- Water reservoir [2] with a ball block to stem the flow [9].
- Overflow section [7] to generate a constant pressure level in the reservoir.
- Aluminium well [4] for ink with metering tap [5] and brass inflow tip
[6].
- Test pipe section [8] of Plexiglas with flow-optimised inflow [3].
- Drain cock [12] to adjust the flow through thetest pipe section.
171
To visualise the flow we recommend blue ink, which is carefully introduced

into the flowing water by way of the aluminium well and the inflow tip. The
water supply can be realised with the hydraulic bench fluid techniques base
module. The flow rate is measured by means of a measuring vessel or using
hydraulic bench.

- Close the drain cock [12].
- Switch on the water supply. When using
hydraulic bench, switch on the pump. Carefully
open the ball cock [13].
- Adjust the tap to produce a constant water level
in the reservoir.
-After a time the test pipe section [8] is completely filled. The experiment
can begin.
-Open the drain cock slightly to produce a low rate
of flow into the test pipe section. The coloured
waste water is best directed down the drain.
required for raising the level in the volumetric tank of the Hydraulic Bench
and For low volumetric measurement use the 2ltr. measuring cup.
Table of readings
(Temperature T=
No.
V (cm3)
)
t
(s)
1
2
3
4
172
5
Volume
Q
Time
cm 3
( s
cm
( s
-Average velocity :
Q VA V
Q
A
- Reynolds number :
From the table of water properties at T =
The kinematic viscosity is:
=
Re
Vd
Q
No.
Re
( cm3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion
What do you understand by laminar and turbulent flow?
What is the factor that decide the type of flow in pipes, with explaining the
reason?
173
Experiment No. (16)
16.
Pipe Friction
Introduction
When a liquid is flowing through a pipe, the velocity of the liquid layer
adjacent to the pipe wall is zero. Velocity of the liquid goes on increasing from
the wall and thus velocity gradient and hence shear stress is produce in the
whole liquid due to viscosity. This viscous action causes loss of energy which
is usually known as frictional loss.
Determine the pipe friction losses in laminar and turbulent flow.
Unit description
The pipe section used is a brass pipe with an inside diameter of 3 mm and a
length of 400 mm. The pressure losses are measured in laminar flow with a
water manometer. The static pressure difference is indicated. In turbulent
flow the pressure difference is measured with a mercury-filled U-tube
manometer. A level tank is provided to generate the laminar flow. It ensures a
constant water inflow pressure on the pipe section at a constant water level.
The level tank is not used to generate turbulent flow. The water is fed directly
from the water main into the pipe section. The flow rate is set by means of
needle valves at each end of the pipe. The water is supplied either from the
hydraulic bench or from the laboratory main. An enclosed water circuit can
be established with the hydraulic bench.
123456-
Demonstration board
U-Tube manometer
Discharge needle valve
Pressure tapping at the end of the pipe
Pressure tapping at the beginning of the pipe
Pipe section
174
7- Inlet needle valves

8- Hose connection water supply
9- Ball cock
10- Overflow
11- Water tank
12- Water manometer
- Set up the experiment on the hydraulic bench so that the discharge
directs the water into the sewer.
- Connect a hose between the hydraulic bench and the unit.
- Open the hydraulic bench discharge.
* For The Laminar Flow:
- Connect the water manometer to the two pressure measuring nipples.
- Open the needle valve at the discharge fully.
- Close the valve [1] fully.
- Open the valve [2] fully.
- Switch the hydraulic bench pump on and adjust the ball-cock so that a
constant water level is created at the overflow.
- Close the needle valve at the discharge until a constant pressure difference
of 2 cm is established on the water manometer. This corresponds to the fall
h L.
- Determining the volume flow.
- Increase the flow in increments (h f increases) and repeat the volume flow
measurements.
hf
hf
*For
The
Turbulent
Flow:
In this case the level tank is not
used. For turbulent flow a higher
flow rate is required. The water is
175
therefore fed directly from the hydraulic bench or from the main into the
pipe section. Proceed as follows:
- Close the ball-cock fully.
- Close valve [2] fully.
- Close valve [1] fully.
- Connect the Mercury U-tube manometer to the two pressure measuring
nipples.
- Open the needle valve at the discharge fully.
- Switch the hydraulic bench pump on.
- Open valve [1] fully.
- Close the needle valve at the discharge until a constant pressure difference
of
20 mbar is established on the U-tube manometer. This corresponds to a fall
hf
of 15 mm. (1 mm Mercury Column = 1,33322 mbar)
- Determining the volume flow.
- Increase the flow in increments (h f increases) and repeat the volume flow
hf
measurements.
Measurement of the Fall hf on the U-tube manometer
Table of readings
-For the laminar flow:
(Temperature T=
)
hf
V
No.
(cm)
(cm3)
1
200
200
200
t
(s)
176
200
200
-For the turbulent flow:

(Temperature T=
)
hf
V
No.
(cm)
(cm3)
20
1
400
30
40
t
(s)
67.4
400
58
400
46
60
400
35.5
80
400
32.8
-For the laminar flow:
Volume
Time
cm 3
( s
cm
( s
-Average velocity :
Q VA V
Q
A
- Reynolds number :
=
Re
Vd
-The measured friction coefficient (

From the Darcy-weisbach equation:
fm
fm
):
2 gDh f
LV 2
-The theoretical friction coefficient(
where L=400mm
f th ):
177
f th
64
Re
-For the turbulent flow:

Volume
Q
Time
cm 3
( s
cm
( s
-Average velocity :
Q VA V
Q
A
- Reynolds number :
=
Re
Vd
-The measured friction coefficient (

From the Darcy-weisbach equation:
fm
fm
):
2 gDh f
LV 2
where L=400mm
-The theoretical friction coefficient( th ):

According to Blasius, for smooth pipes of turbulent flow:
f th
0.3164
0.25
Re
178
For the laminar flow:
No.
V
Q
cm
s
cm 3
s)
(
1
Re
fm
f th
Re
fm
f th
2
3
4
5
For the turbulent flow:

No.
V
Q
cm
s
cm 3
s)
(
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion
R
plot Reynolds number( e ) vs. measured friction coefficient(
f
friction coefficient( th ), for laminar and turbulent flows.
Discuss the relations above
179
fm
) & theoretical
Experiment No. (17)
17.
Minor losses
Introduction
Pipe system which include valves, elbows, enlargements, contractions, inlets,
outlets, bends, and other fittings that cause additional losses, referred to as
minor losses, even though such losses can exceed the frictional losses. Each
of these devices causes a change in the magnitude or the direction of the
velocity vectors and hence results in a loss.
A minor loss is expressed in terms of a loss coefficient (K),
defined by:
V2
he K
2g
In this experiment we will calculate the minor losses due special pipe
components such as pipe bends or elbows, pipe branches, changes in crosssection, valves, and flaps.
Aim of experiment
Calculating the loss coefficient (K) for pipe bends or elbows, pipe branches,
changes in cross-section, valves, and flaps.
Unit description
The unit as shown in the figure consists of a square tubular steel
frame with a powder-coated back wall, on which a pipe system is mounted
with sections which can be individually shut off. The back wall also features
two level-tube pressure gauges attached using star-type nuts. The gauges
can be fitted in two positions on the back wall.
Various
Measurement
objects can be accommodated in an adjustable Measurement system.
Water is supplied either by way of the HM 150 Hydraulics Bench or via the
laboratory mains. The HM 150 permits construction of a closed water circuit.
180
Double Pressure Gauge

The double pressure gauge is suitable for measuring both differential
pressures and gauge pressures in mm w.g.;
181
these
can
then
be converted into absolute
pressures with allowance for the atmospheric
pressure.
- The measuring range is 0-1000mm w.g.
- The gauge consists of two glass level tubes
backed by a
metal mm scale.
- The two level tubes are interconnected at the top
and have
a joint vent valve.
- Differential pressure is measured with the vent
valve
closed and gauge pressure with the valve open.
- The measurement points are connected to the lower
ends
of the level tubes using rapid-action hose couplings
with
automatic shut-off.
- A drain valve is provided at the bottom of each level
tube.
Performance of experiment
The following instructions for experimentation and the
performance of the experiments A,B are based on the HM 150 Hydraulics
Bench. Position test set-up on the HM 150 Hydraulics Bench with
drainage via volumetric tank.
- Loosen star-type nuts for pressure-gauge attachment on back of unit and
move gauges
down a hole. Then retighten nuts.
- Make hose connection between HM 150 and unit.
- Open drain of HM 150.
- Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of HM 150.
- Connect pressure gauges to desired measurement points.
- Slowly open ball cock of appropriate measurement system and vent
pressure gauges;
see Section of double pressure gauge.
- By simultaneously adjusting vent and drain valve on pressure gauge,
set water level
such that both water columns are in the measuring range.
- Determine volumetric flow. To do so, establish time t required to raise the
level in the
volumetric tank of the HM 150 from 10 to 20 or 30 litres. The drain cock
beneath the
tank is to be closed for this purpose.
182
A-Pipe elbow experiment

For pipe elbows, the loss coefficient (K) depends on the angle of deviation of
the flow and the ratio of the elbow radius to the pipe diameter. In addition,
183
loss coefficient (K)
the coefficient of resistance is influenced by the shape of the elbow.For this

special case of a pipe elbow with 90 deviation, the following diagram is
applicable for smooth and rough pipes.
For pipe angles, i.e. elbow radii

less than the pipe diameter (R/d<1) the losses coefficients for knee
pieces are approximately applicable. For example, for a 90 knee piece / kink,
with a smooth pipe, the K is 1.13, and for rough pipes the K is 1.68,
while for a 45 piece, Ksmooth = 0.24 and Krough= 0.36.
Experimental method
In this experiment, the pipe components are investigated in measuring
section V. All measurements are over two equal components, which
means that any subsequent comparison calculation needs to include this
condition. The pressure gauge is connected and the measurements are
carried out as described in section of double pressure gauge.
Table of readings
Pipe elbow
No.
Angle 90
h
(cm)
Volume
(litre)
Bend 90
h
(cm)
Angle 45
h
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
h: Difference of pressure head
184
t
(s)
volume
time
Q
V
A
Q
Reynolds number
Blasius equation
Vd
0.3164
f
Re 0.25
Re
m3
)
s
(d 1.7cm)
f : coefficien t of friction
A - Angle 90 :
- Loss coefficien t
2gh
L
f
2
V
d
(L 220mm)
2gh
L
f
2
V
d
(L 340mm)
2gh
L
f
2
V
d
(L 350mm)
B - Bend 90 :
- Loss coefficien t
C - angle 45 :
- Loss coefficien t
Pipe elbow
No.
h
(
( m)
Angle 90
f
K
h
( m)
Bend 90
f
K
h
(m
)
Angle 45
f
K
V
(m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
-Which elbow has minimum loss coefficient and why?
-Draw the relating between volume flow rate Q & loss coefficient (K).
B- Cross-section change Experiment

The changes in cross-section available on the experimental unit take the
form of discontinuous expansion or constriction. For a continuous change of
185
cross-section, the coefficient of loss values can be taken from special

diagrams. For a discontinuous change in cross-section, the coefficient of loss
can be derived from Bernoullis equation and the principle of linear
momentum.
For expansion :
2
d 22
A2
K
1 2 1
A
1
d1
For constricti on :
A
K 1 1
A0
d12
2 1
d0
Here, A0 and d0 respectively represent the constricted

cross-section. As this is normally unknown, the
coefficient of loss for constriction is taken from the following diagram.
Loss coefficient for discontinuous constriction
In this experiment, the changes of cross-section are investigated in the

measuring section I. The pressure gauge is connected and the measurements
are carried out as described in section of double pressure gauge.
No.
Volume
(litre)
t
(s)
Discontinuous
expansion
L=125mm,d1=17mm,
d2=28.4mm
h
( m)
1
2
186
Discontinuous
constriction
L=125mm,d1=28.4mm,
d2=17mm
h
( m)
3
4
5
Table of readings:
volume
Q
time
Q
Q
V1
,
V2
A1
A2
Vd
Reynolds number Re 1 1 1
0.3164
Blasius equation
f1
0.25
Re1
Loss coefficien t of expansion :
V2 d 2
0.3164
, f2
f : coefficien t of friction
0.25
Re 2
f2
L2
d2
d 2 L1 d 2
2gh
f1
K pract.
2
V2
d1 d1 d1
2
Re 2
d L d
2gh
K pract.
1 2 f1 1 2
2
V2
d1 d1 d1
d22
A2
K th
1 2 1
A1
d1
Loss coefficien t of constricti on :
m3
)
s
f2
L2
d2
d12
A1
K th
1
2
A0
d 0
Here, A0 and d0 respectively represent the constricted cross-section. As this is

normally unknown, the coefficient of loss for constriction is taken from the
following diagram.
Loss coefficient for discontinuous constriction

187
Expansion
No.
h
(
( m)
f1
constriction
f2
Kpract
Kth
h
(m
)
f1
f2
Kprac
t
Kth
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
1-why the diameter d0 for the case of constriction cross-section is unknown.
V2
2- Draw the relation between Kpract & 2 g for expansion.
Experiment No. (18)
18.
Open-channel flow
Introduction:
The duct flow were driven by a pressure difference between the ends of the
duct, such channels are closed and full of fluid, either gas or liquid. By
contrast, an open-channel flow is liquid only and is not full; i.e., there is
always a free surface exposed to ambient pressure. The basic balance of
forces is between gravity (fluid weight) and friction.
Practical open-channel problems almost always concern water as the relevant
fluid. The flow is generally turbulent; due to its large scale and small
kinematic viscosity, and is three-dimensional, some unsteady, and often.
Surprisingly complex due to geometric effects.
open-channel flow is the flow of a liquid in a conduit with a free surface.
There are many practical examples both artificial (flumes, spillways, canals,
weirs, drainages ditches, culverts) and natural streams, rivers, estuaries,
flood plains)
Unit Layout:
The Flow Channel device shown in Fig.(1) is used for the qualitative
demonstration of the water flow created at weirs and the flow lines in the
flow around various types of drag bodies.
188
Fig.(1)
General View of the
Flow Channel
1 Water Connection
2 Water Tank
3 Scale
4 Dye Tank
5 Feed Orifice
6 Dye Nozzle
7 Flow Rectifier
8 Flow Channel
9 Weir Body
10 Outlet Orifice
A water tank
(2) is continuously fed with water via the connection (1). Limited by the
feed orifice (5), water flows from the tank into the actual flow channel (8).
Various weirs or drag bodies (9) can be fitted in the channel; the water
flows over or around these bodies. With the outlet orifice (10) the water
level downstream from the weir can also be regulated. To make the flow lines
in the experiments on the flow around drag bodies visible, ink is placed in a
dye tank (4) and added to the flowing water by means of fine dye nozzles
(6). In this way thin threads of ink are produced in the flow that allow the flow
lines to be detected.
During these experiments a flow rectifier (5) is also placed in the channel
directly after
The feed orifice. This comprises a package of honeycomb like tubes and
ensures that the
water flowing into the channel is even and free of turbulence.
189
The following weirs and drag bodies in Fig.(2) are included with the channel:
- Broad crested crested weir (11)

- Sharp edged weir (12)
- Two cylinders (13 & 14)
- Streamlined body (15)
- Wing section (16)
Commissioning:
-Place the flow channel on the Hydraulics
Bench
or an alternative water drain.
-Connect the water connection (1) to
the water
supply. Adjust the liquid level using
the
overflow, if necessary.
A plastic strip is used as the feed orifice
(17).This
is slid into the guides at the inlet
from the
water
tank
to the flow channel.
Using
the
orifice
the height of the upstream
water can be
varied
for experiments with weirs. It
addition the
orifice
fulfils
the function
of
an
undershoot
weir.
190
The outlet orifice (18) is a plastic strip with a

Rectangular cut-out. This is slid into the guides on
the outlet from the channel. The strip is clamped
at the required height with the aid of the two
knurled bolts (19).
-Fill the dye tank (4) with ink. The ink can be diluted with water. The dye
tank is connected to the dye nozzles (6) using a hose. The amount of dye
can be controlled using the regulating screw (20) on the hose. The nozzle
bracket is attached to the water tank with the aid of a clamp (21) and is thus
convenient to adjust in height.
The flow rectifier (7) is inserted vertically in

the cross-section of the flow channel. It is
then, possibly with the aid of one of the two
orifices, moved as close as possible to the
inlet.
The weirs each have a central hole. With the
aid of plastic bolt (22) inserted through this
hole the weirs can be attached to the thread
in the base of the flow channel.
Each of the drag bodies has a mounting
thread on the side. With the aid of the plastic
mounting bolt (23) the drag bodies can be
attached to the side wall of the channel. In
addition, the bodies have an additional thread
into which the handle (24) can be screwed.
This makes it easier to fit the bodies. The
handle is to be removed prior to the start of
the related experiment.
191
Experiment No. (19)
19.
Weir
Introduction:
The most common means of metering discharge in an open channel flow is to
use a weir. Basically, a weir is a device placed in the channel that forces the
flow through an opening or aperture designed to measure the discharge.
Specialist weirs have been designed for specific needs, in this experiment to
fundamental types broad-crested weir, &
sharp-crested weir
will be
considered.
Calculating the discharge of flow in an open channel
A-Broad-weir
A broad-crested weir is shown in Fig.(3) below. It has sufficient elevation
above
the channel bottom to chock the flow, and it is long enough so that
overflow
streamlines become
parallel, resulting in a hydrostatic pressure
distribution.
Assume a rectangular horizontal channel and let the height of the
weir be (h).
location (1) is a point upstream of the weir where the flow is
relatively
undisturbed. Applying Bernoullis
equation from location (1) to
location (2) at
the free surface and neglecting the kinetic energy head at location
1 (V = 0).
P1 V1
P V
Z1 2 2 Z 2
2g
2g
V
(h1 h) 2 (h2 h)
2g
1
h1
h2
V2 2 g (h1 h2 ) V2i
Qideal V2i A2
Fig.(3) Broad-crested weir
Qideal A2 2 g (h1 h2 )
for a weir whos e breadth normal to the flow is b :

A2 bh2
Qideal bh2 2 g (h1 h2 )
& Qactual Cd bh2 2 g (h1 h2 )
B-Sharp-crested weir
192
A Sharp-crested weir is a vertical plate

placed normal to the flow
containing a sharp-edge crest so that the noppe will behave as a free jet. Fig.
(4) below shows a rectangular weir with a horizontal crest extending across
the entire width of the channel.
The Bernoullis equation is applied along a representative streamline in Fig.
(4):
V2 2 gy
If b is the width of the crest normal to the flow the ideal discharge is given as:
h1
h1
Qideal b V2 dy b 2 gy h1dy
0
V2
h
2
b 2 g h12 3
3
2
3
Cd b 2 g h12 Fig.(4)
Sharp-crested weir
3
Qideal
& Qactual
Table of reading:
No.
Broad-crested weir
Volume Time
h1
(lit)
(s)
(cm)
h2
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
- Broad - crested weir :
volume
time
bh2 2 g ( h1 h2 )
* Qactual
* Qideal
* Cd
cm 3
)
s
Qactual
Qideal
- Sharp - crested weir :

volume
time
2
* Qideal b 2 g h13 2
3
Q
* Cd actual
Qideal
* Qactual
cm 3
)
s
193
Sharp-crested weir
Volume Time
h1
(lit)
(s)
(cm)
No.
Broad-crested weir
Qactual
Qideal
Cd
3
cm /s
cm3/s
Sharp-crested weir
Qactual
Qideal
Cd
3
cm /s
cm3/s
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
1-Draw the relation between Qact&Qideal (for each weir).
2-Find the slop of the relation between Qact&Qideal then discuss it.
3-Which weir has minimum losses?
Sink Speed of sphere
Comparison between theoretical and practical values of sink speeds.
194
Unit Description
The unit is used to investigate sink speeds
of objects in liquids. Spheres made of
different materials and volumes are used.
The sphere is guided down a transparent
tube filled with liquid. The sphere sinks to
the floor under the action of gravity. The
sink time is measured for a specific
measured section. From this it is possible
to derive the mean sink speed. The two
measuring tubes can be filled with liquids
of different viscosity. In this way it is
possible to
directly compare the sink
speeds.
At the bottom of the tube there is a
chamber. In this way the sphere can be
removed from the measuring tube without
large loss of liquid. The chamber has got a
device behaving similar to a drawer. It is
operated by hand.
Draw out the lever until the limit. Rotate
the lever to make the sphere drop out of
the slot. Afterwards turn lever to achieve
slots upright position again.Push in drawer
up to the limit.
195
The unit essentially comprises:

Cover with inlet hole (1)
Pipe bracket (2)
2 off o-rings (3)
Measuring tube (4) made of Plexiglass
Drain valve (5)
Chamber (6)
Chamber manual lever (7)
The following is also required:

Stopwatch
Preparations for the Experiment:
Aerometer
Proceed as follows:
1. Place the experimental setup on a level Letter-scales
surface.
2. Fill the two Plexiglass tubes with the liquids
Ensure that the drain cocks are closed.
3. Place sphere ready at hand.
Various spheres are provided for the experiment.
Aluminium DK = 10 mm, = 2.86g/cm3
Aluminium DK= 5 mm, = 2.86g/cm3
POM (Delrin) DK = 10 mm, = 1.43g/cm3
POM (Delrin) DK= 5 mm, = 1.43g/cm3
PE6.6 (Nylon) DK = 10 mm, = 1.15g/cm3
Theoretical Calculation of the Sink Speed
The following factors are to be taken into account in
the
calculation of the sink speed:
Force due to weight of the sphere (downward force) FG
Upward force on the sphere FB
Pressure drag FD on the sphere in the liquid (dependent on the crosssectional area of
the sphere)
Surface friction FSF on the sphere in the liquid (dependent on the surface of
the sphere)
The sum of all the forces is equal to zero:
196
F 0
FG FB FD FSF 0
Where :
FG sph g .Vol sph
FB L g .Vol sph
1
LV 2 C D A
Whe re A : is the cross - sectional area of the sphere( D 2 )
2
4
1
FSF LV 2 C F AS
Wher e A : is the surface area of the sphere (4R 2 )
2
The C D value for a sphere is (0.22)
FD
The C F value is calculated as :

CF
1.328
Re
VD
Re
Where V : sink speed
From equation(* ) :
1
1
sph g .Vol sph L g.Vol sph LV 2C D A LV 2C F AS 0
2
2
This formula must now soved for V.This then yeilds a 4th order polynomial .
D 2 g 2 sph
DgC D sph
1.3282
C
(
1) 2 X 4
(
1) X 2
X D 0
9
F
6
F
D
16
1
Where : X
V
For simpli fication the following constants are used :
D 2 g 2 sph
A
(
1) 2
9
F
DgC D sph
B
(
1)
6
F
1.328 2
D
CD
D
16
Then :
C
AX 4 BX 2 CX D 0 (*)
This relationsh ip must be solved itratively , e.g, using the numerical method after newton.
197
Table of readings:
Material D
h
t1
t2
t3
t4
No.
s
(mm)
(mm)
(s)
(s)
(s)
(s)
1
POM
5
2
POM
10
3
Alu.
5
4
Alu.
10
5
PE6.6
10
*Wall friction can occur due to tumbling of the sphere, then the measured
value
are not to be taken into account.
-Practical sink speed Vprac:
n4
tm
V
t
n1
4
h
tm
-Theoretical sink speed Vth:

The theoretical values of sink speed calculating from equation (*) by using
the
iteratively solving, e.g, using the numerical method after Newton.
1- Table of theoretical calculations:
No.
Materials
D
(mm)
POM
POM
10
Alu.
Alu.
10
PE6.6
10
h
(mm)
198
tm
(s)
V
(m/s)
2-Table of practical calculations:

No.
Materials
D
(mm)
sph
(kg/m3)
POM
1430
POM
10
1430
Alu.
2860
Alu.
10
2860
PE6.6
10
1150
A
B
C
m4/s4 m2/s2 m/s
X
s/m
V
m/s
Discussion:
1-What are the reasons of differences between Vth&Vprac?
2- Why the measured values in the case of tumbling with the wall of
measuring tube
are not be taken into account.
3-Find the roots of the equation (*) by using the method of drawing.
Experiment No. (20)
20.
Stability of a Floating Body
Introduction:
The position of the so-called metacentre, the metacentric height, is of
crucial significance to the stability of a floating body. The metacentric height
is an essential factor when assessing the stability of a ship in waves.
The Metacentric Height Apparatus in Fig.(2) permits concepts such as:
Buoyancy
Centre of buoyancy
Metacentre
Heel to be experimentally investigated.
Determining the metacentric height (GM ) .
Unit Description:
The unit essentially consists of a pontoon (1) and a water tank as float vessel.
The rectangular pontoon is fitted with a vertical sliding weight (2) to permit
adjustment of the height of the centre of gravity and a horizontal sliding
weight (3) to generate a defined heeling moment. The sliding weights can be
fixed in position using knurled screws. The positions (4, 5) of the sliding
weights and the draught (6) of the pontoon can be read off scales.
A heel indicator (7) with scale in degrees is also provided.
Theory of the experiment:
Buoyancy
A body floats in a liquid if the buoyancy of the fully
199
Fig.(3) Side and front view of Metacentric

Height Apparatus
Fig.(4) Buoyancy
Immersed body is greater than its weight. It will

only sink into the liquid until the buoyancy FA
corresponds exactly to its dead weight FG. The
buoyancy is then the weight of the water displaced
by the body. The centre of gravity of the displaced
water mass is referred to as the centre of buoyancy A.
The centre of gravity of the body is known as the
centre of mass G.
GM
Stability of Floating Body
For a floating body to be stable, buoyancy F A and dead weight FG must
have
G
the same line of actionand be equal and opposite Fig.(4). Stability doesnot
necessarily demand that the centre of massG be below the centre of
buoyancy A.
Of far greater importance is the existence of astability, resetting moment in
the event of deflection or heel a out of the equilibrium position Fig.(5). Dead
weight FG and buoyancy FA then form a force couple withFig.(5)
distance
b, which and
Metacentre
provides a righting moment. This distance or the distance between
theheight
metacentric
centre of gravity and the point of
intersection of line of action of buoyancy and gravity axis, is a measure of
stability. This point of intersection is referred to as the metacentre M and the
GM
distance between the centre of gravity and the metacentre is called
the
G
metacentric height (GM ) .
The following conditions then apply to stable floating:
- Stable floating of a body occurs when the metacentric
Fig.(6) Stable
height GM is positive( GM > 0), i.e. the metacentre M

is above the centre of gravity G Fig.(6).
- Unstable floating of a body occurs when the metacentric GM

height GM is
negative( GM < 0), i.e. the metacentre M is below the centre of gravity G Fig.
(7).
Determination of Metacentre Position

The position of the metacentre is not governed by the position of the centre
Unstable
of gravity. It merely depends on the shape of the portion ofFig.(7)
the body
under
water and the displacement.
There are two methods of determining the position by way of experiment.
In the first method, the centre of gravity is laterally shifted by a certain
constant distance xs using an additional weight, thus causing heeling to
occur. Further vertical shifting of the centre of gravity alters the heel a . A
dx
stability gradient formed from the derivation d is then defined. The stability
gradient decreases as the vertical centre of gravity position approaches the
metacentre. If centre of gravity position and metacentre coincide, the
stability gradient is equal to zero and the system is meta stable.
This problem is most easily solved using a graph Fig. (8). The vertical centre
of gravity position is plotted versus the stability gradient. A curve is drawn
dx
through the measurement points and extended as far as the vertical axis
200
Fig.(8) Graphical determination of

metacentre
dx
0
d
. The point of intersection with the vertical axis then gives the position
of the metacentre.
With the second method of determining the metacentre, it is assumed that,
given a stable heel position, dead weight FG and buoyancy FA have one line of
action. The point of intersection of this line of action with the central axis
gives the metacentre M Fig.(9). The heel angle a and the lateral displacement
of the centre of gravity xs yield the following for the metacentric height GM .
GM
GM xs cot
G
Calculation of Centre of Gravity Position:
The first step is to determine the position of the overall Centre of gravity
(x , z ) from the set position of the sliding weights.

The horizontal position is referenced to the centre line:
mh x
Fig.(9)Theoretical determination
x
0.055x
m mv mh
of metacentric height
The vertical position is referenced to the underside of the floating body:
mv z (m mh )z g
z
5.364 0.156 z
m mv mh
Stability gradient:
dx x
d
Fig.(10) Position and size of
Performance of the Experiment
sliding weights
- Set horizontal sliding weight to position x = 8cm.
- Move vertical sliding weight to bottom position.
- Fill tank provided with water and insert floating body.
- Gradually raise vertical sliding weight and read off angle on heel indicator.
Read off height of sliding weight at top edge of weight and enter in table
together with angle.
Table of reading:
Position of horizontal sliding weight x = 8 cm
No
.
Height of vertical
sliding weight z
(cm)
Angle
1
2
201
Fig.(11) Floating body in tank
3
4
-position of the overall Centre of gravity (x , z ) :
mh x
x
0.055x
m mv mh
mv z (m mh )z g
z
5.364 0.156 z
m mv mh
-Stability gradient:
dx x
d
Position of horizontal sliding weight x = 8 cm
No
.
Height of
vertical
sliding weight
z
(cm)
Angle
Horizontal
position of
centre of
gravity ( x )
(cm)
Vertical
position of
centre of
gravity ( z )
(cm)
Stability
gradient
dx
( d )
1
2
3
4
Discussion:
1-Plot The vertical position of centre of gravity ( z ) versus the stability
dx
gradient ( d ).
2-By using the plotting above determine the metacenter height (GM ) .
Experiment No. (21)
202
21.
Aerometer or Hydrometer

Determining the liquid density
Theory of the experiment and its Performing:
To measure the density of liquids an aerometer is used. It
comprises
an enclosed glass bulb 1, which is filled with lead shot 2
at the bottom
and, above that, with air.
The handling is quite simple: The aerometer is
placed in the liquid, and because of the lead filling
it
always rights itself vertically. The aerometer sinks
more
or less deeply into the liquid, depending on the
thickness.
Since the aerometer is suspended, its lifting force
must
be exactly the same as its force due to weight, i.e.
its
apparent weight is equal to zero:
FG,liquid = FG - FA = 0
The liquid density can be read directly from the scale 3.
Two differently calibrated aerometers are supplied:
Measuring range = 0.8-1.0g/cm3 ,for liquids lighter than water, e.g.
alcohol or petroleum.
Measuring range = 1.0-1.2g/cm3 , for liquids heavier than water, e.g.
glycerin or a salt solution.
Aerometer applications
Because solutes change the density of a solution, appropriately calibrated
aerometers can be used, among other applications, to ascertain the alcohol
content of drinks, the fat content of milk, the concentration of battery acid,
and the antifreeze content in motor vehicle coolant.
Table of reading:
No.
Liquid
oil
Water
Water + salt
Water + salt
Density
()
(kg/m3)
203
Discussion:
Read the liquid density of aerometers shown below:
2222-Discuss the location of the lead in the bottom of the aerometer.
204
Experiment No. (22)
22.
Hydrostatic Bench & Fluid Properties
Introduction
Hydrostatics is of major significance in a number of engineering fields, such
as sanitary and building services engineering, pump construction, and
aerospace engineering.
With the Hydrostatics Bench important topics in the field of hydrostatics
can be investigated by experimentation:
- Hydrostatic pressure
- Lifting force
- Determination of density of liquids
- Familiarization with various manometers
- Pressure measuring with various manometers
- Examination of the static and dynamic pressure of a pipe flow
- Surface tension of liquids
Unit description
1. Laboratory trolley with rollers
2. Drawer unit
3. Switch box
205
4. Drain cock
5. Water tank with sight glass
6. Immersion pump
7. Pipe section
8. Pressure sensor with digital display (8a)
9. Measuring vessel d =133mm
10.Dual water manometer
11.Prandtls tube
12.Mercury U-tube manometer
13.Measuring vessel d = 200 mm
14.Bourdon-tube manometer
15.Diaphragm manometer
16.Measuring vessel d = 100 m
Transparent measuring vessels of differing diameters and a Prandtls tube
allow water levels and flows to be observed.
Rapid-action hose couplings are fitted in the pipe system and to the
measuring vessels, enabling pressure tapping by way of hoses.
Different measuring equipment such as:
- Dual water manometers
- Mercury U-tube manometers
- Bourdon-tube manometers
- Diaphragm manometers
- Electronic pressure sensors with digital display provide an overview of the
types of possible pressure measurement.
Additional experiments can be performed using accessories such as
the
- vacuum pump
- Pascal-based bottom pressure gauge
- hydrostatic pressure apparatus
- lifting force gauge
- surface tension gauge
- tapered vessel
- capillary tubes
- communicating tubes
- aerometer
in the fields of hydrostatic pressure, pipe flows and surface tensions
On the switch box (3) there is a socket for power supply (e.g. 230 V) to the
accessories (e.g. the vacuum pump).
Commissioning
Fill up the tank by way of the hole in the tank lid until the water becomes
visible in the tank sight glass (5).The system is started up by connecting the
immersion pump to the mains power supply (e.g. 230V,50 Hz) and turning
the rotary switch on the switchbox to position 1. Any required accessories
should also be connected to the power supply.
206
Stage 3 Labs
207
Chapter 5 Soil Mechanics Laboratory
Omar T. Mahmood
Koya University
INTRODUCTION
Soil is one of the most important engineering materials. Determination of soil
conditions is the most important first phase of work for every type of civil
engineering facility. Soil properties are determined by both field and
laboratory test methods. In this course, you will learn several laboratory tests
that are very commonly performed to determine different properties of soils.
These properties are essential for the design of foundation and earth
structures.
In this course, different laboratory tests will be conducted to determine the
following important index and mechanical properties of soils:
Water Content
Organic Matter (Content)
Specific Gravity
Grain Size Distribution (Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Analysis)
Visual Classification
Atterberg Limits by Casagrande Cup
Atterberg Limits by Fall Cone Method
Moisture-Density Relationship (Compaction)
Field Compaction by Sand Cone Test
Field Compaction by Core Cutter Test
Hydraulic Conductivity (Constant Head Method & Falling Head Method)
Consolidation
Shear Strength
Unconfined Compression Test
Direct Shear Test
A short report which details the weekly experiment will be due 1 (one) week
after the completion of the lab. You will work in teams, but everyone must
submit an individual report. All raw data and calculations should be appended
to the body of the report. Remember neatness counts.
208
Prepare your report according to the format shown below:

I. Introduction Include:
II. Procedures
III. Results
IV. Discussion
V. Conclusions
(1) Brief description of what you did in

lab, and (2) the purpose of the lab.
Read the ASTM standard for the test(s)
you conducted and note any
differences between
ASTMrecommended procedure(s) and
the procedure(s) that actually used in
the lab.
Present the results of the lab in this
section. Refer to figures or tables when
necessary.
Describe your results. Do they seem
reasonable? Include analyses of
possible errors and any
recommendations that you have for
improving the test procedure.
Draw your conclusions and present
them in this section.
EXPERIMENT 1
1. WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the water (moisture) content of soils. The
water content is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of pore
or free water in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2216 - Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of
Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures
Significance:
For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index used
for establishing the relationship between the way a soil behaves and its
properties. The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely depends on its
water content. The water content is also used in expressing the phase
relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.
Equipment:
Drying oven, Balance, Moisture can, Gloves, Spatula.
209
Test Procedure:
Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of
an empty, clean, and dry moisture can with its lid (MC)
Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and
record the mass of the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with the
lid (MCMS).
Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in the
drying oven that is set at 105 C. Leave it in the oven overnight.
Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the
moisture can using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature.
Determine and record the mass of the moisture can and lid (containing the
dry soil) (MCDS).
Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.
Data Analysis:
Determine the mass of soil solids.
MS=MCDSMSC
Determine the mass of pore water.
MW=MCMSMCDS
Determine the water content.
Mw
w=
100
MS
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
210
Specimen number
Moisture can and lid number

MC = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams)
MCMS = Mass of can, lid, and moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry soil (grams)
MS = Mass of soil solids (grams)
MW = Mass of pore water (grams)
w = Water content, w%
211
EXPERIMENT 2
2. ORGANIC MATTER DETERMINATION
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the organic content of soils. The
organic content is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of
organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2974 Standard Test Methods for Moisture, Ash, and Organic
Matter of Peat and Organic Soils
Significance:
Organic matter influences many of the physical, chemical and
biological properties of soils. Some of the properties influenced by organic
matter include soil structure, soil compressibility and shear strength. In
addition, it also affects the water holding capacity, nutrient contributions,
biological activity, and water and air infiltration rates.
Equipment:
Muffle furnace, Balance, Porcelain dish, Spatula, Tongs
Test Procedure:
Determine and record the mass of an empty, clean, and dry porcelain dish
(MP).
Place a part of or the entire oven-dried test specimen from the moisture
content experiment (Expt.1) in the porcelain dish, determine, and record the
mass of the dish and soil specimen (MPDS).
Place the dish in a muffle furnace. Gradually increase the temperature in the
furnace to 440oC. Leave the specimen in the furnace overnight.
212
Remove carefully the porcelain dish using the tongs (the dish is very hot),
and allow it to cool to room temperature. Determine and record the mass of
the dish containing the ash (burned soil) (MPA).
Empty the dish and clean it.
Data Analysis:
(1)
Determine the mass of the dry soil.
MD=MPDS-MP
Determine the mass of the ashed (burned) soil.
MA=MPA-MP
Determine the mass of organic matter
MO = MD - MA
Determine the organic matter (content).
Mo
OM =
100
MD
BLANK DATA SHEETS

ORGANIC MATTER DETERMINATION
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
Specimen number
Porcelain dish number

MP = Mass of empty, clean porcelain dish (grams)
MPDS = Mass of dish and dry soil (grams)
MPA = Mass of the dish and ash (Burned soil)
(grams)
MD = Mass of the dry soil (grams)
MA = Mass of the ash (Burned soil) (grams)
MO = Mass of organic matter (grams)
OM = Organic matter, %
213
EXPERIMENT 3
3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the specific gravity of soil by using a
pycnometer. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at
a stated temperature to the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled
water at a stated temperature.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 854-00 Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
Water Pycnometer.
Significance:
The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air,
water, and solids in a given volume of the soil.
Equipment:
Pycnometer, Balance, Vacuum pump, Funnel, Spoon.
214
Test Procedure:
Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry pycnometer,
WP.
Place amount of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the
pycnometer. Determine and record the weight of the pycnometer containing
the dry soil, WPS.
Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the pycnometer. Soak
the sample for 10 minutes.
Apply a partial vacuum to the contents for 10 minutes, to remove the
entrapped air.
Stop the vacuum and carefully remove the vacuum line from pycnometer.
Fill the pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior
surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth.
Determine the weight of the pycnometer and contents, WB.
Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only (to
the mark). Clean the exterior surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry
cloth. Determine the weight of the pycnometer and distilled water, W A. Empty
the pycnometer and clean it.
Data Analysis:
Calculate the specific gravity of the soil solids using the following formula:
W0
Specific Gravity, GS =
W0 +(WA WB)
Where:
W0 = weight of sample of oven-dry soil, g = WPS - WP
WA= weight of pycnometer filled with water
WB = weight of pycnometer filled with water and soil
BLANK DATA SHEETS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
Specimen number
Pycnometer bottle number

WP = Mass of empty, clean pycnometer (grams)
WPS = Mass of empty pycnometer + dry soil
(grams)
WB = Mass of pycnometer + dry soil + water
(grams)
WA = Mass of pycnometer + water (grams)
Specific Gravity (GS)
Calculations:
215
216
EXPERIMENT 4
4. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

(SIEVE AND HYDROMETER ANALYSIS)
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain
sizes contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed
to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles, and the
hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer
particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering
properties of soil. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and
it is required in classifying the soil.
Equipment:
Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker, Mixer (blender),
152H
Hydrometer, Sedimentation cylinder, Control cylinder, Thermometer, Beaker,
Timing device.
217
218
Test Procedure:
Sieve Analysis:
Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to beused in
the analysis.
Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending
order of sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the
pan below #200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and
place the cap over it.
Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight
of each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and
record the weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
219
Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker,
and add 125 mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40
g/L)) solution. Stir the mixture until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil
soak for at least ten minutes.
While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control
cylinder and fill it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top
of the meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A
reading less than zero is recorded as a negative (-) correction and a reading
between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+) correction. This reading
is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the difference
between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control
jar (Usually about +1). Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the
contents are mixed thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into
the control cylinder and note the zero correction and temperature
respectively.
Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if
necessary, until mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a
period of two minutes.
Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder.
Add distilled water up to the mark.
Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm
of your hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a
period of one minute. (The cylinder should be inverted approximately 30
times during the minute).
Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the
cylinder. After an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly
and carefully insert the hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should
take about ten seconds to insert or remove the hydrometer to minimize any
disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer should be made as close to
the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive bobbing).
The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the
suspension and the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly
and placed back into the control cylinder. Very gently spin it in control
cylinder to remove any particles that may have adhered.
Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60
minutes and 24 hours
Data Analysis:
Sieve Analysis:
Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of
the empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this
mass as the weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained
masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A
loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained
on each sieve by the original sample mass.
Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent
and subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative
procedure.
For example: Total mass = 500 g
Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
220
Mass retained on No. 10 sieve = 39.5 g

For the No.4 sieve:
Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained
= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;
% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %
For the No. 10 sieve:
Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained
= 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %
% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %
(Alternatively, use % passing = % Arriving - % Retained
For No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9 = 90.2 %)
Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.
From Table 1, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for meniscus
corrected reading).
For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab purpose),
obtain the value of K from Table 2.
Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following formula:
L
D =K
t
Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

Determine the temperature correction CT from Table 3.
Determine correction factor a from Table 4 using Gs.
Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:
Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + CT
Calculate percent finer as follows:
Rc a
P=
100
WS
Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams.
Adjusted percent fines as follows:
P F 200
PA =
100
F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent
Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on the
semilogarithmic sheet.
Table 1. Values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation
Cylinder of Specific Sizes
Hydrometer 151H
Actual
Effective
Hydrometer
Depth, L
Reading
(cm)
Actual
Hydrometer
Reading
Hydrometer
Effective
Depth, L
(cm)
221
152H
Actual
Hydrometer
Reading
Effective
Depth, L
(cm)
16.3
1.031
1.032
1.033
1.034
1.035
1.036
1.037
1.038
1.039
1.001
1.002
1.003
1.004
1.005
1.006
1.007
1.008
1.009
1.010
1.011
1.012
1.013
1.014
1.015
1.016
1.017
1.018
1.019
1.020
1.021
1.022
1.023
1.024
1.025
1.026
1.027
1.028
1.029
1.030
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
16.0
15.8
15.5
15.2
15.0
14.7
14.4
14.2
13.9
13.7
13.4
13.1
12.9
12.6
12.3
12.1
11.8
11.5
11.3
11.0
10.7
10.5
10.2
10.0
9.7
9.4
9.2
8.9
8.6
8.4
8.1
7.6
16.3
16.1
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.5
15.3
15.2
15.0
14.8
14.7
14.5
14.3
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.7
13.5
13.3
13.2
13.0
12.9
12.7
12.5
12.4
12.2
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.5
7.8
7.3
7.0
6.8
6.5
6.2
5.9
222
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
11.2
11.1
10.9
10.7
10.6
10.4
10.2
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.6
9.4
9.2
9.1
8.9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.3
8.1
7.9
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.6
6.5
Table 2. Values of k for Use in Equation for Computing Diameter of Particle in

Hydrometer Analysis
Temperat
ure C
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Specific Gravity of Soil Particles

2.45
0.015
10
0.015
11
0.014
92
0.014
74
0.014
56
2.50
0.015
05
0.014
86
0.014
67
0.014
49
0.014
31
2.55
0.014
81
0.014
62
0.014
43
0.014
25
0.014
08
2.60
0.014
57
0.014
39
0.014
21
0.014
03
0.013
86
2.65
0.014
35
0.014
17
0.013
99
0.013
82
0.013
65
2.70
0.014
14
0.013
96
0.013
78
0.013
61
0.013
44
2.75
0.039
4
0.013
76
0.013
59
0.013
42
0.013
25
2.80
0.013
74
0.013
56
0.013
39
0.013
23
0.013
07
2.85
0.013
56
0.013
38
0.013
21
0.013
05
0.012
89
0.014
38
0.014
21
0.014
04
0.013
88
0.013
72
0.014
14
0.013
97
0.013
81
0.013
65
0.013
49
0.013
91
0.013
74
0.013
58
0.013
42
0.013
27
0.013
69
0.013
53
0.013
37
0.013
21
0.013
06
0.013
48
0.013
32
0.013
17
0.013
01
0.012
86
0.013
28
0.013
12
0.012
97
0.012
82
0.012
67
0.013
09
0.012
94
0.012
79
0.012
64
0.012
49
0.012
91
0.012
76
0.012
61
0.012
46
0.012
32
0.012
73
0.012
58
0.012
43
0.012
29
0.012
15
0.013
57
0.013
42
0.013
27
0.013
12
0.012
98
0.013
34
0.013
19
0.013
04
0.012
90
0.012
76
0.013
12
0.012
97
0.012
83
0.012
69
0.012
56
0.012
91
0.012
77
0.012
64
0.012
69
0.012
36
0.012
72
0.012
58
0.012
44
0.012
30
0.012
17
0.012
53
0.012
39
0.012
55
0.012
12
0.011
99
0.012
35
0.012
21
0.012
08
0.011
95
0.011
82
0.012
18
0.012
04
0.011
91
0.011
78
0.011
65
0.012
01
0.011
88
0.011
75
0.011
62
0.011
49
Table 3. Temperature Correction

Factors CT
Temperature C factor CT
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1.10
-0.90
-0.70 Unit
-0.50 Weight of
-0.30 Soil Solids,
3
0.00 g/cm
+0.20 2.85
+0.40 2.80
+0.70 2.75
+1.00 2.70
+1.30 2.65
+1.65 2.60
+2.00 2.55
+2.50 2.50
+3.05
+3.80
Table 4.
Correction
Factors a
for Unit
Weight of
Solids
Correction
factor a
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.04
223
BLANK DATA SHEETS

Grain Size Analysis
Sieve Analysis
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Visual Classification of Soil:
Weight of Container:
Wt. Container+Dry Soil:
Wt. of Dry Sample:
_____ gm
_____ gm
_____ gm
Sieve
Numb
er
Mass of Mass of
Diamete Empty
Sieve+Soil
r (mm)
Sieve (g) Retained
(g)
4
10
20
40
60
140
200
Pan
4.75
2. 0
0.84
0.425
0. 25
0.106
0.075
---
Soil
Retaine
d
(g)
Percent
Percent
Retaine
Passing
d
Total
Weight=
* Percent passing=100-cumulative percent retained.
From Grain Size Distribution Curve:
% Gravel= _______
% Sand=
% Fines=
D10= ________
_______
D30= ________
_______
Cu= ______________
Unified Classification of Soil:
________
224
D60= __
CC= ________
m
m
m
m
m
m
225
EXPERIMENT 5
5. ATTERBERG LIMITS
226
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a
finegrained soil. The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water
content, in percent, at which a pat of soil in a standard cup and cut by a
groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the groove for
a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup
being dropped 10 mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate
of two shocks per second. The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in
percent, at which a soil can no longer be deformed by rolling into 3.2 mm
(1/8 in.) diameter threads without crumbling.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and
Plasticity Index of Soils
Significance:
The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven
limits of consistency to classify fine-grained soils, but in current
engineering practice only two of the limits, the liquid and plastic limits, are
commonly used.
(A third limit, called the shrinkage limit, is used
occasionally.) The Atterberg limits are based on the moisture content of the
soil. The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil
changes from a semi-solid to a plastic (flexible) state. The liquid limit is the
moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic to a
viscous fluid state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines
where the soil volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is
reduced. A wide variety of soil engineering properties have been correlated
to the liquid and plastic limits, and these Atterberg limits are also used to
classify a fine-grained soil according to the Unified Soil Classification system
or AASHTO system.
Equipment:
Liquid limit device, Porcelain (evaporating) dish, Flat grooving tool with
gage, Eight moisture cans, Balance, Glass plate, Spatula, Wash bottle filled
with distilled water, Drying oven set at 105C.
227
228
Test Procedure:
Liquid Limit:
Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that
the soil was previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then
pulverized. Thoroughly mix the soil with a small amount of distilled water
until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
Cover the dish with cellophane to prevent moisture from escaping.
229
Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the
respective weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup.
The point on the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a
height of 10 mm. The block on the end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high
andshould be used as a gage. Practice using the cup and determine the
correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup drops approximately two
times per second.
Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit
apparatus at the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil
down to eliminate air pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth of about
10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form an approximately
horizontal surface (See Photo B).
Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of
the cup. The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as
groove is being made. Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to
the surface of the cup (See PhotoC).
Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of
the cup is clean of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of
approximately two drops per second and count the number of drops, N, it
takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into contact at the bottom
of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) (See Photo D). If the
number of drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not record
the number of drops, otherwise, record the number of drops on the data
sheet.
Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The
sample should include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into
contact. Place the soil into a moisture can cover it.
Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its mass,
remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in
the oven for at least 16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the
porcelain dish. Clean and dry the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of
distilled water to increase the water content so that the number of drops
required to close the groove decrease.
Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing
successively lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of the trials
shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure between 20
and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 drops. Determine
the water content from each trial by using the same method used in the first
laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.
Plastic Limit:
Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the
respective weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until
the soil is at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the
hands.
Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass (See Photo F). Roll the mass between
the palm or the fingers and the glass plate (See Photo G).
230
Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter by
using about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of the
hand forward and back to the starting position.) The thread shall be
deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than
two minutes.
When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the
thread into several pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal
masses and re-roll them. Continue this alternate rolling, gathering together,
kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under the pressure required
for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread (See
Photo H).
Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into a
moisture can, then cover it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of
soil, add soil to the can from the next trial (See Step 6). Immediately weigh
the moisture can containing the soil, record its mass, remove the lid, and
place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least
16 hours.
Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the
water content from each trial by using the same method used in the first
laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.
Analysis:
Liquid Limit:
Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after
they have been in the oven for at least 16 hours.
Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w).
Draw the best-fit straight line through the plotted points and determine the
liquid limit (LL) as the water content at 25 drops.
Plastic Limit:
Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after
they have been in the oven for at least 16 hours.
Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL.
Check to see if the difference between the water contents is greater than the
acceptable range of two results (2.6 %).
Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL.
Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index to the nearest
whole number, omitting the percent designation.
231
BLANK DATA SHEETS

ATTERBERG LIMITS
DATA SHEETS
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
Liquid Limit Determination
Sample no.
MC = Mass of empty, clean can
+ lid (grams)
MCMS = Mass of can, lid, and
moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry
soil (grams)
MW = Mass of pore water
(grams)
No. of drops (N)
Plastic Limit Determination
Sample no.
MC = Mass of empty, clean can
+ lid (grams)
moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry
soil (grams)
(grams)
Plastic Limit (PL) = Average w % =

232
233
EXPERIMENT 6
6. LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY FALL CONE METHOD

Introduction:
The fall cone is considered as a more reliable method for determining the
liquid limit than the Casagrande method, and is standardized in many
countries as the preferred liquid limit test method. It is based on the
measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific
mass. Despite the universal prevalence of the Casagrande method, the cone
penetrometer is often considered to be a more consistent alternative because
it minimizes the possibility of human variations when carrying out the test.
Purpose:
It is of practical importance in all aspects of geotechnical engineering. In
particular such areas as The Netherlands with soft and wet soils and Hong
Kong, subject to landslides. In Hong Kong liquid limit tests are performed on a
regular basis to check that hills will remain stable during the rainy season.
Equipment:
Sample of moist soil, Cylindrical mold, Fall cone apparatus
Procedure:
Place some amount of moist soil in the mold.
Prepare device for penetrating of the cone in the sample.
Let the Sliding rod to fall.
Notice the depth of the penetrating.
Repeat the procedure, a semi-logarithmic graph can then be plotted with
moisture content versus cone penetration. The moisture content at which
cone penetrating depth is 20 mm is known as liquid limit.
Calculations:
The Flow Index can be defined as:
log ( 1 )
log ( 2 )
log d 2log d 1
I FC =
Where: I FC = Flow Index
12 = Moisture content at cone penetrations of d1 and d2, respectively
To find PL use this equation:
m
PL=c 2
c = Penetration of 1mm
m=I FC
234
235
EXPERIMENT 7
7. MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATION
(COMPACTION) TEST
Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between
the moisture content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive
effort. The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is
applied to the soil mass. Several different methods are used to compact soil
in the field, and some examples include tamping, kneading, vibration, and
static load compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact
compaction method using the type of equipment and methodology
developed by R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test is also known as the
Proctor test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The
Standard Proctor Test, and (2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests
can be performed in three different methods as outlined in the attached Table
1. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil is compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer
falling a distance of one foot into a soil filled mold. The mold is filled with
three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of the
hammer. The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test
except it employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses
five equal layers of soil instead of three. There are two types of compaction
molds used for testing. The smaller type is 4 inches in diameter and has a
volume of about 1/30 ft3 (944 cm3), and the larger type is 6 inches in
diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft 3 (2123 cm3). If the larger
mold is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table
1).
Table 1 Alternative Proctor Test Methods
Standard Proctor
ASTM 698
Method A
Material
For test
sample,
use soil
20%
Retained
on No.4
Sieve
Sieve
No.4
Modified Proctor ASTM 1557
Method B
Method C Method A
Method B
Method C
>20%
Retained
on No.4
20%
Retained
on
3/8
Sieve
>20%
Retained
on
No.3/8
<30%
Retained
on
3/4
Sieve
Sieve
>20%
Retained
on No.4
20%
Retained
on
3/8
Sieve
>20%
Retained
on
No.3/8
<30%
Retained
on
3/4
Sieve
Sieve
3/8
Sieve
236
20%
Retained
on
No.4
Sieve
Sieve
No.4
3/8
Sieve
passing
Mold
No. of
Layers
No. of
blows/lay
er
4 DIA
4 DIA
6 DIA
4 DIA
4 DIA
6 DIA
25
25
56
25
25
56
Note: Volume of 4 diameter mold = 944 cm 3 , Volume of 6 diameter mold

= 2123 cm3 (verify these values prior to testing)
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft 3 (600 KN-m/m3))
ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft 3 (2,700 KN-m/m3))
Significance:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective
means of stabilizing soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical
engineers is the performance and analysis of field control tests to assure that
compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications. Design
specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the
maximum density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water
content. In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength,
stiffness, resistance to shrinkage, and imperviousness of the soil, will improve
by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the
greatest density for a specified compactive effort. Compacting at water
contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content results in a
relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is
weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking,
and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the
same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water
content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet
of the optimum water content to the same density.
Equipment:
Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, Mixing pan,
Trowel, #4 sieve, Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.
237
Test Procedure:
Depending on the type of mold you are using obtain a sufficient quantity of
air-dried soil in large mixing pan. For the 4-inch mold take approximately 10
lbs, and for the 6-inch mold take roughly 15 lbs. Pulverize the soil and run it
through the # 4 sieve.
Determine the weight of the soil sample as well as the weight of the
compaction mold with its base (without the collar) by using the balance and
record the weights.
Compute the amount of initial water to add by the following method:
Assume water content for the first test to be 8 percent.
Compute water to add from the following equation:
238
(soil massgrams) 8
100
Where water to add and the soil mass are in grams. Remember that a
gram of water is equal to approximately one milliliter of water.
Measure out the water, add it to the soil, and then mix it thoroughly into the
soil using the trowel until the soil gets a uniform color (See Photos B and C).
Assemble the compaction mold to the base, place some soil in the mold and
compact the soil in the number of equal layers specified by the type of
compaction method employed (See Photos D and E). The number of drops of
the rammer per layer is also dependent upon the type of mold used (See
Table 1). The drops should be applied at a uniform rate not exceeding around
1.5 seconds per drop, and the rammer should provide uniform coverage of
the specimen surface. Try to avoid rebound of the rammer from the top of
the guide sleeve.
The soil should completely fill the cylinder and the last compacted layer must
extend slightly above the collar joint. If the soil is below the collar joint at the
completion of the drops, the test point must be repeated. (Note: For the last
layer, watch carefully, and add more soil after about 10 drops if it appears
that the soil will be compacted below the collar joint.)
Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is
completely even with the top of the mold using the trowel. Replace small bits
of soil that may fall out during the trimming process (See Photo F).
Weigh the compacted soil while its in the mold and to the base, and record
the mass (See Photo G). Determine the wet mass of the soil by subtracting
the weight of the mold and base.
Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder (See Photo H)
and take soil moisture content samples from the top and bottom of the
specimen (See Photo I). Fill the moisture cans with soil and determine the
water content.
Place the soil specimen in the large tray and break up the soil until it appears
visually as if it will pass through the # 4 sieve, add 2 percent more water
based on the original sample mass, and re-mix as in step 4. Repeat steps 5
through 9 until, based on wet mass, a peak value is reached followed by two
slightly lesser compacted soil masses.
Water to add (in ml) =
Analysis:
Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen by using the
average of the two water contents.
Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil sample by
dividing the wet mass by the volume of the mold used.
Compute the dry density using the wet density and the water content
determined in step 1. Use the following formula:
t
dry = (
)
1+
Where: w = moisture content in percent divided by 100, and = wet
density in grams per cm3.
Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the xaxis. Draw a smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
239
On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or zero air voids
curve. The values of dry density and corresponding moisture contents for
plotting the curve can be computed from the following equation:
1
sat.=(
) 100
d G s
d =
OR
1
+
100 G s
d =
OR
dry
Z . A .V
G s
1+ Gs
where:
d = dry density of soil grams per cm3
Gs = specific gravity of the soil being tested (assume 2.70 if not given)
w = density of water in grams per cm3 (approximately1 g/cm3)
wsat = moisture content in percent for complete saturation.
Example Calculations:
Gs=2.7 (assumed)
w=1.0
g/cm3
Assumed wsat%
Calculated d (g/cm3)
8
2.22
10
2.13 12
2.04 14
1.96 16
1.89 18
1.82
Identify and report the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry
density. Make sure that you have recorded the method of compaction used
(e.g., Standard Proctor, Method A) on data sheet.
Moisture-Density (Compaction) Test
Data Sheets
Test Method:
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Water Content Determination:
Compacted Soil - Sample no.
Water content - Sample no.
Moisture can number - Lid
number
MC = Mass of empty, clean
can + lid (grams)
moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and
dry soil (grams)
1A
2
1B
240
2A
3
2B
3A
3B
MS = Mass of soil solids

(grams)
(grams)
W = Water content, w%

Water content - Sample no.
Moisture can number - Lid
number
MC = Mass of empty, clean
can + lid (grams)
moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and
dry soil (grams)
MS = Mass of soil solids
(grams)
(grams)
4
4A
Density Determination:
Volume of mold=
w = Assumed water content,
w%
Actual average water
content, w%
Mass of compacted soil and
mold (grams)
Mass of mold (grams)
Wet mass of soil in mold
(grams)
3 Wet density, , (kg/m )
3 Dry density, d , (kg/m )
5
4B
241
5A
6
5B
6A
6B
Optimum Moisture Content = _________________ %

Maximum Dry Density = ___________________ g/cm3
242
EXPERIMENT 8
8. SANDCONE TEST
Introduction:
When soil is used to construct highway subgrades and base courses, earth
dams, embankments, and other purposes, the soil must be compacted in
accordance with construction specifications. The easiest and probably most
common method of determining the soil density in the field is with the use of
a sand cone method. In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is
instructed to achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90% to 95% of the
maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either the
standard or modified Proctor test.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D1556: Standard Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in
Place by the Sand Cone Method.
Purpose:
The sand cone test is destructive in situ field test used to measure the total
unit weight ( of compacted earth materials. When accompanied with
moisture content ( measurements of the same material, the sand cone
test can be used to measure both and dry unit
weight ( d ) to confirm that the earth materials are
compacted
in
accordance
with
construction
specifications.
Equipment:
Small digging tools (e.g. shovels, trowels, chisel, etc.);
Large sealable plastic bag or airtight container;
Poorly graded sub-rounded to round sand (Ottawa
sand);
Sand cone device, including container and funnel;
Drying oven.
Scale capable of measuring to the nearest 1.0 g; and
Base plate.
Calibration of the Sand Cone Device:
Since the results of sand cone testing are highly dependent upon the
particular sand cone device and type of sand used, it is very
important
Figure (1-1):
Sand Coneto
Device.
calibrate the device. The procedure for calibrating the
device is as follows:
Fill the sand cone container with dry sand and place the
funnel on the container. Record the mass of the filled sand
cone device, M6.
Place the base plate on a clean, flat surface and place the
inverted sand cone device over the base plate (Fig.1-2).
Open the valve in the funnel and allow the sand to fill the
base plate and funnel. Close the valve after the base plate
and funnel are filled. Remove the sand cone device from
243
the base plate and record the mass of the device with the remaining sand,
M7.
Calculate the mass of the sand in the base plate and funnel, M2:
M2 = M6 M7
Refill the container and obtain the mass of the refilled device (MFigure
the
(1-2) Base
8). Place
andare
Sand
base plate over a calibration container of known volume. Many Plate,Funnel,
base plate
Container,
on
flat
surface
machined to snugly fit over a proctor mold with a known volume, V 1, of either
1/13.33 or 1/30 ft3, so a proctor mold may be used to facilitate the
calibration.
Place the inverted sand cone device over the base plate, open the valve, and
fill the base plate, funnel, and calibration chamber with sand (Fig.1-3). After
the calibration chamber, base plate, and funnel are filled, close the valve.
Remove the sand cone device from the base plate and weigh the sand cone
device with the remaining sand, M9.
Calculate the mass of the sand in the calibration chamber, M5:
Figure (1-3) Base Plate, Funnel, Sand Container, andCalibration Chamber
M5= M8 M9 M2
Calculate the total unit weight of the sand,
M5g
1 =
V1
Where; g is the gravitational constant.
1 :
Procedure:
Sand cone test can be performed using the following procedure:
Fill the sand cone device with the same type of sand used for the calibration.
Obtain the mass of the filled sand cone, M10.
Locate a flat, level spot on the surface of the material to be tested. Place the
base plate on the surface.
Excavate a test hole through the center of the base plate (Fig.1-4). The
minimum test hole volume is dependent upon the maximum particle size as
described in table 1-1. The shape of the test hole should approximate the
shape of the calibration chamber. The base plate should not overhang the
test hole, and the bottom of the test hole should be flat or concave upward.
Place the excavated soil in a sealed plastic bag to use for measurement of
moisture content later.
Position the filled sand cone device over the excavated test hole. Open the
valve and fill the test hole, base plate, and funnel with sand. Do not perform
the test if there are significant ambient vibrations (e.g. heavy equipment
operation), and take care not to move or shake the device during filling. After
244
filling, close the valve and measure the mass of the sand cone with the
remaining sand, M11.
Calculate the mass of the sand used to fill the test hole, funnel, and base
plate, M1.
M1 = M10M11
Calculate the volume of the hole, V:
M
( 1M 2 )g
V=
1
Record the moist mass of the material excavated from the test hole, M3.
Dry the soil in an oven using the methods described in ASTM D2216 to obtain
the dry mass of the soil, M4. Calculate the moisture content of the material,
:
M
Figure (1-4)Excavation of a test hole
( 3M 4)
through the center of the base plate.
=
100
M4
Calculate the dry unit weight, d , of the soil:

M4 g
d =
V
Table (1-1): Minimum test hole volume based on maximum particle size.
Maximum Particle Size (in.)
0.5
1.0
1.5
Minimum Test Hole Volume (ft3)

0.05
0.075
0.10
Figure (1-5) Field unit weight determined by sand cone method

245
Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556)

Field Data Sheet
General Information
Tested by:
Client:
Field compaction method:
Soil description:
Date tested:
Project:
Data material compacted:
Measurements
Calibration
Mass of filled device (M6):
Mass of device after filling base plate
and
funnel (M7):
Mass of sand in the base plate
and funnel (M2):
Mass of refilled device (M8):
Mass of refilled device after filling base
plate, funnel, and calibration chamber
(M9):
Mass of sand in the calibration
chamber (M5):
measurement
Mass of filled device (M10):
Mass of device after filling base plate,
funnel, and test hole (M11):
Mass of sand in the base plate, funnel,
andtest hole (M1):
Volume of test hole (V):
Mass of moist material excavated
from the test hole (M3):
Dry mass of material excavated
from the test hole (M4):
Total unit weight of the sand ( 1 ):
Dry unit weight ( d :
Moisture content ( ):
Equations and Calculation Space:
.M2 = M6 M7M1 = M10M11
M5= M8 M9 M2V =
1 =
M
( 3M 4)
100
M4
1M
(
2 )g
d =
1
M4 g
V
M5g
V1
246
EXPERIMENT 9
9. CORE CUTTER TEST
Introduction:
A Shelby Tube is a thin walled steel tube, typical 30 inches in length and has
a 3.0-inch OD (2.875-inch ID). The thin wall sampler is suitable for sampling
all cohesive soils. Difficulty may be encountered in sampling very soft and
wet soils that tend to drop out of the sampler. Damage to the sampling tube
(resulting in a poor sample) sometimes occurs when sampling hard,
cemented, or gravelly soils. Good samples must have sufficient cohesion to
remain in the tube during withdrawal. If sample recovery becomes difficult,
i.e., the sample stays in the ground, the tube should be left in place for
roughly 10 to 15 minutes. During this waiting period, the sample will swell
slightly to fill the sampler, increasing the likelihood of retaining the sample
when the tube is retracted
Core cutter method in particular, is suitable for soft to medium cohesive soils,
in which the cutter can be driven. It is not possible to drive the cutter into
hard, boulder or murrumy soils. In such case other methods are adopted.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D1587: Standard Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in
Place by the Core Cutter Method.
Purpose:
This test method sets out the procedure for the determination for the in-situ
dry density of compacted soils in earth works and pavement layers.
Equipment:
Cylindrical core cutter (Shelby tube)
Steel rammer
Steel dolly
Balance
247
Scale
Trimming knife
Water content containers
Oven
Procedure:
Record the mass of clean core cutter (M1) and calculate the internal volume
from its dimensions (V).
2) Clean and level the ground where the density is to be determined.
3) Press the cylindrical cutter into the soil to its full depth with the help of
steel rammer.
4) Remove the soil around the cutter by spade.
5) Lift up the cutter.
6) Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample carefully.
7) Clean the outside surface of the cutter.
8) Record the mass of the core cutter with the soil (M2).
9) Remove the soil core from the cutter and take the representative sample in
the water content containers to determine the moisture content.
Precautions:
Steel dolly should be placed on the top of the cutter before ramming it down
into the ground.
Core cutter should not be used for gravels, boulders or any hard ground.
Before removing the cutter, soil should be removed around the cutter to
minimize the disturbances.
While lifting the cutter, no soil should drop down.
Core Cutter Test (ASTM D1587)
Field Data Sheet
General Information
Tested by:
Client:
Field compaction method:
Soil description:
Water Content Determination:
Sample number
Mass of clean can, M4 (gm)
Mass of can + wet soil, M5 (gm)
Mass of can + dry soil, M6 (gm)
Water content,
Average Water content ,
Date tested:
Project:
Data material compacted:
(1A)
Measurements
248
(1B)
Internal diameter ofthe core cutter (cm)

Height of the core cutter (cm)
Cross sectional area of the core cutter
(cm2)
Volume of the core cutter, V (cm3)
Mass of the core cutter, M1 (gm)
Mass of the core cutter + soil from field,
M2 (gm)
Mass of the wet soil, M3 (gm)
Wet density, (gm/cm3)
Moisture content ( ):
Equations
M3= M2M1
wet =
M3
=
V d
and
M 5 M 6
100
M 6 M 4
M3 g
V (1+ )
Dry unit weight ( d :

Calculation
249
Space:
EXPERIMENT 10
10.
PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) TEST
CONSTANT HEAD METHOD
Purpose:
The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic
conductivity) of a sandy soil by the constant head test method. There are
two general types of permeability test methods that are routinely performed
in the laboratory: (1) the constant head test method, and (2) the falling head
test method. The constant head test method is used for permeable soils
(k>10-4 cm/s) and the falling head test is mainly used for less permeable soils
(k<10-4 cm/s).
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2434 - Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils
(Constant Head) (Note: The Falling Head Test Method is not standardized)
Significance:
Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which
water can flow through a soil. This property is necessary for the calculation
of seepage through earth dams or under sheet pile walls, the calculation of
the seepage rate from waste storage facilities (landfills, ponds, etc.), and the
calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits.
Equipment:
Permeameter, Tamper, Balance, Scoop, 1000 mL Graduated cylinders, Watch
(or Stopwatch), Thermometer, Filter paper.
Test Procedure:
Measure the initial mass of the pan along with the dry soil (M1).
Remove the cap and upper chamber of the permeameter by unscrewing the
knurled cap nuts and lifting them off the tie rods. Measure the inside
diameter of upper and lower chambers. Calculate the average inside
diameter of the permeameter (D).
Place one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber
then place a filter paper on top of the porous stone (see Photo C).
Mix the soil with a sufficient quantity of distilled water to prevent the
segregation of particle sizes during placement into the permeameter.
Enough water should be added so that the mixture may flow freely (see Photo
B).
Using a scoop, pour the prepared soil into the lower chamber using a circular
motion to fill it to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be formed.
Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil. Use approximately ten
rams of the tamper per layer and provide uniform coverage of the soil
surface. Repeat the compaction procedure until the soil is within 2 cm. of the
top of the lower chamber section (see Photo D).
250
Replace the upper chamber section, and dont forget the rubber gasket that
goes between the chamber sections. Be careful not to disturb the soil that
has already been compacted. Continue the placement operation until the
level of the soil is about 2 cm. below the rim of the upper chamber. Level the
top surface of the soil and place a filter paper and then the upper porous
stone on it (see Photo E).
Place the compression spring on the porous stone and replace the chamber
cap and its sealing gasket. Secure the cap firmly with the cap nuts (see
Photo F).
Measure the sample length at four locations around the circumference of the
permeameter and compute the average length. Record it as the sample
length.
Keep the pan with remaining soil in the drying oven.
Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain
a few inches above the top of the soil.
Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of
the permeameter and keep the valves on the top of the permeameter open
(see Photo G).
Place tubing from the top outlet to the sink to collect any water that may
come out (see Photo G).
Open the bottom valve and allow the water to flow into the permeameter.
As soon as the water begins to flow out of the top control (deairing) valve,
close the control valve, letting water flow out of the outlet for some time.
Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the tubing at the bottom.
Connect the funnel tubing to the top side port (see Photo H).
Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the funnel to a convenient height to
get a reasonable steady flow of water.
Allow adequate time for the flow pattern to stabilize (see Photo I).
Measure the time it takes to fill a volume of 750 - 1000 mL using the
graduated cylinder, and then measure the temperature of the water. Repeat
this process three times and compute the average time, average volume, and
average temperature. Record the values as t, Q, and T, respectively (see
Photo I).
Measure the vertical distance between the funnel head level and the
chamber outflow level, and record the distance as h.
Repeat step 17 and 18 with different vertical distances.
Remove the pan from the drying oven and measure the final mass of the pan
along with the dry soil (M2).
Analysis:
Calculate the permeability, using the following equation:
QL
KT=
Ath
Where:
K T = coefficient of permeability at temperature T, cm/sec.
L = length of specimen in centimeters
t = time for discharge in seconds
251
Q = volume of discharge in cm3 (assume 1 mL = 1 cm3)
A = cross-sectional area of permeameter (=

D2, D= inside
4
diameter of the permeameter)
h = hydraulic head difference across length L, in cm of water; or it is
equal to the vertical distance between the constant funnel head level and the
chamber overflow level.
The viscosity of the water changes with temperature. As temperature
increases viscosity decreases and the permeability increases. The coefficient
of permeability is standardized at 20C, and the permeability at any
temperature T is related to K20 by the following ratio:
T
K20
= KT
20
Where:
T and 20 are the viscosities at the temperature T of the test and at
20C, respectively. From Table 1 obtain the viscosities and compute
K20.
Compute the volume of soil used from: V = LA.
Compute the mass of dry soil used in permeameter (M) = initial mass - final
mass:
M = M1-M2
Compute the dry density (d) of soil
M
d=
V
Table 1. Properties of Distilled Water (= absolute)
Temperatur
e C
Density
(g/cm3)
4
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
1.00000
0.99897
0.99880
0.99862
0.99844
0.99823
0.99802
0.99780
0.99757
0.99733
0.99708
0.99682
0.99655
0.99627
0.
252
Viscosit
y
(Poise*)
0.01567
0.01111
0.01083
0.01056
0.01030
0.01005
0.00981
0.00958
0.00936
0.00914
0.00894
0.00874
0.00855
0.00836
0.00818
30
*Poise=
99598
0.
99568
0.00801
dyne s
g
=
2
cm s
cm
BLANK DATA SHEETS

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TEST
CONSTANT HEAD METHOD
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Visual Classification:
Initial Dry Mass of Soil + Pan (M1) = __________________ g
Length of Soil Specimen, L = _________________ cm
Diameter of the Soil Specimen (Permeameter), D = _____________ cm Final Dry
Mass of Soil + Pan (M2) = _________________ g
Dry Mass of Soil Specimen (M) = _____________________ g
Volume of Soil Specimen (V) = ___________________ cm3
Dry Density of Soil (d) = __________________ g/cm3
Constant Elapsed
Trial
Head, h
Time, t
Number
(cm)
(seconds)
Outflow
Water
Volume, Q Temp., T
(cm3)
(C)
KT
K20
1
2
3
4
Average K20= ______________________ cm/sec
EXPERIMENT 11
11.
PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) TEST
VARIABLE (FALLING) HEAD METHOD

Purpose:
253
The variable head test is used for determining the coefficient of permeability
for fine-grained soils like silts and silty clays.
Equipment:
Vertical cylinder of cross-sectional area (A), Transparent stand pipe of cross
sectional area (a), Timing device, Porous Stone or Screen, Saturated soil
specimen, Water supply, Container for water.
For the Variable head test, the following formula is applicable:
Where,
k = Coefficient of permeability at To C (cm/sec).
a = Cross Sectional area of stand pipe (cm2).
L = Length of soil specimen (cm)
A = Cross-sectional area of soil sample inside the mold (cm2)
t = (t1 t2) = Time interval for the head to fall from h 1 to h2.
h1
= Initial head of water at time t 1 in the pipe, measured above the outlet.
h2 = Final head of water at time t2 in the pipe, measured above the outlet.
Procedure:
a) Preparation of remolded soil specimen:
Weight the required quantity of oven dried soil sample. Evenly sprinkle the
calculated quantity of water corresponding to the OMC. Mix the soil sample
thoroughly.
254
Clean the mold and apply a small portion of grease inside the mold and
around the porous stones in the base plate. Weight the mold and attach the
collar to it. Fix the mold on the compaction base plate. Keep the apparatus on
solid base.
The soil sample is placed inside the mold, and is compacted by the standard
Proctor compaction tools, to achieve a dry density equal to the predetermined MDD. Weight the mold along with the compacted soil.
Saturate the porous stones. Place the filter papers on both ends of
the soil specimen in the mold. Attach the mold with the drainage base and
cap having saturated porous stones.
Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the bottom of the mold and allow
the water to flow in the soil. Wait until the water has been able to travel up
and saturate the sample. Allow about 1 cm depth of freewater to collect on
the top of the sample.
Fill the remaining portion of cylinder with de-aired water without disturbing
the surface of soil.
Fix the cover plate over the collar and tighten the nuts in the rods.
Disconnect the water reservoir from the outlet at the bottom and connect the
standpipe to the inlet at the top plate.
Fill the stand pipe with water. Open the stopcock at the top and allow water
to flow out so that all the air in the cylinder is removed.
Fix the height h1 and h2 on the standpipe from the center of the outlet such
that (h1 h2) is about 30 cm to 40 cm.
When all the air has escaped, close the stop clock and allow the water from
the pipe to flow through the soil and establish a steady flow.
Record the time interval, t, for the head to drop from h1 to h2.
Take about five such observations by changing the values of h1 and h2.
Measure the temperature of water.
BLANK DATA SHEETS
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TEST
FALLING HEAD METHOD
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
255
Table 1:
Sr Observation
1
no
.
1
Diameter of stand pipe (cm) d
2
3
4
5
c/s area of stand pipe a =

d2/4
Diameter of cylindrical soil
sample D
c/s area of soil specimen A =
D2/4
Height of soil specimen, L
Table 2:
Sr. Initial
No. Head (h1)
cm
1
Final Head
(h2) cm
Time
required
(t) sec
Permeability,
2
3
256
EXPERIMENT 12
12.
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume
decrease that a laterally confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to
different vertical pressures. From the measured data, the consolidation curve
(pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This data is useful in
determining the compression index, the recompression index and the
preconsolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soi. In addition,
the data obtained can also be used to determine the coefficient of
consolidation and the coefficient of secondary compression of the soil.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2435 - Standard
Consolidation Properties of Soils.
Test
Method
for
One-Dimensional
Significance:
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are
used to estimate the magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary
consolidation settlement of a structure or an earthfill. Estimates of this type
are of key importance in the design of engineered structures and the
evaluation of their performance.
Equipment:
Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load
plate), Dial gauge (0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial), Sample trimming device, glass
plate, Metal straight edge, Clock, Moisture can, Filter paper.
257
Test Procedure:
Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate.
Measure the height (h) of the ring and its inside diameter (d).
Extrude the soil sample from the sampler, generally thin-walled Shelby tube.
Determine the initial moisture content and the specific gravity of the soil as
258
per Experiments 1 and 4, respectively (Use the data sheets from these
experiments to record all of the data).
Cut approximately a three-inch long sample. Place the sample on the
consolidation ring and cut the sides of the sample to be approximately the
same as the outside diameter of the ring. Rotate the ring and pare off the
excess soil by means of the cutting tool so that the sample is reduced to the
same inside diameter of the ring. It is important to keep the cutting tool in
the correct horizontal position during this process.
As the trimming progresses, press the sample gently into the ring and
continue until the sample protrudes a short distance through the bottom of
the ring. Be careful throughout the trimming process to insure that there is
no void space between the sample and the ring.
Turn the ring over carefully and remove the portion of the soil protruding
above the ring. Using the metal straight edge, cut the soil surface flush with
the surface of the ring. Remove the final portion with extreme care.
Place the previously weighed Saran-covered glass plate on the freshly cut
surface, turn the ring over again, and carefully cut the other end in a similar
manner.
Weigh the specimen plus ring plus glass plate.
Carefully remove the ring with specimen from the Saran-covered glass plate
and peel the Saran from the specimen surface. Center the porous stones
that have been soaking, on the top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen.
Place the filter papers between porous stones and soil specimen. Press very
lightly to make sure that the stones adhere to the sample. Lower the
assembly carefully into the base of the water reservoir. Fill the water
reservoir with water until the specimen is completely covered and saturated.
Being careful to prevent movement of the ring and porous stones, place the
load plate centrally on the upper porous stone and adjust the loading device.
Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading.
With the toggle switch in the down (closed) position, set the pressure gauge
dial (based on calibration curve) to result in an applied pressure of 0.5 tsf
(tons per square foot).
Simultaneously, open the valve (by quickly lifting the toggle switch to the up
(open) position) and start the timing clock.
Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times given on the data
sheet.
Repeat Steps 11 to 13 for different preselected pressures (generally includes
loading pressures of 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, and 16.0 tsf and unloading pressures
of 8.0, 4.0, 2.0, 1.0 and 0.5 tsf)
259
At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading
and time, release the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device
and remove the specimen. Quickly but carefully blot the surfaces dry with
paper toweling. (The specimen will tend to absorb water after the load is
released.)
Place the specimen and ring on the Saran-covered glass plate and, once
again, weigh them together.
Weigh an empty large moisture can and lid.
Carefully
lose too
moisture
and let it
remove the specimen from the consolidation ring, being sure not to
much soil, and place the specimen in the previously weighed
can. Place the moisture can containing the specimen in the oven
dry for 12 to 18 hours.
Weigh the dry specimen in the moisture can.

Analysis:
Calculate the initial water content and specific gravity of the soil.
For each pressure increment, construct a semilog plot of the consolidation
dial readings versus the log time (in minutes). Determine D 0, D50, D100, and
the coefficient of consolidation (cv) using Casagrandes logarithm of time
fitting method. See example data. Also calculate the coefficient of secondary
compression based on these plots.
Calculate the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation for each pressure
increment (see example data). Plot log pressure versus void ratio. Based on
this plot, calculate compression index, recompression index and
preconsolidation pressure (maximum past pressure).
Summarize and discuss the results.
260
BLANK DATA SHEETS

Consolidation TestData Sheets
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample Description:
Before test
Consolidation type
Mass of the ring + glass plate
Inside diameter of the ring
Height of specimen, Hi
Area of specimen, A
Mass of specimen + ring
Initial moisture content of specimen, wi(%)
Specific gravity of solids, Gs
After test
Mass of wet sample + ring + glass plate
Mass of can
Mass of can + wet soil
Mass of wet specimen
Mass of can + dry soil
Mass of dry specimen, Ms
Final moisture content of specimen, wf
Calculations
261
Mass of solids in specimen, Ms

=
(Mass of dry specimen after test)
Mass of water in specimen before test, Mwi = wi x Ms=
Mass of water in specimen after test, Mwf(g) = wf x Ms=
Ms
Height of solids, Hs =
=
A G s
(same before and after test and note = 1 g/cm3)
M wi
Height of water before test, Hwi =
=
A
M wf
Height of water after test, Hwf =
=
A
Change in height of specimen after test, H =
( H for all pressures see t vs Dial reading plot)
Height of specimen after test, Hf = Hi - H =
H i H S
Void ratio before test, eo =
=
HS
H f H S
Void ratio after test, ef =
=
HS
H wi
Degree of saturation before test, Si =
=
H i H s
H wf
Degree of saturation after test, Sf =
=
H f H s
Ms
Dry density before test, d =
=
Hi A
Time - Settlement Data
Conversion: 0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial reading (confirm this before using)
LOADING = _____ tsf
LOADING = _____ tsf
LOADING = _____ tsf
ELAPSED DIAL
ELAPSED DIAL
ELAPSED DIAL
TIME,
READIN
TIME,
READIN
TIME,
READIN
min
G
min
G
min
G
0
0
0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
2
2
2
4
4
4
10
10
10
15
15
15
30
30
30
60
60
60
120
121
120
262
240
240
240
263
EXPERIMENT 13
13.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear
strength of a sandy to silty soil. The shear strength is one of the most
important engineering properties of a soil, because it is required whenever a
structure is dependent on the soils shearing resistance. The shear strength
is needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of
slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating
the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated
Significance:
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this
laboratory, a direct shear device will be used to determine the shear strength
of a cohesionless soil (i.e. angle of internal friction (f)). From the plot of the
shear stress versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear stress is
obtained for a specific vertical confining stress. After the experiment is run
several times for various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maximum
shear stresses versus the vertical (normal) confining stresses for each of the
tests is produced. From the plot, a straight-line approximation of the MohrCoulomb failure envelope curve can be drawn, f may be determined, and, for
cohesionless soils (c = 0), the shear strength can be computed from the
following equation:
s = svtanf
Equipment:
Direct shear device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Balance.
Test Procedure:
Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan.
Measure the diameter and height of the shear box.
Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device.
Then place a porous stone and a filter paper in the shear box.
Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top. Place a filter paper, a
porous stone, and a top plate (with ball) on top of the sand
Remove the large alignment screws from the shear box! Open the gap
between the shear box halves to approximately 0.025 in. using the gap
screws, and then back out the gap screws.
Weigh the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.
Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three
gauges (Horizontal displacement gage, vertical displacement gage and shear
load gage) to zero.
Set the vertical load (or pressure) to a predetermined value, and then close
bleeder valve and apply the load to the soil specimen by raising the toggle
switch.
Start the motor with selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at a
selected constant rate, and take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical
displacement gage and shear load gage readings. Record the readings on the
data sheet. (Note: Record the vertical displacement gage readings, if
needed).
Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls,
or the horizontal displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.
Analysis:
Calculate the density of the soil sample from the mass of soil and volume of
the shear box.
Convert the dial readings to the appropriate length and load units and enter
the values on the data sheet in the correct locations. Compute the sample
area A, and the vertical (Normal) stress sv.
Nv
sv =
A
Where: Nv = normal vertical force, and sv = normal vertical stress
Fh
A
Where Fh= shear stress (measured with shear load gage)
Calculate shear stress () using t =
Plot the horizontal shear stress () versus horizontal (lateral) displacement H.

Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding
vertical stress for each test, and determine the angle of internal friction (f)
from the slope of the approximated Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Shear Box Inside Diameter:
Area (A):
Shear Box Height:
Soil Volume:
Initial mass of soil and pan:
Final mass of soil and pan:
Mass of soil:
Density of soil ( ):
Direct Shear Test Data
Displacement rate: _______
Normal stress: _______psi
Horizontal
Dial
Reading
(0.001 in)
Horizontal
Displacemen
t
(in)
Load
Dial
Reading
Horizontal
Shear
Force
(lb)
Shear
Stress
(psi)
Normal stress: _________ psi

Horizontal
Dial
Reading
(0.001 in)
Horizontal
Displacemen
t
(in)
Load
Dial
Reading
Horizontal
Shear
Force
(lb)
Shear
Stress
(psi)
Normal stress: _______ psi

Horizontal
Dial
Reading
(0.001 in)
Horizontal
Displacemen
t
(in)
Load dial
Reading
Horizontal
Shear
Force
(lb)
Shear
Stress
(psi)
30
28
26
24
22
20Stress (psi)
Horizontal Shear
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
Horizontal Displacement (in)
EXPERIMENT 14
14.
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UC) TEST
Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined
compressive strength, which is then used to calculate the unconsolidated
undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined conditions. According
to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (q u) is defined as
the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil
will fail in a simple compression test. In addition, in this test method, the
unconfined compressive strength is taken as the maximum load attained per
unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first
during the performance of a test.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength
of Cohesive Soil
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength (s u) is necessary for the
determination of the bearing capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The
undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly determined from an
unconfined compression test.
The undrained shear strength (s u) of a
cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (q u)
when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction).
The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after
construction, which represents undrained conditions, when the undrained
shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:
qu
su = c =
2
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the
intergranular stress increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given
by s = c + stanf , must be used. Where s =intergranular pressure acting
perpendicular to the shear plane; and s = (s - u), s = total pressure, and u =
pore water pressure; c and are drained shear strength parameters.
Equipment:
Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample trimming
equipment, Balance, Moisture can.
Test Procedure:
Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so
that the ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and 2.5.
Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen,
respectively.
Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations
120 apart, and then make the same measurements on the bottom of the
specimen. Average the measurements and record the average as the

diameter on the data sheet.
Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120 apart, and
then average the measurements and record the average as the length on the
data sheet.
Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
Calculate the deformation (L) corresponding to 15% strain ().
L
Strain (e) =
Lo
Where Lo = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).
Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the
bottom plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact
with the specimen and set the load and deformation dials to zero.
Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to
2.0% per minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on
the data sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.
Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the
specimen significantly, (2) the load holds constant for at least four
deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation is significantly past the 15%
strain that was determined in step 5.
Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for
water content determination.
Determine the water content as in
Experiment1.
Analysis:
(1)
Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and
enter these values on the data sheet in the deformation and total load
columns. (Confirm that the conversion is done correctly, particularly proving
dial gage readings conversion into load)
Compute the sample cross-sectional area Ao=
Compute the strain, e =
L
Lo
Computed the corrected area, A'=
Ao
1e
Using A', compute the specimen stress, sc =
P
A'
(d)2
(Be careful with unit conversions and use constant units).

Compute the water content, w%.
Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of
the test. Be sure that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data.
Draw Mohrs circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear
strength, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2. See the example data.
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Sample data:
Diameter (d) =
Length (L0) =
Mass =
Table 1: Moisture Content determination
Sample no.
Moisture can number - Lid number
MC = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams)
MCMS = Mass of can, lid, and moist soil (grams)
MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry soil (grams)
MW = Mass of pore water (grams)
Area (A0)=Volume =
Wet density =
Water content (w%) =
Dry density ( d) =
Table 2: Unconfined Compression Test Data (Deformation Dial: 1 unit =

0.10mm; Proving Ring No: 24691; Load Dial: 1 unit = 0.3154 lb)
Deforma
tion Dial
Reading
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
Sample
Load
Deforma
Dial
tion DL
Readi
(mm)
ng
Str
ain
(e)
%
Str
ain
Correc
ted
Area
A'
Lo
ad
(lb
)
Lo
ad
(K
N)
Str
ess
(kP
a)
180
160
140
120
Axial Stress (kPa)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
Axial Strain (%)
100
90
80
70
60
Shear Stress (kPa)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Normal Stress (kPa)
From the stress-strain curve and Mohrs circle:

Unconfined compressive strength (qu) =
Cohesion (c) =
100
20
25

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering Department

Dr. Faris Rashied

Kurdistan Regional Government

How to write a laboratory report.......................................................................9

Safety in the laboratory:.....................................................................................10

Bricks and Concrete Blocks Masonry Units Tests.................................................10

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Moisture content test:-...............................................................................................28

Direct Linear Measurement............................................................................45

Basic Problems in Chaining............................................................................48

Height of Target Determination....................................................................55

Two Pegs Test.......................................................................................................60

Profile Levelling Longitudinal Section.....................................................63

10. Profile Levelling Cross Section...................................................................65

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14. Vertical Angle Measurement and Height of Target Determination..71

Fineness of Cement by Sieve Analysis Method......................................79

Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement................................................81

Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle.........................83

Gradation of Fine Aggregate by Sieve Analysis......................................88

Slump Test of Fresh Concrete........................................................................93

Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubs..................................................95

Compressive Strength of Cement Mortar.................................................98

Lifting Force (Bouncy Force)........................................................................109

Pressure in still liquids and gases..............................................................113

A-Experiment to measure bottom pressure with bottom pressure gauge

Dead Weight Piston Gauge.........................................................................116

A-Taper vessel experiment......................................................................................120

Static and Dynamic Pressure.......................................................................132

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Fluid Flow Rate..................................................................................................134

10. Pressure and Velocity Distribution Along Venture Tube.....................136

WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION...........................................................196

ORGANIC MATTER DETERMINATION..........................................................199

SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION..........................................................201

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS.....................................................................................203

LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY FALL CONE METHOD...........................................220

CORE CUTTER TEST.........................................................................................232

10. PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) TEST CONSTANT HEAD

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Koya University was established since year 2003 as a young university in

Read Safety Precautions and sign the list.

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Planning an experimental program, selecting the test configuration,

are some practical applications of OUR Golden Rule:

Wear Eye Protection when working with power tools or testing

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Monitor transducer output when making physical connections.

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Kurdistan Regional Government

Chapter 1 Building Materials Laboratory

Sarmad Fadhil Abdullah Alnoaimi

In this manual we are seeking to understand material properties through

2. How to write a laboratory report

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3. Safety in the laboratory:

Bricks and Concrete Blocks Masonry Units Tests

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Table 1-2 Scale of Sampling for Physical Characteristics

Dimensions and shape Tests:

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Fig.1 Measurement of Tolerances of Common Building Bricks

Water Absorption Test: